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BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
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am thankful to all the authorities of my institute, who design our course curriculum, as this
I would like to express my indebtedness to Mr. S. Srinivasan (Factory Manager), Dr. B.S.
Bhullar (Sr. Manager -Corporate Affairs & I.R)Ms. Rupika Singh (H.R manager) for
CHAUHAN(IT MANAGER) ER PANKAJ &Mr DALJEET SINGH , other officers and supervisors.
I would like to acknowledge the warmth, affection and co-operation by the operators and
Finally I would like to say that without the help of above-mentioned people, my stay at
industry would not have been such a memorable period itched in my memory as sweet
experience.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This document dwells upon my project training at esteemed and worldwide organization
NESTLE INDIA LTD. from 6.1.2014 to 15.05.2014. This training is a part of my course
four months of my training I learnt about the commitment of the company towards quality
of the food stuff it produces, more than sufficient efforts are made by the company and its
employees at every critical point of production that assures the quality of the products that
reaches to the consumers. It gives me immense pleasure to present this project report.
My training in this esteemed organization helped me to know & learn the practical aspects
Learning in nestle was not limited to doing project. I was involved in understanding the
culture of company, learning various processes, way the people co-ordinate with each
other & effects of teamwork. Some other results of my training are better communication,
In the end, I would like to say that my experience in this factory would be an indispensable
one throughout my life & I would like to thank all of them once again who have made it that
way.
TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN:
Mr . V.S CHAUHAN
(IT MANAGER)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction to company
Nestle History
Nestle logo
Operation In INDIA
MOGA Factory
Various Deptt. In Nestle MOGA Factory
1.Acknowledgement
Chapter-1
INTERNETWORKING BASICS
o What is Computer Network?
Types of networks
o 1.2(a) Local area network (LAN)
o 1.2(b) Wide Area Network (WAN)
o 1.2(e) Metropolitan area network (MAN)
o 1.2(f) Virtual private network (VPN)
CHAPTER-2
o DEVICES
2.1 DEVICES-:
2.1(a) Router
2.1(b) Switches
2.1(c)Hub
2.1(d)Bridge
CHAPTER-3
o ROUTING BASICS
3.1 ROUTING
3.2 STATIC ROUTING
3.3 Default Routing
3.4 Dynamic Routing
3.5 Autonomous system
3.6 Distance Vector Routing
3.7 Metric of Dynamic Routing
CHAPTER-4
o PROTOCOLS
4.1 Routing Protocols
4.2 Routed Protocols
4.2(a) Categories of Routing Protocols
4.3 IGRP
4.4 OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) Protocol
4.5 EIGRP
CHAPTER-5
oDHCP
5.1 DHCP
5.2(a) Dynamic Allocation
5.2(b) Automatic Allocation
5.2(c) Static Allocation
5.3 DORA PROCESS
CHAPTER-6
o ACL
6.1 ACL (Access Control List)
6.2 Applying ACLs
6.3 Types of IP ACLs
6.3(a) Standard ACLs
6.3(b) Extended ACLs
CHAPTER-7
o INTER-VLAN
7.1 Understanding How InterVLAN Routing Works
CHAPTER-8
o NAT
8.1 NAT
8.2 How Network Address Translation Works??
CHAPTER-9
o SWITCHING
9.1 Switching
9.2 Classification of switches-
9.3 Basic Switch Administration
9.4 Following function and options are not similar in router and switch.
9.5 Switch Cofiguration
CHAPTER-10
o VTP(VIRTUAL TRUNKING PORT)
10.1 VTP (VLAN Trunking Protocols)
10.2 VTP Modes of Operation
10.3 VTP Servers Configuration
CHAPTER-11
o VLANs
o 11.1 VLANs
o 11.2 INTER-VLAN
11.2(a) Understanding How Inter-VLAN Routing Works
o 11.3 Trunking
o 11.4VLAN Configuration
CHAPTER-12
CONCLUSION
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure-2.1 Router
Figure-2.2 Switches
Figure-2.3 Hub
Figure-2.4 Bridge
Figure-3.1 Configuring Static Routes by Specifying Outgoing Interfaces
Figure-3.2(a) & Figure-3.2(b) Configuring Static Routes by Specifying Next-Hop Addresses
Figure-3.3 Router
Figure-4.1 Routed protocol transport
Figure-4.2 Configuring RIP example
Figure-4.3 Configuring OSPF on Internal Routers of a Single Area
Figure-4.4 Configuring EIGRP
Figure-5.1 Snapshot Of DHCP
Figure-6.1 Applying ACLs
Figure:-7.1 Basic InterVLAN Routing Topology
Figure-8.1 NAT purposes
Figure-8.2 How Network Address Translation Works??
