Returning Migrants: A Brief Literature Review

Felipe L. Muncada

ACADEMIA Humanities and Social Sciences (77)

B77-9- tkm 2003^6/3 June 2003 Offprint
NANZAN UNIVERSITY
**mBSWiE:mMBn8 18 Yamazato-cho, Showa-ku, Nagoya, Japan
 Returning Migrants: A Brief Literature Review1

Felipe L. Muncada

I. Introduction: Largest Philippine export

Migrant labor is the Philippine's largest export to the world. Official
estimate puts the number of Filipino workers deployed around the world at
10,171,846 workers.2 This is about 13% of the present Philippine
population of 75,000,000/ Including undocumented and irregular migrants,
the number of Filipinos working outside the country could easily be 15%
of the country's population. For instance, there is an estimated 1.84 million
of irregular Filipino migrants. Many of these overstayed their visas, or
entered illegally and have found work in their host countries (Go, 2002).
Everyday, about 2,300 Filipinos leave their country to seek employment
overseas.4
Not only is migrant labor the country's largest export, OFW (Overseas
Filipino Workers) remit large sums of money to the help the cash-strapped
economy. Bohning estimates that at the beginning of 1990s, about 1 in 6
families in the Philippines received income from abroad (Bohning, 1998).
Remittances from OFWs contributed an average of 20.3% of the country's
export earnings and 5.2% of the GNP in the ten-year period between 1990-
1999 (Go, 2002). See Table l.5

' This paper had been made possible by a fund from Pache 2002-2003 1A.
2The figure represents the total of both landbased and seabased laborfrom 1984-2000.
Source: http://www.poea.gov.ph/Stats/st_deplsummary82-2000.html
1Source: http://www.popcom.gov.ph/sppr/statistics/tablel.htm
4Based on 2000 figure 841,628 deployed landbased and seabased workers.
5Source: http://www.poea.gov.ph/Stats/st_remit84-2000.html

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Felipe L. Muncada

Table 1

Remittances OFW (x US$1,000,000)

Year Landbased - % Growth Sea-based - % Growth Total - % Growth
1984 472.58 -28.41 186.31 -34.48 658.89 -30.24
1985 597.89 26.52 89.31 -52.06 687.20 4.30
1986 571.75 -4.37 108.69 21.70 680.44 -0.98
1987 671.43 17.43 120.48 10.85 791.91 16.38
1988 683.31 1.77 173.50 44.01 856.81 8.20
1989 755.19 10.52 217.83 25.55 973.02 13.56
1990 893.40 18.30 287.67 32.06 1181.07 21.38
1991 1125.06 25.93 375.23 30.44 1500.29 27.03
1992 1757.36 56.20 445.02 18.60 2202.38 46.80
1993 1840.30 4.72 389.28 -12.53 2229.58 1.24
1994 2560.92 39.16 379.35 0.00 2940.27 31.88
1995 4667.00 82.24 210.51 -44.51 4877.51 65.89
1996 4055.40 -13.10 251.24 19.35 4306.64 -11.70
1997 5484.22 35.23 257.61 2.54 5741.83 33.33
1998 4651.44 -15.19 274.55 6.58 4925.99 -14.21
1999 5948.34 27.88 846.21 208.22 6794.55 44.17
2000 5123.77 -13.86 926.68 9.51 6050.45 -10.95

Source: Philippine Overseas Employment Administration.

While the Philippine government has come to rely on the steady flow
of remittances from OFWs scattered all over the world, the government
also has to be prepared for the eventual return of the OFWs, whether due
to normal termination of their contracts or due to critical regional
developments like war.
Migrant workers contribute not only to the economic development of
the sending country, through their remittances but also to the economic
development of the host countries. Through them, host countries have a
source for cheap and disposable labor. With skilled migrant labor, host
countries can take advantage of the skills and training funded and
developed in the sending countries. In other words, host countries save on
resources they would have spent for education and skills training of the
same laborer among its citizens.

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 Returning Migrants: A Brief Literature Review

With such huge numbers of Filipinos working overseas, surely a large

numbers return home. And for all their contribution to the economy
both in the sending country and receiving country, they deserve programs
to assist them in their reintegration. This paper will look into the following:
1) leaving OFWs; 2) returning OFWs; 3) programs for returnees both in
the host countries and receiving countries.6

II. Leaving

A. Leaving

The Philippine Overseas Employment Agency (POEA) has been

gathering the data on the outflow of both seabased (those employed as
seamen/women) and landbased OFWs as far back as 1984.7 All OFWs had
to go through POEA for the processing of their contracts papers. Their
data provide the number of those processed to leave and also the number
of those who actually leave the country. As mentioned earlier, about 2,300
Filipinos leave daily for overseas jobs. Note that one is considered new hire
even if he/she had worked abroad several times provided there is more
than six months lapse between contracts or change of country of
destination (Battistella). The data below show only land-based OFWs.
Looking closely into the data reveals several interesting facts:

1. Deployed OFWs: From 1982 to 2000, there were 3,745,654 deployed

new hires. On the average, that is 220,332 deployed new hires or 603
persons per day. Among deployed rehires, there were 4,265,802 for the
same period. This represents, on the average, 250,929 deployed rehires
every year or 687 previously hired persons leaving every day. Until
1993, deployed new hires outnumber the actual deployed rehires. From 1994
onwards, however, deployed rehires outnumber new hires. In other words,
Battistella's paper "Reintegration of Migrants: Overview and Issues from the
Philippine Experience," provides an excellent view of return migration experience not
only in the Philippines but in other Asian countries as well.
Source: http://www.poea.gov.ph/Stats/st_dlbwg84-2000.html

273
Felipe L. Muncada

more of those leaving the country had been former OFWs. This is a
sign that there are fewer new labor opportunities than before. One
reason for this can be a slower economic growth of the host country.
Competition from the labor force of other labor sending countries
may also contract the labor market opportunities for OFWs. See
Figure 1.