Figure-9.1 MAC Address table
Figure-9.2 Switch Configuration
Figure-10.1 VTPs Server Configuration
Figure-11.1 VLANs Configuration
LIST OF TABLES
FOUNDEROF NESTLE
1.1 Company Profile:
At present Nestl is the worlds largest food company with its international
headquarters at Vevey, Switzerland, with almost 500 factories world wide it
employs almost 2 30,000 people.
Nestl is much decentralized in its operations and most of the markets are given
considerable autonomy in its operation. It is more of a people and products
oriented company rather than systems oriented company there are unwritten
guidelines which are to be followed, based on common senses and a strong set of
moral principals emphasizing a lot of respect for fellow beings.
Nestl has always adapted to the local conditions and at the same time integrates
its Swiss heritage. It has always taken a long-term view in the countries in which it
operates.
Therefore, one can see a lot of investment R&D and risk taken in new product
areas. There is a great emphasis placed on training by the company. It believes in
rewarding and promoting people from within.
Today its product brand name Nestl is associated with quality products in
worldwide consumer markets.
When Henry Nestle introduced the first commercial infant formula in 1867, he also
created a symbol of the Birds nest, graphic translation of his name, which
personifies the companys business. The symbol, which is universally understood,
evokes security, motherhood and affection, nature and nourishment, family and
tradition. Today it is the central element of Nestls corporate identity and closely
parallels the companys corporate values and culture.
Nestl was founded in 1867 on the shores of Lake Geneva in Vevey, Switzerland and its first
product was FarineLacte Nestl, an infant cereal specially formulated by Henri Nestl to
provide and improve infant nutrition. From its first historic merger with the Anglo-Swiss
Condensed Milk Company in 1905, Nestl has grown to become the worlds largest and
most diversified food Company, and is about twice the size of its nearest competitor in the
food and beverages sector.
Nestls trademark of birds in a nest, derived from Henri Nestls personal coat of arms,
evokes the values upon which he founded his Company. Namely, the values of security,
maternity and affection, nature and nourishment, family and tradition. Today, it is not only
the central element of Nestls corporate identity but serves to define the Companys
products, responsibilities, business practices, ethics and goals.
In 2004, Nestl had around 247,000 employees worldwide, operated 500 factories in
approx. 100 countries and offered over 8,000 products to millions of consumers
universally. The Companys transparent business practices, pioneering environment policy
and respect for the fundamental values of different cultures have earned it an enviable
place in the countries it operates in. Nestls activities contribute to and nurture the
sustainable economic development of people, communities and nations. Above all, Nestl is
dedicated to bringing the joy of Good Food, Good Life to people throughout their lives,
throughout the world.
1.3 NESTLE HISTORY
The Nestl Company was Henry Nestl's search for a healthy, economical alternative to
breastfeeding for mothers who could not feed their infants at the breast.
The Company formed by the 1905 merger was called the Nestl and Anglo- Swiss Milk
Company. The close of World War II marked the beginning of the most dynamic phase of
Nestl's history.
In 1947, Nestl merged with Alimentana S.A., the manufacturer of Maggi seasonings and
soups, becoming Nestl Alimentana Company. After the agreement with LOreal in 1974,
Nestl's overall position changed rapidly.
Between 1975 and 1977, the price of coffee beans quadrupled, and the price of cocoa
tripled.
Nestl approached the 1980s with a renewed flexibility and determination to evolve.
Thus, between 1980 and 1984, the Company divested a number of non-strategic or
unprofitable businesses. Nestl managed to put an end to a serious controversy over its
marketing of infant formula.
Nestl opened the 20th century by merging with the Anglo-Swiss Condensed Milk
Company to broaden its product range and widen its geographical scope. In the new
millennium, Nestl is the undisputed leader in the food industry, with more than 470
factories around the world. Nestl's existing products will grow through innovation and
renovation.
1.3.1 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
14 Divestiture of Hills Bros, MJB and Chase & Sanborn roast and ground
1999
coffee brands (USA).
At Nestl, we believe that research can help us make better food so that people live a better
life.
Good Food is the primary source of Good Health throughout life. We strive to bring
consumers foods that are safe, of high quality and provide optimal nutrition to meet
physiological needs. In addition to nutrition, health and wellness, Nestl products bring
consumers the vital ingredients of taste and pleasure.
As consumers continue to make choices regarding foods and beverages they consume,
Nestl helps provide selections for all individual taste and lifestyle preferences.
Research is a key part of our heritage at Nestl and an essential element our future. We
know there is still much to discover about health, wellness and the role of food in our lives,
and we continue to search for answers to bring consumers Good Food for Good Life.
1.5 NESTLE LOGO
In 1988, the worm in the mother bird's beak was removed and
the fledglings became two instead of three. It is said that it was
meant to better illustrate the activities of the company, no
longer active only in utrition, and to reflect the average modern
family of two children.