Deployed
New Hires/Rehires
Thousands

Figure 1

2. Processed New Hires / Rehires: From 1984 to 2000, POEA

processed 4,023,146 new hires. This averages to 236,655 processed new
hires every year or 647 persons every day. Among processed rehires,
there were 4,161,852processed rehires for the same period. This averages
to 244,814 processed rehires every year or 670 processed rehires every day.
In response to contracting labor market for OFWs in 1993, the
number of processed rehires began to increase in 1994. From 1994
onward, processed rehires outnumber processed new hires. See Figure 2.

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 Returning Migrants: A Briefliterature Review

Processed
New Hires/Rehires
Thousands
700

|NewHires - Rehires DTolal |

Figure 2

3. New Hires: Processed new hires should be equal or greater than deployed
new hires. Figure 3 shows that, generally, this is indeed the case.

New Hires
Processed/Deployed
Thousands
700

Figure 3

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Felipe L. Muncada

4. Rehires: The number of processed rehires, should be equal or greater

than actual deployed rehires. This was indeed the case until 1997 when
deployed rehires outnumbered processed rehires. See Figure 4.

Rehires
Processed/Deployed
Thousands
800

HPRehires caDRehires DTotall

Figure 4

To summarize, since 1991, total deployedOFWs increased to more than

half a million OFWs a year. In 1995 and 1996 the numbers dipped sub-600
thousand OFWs level. From 1997, the number picked up once again. By
1999 and 2000, more than 600,000 OFWs were deployed every year. There
was a variation in the composition of deployed OFWs. The early expansion
in 1990 until 1992 was largely composed by deployed new hires. From 1993
onwards, the majority of those who leave the country are rehires.

(1) Destination
Table 2 shows the top ten destination countries of OFWs for 2000-
2001. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia tops the list with more than 28% of
the total deployed OFWs for both 2000 and 2001.
There was a decrease of 6.72% of OFWs going to Hong Kong in 2001.
This is due to more competition from other Asian countries and mainland
Chinese who are willing receive cheaper salaries than Filipinos. Also,

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 Returning Migrants: A BriefLiterature Review

additional income tax slapped on OFWs makes Hong Kong less attractive
to OFWs.
World-wide economic turmoil forced many companies to slim down or
totally close shops. Taiwan, which employs many OFWs is one example of
this. We see a 25% decrease of OFWs in 2001 compared to 2000 levels.
With the ever threatening war between U.S. and Iraq, Kuwait would
undoubtedly be affected. There is 17.9% decrease of OFWs in 2001
compared to 2000 levels.
Other countries of destination show increase of OFWs, notably Qatar
(24%), Singapore (15%), Japan (17.53%), UEA (3.68%) and Italy (2.17"/(>).
Singapore, which at one time had diplomatic row with the Philippine
government over the execution of a Filipina OFW, is once again a favored
country of destination. Japan's 173% increase is due to both the increase of
female entertainers and male workers participating in Japanese companies'
training programs.

Table 2 Deployment of OFWs, 2000-2001, by Top Ten Destination*

|anuarv to December
Country 2000 2001
% Change
% Total Landbased %Total Landbased
1. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia 184,724 28.71% 190,732 28.82% 3.25
2. Hong Kong 121,762 18.92% 113,583 11.16% -6.72
3. japan 63,041 9.79% 74,093 11.19% 17.53

1. United Arab Lmirates 43,045 6.69% 44,631 6.74% 3.68

5. Taiwan 51,145 7.95% 38,311 5.79% -25.09
6. Singapore 22,873 3.55% 26,305 3.97% 15.00
7. Italy 21,490 3.34"/.. 21,956 3.31% 2.17

8. Kuwait 26,386 4.10% 21,641 3.27% -17.98

9. Brunei 13,649 2.12% 13,068 1.97% -4.26
10. Qatar 8,679 1.34% 10,769 1.62% 24.08
Total Landbased Deployed 643,304 661,639 2.85

Source: POEA homepage. http://www.poea.gov.ph/Stats/deployment2001.html. For

a detailed breakdown by countries see:
http://www.poea.Hov.ph/Stats/dcploycountry2000-2001.html

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Felipe L Muncada

(2) Gender Composition: Feminization of Migrant Labor

Except for seabased OFWs which are mosdy male, there is a trend
towards the feminization of OFWs. Figure 5 shows the total percentage
share of newly hired OFWs on the total. In 1992, there were as many male
as female OFWs hired. Succeeding years, however, show an increasing
trend of female going abroad for work. By 1998, two-thirds of newly hired
OFWs are female. From 2000 on, seventy percent of newly hired OFWs
are female. See Figure 5.9

Newly Hired OFWs

Total By Sex
%
80
1{ 1! !|
60
1 LUf+i
40 | j ]
dji !
i
1
!
"Female
^Male

20

0
1992
1 1 I
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
iii
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Female SO 54 59 58 54 56 61 64 70 72 73
Male SO 46 41 42 46 44 39 36 30 28 27

2002 Figures are for Jan-July only.

Figure 5

Newly hired male OFWs are found in production, managerial, clerical

and agricultural jobs. Between 70% to 90% of newly hired OFWs in these
categories are male. Close to 100% of newly hired male workers in the
agricultural sector are male OFWs. It is interesting to note that female
OFWs now dominate the clerical and sales sector, which was predominandy
male sector jobs. Except for clerical jobs, where newly hired females
overtook the number of newly hired males in 2000, by and large, the
majority of newly hired OFWs are male. See Table 3.

9Source: http://www.poea.gov.ph/stats/st_dlbnh_sex92-2001.html

278
 Returning Migrants: A Brief Literature Review

Newly hired female OFWs are found in professional and technical and
service job categories. Between 80% to 90% of newly hired OFWs in the
service job sector are female. A lower, but nevertheless a large percentage of
newly hired OFWs are in the professional and technical job categories. Between
70% to 85% newly hired in these categories are female. From a bit more
than a quarter share of clerical jobs in 1992, newly hired female OFWs
increased its share to 59% in 2001. A similar trend is evident in sales
category. Newly hired female OFWs increased its share from 38% in 1992
to 57% in 2001. Clearly, female OFWs are venturing into newer and wider
range of job categories.
Expanded participation of women in labor migration poses various
issues. Though we do not have detailed statistics as to the marital status of
these women, we can safely presume that most of them are married. A
large percentage of OFWs have work experienced in the Philippines before
leaving for overseas job. In a study of Arcinas (1991), 77% of OFWs were
married. Being married as such is not a problem. The effects that
separation does to a marital relationship as well as the effects of the
absence of a mother to their children is. (Battistella, Go, etc.)

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Felipe L. Muncada

Table 3 Job Categories by Gender Percentage Share'

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Ave
Production Percentage (%)
Male 94.7 88.2 84 77.6 89.2 82.5 78.8 73.9 71.6 75.8 81.6
Female 5.3 11.8 16.0 22.4 10.8 17.5 21.1 26.1 28.4 24.2 18.4
Managerial Workers
Mak 83.7 S2.2 79.4 76.9 79 80.1 79.2 82.3 70.7 72.7 78.6
Female 16.3 17.8 20.6 23.1 20.9 !<).<) 20.8 17.7 29.3 27.3 21.4
Service
Male 17.8 14.5 12 9.5 9.2 10.8 9.5 8.7 8.1 9.1 10.9

Female 82.4 85.5 87.9 90.5 90.8 89.2 90.6 91.3 91.9 90.9 89.1
Professional/Technical
Malt 24.9 25.1 21.8 29.3 32.8 27.6 24.9 18.9 14.3 14.8 23.4

Female 75.1 74.9 78.2 70.7 67.2 72.4 75.1 81.1 85.7 85.2 76.5
Clerical

Mak 72 "(i 68 63 61 58 55 51 58 41 59.7

I rma/e 28 30 32 37 39 12 45 1') 42 59 40.3
Agricultural
Male 99 98 98 99 98 | 93 | 97 98 99 93 97.2

Female 1 2 2 1 2 7 3 2 1 7 2.8
Sales

Male 62 63 64 59 63 56 55 65 54 43 58.4
Female 38 37 36 41 37 44 45 35 46 57 41.6

II. Returnees

Return of migrants is usually seen as the concluding phase of the

migration cycle. The cycle, however, can be repeated many times (Ghosh).
Return phase is especially true with OFWs by the mere fact that they are
contract workers. Even permanent migrants or those with permanent
residence still have high return rates. For example, between 1980-1990
show that 50% of Mexicans who entered the USA returned to Mexico after
only two years (Ghosh). In this section, we will focus, however, on the
return of OFWs.

'" Source: http://www.poca.gov.ph/stats/si_dlbnh_scx92-200l.html

280
 Returning Migrants: A Brief Literature Review

(A) How many return

In contrast to older migration waves to Europe and U.S.A., OFWs are

contractual migrant labor. In other words, they have to return to the
Philippines at the end of their contracts. Contracts last between 3 to 5 years
and are renewable depending on the needs of the company.
While the number of leaving OFWs is widely documented, statistics on
returning OFWs are practically non-existent. This fact had been lamented
by other by other scholars but up to now, nothing had been done about
this. Knowing the number of returning OFWs would help in designing
better reintegration programs as well as monitoring subtle trends in the
countries of destination.
Confronted with the absence of such data, the number of processed
rehires would give a rough estimate of OFWs who come back. One has to
be aware, however, that using this data would miss out OFWs who have
come back for good. Also, the estimate will miss out those considered new
hires by virtue of going to a different host country or having stayed more
than six months in the country before applying for another overseas job.
On the other hand, there is no other instrument that could somehow give
us an idea of the number of returnees. Using the data for processed rehires
makes more sense than using deployed rehires since logically, there should be
more or at least an equal number of processed rehires compared to deployed
rehires. The figure will capture returned migrants who do not actually make
it to the country of destination.

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Felipe L. Muncada

Processed
Rehires
Thousands
350

300

250

200

150

100

50

1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1998 1997 1998 1999 2000
mwm |1M |ts tat| u |m t&ttm rtfri wpu mpitwtra niton s*i\nnitavntrnnitHia*\utnsbniti \ttM

"Rehires

Figure 6

Figure 6 shows the number ofprocessed rehires. From 1984 to 2000, there
were 4,161,852 processed rehires. That is, on the average, 244,814 processed
rehires every year. This gives us a very rough estimate of OFWs who had
returned to the country. Again, not included in this figure are OFWs who
stay for good. Also, migrants considered new hires due to a different country
of destination or having stayed in the Philippines for than six months stay
prior to application for another overseas job. Should these processed rehires
fail to be deployed, the local labor market would have to absorb them.
Failing to absorb such number would definitely raise unemployment and
underemployment rate and lead to the deterioration of the standard of
living.

(B) Reasons for return

The termination of a contract is common reason for return to the

country of origin. This is often termed as autonomous return (Ghosh).
However, there are cases where OFW returns half-way through their
contracts. These are forced return and the reasons can range from the

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 Returning Migrants: A Brief Literature Review

economic inability of the host company (for instance, in difficult economic

times, a company may retrench).
On the personal level, an OFW may return when he/she had reached a
target earning. In other words, having reached a desired monetary goal,
he/she can now go home to implement projects planned before leaving the
country. Others may return due to inability to adapt to the new
environment. Poor job performance of an OFW may be a cause for return.
The loneliness alone that faces an OFW can be nerve-wrecking. Add to
this a new language, culture and new ways of doing the job and it is not
difficult to imagine why some OFWs fail to finish their contracts. Personal
and family problems at home may also urged an OFW to go home. There
are cases where the rumor of a wife's infidelity affects the quality of work
of an OFW to the extent that he endangers the safety of others and must
be forced to go home.
Rogers (1984) attempted to synthesize these reasons for returning by
offering a matrix which combined events related and unrelated to
migration with aggregate and individual events in the home and host
country. He produced eight situations."

1)perception ofpositive changes in the home country

2)perception to be needed in the home country
3) dissatisfaction in the host country
4) undesirable developments in the host country
5)fulfillment ofmigration goals orexpectations
6)perception to be needed by thefamily in the borne country
7)perception that migration was a mistake
8)fulfillment of migration goals but residence in the host country has become
undesirablefor other reasons.