6%
Pharmaceuticals
27%
14%
Chocolate
Milk Products
Confectionery
Nutrition
Biscuits
Ice Cream
25%
Cooking Aids
Prepared dishes
Pet Care SALE BY PRODUCT GROUP
Nestls relationship with India dates back to 1912, when it began trading as The Nestl
Anglo-Swiss Condensed Milk Company (Export) Limited, importing and selling finished
products in the Indian market.
After Indias independence in 1947, the economic policies of the Indian Government
emphasized the need for local production. Nestl responded to Indias aspirations by
forming a company in India and set up its first factory in 1961 at Moga, Punjab, where the
Government wanted Nestl to develop the milk economy. Progress in Moga required the
introduction of Nestls Agricultural Services to educate advice and help the farmer in a
variety of aspects. From increasing the milk yield of their cows through improved dairy
farming methods, to irrigation, scientific crop management practices and helping with the
procurement of bank loans. Nestl set up milk collection centers that would not only
ensure prompt collection and pay fair prices, but also instill amongst the community, a
confidence in the dairy business.
Nestl has been a partner in Indias growth for over nine decades now and has built a very
special relationship of trust and commitment with the people of India. The Companys
activities in India have facilitated direct and indirect employment and provides livelihood
to about one million people including farmers, suppliers of packaging materials, services
and other goods.
The production group first incepted under the name Food Specialties Ltd. started
production at the Nestl Moga Factory in early 1962.At the time, with the help of
Nestle International; the company shot into prominence as the countrys foremost
producer of milk products, particularly baby foods.
With time, the nature & extent of the company expanded. The product range, since
then, has now diversified so much and to such an extent that it is really a tough
task to enumerate all the products of the company on a single sheet of paper After
28 Years of working under the name of Food Specialties Ltd.
The company realized that in order to survive in the international competition and
to keep up with the changing time a better and closer relationship was required
between Nestl International and its Indian counterpart. So in 1990, a unified
production and marketing front, under the name of Nestl India was conceived
Beginning with its first investment in Moga in 1961, Nestls regular and substantial
investments established that it was here to stay. In 1967, Nestl set up its next factory at
Choladi (Tamil Nadu) as a pilot plant to process the tea grown in the area into soluble tea.
The Nanjangud factory (Karnataka), became operational in 1989, the Samalkha factory
(Haryana), in 1993 and in 1995 and 1997, Nestl commissioned two factories in Goa at
Ponda and Bicholim respectively. Nestl India has commissioned in 2006 its 7th factory at
Pant Nagar in Uttrakhand.
Figure: Presence across India
MOGA Factory
Bicholim Factory
Samalkha Factory
Choladi Factory
The factory ion Choladi started production in 1967, Situated in South Asia,
about 275 kilometers from Bangalore. The factory today has around 80
employees. It processes about 725 tons of soluble tea, which is all exported.
Mineral water
Instant Drink
Pet foods
Chocolates & Confectionery
Pharmaceuticals& Cosmetics
Other dairy products
Cerevita
Infant foods
We manufacture high quality Hot & Cold Water Soluble Black and Green
Tea Powders at ourstate-of-the-art factory in Choladi, located in the midst of
tea plantations which ensure availability of fresh green leaves. With their
high polyphenol content resulting in enhanced anti-oxidant properties, our
teas can be used to produce premium products, available in bulk quantities
only.
NESTL KIT KAT is delicious crisp wafer fingers covered with Choc layer. Our
special tropical zed recipe ensures that NESTL KIT KAT is preserved even in
warmer climates.
NESTL MILKY BAR is a delicious milky treat which kids love. With its Calcium
Rich recipe, NESTL MILKY BAR is a favorite with parents to treat their kids
with.
NESTL Milk Chocolate is a milk chocolate with a delicious taste for you to
savors.
NESTL BAR-ONE is a luscious nougat and caramel core covered with a
delicious Choc layer.
POLO is a mint roll popularly described as The Mint with the hole. Now also in
the new extra strong singles format as POLO Power mint.
MAGGI 2-MINUTE Noodles is one of the most popular brand of instant noodles in
India. Available for export in 5 authentic Indian flavors (spicy Masala, tangy Chatpata,
Chicken, Tomato and Curry), it is a delicious anytime snack thats ready in just 2
minutes.
MAGGI
MAGGI Vegetable Atta Noodles
Chinese Noodles makesis ita unique
so simpleinnovative product
to prepare with the
delicious goodness
Indian Styleof
whole
Chinesewheat andat
Noodles real vegetables.
home in a jiffy!Available in two
Offered in the popular
exciting Masala
flavors,flavor.
Veg Chowmein
In addition to the nutrition from whole wheat, MAGGI Dal Atta Noodles offers
the goodness of Dal (lentils) in the deliciously ethnic Samber Tastemaker.