The matrix's weakness is that many factors may exist at the same time.
Battistella proposes a simple continuum where the "the attraction of the
home country can be placed at one end and expulsion from the host

"Battistella, p. 3.

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Felipe L. Muncada

country at the other" (Battistella). In other words, a continuum with push-

pull factors on each end.

Table 5

Attraction
Perception of positive changes in the
home country; perception to the needed
in the home country; perception to be
needed by the family in the home
country; fulfillment of migration goals
or expectation;
Expulsion
Dissatisfaction in the host country;
undesirable developments in the host
country; perception that migration was a
mistake; fulfillment of migration goals
but residence in the host country has
become undesirable for other reasons.

Migrants who return with reasons that fall under "attraction" table are
the more integrated and successful migrants. Moreover, they have better
chances of contributing economically and socially to society. They become
the new innovators and entrepreneurs. On the other hand, migrants who
fail to integrate in the host country may have reasons that fall under
"expulsion." Also, irregular migrants and refugees would fall under this
category.
Perception, of either positive changes in the home country or negative
developments in the host country is not sufficient. Actual situation, both
positive and negative in the host and sending countries, should be included
in the matrix. This will consider the structural changes that happen both in
the host and sending countries.
Another important factor is the economic ability of migrant to finance
his/her trip home. The cost of going home includes not only the fare but
also presents and gifts (pasalubong, omiyage) which is deeply imbedded in the
Filipino psyche. In fact, many an OFW could go home and more often if
they are not expected to bring presents and gifts not only for the
immediate family but even for extended family and friends. Finally, the
presence or absence of return and reintegration programs both on the host
and sending countries may also affect a migrant's decision to go home. A
modified matrix would look like this: See Table 6.

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 Returning Migrants: A Brief Literature Review

Table 6

Attraction Expulsion
Perception erase to be needed in
Dissatisfaction in the host
the home country; perception to
country; perception that
be needed by the family in the
migration was a mistake;
home country; fulfillment of Personal subjective
fulfillment of migration goals
migration goals or expectation; perceptions
but residence in the host country
economic ability to go home;
has become undesirable for
economic ability to pay for travel
other reasons
expenses, etc.
positive changes in the home
Structural and undesirable developments in the
country, improved economy, better
objectire host country; high
chance to make a living, availability
economic realities unemployment; war or unrest
of job.

dissatisfaction in host country;

existence of reintegration Reintegration
undesirable economic, social and
programs to help returnees. programs
peace and order developments

(C) Problems upon return

Returning migrants face new hurdles and challenges upon return to the
home country. The longer the stint outside the country, the more difficult
is reintegration. Furthermore, the kind of problem depends on whether the
migrant went home due to attraction or expulsion factors. Areas for
reintegration ranges from economic, changes in lifestyle, reintegration with
the community and family reintegration.

1. Economic: One of the main problems of migrants is the adjustment

to wage-differentials between foreign country of employment and the
sending country (Bohning). Reintegration is even more difficult for those
who prematurely had to go home.
OFWs or migrants who came home due to attraction factors would
most probably have finished their contracts. Consequendy, they would
likely have some savings to pay whatever debts they have and then still have
something left to start new projects. This would not be the case for OFWs
and migrants who came home under expulsion factors. Those prematurely

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Felipe L. Muncada

terminated migrants would have to come home and face sinking even more
into debts.
Seeking new jobs upon return would be the first challenge. Naturally,
their previous jobs are gone (Arcinas and Bautista). For those who had a
long stint abroad, finding a job that suits them is oftentimes difficult. Aside
from the persistent high unemployment rate, which currendy stands at
10.3% and an even higher underemployment rate of 16.9%,12 the older age
of returning migrants is one barrier. Second, new skills which they may
have acquired from working abroad are not necessarily useful in the
Philippines. New techniques and skills they may have learned may not be
useful because the machines and technology are not available in the
country. Even returning professionals have a difficult time finding jobs due
to the overall structure of employment opportunities of the country
(Arcinas & Bautista). This is true not only among OFWs but also among
returning migrants from other countries. For instance, 81% of returning
Pakistanis found that their newly acquired skills were irrelevant to their
local situation (Azam, 1988). Similarly, returnees to Suriname and to the
Dominican Republic found their acquired technological and industrial skills
were unmarketable in their countries (Pessar, 1991).
Should a returnee find a job, the salaries would usually be below what
they are used to receiving while working abroad. Scarce job situation and
high wage-differentials, encourages many returning migrant workers to try
their hands on small business enterprise. A study of female migration in
South-East Asia found that half of the women returnees had taken up
economic activities such as going to business or self-employment
(Chantavanich, et. al., 2001). Whether their venture ends in success or
failure is quite another story and should be the focus of further studies.
Self-employment or having one's own business seems to be the best way
for women who worked as entertainers, domestic helpers or factory
workers to offset the huge wage-differentials that exist between the
Philippines and their former host countries.
12 Current unemployment rate for is 10.3% (2002), down from 11.3% (January 2001).
Underemployment rate is 16.9% (Jan 2002) up 1% point from January 2001. Source:
http://www.census.gov.ph/data/pressrelease/2002/lf0201tx.html

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 Returning Migrants: A Brief literature Review

Similarly, a study of Filipino migrants in Hong Kong, Samonte (1997)

observed that three-fourths of the respondents wanted to start a business.
In fact, starting a business was the main aim for going to Hong Kong in
the first place. Very few seemed interested in local employment. Again, the
main reason cited was disparity between the salaries they receive while in
Hong Kong and the salary offered in the Philippines.
The problem with business endeavors is that it takes certain traits and
skills to be successful in this field. While a college education is not a
guarantee for success, certain characteristics such as 1) achievement traits
like opportunity seeking, persistence, commitment to work contract,
demand for quality and efficiency and risk taking 2) planning traits such as
goal setting, systematic planning and control, and information seeking 3)
power traits composed of persuasion and networking and self-confidence
are necessary for success (Samonte). There are training sessions offered by
the government to would be entrepreneurs but not many OFWs know nor
take advantage of this opportunity. And even those who took these
training, the rate of failure can still be high.
Successful economic integration is not easy as it seems. In UN
sponsored research, only 1 in 10 succeeds in reintegrating economically
(Arcinas and Bautista).

2. Changes in lifestyle: Experience of living in other country plus

additional purchasing power due to income differentials lead to changes in
lifestyle. Consumerism is a strong temptation to resist, not only for
returning migrants but also for their families. Newly found purchasing
power leads to new needs. This is especially true during the first months
back in the country. The FCR phenomenon had been identified by Freund
(Battistella). This refers to returning Tunisians driving with the letters
"FCR" on their license plates, indicating an imported car with tax
exemption. Returning migrants may spend money left and right for their
friends and relatives. Furthermore, personal and family needs go beyond
locally produced goods to preference for imported goods (ECMI, 2002,
21). Many returning migrants aspired for "consumer durables and homes
that are showcases of newly acquired appliances and furniture" (Arcinas

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Felipe L. Muncada

and Bautista). To be fair, there also many returning migrants who wisely
use the hard earned money for basic necessities, food, shelter and
education of their children. Successful migrants give priority to home
improvements which stands out especially in the country-side. One can tell
by looking at the house which family has an OFW member. Most homes of
OFWs are concrete and well-built.

3. Social network integration: Upon return, OFWs or migrant returnees

have to renew their ties with their community and friends. The longer the
overseas stint is, the more difficult the reintegration. Successful migrants,
(those who came home due to attraction factors), normally have an easier
time integrating and renewing ties in the community and friends. In fact,
their successful stint gives them a certain high status among the
community. Migration that ended in failure makes it more difficult for a
migrant to renew relationships. The Filipino trait of hiya or shame becomes
an obstacle to renewing weakened or lost ties. They may need counseling
and therapy (Bohning).

4. Renewal of family relationships: Relationships between husband and

wife and children are affected by migration. Renewal of relationships takes
a different form depending on who migrates. When the husband migrates,
the wives are left to take care of day-to-day expenses. In other words, she
becomes the sole manager of the house. She has the monopoly of decision
making at home. Longer stint abroad by their husbands enables her to
internalize the situation of independence and freedom (ECMI). Returning
husbands will have to contend with this new reality of a powerful wife at
home. The wife too will have to learn power-sharing when their migrant
husband return. Inability to perceived this changed reality often results in
more friction in the husband-wife relationships.

When the wife is the migrant, there is a tendency for the husband to be
more attached to his peer groups. Temptations to cultivate extra-marital
relationships, vices like gambling is often hard to resist. Furthermore, the
husband can become dependent on remittances he receives from his wife.

288
 Returning Migrants: A Brief Literature Review

Returning wife may have to adjust to a changed husband upon her return.
She may have to live with her husband being more attached to his friends
than to her.
It is not only husband-wife relationship that has to be renewed.
Parental-child relationships also have to be renewed. A returning mother
may find her daughter or son distant to her, unable to share or intimate
their problems nor share their joys. A great pain for many returning
mothers is that after years of sacrifices and hard work for their family and
children, they come home only to find their children closer to their
grandparents and sometimes even blind to their presence.
Similarly, returning fathers would have to reassert their authority figure
as the head of the family. They will have to regain the trust and confidence
of their children before they can successfully reestablish themselves a role-
model.
The length of absence, the quality and frequency of communication
while away may also determine whether a returnee will have a difficult time
adjusting or not. The longer one is absent from the family, the longer
adjustment period is. Frequency of communication and quality of
communication bridge the distance that separates family members. The
more members communicate with each other, either through mail, phone,
internet or video mails, the easier it will be for returnees to adjust. These
communication tools act as proxies to the migrant's actual presence.
Though far away from each other, family members still share common
history and are up to date with regards to events and happenings in each
others' lives.

III. Programs for Returnees

A. Programs in Host countries

Faced with serious economic crises and rising unemployment,

European countries banned labor immigration. Western European
countries like Belgium, France, Germany and Netherlands developed
policies of assisted return (Ghosh). The package covered one or all of the

289
Felipe L. Muncada

stages of return migration: pre-departure, transportation for the journey

and post arrival. Table 7 below shows the summary of different programs
(Ghosh). See Table 7.

Table 7

Program Target Migrants Host/Sponsor Notes

'Traveling allowance and depar France and
Regular
ture premiums Belgium
Capitalization and remittance of
social funds and social security Regular Netherlands
benefits; vocational training for migrants and Germany
more successful reintegration;
Special credit for housing and
Regular
starting business; aid for the Germany
migrants
country of origin
Matching of
International
Locate skilled migrants who are skills; low re
For long-time Organization
willing to return to their home training costs;
skilled migrants for Migration
country and take up selected not confined to
legal regular (IOM) Latin
positions which could be filled government
migrants America, Africa,
up locally. but also to
and Asia
private sectors.
Locate skilled migrants who are 85% of return
For long-time
willing to return to their home ees considered
skilled migrants IOM project
country and take up selected the program's
legal regular for Nicaragua
positions which could be filled influence in
migrants
up locally. their return
EU funded for
Locate skilled migrants who arc 88% of return
For long-time Africans.
willing to return to their home ees considered
skilled migrants RQAN (Return
country and take up selected the program's
legal regular and Reintegration
positions which could be filled influence in
migrants for Qualified Af
up locally. their return.
rican Nationals

These items were culled from Ghosh.

290
 Returning Migrants: A Brief Literature Review

Three phases:
1. identifying
Skilled and
priority needs
Similar to IOM's program highly skilled ex UNDP-TOK-
/ sector.
but does not aim for perma patriates. (China, TEN (Transfer of
2. locating
nent return of expatriates but Egypt, Greece, Knowledge
potential can
time-bound within the frame Grenada, India, Through Expatri
didates
work of consultancy project. Philippines, Paki ate Nationals)
stan.)
3. managing
consultancy
projects.
"Aide au retour"
Unemployed mi
in 1977. By end
'Vocational training and grants: Portu
France of 1987, 11,500
10,000 francs guese, Spanish
Algerians have
and Algerians.
returned

Ankara Agreement of 1972. Few Turks se

Provided vocational training lected return and
Turks Germany
and lower management train were absorbed
ing courses for returnees. in the society.