MAGGI offers a wide range of specialty Indian Sauces which are relished for their
unique taste. Available in the following delightful variants: Tomato Ketchup,
Tomato Sauce, Tomato Chilly, Masala Chilly, Chilly Garlic, Tamarina, Tomato
Chatpata, Tomato Pudina and the all-time-favorite MAGGI Hot & Sweet Sauce.
MAGGI Taste of India Pastes are a delicate blend of traditional spices and freshly
ground pastes, offering the convenience of preparing authentic Indian recipes at
home, in no time at all! The range includes Biryani Paste, Curry Paste, Korma Paste,
Tandoori Paste and Tikka Masala Paste.
New MAGGI Healthy Soups are even more delicious, quick to prepare, convenient and
healthy. They contain real vegetables, are low fat and cholesterol free. They also do
not have added MSG, preservatives or artificial colours.
In the Malwa region of Punjab State, there is a small town, which is popularly
known among the famous grain markets of the world. However the credit of
bringing this town on the industrial map of the world goes to Nestle a Swiss
Multinational company engaged in the largest food processing operation in the
world. When in 1959 Nestl took decision to establish a milk processing factory, a
very little could the people of Moga town and the farmers in the surrounding
villages realize that the company now as Nestl India ltd. would play such an
important role in economic & social development of the area.
Nestl Moga factory is the one of the oldest factory of Nestl in India. It is the first
factory of Nestl in India. It is the largest fa ctory of Nestl in India as well as in the
whole Asia Continent. This factory is the worlds Second largest factory of the
Nestl Company. The Moga factory spreads over 57acres of area.
Nestl Company set up its operations in India, as a trading company in 1912 and
began manufacturing at the Moga factory in 1961.The production starts at Moga
factory on 15th Nov, 1962. The production started with the manufacture of
Milkmaid and other products were gradually brought into the fold.
Today; Moga contributes almost 75% of Nestle Indias total production volume,
manufacturing 80,000 tons of food products. It consumes approximately 9 -10 lakhs
litres of milk. It employs 2000 people. The entire range of milks, culinary products
and cereals are manufactured in Moga. Moga is located in the state of Punjab about
400Kms.North of New Delhi.
In the Malwa region of Punjab State, there is a small town, which is popularly
known among the famous grain markets of the world. However the credit of
bringing this town on the industrial map of the world goes to Nestle a Swiss
Multinational company engaged in the largest food processing operation in the
world. When in 1959 Nestl took decision to establish a milk processing factory, a
very little could the people of Moga town and the farmers in the surrounding
villages realize that the company now as Nestl India ltd. would play such an
important role in economic & social development of the area.
The company is not only an industrial and a commercial house but has make
sustained efforts to improve economic and social environment of the people in the
area of its operation be its farmers or residents of Moga. In the initial stages
company faced many problems including procurements of milk sales of which was
considered a sin at that time. But the team that surveyed that area found the area
quite suitable for development of milk and it has been proved to be a right
decision.
The company started its operation in 1961 with a capacity of 40,000 Kg of milk per
day kept on expanding on regular intervals and at present handling capacity of
1100000 lts. 1300000 lts of milk per day. Many more products have been
introduced.
Company started milk collection in Moga area on 15 Nov 1961 and on the first day
510lts of milk was collected from four villages. From that the day onwards
company is collecting milk continuously both morning and evening without break.
The total procurement in 1962 was 2,054 million kg from 4,660 milk suppliers of
66 villages and in 1962 fresh milk reception are 102, 33 Mil lion kg from 46,308
farmers delivering milk at 650 collection centres in 574 villages and 10 milk
chilling centres. In 1998 the milk chilling centres have increased from 10 to 186.
Nestl India Ltd. Moga factory is their oldest factory in India. With a lay out spread
over nearly 57 acres & having six plants within the factory, and it is also the largest
factory of the Asia continental region.
The Company started milk collection in Moga area on 15th Nov. 1961 and on the
first day 510 litres of milk was collected as from four villages. From that day
onwards company is collecting milk in the morning and night. The capacity raised
from 40,000 litters of milk per day in 1962 to over 1,200,000 litres of milk till date.
2.2.1 Various departments in the Nestle Moga factory
Supply Chain
NQAC
IP( Industrial performance)
FMR
Cereals
PFP
Culinary
QA
Engineering
Agri Services
Milk- LP
Milk- Egrons
HR
2.3 The factory consists of four production plants:
MILK OPERATIONS
CEREALS
INSTANT DRINKS (VENDING MIXES)
CULINARY
Project Requirements
LAN Hardware:
WAN Hardware:
1 FE Card
1 WIC 1T card
Main Difference will be in file system used by the OS. Linux will use ext3
and windows will use NTFS file system.:-
Component Minimum Recommended
1. Technology
2. Economic
The technological and system requirements of the project would not require
much of a cost. As we are doing the project at student level for the partial
fulfilment of Btech.degree so the technologies mentioned were taken
through the internet.