More successful
1975 Agreement with Ko
Koreans Germany than program
rea.
with Turks.

Supported self-
Any returnee help organiza
Center for International
but especially Germany tions to create
Migration and Development
Turks jobs in the coun
try of origin.

German govern
ment set up
1983-1984. Provided finan
Any returnee counseling cen
cial incentives DM 10,500
but especially Germany ters. Modest im
for every returnee plus
Turks pact: 740,000
DM1,500 for every child.
Turk returnees
in 1970s.

** These items were culled from Battistella.

291
Felipe L. Muncada

Granted exemptions of
custom duties on import Also provided
machinery or home furniture; information on
Any migrant Portugal
established information of links to develop
fices to guide the placement ment projects.
of accumulated savings.
Promoted the idea of
investing migrants' savings on Any migrant Yugoslavia
industrial enterprises.
Reimbursement of travel
Any migrant Italy
costs.

Cost Issue. A persistent question about assisted return program is its

cost-effectiveness. In other words, in the long run, is it cheaper to run these
programs rather than simple expulsion or forced return of migrants? On the
surface, expulsion or forced return would seem to be cheaper for the host
countries. Returning migrants incurs the direct cost of travel expenses.
Such stance, however, tends to backfire. That is, affected migrants go into
hiding thereby complicating the situation.There will be additional costs for
locating them. Should they be apprehended, there is the additional cost of
establishing and maintaining detention centers and staff and also those
apprehended while they are waiting for their return (Hughes and Kessing,
1998). The cost for maintenance of each returnee in the detention center
can sometimes exceed the minimum wage of a country (Ghosh). Those
who elude arrest are effectively criminalized. Once criminalized, they
cannot obtain legal employment This complicates the situation. Should
they obtain odd jobs, they are prone to being taking advantaged off by
unscrupulous employers. Turning to criminal behavior is just a step away. It
is difficult to ascertain the social costs of criminal acts done by migrants.
It is without doubt that assisted return is costly at the outset but they
tend to be more durable and lasting (Ghosh). These programs give the
returnee a reason and means to stay put in their country. The dividends for
such programs are also much higher. Ultimately, this seems to be the most
humane way to deal with migrants return. After all, migrants, regular or
irregular, do their share in the economic progress of a host country.

292
 Returning Migrants: A Brief Literature Review

The success of assisted return programs lies in its comprehensive

planning. Furthermore, close coordination with the government and
private sectors in the country of origin is of utmost importance if the
returnee would have a reliable job upon return. There is better chance to
succeed if the environment for development is already in place. These
programs should also not overlook the integration of migrants' children in
school (Battistella).

B. Programs in Sending country: The Philippines

1. Government Programs
Being the largest labor sending country in Asia, the Philippines has the
most developed migration system. Several government agencies look into
matters pertaining migrant issues. The Overseas Workers Welfare
Administration (OWWA), Philippine Overseas Employment Administra
tion (POEA) and Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE) are
among the major government agencies directly connected to migrant issues
be they deployment or reintegration.

OWWA is the primary agency mandate by the government to look into

overseas workers' needs both on site and upon return (ILO/SEPAT, 1998).
OWWA is mandated under Republic Act No. 8042, also known as Filipino
Migrant Workers Act of 1995 (Borja, 1999). In particular, the agency is
tasked to provide welfare assistance to registered OFWs and their
dependents. Through fees and contribution, OWWA as also to ensure the
viability of the welfare fund. Table 8 lists the major programs by different
government agencies.

293
Felipe L. Muncada

Table 8

Program Sponsor Beneficiary Notes

Technical assistance for
development projects, fi
nancing through medium-
l5Family Assistance Loan
Registered term loans, support mecha
and Expanded Livelihood
OWWA OFWs and nisms. Non-collateral loans
Development Program
dependents (< 10,000); micro-enterprise
(ELDP)
(5,000-15,000); small enter
prise (<50,000) and group
loan (>50,000 pesos).
Counsels women returnees
Social Counseling for Women re with regards to coping with
OWWA
Women turnees loneliness, pressures, anxie
ties, frustration and trauma.
Duty-Free Philippines; Ka-
buhayan Shopping Program
(tools and equipments for
Coordination and linkages
aspiring entrepreneurs);
with Duty Free Philippines;
Registered Land Bank of the
Land Bank of the Philip OWWA
OFWs Philippines- financing pro
pines; Development Bank
grams; Development Bank
of the Philippines
of the Philippines
financing programs;
DOLE s programs.
Public Employment Serv Open to all Employment facilitation
DOLE
ice Offices (PESO) citizens programs.
Training in various voca
Undocument
tional and technical skills;
ed OFWs
loans for individual projects
and depend
(15,000) up to 5 million for
ents from
group projects; psycho-so
priority areas
Return OFW Program DOLE cial integration Financial
like the
assistance for vocational
ARMM'* and
training was minimal at
provinces
P2.000 for self-employment
considered
and P7,000 for skills train
poorest20.'
ing.

15 ILO/SEAPAT report provides a comprehensive description and evaluation of the

different programs.
"Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao

294
 ReturningMigrants: A Brief Literature Review

DTI De
Offers financial facilities to
partment
Micro-Credit Program Qualified support and develop entre
Of Trade
(MCP)Tulong sa Tao (TST) NGOs preneurial activities through
and Indus
qualified NGOs.
try
"Productivity Skills Capabil
DWSD
ity Building of
Department
No specific program but Disadvantaged Women"
of Social Open to all
returnees can avail of their trains women in food
Welfare citizens
services processing, preservation,
and Devel
sewing crafts, and home aid
opment
services.
Pilot Implementation of TRSDA
the Training Transfer of Technical Special tar
Filipina Overseas Workers Education get: Trained participants in food
in Hong Kong on the and Skills returnees processing as well as care-
Suitable Occupation in Developme from Hong giving.
Hotel and Restaurant Indus nt Author Kong
try ity
Procurement of tax-free,
Targets re high quality tools and
turned and equipments at reasonable
displaced cost for livelihood and
OFWs also entreprencurship. Subsidized
Kabuhayan 2000 TESDA
those natu training course in automo
ralized in tive, construction, electrical
other coun and electronics, machine
tries shop, refrigeration, air-con
ditioning and welding.
Congressional Migrant
Those who want to pursue
Workers ScholarshipFund TESDA / OFWs and
courses in science and
Coordination with OWWA dependents
technology.
OWWA

livelihood program grant

National Livelihood Sup OWWA' s
OWWA ing loans up to PI 5,000
port Fund (NLSF) clients
(1989) (Borja, 1999).

l7These provinces include are: Agusan del Sur, Basilan, Surigao del Sur, Abra, Antique,
Apayao, Aurora, Batanes, Benguet, Biliran, Eastern Samar, Guimaras, Ifugao, Kalinga,
Masbate, Mountain Province, Romblon and Sounthern Ixyte.