3. Schedule
The project deadline will be easily met and all the activities necessary to be
performed will be completed within the fixed time.
CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION TO
INTERNETWORKING BASICS
Chapter-1
Information preservation.
Security.
Speed up.
LAN stands for Local Area Network. The scope of the LAN is within one
building, one school or within one lab. In LAN (Hub), media access method
is used CSMA/CD in which each computer sense the carrier before sending
the data over the n/w. if carrier is free then you can transmit otherwise you
have to wait or you have to listen. In multiple access each computer have
right that they can access each other. If two computers sense the carrier on
same time then the collision occur. Each computer, in the network, aware
about the collision. Now this stop transmitting and they will use back off
algorithm. In which random number is generated. This number or algorithm
is used by each computer. Who has short number or small number, he has
first priority to transmit the data over the network and other computers will
wait for their turn.
1.2(b) Wide Area Network (WAN)
WAN stands for Wide Area Network, in which two local area networks are
connected through public n/w. it may be through telecommunication
infrastructure or dedicated lines. For e.g.: - ISDN lines, Leased lines etc. In
which we can use WAN devices and WAN technology. You can also
connect with your remote area through existing Internetwork called Internet.
DEVICES
2.1 DEVICES-:
2.1(a)Router
Router is hardware device, which is used to communicate two different
networks. Router performs routing and path determination. It does not
perform broadcast information. There are two types of routers: -
(i) Hardware Routers are developed by Cisco, HP.
(ii) Software Routers is configured with the help of routing and remote
access. This feature is offered by Microsoft. This feature is by default
installed, but you have to enable or configure it.
Hardware routers are dedicated routers. They are more efficient.
But in case of software routers, it has less features, slow performance. They
are not very much efficient.
Figure-2.1
2.1(b) Switches
Switch is also used to connect multiple workstations. Switch is more
intelligent than hub. It has special kind of memory called mac
address/filter/lookup table. Switch reads mac addresses. Switch stores mac
addresses in its filter address table. Switch when receives frame, it reads the
destination mac address and consult with its filter table. If he has entry in its
filter table then he forwards the frame to that particular mac address, if not
found then it performs broadcasting to all its connected nodes.
Every port has its own buffer memory. A port has two queues one is input
queue and second is output queue. When switch receives the frame, the
frame is received in input queue and forward from output queue. So in case
of switch there is no chance or place for collisions. In case of switch, the
media access method is used CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/
Collision Avoidance). Switches provide more efficiency, more speed and
security.
There are two types of switches: -
(i) Manageable switches (can be configured with console cable).
(ii) Non-manageable switches.
Figure-2.2
2.1(c)Hub
Hub is centralized device, which is used to connect multiple workstations.
There are two types of Hub: -
(i) Active Hub
It has no special kind of memory. It simply receives the frame (data) and
forwards it to all its nodes except the receiving node. It always performs
broadcasting. In case of hub, there is one collision domain and one broadcast
domain. In case of hub, the media access method is used CSMA/CD (Carrier
Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection).
(i) Active Hub
In Active hub, it receives the frame regenerate and then forward to all its
nodes.
In Passive hub, it simply receives the frame and forward to all its
connected nodes.
Figure-2.3
2.1(d)Bridge
Bridge is a hardware device, which is used to provide LAN segmentation
means it is used for break the collision domain. It has same functionality as
performed by switch. We can use bridge between two different topologies. It
has fewer ports. Each port has a own buffer memory. It works on Data Link
Layer of OSI model. It also read mac address and stores it in its filter table.
In case of bridge there is one broadcast domain.
Figure-2.4
CHAPTER-3
ROUTING
3.1 ROUTING
Routing is the process that a router uses to forward packets toward the
destination network. A router makes decisions based upon the destination IP
address of a packet. All devices along the way use the destination IP address
to point the packet in the correct direction so that the packet eventually
arrives at its destination. In order to make the correct decisions, routers must
learn the direction to remote networks.
(2) Remove the n/w address from list, which is directly connected to n/w.
(3) Specify each route for each routing n/w by using IP route command.
Figure-3.1
Figure-3.2(a)
Figure-3.2(b)
3.2(b) Advantages of static routing
(1) Fast and efficient.
Or
<exit interface>
Scenario 1: -
Stub network
A n/w which has only one exit interface is called stub network.
Default route is also called gateway of last resort. This route will be used
when no other routing protocol is available.
Router#ship route
3.4(b) According to the type of area in which protocol is used there are again
two types of protocol: -
For example: - if there are 1000 n/ws then size of update will be
Operation: -
(1) Each Router will send its directly connected information to the neighbor
router. This information is send periodically to the neighbors.