295
Felipe L. Muncada

2. NGO programs
NGOs are actively involved in the reintegration of migrant returnees.
Some NGOs are church-based or at least connected with the church either
in its conception or maintenance. Other NGOs were established by
migrant returnees themselves or those who have experienced living and
working overseas. NGOs provide services designed for their particular
beneficiaries. NGOs do the job when government agencies cannot do the
job because of red taper or bureaucracy.

Table 9

Program Sponsor Beneficiary Notes

Established in 1990 in
Psycho-social counseling COW Cen Davao City. Church-based
services, cooperative organ ter for Any migrant NGO and affiliated with
izing and social credit Overseas returnee Catholic Bishops
program Workers Conference of the Philip
pines.
Members pay P3.500 and
Overseas Workers and Fami
Cooperative were allowed to loan twice
lies Multi-Purpose Coopera COW
members the amount of their paid
tive (OWFMPQ
contribution.
Assisted with loan from
Overseas Workers and Fam
Cooperative DBP. Built laundry business
ily Laundry Cooperative COW
members servicing shipping lines and
(OWFLQ
hotels
Save P1.00 a day. After one
month P210.00 is deposited
OFW, family in COW office. COW loans
Savings and Livelihood members, pa back P210.00 plus COW
COW
Program rishioners counterpart of P210.00 to
and staff one member the group has
selected. Three months to
pay the loan.
Assistance to migrant coop
eratives, education, Returned San Pablo, Laguna. Sup
economic and psychosocial ATIKHA women ported by Swiss Catholic
reintegration. Garment pro OFWs Lenten Fund.
duction.

296
 Returning Migrants: A Brief Literature Review

Organized in Qatar. 1995.

AWC The Members
Implemented forced savings
Establishment of an auto Automotive from Qatar
scheme on members. Suc
motive shop. Workers' (24 mem
cessfully established an
Cooperative bers)
automotive shop.
KAKAMM-
PI Kapi-
Community-
Social services; development sanan ng
based organi
education and organization- mga
zation of Central Luzon and South
building; economic develop Kamag-
relatives of ern Tagalog. 1983.
ment; skills training; advo anak ng Mi-
OFW and
cacy and lobby work. granteng
returnees.
Manggagaw-
ang Pilipino
Research and advocacy.
Provides relevant KAI- Migrant
Links with OFW groups.
information to migrant BIGAN workers
workers.
1. Provides immediate
assistance (airport assis
tance, para-legal
DAWN
assistance, resource mobi
Assists returned migrant Developme Women mi
lization.
women in seeking alterna nt Action grant re
2. information, education
tive livelihoods. for Women turnee
and research
Network
3. alternative livelihood
development.
4. networking and advocacy.
November 1988. Initiative
of National Council of
Churches in the Philippines
Migrant (NCCP) and other groups.
Caters to needs of dis women, es Core services:1) pre-depar
tressed Filipino migrant BATIS pecially those ture orientation; 2)
women coming from counseling; 3) referral; 4) le
Japan. gal services; 5) airport assis
tance^) temporary shelter;
7) advocacy;8) livelihood
and 9) health.

297
Felipe L. Muncada

IV. Summary and Recommendations

A. Assisted return programs in host countries:

Host countries, notably European countries have to be commended for

innovative programs for both regular and irregular migrants. These
programs, while expensive in the short-run, tend to be more economical
and enduring in the long run. Since returnees are trained to develop skills
and later on followed-up on their situation upon return, the cycle of
migration-return-remigration is ended or at least postponed for a much
latter time.
Programs like these should exist not only when host countries no
longer want migrants. Such programs should be in place even before
migrants leave the country of origin. This can be done through bilateral
agreements between sending countries like the Philippines and the host
countries like England, Hong Kong and Saudi Arabia, to name a few.
Assistance programs do not necessarily have to be limited to direct
individual assistance to returning migrants but also to establishment of
facilities and project ventures in sending countries that would make
returning migrant more productive. Furthermore, companies accepting
trainees should also be directly involved in such programs.
European countries have a good history and well-developed assisted
return programs. They serve as models for labor receiving Asian countries.
Of great interest, is what more economically developed Asian countries do
along these lines. The more economicallydeveloped a country is, the higher
the standard of living. Consequently, the cost for apprehending and later
on, for maintaining irregular migrants in detention cells can become
expensive in the long run. It is therefore in the interest of developed
migrant-receiving countries to establish assisted return programs. Especial
attention should be given to refugees. In Japan, for instance, legal
processing for political refugees can take years. In the meanwhile, refugees
are detained. Many of these refugees left their homelands to escape
imprisonment and torture. Unfortunately, they end up in another detention
center. If host governments cannot accept refugees for one reason or the

298
 Returning Migrants: A Brief Literature Review

other, they should have programs to assist their immediate transfer to a

third country. At the very least, NGOs should be allowed to offer services
and training skills while they are being processed.