(2) The neighbor will receive routing updates and process the route
according to following conditions: -
(iii) If update is received for a route with lower metric then the route, which
is already present in our routing table. The router will discard old route and
write the new route in the routing table.
(iv) If update is received with higher metric then the route that is already
present in routing table, in this case the new update will be discard.
(3) A timer is associated with each route. The router will forward routing
information on all interfaces and entire routing table is send to the neighbor.
There are three types of timers associated with a route.
(i) Route update timer
It is the time after which the router will send periodic update to the neighbor.
It is the time after which the route is declared invalid, if there are no updates
for the route. Invalid route are not forwarded to neighbor routers but it is still
used to forward the traffic.
It is the time after which route is removed from the routing table, if there are
no updates about the router.
(3) Load
(4) Reliability
(5) Delay
(6) MTU
1.Hop Count
It is the no. of Hops (Routers) a packet has to travel for a destination n/w.
2.Bandwidth
Bandwidth is the speed of link. The path with higher bandwidth is preferred
to send the data.
3.Load
Load is the amount of traffic present in the interface. Paths with lower load
and high throughput are used to send data.
4.Reliability
Reliability is up time of interface over a period of time.
5. Delay
Delay is the time period b/w a packet is sent and received by the destination.
It is the maximum size of packet that can be sent in a frame mostly MTU is
set to 1500.
3.8 Routers Configuration
Figure-3.3
CHAPTER-4
PROTOCOLS
RIP, IGRP,
OSPF, BGP,
And EIGRP.
Protocols used at the network layer that transfer data from one host to
another across a router are called routed or routable protocols. The Internet
Protocol (IP) and Novell's Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX) are
examples of routed protocols. Routers use routing protocols to exchange
routing tables and share routing information. In other words, routing
protocols enable routers to route routed protocols e.x. IPX(Internet Packet
Exchanger) and IP(Internet Protocol ).
IGP and EGP
Figure-4.1
distance vector
link-state
The distance vector routing approach determines the direction (vector) and
distance to any link in the internetwork.
The link-state approach, also called shortest path first, recreates the exact
topology of the entire internetwork.
Comparing Routing Methods
RIPv1
Table-4.1
CHARACTERISTICS
Table-4.2
Configuring RIP Example
Figure-4.2
4.3 IGRP
IGRP has a number of features that are designed to enhance its stability,
such as:
Holddowns
Split horizons
Holddowns
Holddowns are used to prevent regular update messages from
inappropriately reinstating a route that may not be up.
Split horizons
Split horizons are derived from the premise that it is usually not useful to
send information about a route back in the direction from which it came.
Today, IGRP is showing its age, it lacks support for variable length subnet
masks (VLSM). Rather than develop an IGRP version 2 to correct this
problem, Cisco has built upon IGRP's legacy of success with Enhanced
Their neighbours
Neighbor table:
Routing table:
Router(config)#
routerospfprocess-id
Router(config-router)#
4.5 EIGRP
Figure-4.4
CHAPTER-5
DHCP
5.1 DHCP
DHCP operations fall into four basic phases: IP discovery, IP lease offer,
IP request, and IP lease acknowledgement.
DHCP clients and servers on the same subnet communicate via UDP
broadcasts. If the client and server are on different subnets, IP discovery and
IP request messages are sent via UDP broadcasts, but IP lease offer and IP
lease acknowledgement messages are [[unicast]].
A DHCP client can also request its last-known IP address (in the example
below, 192.168.1.100). If the client remains connected to a network for
which this IP is valid, the server might grant the request. Otherwise, it
depends whether the server is set up as authoritative or not. An authoritative
server will deny the request, making the client ask for a new IP address
immediately. A non-authoritative server simply ignores the request, leading
to an implementation-dependent timeout for the client to give up on the
request and ask for a new IP address.
5.3(b) DHCP offer
A client can receive DHCP offers from multiple servers, but it will accept
only one DHCP offer and broadcast a DHCP request message. Based on the
Transaction ID field in the request, servers are informed whose offer the
client has accepted. When other DHCP servers receive this message, they
withdraw any offers that they might have made to the client and return the
offered address to the pool of available addresses. The DHCP request
message is broadcast, instead of being unicast to a particular DHCP server,
because the DHCP client has still not received an IP address. Also, this way
one message can let all other DHCP servers know that another server will be
supplying the IP address without missing any of the servers with a series of
unicast messages.
5.3(d) DHCP acknowledgement
When the DHCP server receives the DHCPREQUEST message from the
client, the configuration process enters its final phase. The acknowledgement
phase involves sending a DHCPACK packet to the client. This packet
includes the lease duration and any other configuration information that the
client might have requested. At this point, the IP configuration process is
completed.
Snapshot of DHCP
Figure-5.1
CHAPTER-6
Access Control List is a list of conditions that are used to control the
network traffic or packet filtering.We can use ACL for filtering the unwanted
packets when implementing security policy.
You can define ACLs without applying them. But, the ACLs have no effect
until they are applied to the interface of the router. It is a good practice to
apply the ACL on the interface closest to the source of the traffic. As shown
in this example, when you try to block traffic from source to destination, you
can apply an inbound ACL to E0 on router A instead of an outbound list to
E1 on router C. An access-list has a deny ip any any implicitly at the end of
any access-list. If traffic is related to a DHCP request and if it is not
explicity permitted, the traffic is dropped because when you look at DHCP
request in IP, the source address is s=0.0.0.0 (Ethernet1/0),
d=255.255.255.255, len 604, rcvd 2 UDP src=68, dst=67. Note that the
source IP address is 0.0.0.0 and destination address is 255.255.255.255.
Source port is 68 and destination 67. Hence, you should permit this kind of
traffic in your access-list else the traffic is dropped due to implicit deny at
the end of the statement.
Note: For UDP traffic to pass through, UDP traffic must also be permited
explicitly by the ACL.
Figure-6.1
The router uses the terms in, out, source, and destination as references.
Traffic on the router can be compared to traffic on the highway. If you were
a law enforcement officer in Pennsylvania and wanted to stop a truck going
from Maryland to New York, the source of the truck is Maryland and the
destination of the truck is New York. The roadblock could be applied at the
PennsylvaniaNew York border (out) or the MarylandPennsylvania border
(in).
Standard ACLs are the oldest type of ACL. They date back to as early as
Cisco IOS Software Release 8.3. Standard ACLs control traffic by the
comparison of the source address of the IP packets to the addresses
configured in the ACL.
interface<interface>
ip access-group number {in|out}
This is an example of the use of a standard ACL in order to block all traffic
except that from source 10.1.1.x.
interface Ethernet0/0
ip address 10.1.1.1 255.255.255.0
ip access-group 1 in
access-list 1 permit 10.1.1.0 0.0.0.255
6.3(b) Extended ACLs
This is the command syntax format of extended ACLs. Lines are wrapped
here for spacing considerations.
IP
access-list access-list-number
[dynamic dynamic-name [timeout minutes]]
{deny|permit} protocol source source-wildcard
destination destination-wildcard [precedence precedence]
[tostos] [log|log-input] [time-range time-range-name]
ICMP
access-list access-list-number
[dynamic dynamic-name [timeout minutes]]
{deny|permit} icmpsource source-wildcard
destination destination-wildcard
[icmp-type [icmp-code] |icmp-message]
[precedence precedence] [tostos] [log|log-input]
[time-range time-range-name]
TCP
access-list access-list-number
[dynamic dynamic-name [timeout minutes]]
{deny|permit} tcpsource source-wildcard [operator [port]]
destination destination-wildcard [operator [port]]
[established] [precedence precedence] [tostos]
[log|log-input] [time-range time-range-name]
UDP
access-list access-list-number
[dynamic dynamic-name [timeout minutes]]
{deny|permit} udpsource source-wildcard [operator [port]]
destination destination-wildcard [operator [port]]
[precedence precedence] [tostos] [log|log-input]
[time-range time-range-name]
CHAPTER-7
INTER-VLAN
Configuring VLANs helps control the size of the broadcast domain and
keeps local traffic local. However, when an end station in one VLAN needs
to communicate with an end station in another VLAN, interVLAN
communication is required. This communication is supported by interVLAN
routing. You configure one or more routers to route traffic to the appropriate
destination VLAN.
When Host A sends a packet to Host C in VLAN 20, Switch A forwards the
packet to the router, which receives the traffic on the VLAN 10 interface.
The router checks the routing table, determines the correct outgoing
interface, and forwards the packet out the VLAN 20 interface to Switch B.
Switch B receives the packet and forwards it to Host C.
NAT
Figure-8.2
If you are reading this article, you are most likely connected to the
Internet and viewing it at the HowStuffWorks Web site. There's a very
good chance that you are using Network Address Translation
(NAT) right now.
The Internet has grown larger than anyone ever imagined it could be.
Although the exact size is unknown, the current estimate is that there
are about 100 million hosts and more than 350 million users actively
on the Internet. That is more than the entire population of the United
States! In fact, the rate of growth has been such that the Internet is
effectively doubling in size each year.
When IP addressing first came out, everyone thought that there were
plenty of addresses to cover any need. Theoretically, you could have
4,294,967,296 unique addresses (232). The actual number of available
addresses is smaller (somewhere between 3.2 and 3.3 billion) because
of the way that the addresses are separated into classes, and because
some addresses are set aside for multicasting, testing or other special
uses.