B. Programs by the Philippine government and NGOs.

Care for the migrants should be comprehensive: from start, during

sojourn and upon return of the migrant. Government sponsored programs
and efforts of different NGOs are well along this line. The ILO/SEAPAT
paper has excellent recommendations to further improve different
programs. The recommendations, however, are from the point of view of
those who live in the Philippines. The vantage point of a Filipino living
outside the country can be different. There seems to be a need to expand
coverage and strengthen the linkages among NGOs and between NGOs
and government agencies. The following are my ruminations:

Education on migration at the earliest level:

The Philippines is de facto a labor sending country. Sending labor was
initially envisioned to alleviate high unemployment in the 1970s but had
become the stable means for obtaining foreign currencies. Sending local
labor for overseas work will not cease any time soon. Estimates put it at 1
in 6 families receive assistance from a family member working overseas.
There is, therefore, an urgent need to address this issue even during the
formative and tender age of Filipinos. One way to address this issue is to
include classes on migration in the curriculum even as early as in high
school. Such classes would enable affected children understand better their
situation. At the same time, it will also prepare those who will eventually
decide to migrate in the future.

On-site governmentprograms:
While the Philippine government has programs for pre-departure and
even upon return, there are no programs for the OFW while he is in the
foreign country. Government involvement is limited to visa and passport
services. This need not be so. Each embassy could proactively be involved

299
Felipe L. Muncada

in the migrants' lives by offering different services which would lessen the
pangs of separation or minimize culture shock. Three areas where the
government can help: 1) communication with the family of the OFW; 2)
easier and innovative manner of sending remittances and 3) Linkages and if
possible, financial help for NGOs.

1. Communication with OFW families: Embassies in host countries may

host regular communication fairs co-sponsored by local communica
tion companies where OFWs can phone their families free of charge.
The emphasis is on regular. Phone companies offer such services but
only during membership campaign periods. Also, in cooperation with
local communication companies, embassies can partly subsidize a
fixed amount of the OFWs communication bills. Since this would
involve financial resources, target migrants may be limited to OWWA
registered OFWs.
2. Innovative remittance program: While many OFWs remit their hard-
earned currencies through the banking system, the majority is using
the illegal underground banking system. The so-called "door-to-door"
remittance system is attractive in that it is easy to send money: the
broker is accessible to the OFW It is fast: money is delivered on the
same day to the home of the OFW (hence door-to-door). The
amount is unchanged: the recipient receives the amount in the original
currency (for example in Yen or US$). In cooperation with local
banks or certified NGOs, the government can establish the same
program. The government earns a certain amount and furthermore, it
can monitor better the inflow of foreign currency into the country.
3. Linkages with NGOs: Embassies in host countries should have a
certification criteria for NGOs and then delegate whatever each NGO
can do for the OFW. The care of OFWs is such a huge task that
government alone nor NGOs alone would not be enough. The
cooperation of both groups is necessary. Certification by the
government agency, such as the Embassy or Consulate will give
credibility to the NGOs' projects.

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 Returning Migrants: A Brief Literature Review

Programsfor expelled and dead OFW:

Programs for migrants should be so comprehensive that they include
not only the living but also the dead. Statistics show that 1.6 OFWs die
everyday (ECMI, 2002). Funds should be available for the return of these
fallen OFWs. Furthermore, there should be no distinction between regular
and irregular dead OFW. At present, NGOs in host countries are left
scampering for funds for the return of the dead OFW. Financial as well as
psychological and spiritual care should be made available to the family of
the dead OFW.

Better information campaignfor available programs:

Good programs remain good plans unless there are people who
actually benefit from them. One way, and perhaps, the best way to inform
OFWs about available programs they can avail of, is at the immigration
counter. This can be upon leaving the country or upon returning to the
country. This is perhaps more important than the serenades welcome a
returning OFW

Programsfor those left behind:

At present, services for OFWs are focused on the OFW themselves.
Programs include pre-departure seminars and various training programs
upon return, as we have seen in the previous sections. There should also be
more effort for the care of the OFWs' family who are left behind.
Government agencies and NGOs should provide psychological services to
help families adjust to the new situation.
OWWA can fund communication centers where families of OFWs can
communicate with their loved ones for free. With the ever ubiquitous
presence of the internet and cheaper communication charges, these
communication centers can offer e-mail services, chat rooms, and even
video conferencing with the OFW This is can be done in cooperation with
the Philippine embassies in foreign countries.

301
Felipe L. Muncada

Gender Sensitive programs:

As discussed earlier, women comprise the majority of OFWs. With the
majority of these women working as housemaids and entertainers,
programs offered by TESDA, OWWA and NGOs should offer programs
that address their needs. These programs should be more than establishing
projects or businesses but also include psychological counseling and
medical assistance if necessary. Furthermore, these programs should not
distinguish regular or irregular migrants, nor between those registered with
OWWA or not.

Linkages between NGOs abroad and Philippine government:

Linkages between NGOs and the Philippine government should not be
limited to NGOs in the Philippines only but also to NGOs abroad
concerned with OFWs. Qualified NGOs, that is, those that have the
OFWs' welfare as aim of their group, can be certified. Once certified, they
can be granted access faster access to data and services necessary for their
work for the OFW. Without such linkages, much time and resources are
wasted dealing with red tape and bureaucracy.

Migrant workers abroad or back in their home countries are more than
numbers and tools for economic development. As fellow members of the
human family, they deserve special attention because they are one of the
most vulnerable groups in the foreign country and when they return home.
They deserve care especially at the most vulnerable points in their journey.
With the ever expanding borderless society we live on these days, it is only
a matter of time when we too, would need the same services.

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Returning Migrants: A Brief Literature Review

Felipe L. Muncada

Abstract

Between 1984 and 2000, the Philippines had deployed more than 10 million
migrant workers around the world. This makes the Philippines the largest labor
sending country in Asia. With this huge number of migrant labor, the country
will have to contend with return migration.
This paper looks at different return programs instituted by host countries
and the Philippines as the sending country. Host countries, especially European
countries developed assisted return programs for migrant workers because it was
more cost-effective and enduring in the long run. The Philippine government
has reintegration programs that offer from psychological counseling to skills
training. Furthermore, NGOs and cooperatives offer a variety of services to
returning migrants.
The author finds that there is need to expand the Philippine government
services so that they cover the education of the Filipino youth on migration.
Furthermore, there is a need to offer services to migrant in situ - in their place of
destination. Finally, linkages between government and NGOs in the Philippines
and the in the host countries have to be developed and improved in order to
better serve the migrant labor.

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