CHAPTER-9
SWITCHING CONCEPTS
9.1 Switching
Switches occupy the same place in the network as hubs. Unlike hubs,
switches examine each packet and process it accordingly rather than simply
repeating the signal to all ports. Switches map the Ethernet addresses of the
nodes residing on each network segment and then allow only the necessary
traffic to pass through the switch. When a packet is received by the switch,
the switch examines the destination and source hardware addresses and
compares them to a table of network segments and addresses. If the
segments are the same, the packet is dropped ("filtered"); if the segments are
different, then the packet is "forwarded" to the proper segment. Additionally,
switches prevent bad or misaligned packets from spreading by not
forwarding them.
This switch receives entire frame then perform error checking and start
forwarding data to the destination.
This switch starts forwarding frame as soon as first six bytes of the frame
are received.
(3) Fragment-free
This switch receives 64 bytes of the frame, perform error checking and
then start forwarding data.
It changes its mode according the condition. If it see there are errors in
many frames then it changes to Store & Forward mode from Cut through or
Fragment-free.
- Speed of ports
- Type of media
Figure-9.2
CHAPTER-10
Cisco created this one too. The basic goals of VLAN Trunking Protocol
(VTP) are to manage all configured VLANs across a switched internetwork
and to maintain consistency throughout that network. VTP allows you to
add, delete, and rename VLANsinformation that is then
propagated to all other switches in the VTP domain.
With the help of VTP,we can simplify the process of creating the Vlans.In
multiple switches,we can configure one switch as VTP Server and all the
switches will be configured as VTP clients. We will create the vlans on VTP
Server switch. The Server will send periodic updates to the VTP client
switches. The client will create the vlan from the updates received from the
server
10.2 VTP Modes of Operation
10.2(a) Server
This is the default mode for all Catalyst switches. You need at least one
server in your VTP domain to propagate VLAN information throughout that
domain. Also important: The switch must be in server mode to be able to
create, add, and delete VLANs in a VTP domain.
VLAN information has to be changed in server mode, and any change made
to VLANs on a switch in server mode will be advertised to the
entire VTP domain. In VTP server mode, VLAN configurations are saved in
NVRAM on the switch.
10.2(b) Client
In client mode, switches receive information from VTP servers, but they also
receive and forward updates, so in this way, they behave
like VTP servers. The difference is that they cant create, change, or delete
VLANs. Plus, none of the ports on a client switch can be added to
a new VLAN before the VTP server notifies the client switch of the new
VLAN and the VLAN exists in the clients VLAN database. Also good
to know is that VLAN information sent from a VTP server isnt stored in
NVRAM, which is important because it means that if the switch is reset
or reloaded, the VLAN information will be deleted. Heres a hint: If you
want a switch to become a server, first make it a client so it receives all
the correct VLAN information, then change it to a serverso much easier!
So basically, a switch in VTP client mode will forward VTP summary
advertisements and process them. This switch will learn about but wont
save the VTP configuration in the running configuration, and it wont save it
in NVRAM. Switches that are in VTP client mode will only learn
about and pass along VTP informationthats it!
10.2(c) Transparent
Switches in transparent mode dont participate in the VTP domain or share
its VLAN database, but theyll still forward VTP
advertisements through any configured trunk links. They can create, modify,
and delete VLANs because they keep their own databaseone
they keep secret from the other switches. Despite being kept in NVRAM, the
VLAN database in transparent mode is actually only locally
significant. The whole purpose of transparent mode is to allow remote
switches to receive the VLAN database from a VTP server-configured
switch through a switch that is not participating in the same VLAN
assignments.
VTP only learns about normal-range VLANs, with VLAN IDs 1 to 1005;
VLANs with IDs greater than 1005 are called extended-range VLANs
and theyre not stored in the VLAN database. The switch must be in VTP
transparent mode when you create VLAN IDs from 1006 to 4094, so
it would be pretty rare that youd ever use these VLANs. One other thing:
VLAN IDs 1 and 1002 to 1005 are automatically created on all
switches and cant be removed.
10.3 VTP Servers Configuration
Figure-10.1
CHAPTER-11
VLANs
11.2 INTER-VLAN
Configuring VLANs helps control the size of the broadcast domain and
keeps local traffic local. However, when an end station in one VLAN needs
to communicate with an end station in another VLAN, inter-VLAN
communication is required. This communication is supported by inter-VLAN
routing. You configure one or more routers to route traffic to the
appropriate destination VLAN.
When Host A sends a packet to Host C in VLAN 20, Switch A forwards the
packet to the router, which receives the traffic on the VLAN 10 interface.
The router checks the routing table, determines the correct outgoing
interface, and forwards the packet out the VLAN 20 interface to Switch B.
Switch B receives the packet and forwards it to Host C.
11.3 Trunking
Figure-11.1
CHAPTER-12
Conclusion