Supplementary Table: Evidence for the influence of geomagnetic activity (GMA) on biological

systems. Due to space constraints, all evidence could not be presented in the main journal article.
However, due to the complexity, size and controversial nature of the literature, a detailed summary
of the evidence is presented below.

A large number of the studies below are epidemiological or correlational, investigating associations
of GMA with health, physiological or behavioural outcomes. Further publications have directly
studied animal and human outcomes during the course of GMS. Such studies are unlikely to suffer
from the same confounders (e.g. seasonality, latitude, etc.) that could lead to problems with the
epidemiological data. Further animal studies utilised applied earth-strength (or near earth-strength)
static magnetic stimuli (as opposed to power-frequency magnetic stimuli) to simulate changes to the
earths magnetic field. Furthermore, geomagnetic storms (GMS) do not come at random intervals,
but instead have a number of stochastic periodicities, the primary one of which is linked to the
approximately 11.5 year solar cycle. Thus, other studies investigated associations between
epidemiological data and the solar cycle. Furthermore, the peak periods of maximum GM
disturbance are the spring and autumn, due to the seasonal change in the geometry of the earths
magnetic field relative to the sun. A further set of studies therefore argue that seasonality findings
implicate the role of geomagnetism. As these studies move further from direct correlations, it is
appropriate to treat findings with increasing caution.

This literature presents other major obstacles to the researcher, confounding truly systematic review
it is of a highly international nature and language barriers often pose significant problems, and
there are a plethora of study designs. However, attempts were made to scan the literature in a
structured manner, with search results supplemented by the authors existing knowledge of the
literature. Furthermore, the reference lists of key publications (e.g. reviews and recent publications)
were manually examined for further relevant references. Attempts have thus been made to include
all major evidence for an influence of GMS on health and behavioural outcomes in the table below.

Key: Black = significant associations or supporting evidence; Red = no association or negative

evidence; Orange = contrary, equivocal or ambiguous evidence
Melatonin & Circadian Behaviour
Correlations of Lower mean nocturnal melatonin [16]
GMA with human Sleep paralysis and dreaming [79]
physiological
outcomes or sleep
behaviour
Correlations of Melatonin profile of rats [10]
GMA with animal Reduction in synaptic ribbons of the pinealocytes [11]
physiological
outcomes
Physiological Significantly influences the pineal serotonin-N-acetyltransferase (NAT) activity or
animal studies reduces the melatonin expression of various rodents [1220]; the response is
using simulated eye and light-dependent [12,13,19]
magnetic fields No reduction of melatonin expression in specific rodent species and strains
[15,16,20]
Inconsistent results with pulsed DC magnetic fields [21]
Significantly influences the melatonin expression of birds [22]
Circadian activity rhythm influenced by geomagnetic shielding in birds [23]
Influences Drosophila circadian behaviour; this response not present in
cryptochrome-knockout animals [24]
Circadian behaviour influenced in mice [25] and flies [26]
Physiological Circadian behaviour influenced in humans [2729]; also influenced by
human studies geomagnetic shielding [30]
using simulated No association with circadian responses [31]; authors discuss shortcomings of
magnetic fields study in replicating changes to the natural GMF

Correlations with Seasonal pattern of melatonin profile in humans has been suggested to relate to
seasonality or GMA [32]
solar cycle Seasonal pattern of melatonin profile in rats has been suggested to relate to
GMA [33]

Other Hormones
Correlations of Associations with thyroxine expression [34]; authors suggest that suppression of
GMA with human melatonin by increased GMA attenuates thryroxine expression
physiological No significant association with cortisol or prolactin [34]
outcomes
Association with 17-corticosteroid and prolactin [35]
Associations with cortisone expression [4]
Correlations of Increased corticosterone lability [10]; the authors argued that communication
GMA with animal between the pineal to adrenocortical network constitutes a mechanism
physiological underlying the physiological and pathological associations of the brain and heart
outcomes with GMS.
Cardiovascular Outcomes
Correlations of Myocardial infarction (MI) [3554]; the largest study analysed Moscow
GMA with health emergency ambulance callout data, including 6 million ambulance calls and over
outcomes 85,000 MIs, revealing that hospitalisation for MI increased 13% during GMS
[42,55]
No association with MI [5659]
One notable positive association with MI [60] was later retracted [61]
Stroke [48,6265]
No association with stroke [66]
Angina pectoris [67]
Inverse correlation with implantable cardioverter defibrillators (ICDs) discharges
[68]; authors suggest due to possible antiarrhythmic effect of GMA
An inverse correlation sudden cardiac death (SCD) [35,38,69,70]
A positive correlation with SCD [71]
Acute coronary syndrome [72]
Correlations of An inverse correlation with heart rate variability (HRV) [35,7385]
GMA with human Increased blood pressure [6,35,73,8693]
physiological
Increased heart rate [74,75]
outcomes
No association with heart rate [87]
Capillary blood flow [94] and microcirculation parameters [95,96]
Circadian rhythms of blood pressure [97]
Changes to a range of haematological parameters: platelets, basophils,
fibrinogen, leukocytes [35]; coagulation and inflammation [98]; platelet
aggregation and blood coagulation [99]; erythrocyte sedimentation rate [100]
Physiological No association with blood pressure, heart rate or HRV [31]; authors discuss
human studies shortcomings of study in replicating changes to the natural GMF
using simulated
magnetic fields

Correlations of Blood pressure of rabbits [101,102]

GMA with animal HRV of rabbits [101]
physiological
Intracardiac pressure [103] and ultrastructure of cardiomyocytes of rabbits
outcomes
[103105]
Size of myocardial mitochondria and the degree of cardiac contractility in rabbits
[106]
Successful Geomagnetic shielding in CV patients [97]
Therapeutic Melatonin therapy in CV patients [107]
Intervention Responsive treatment regimen in CV patients [108]
Static magnetic field therapy in rabbits [102]
Verapamil therapy in rabbits in response to both GMS and simulated MF
changes [109]
Correlations with In years of peak GMS activity patients admitted for MI increases [77,110,111]
seasonality or
solar cycle Number of monthly CV deaths highly correlated with solar activity [112]
Congenital heart disease correlated with solar activity during pregnancy [113]
Negative correlation with monthly GMA and pregnancy induced hypertension
[114]
Negative correlation with monthly GMA and stroke [115]
Inverse correlation with CV disease and solar cycle [116]

Psychiatric Outcomes
Correlations of Increased hospitalisations for depression & manic depression [117]
GMA with health Ambulance callouts for psychiatric disorders [42]
outcomes
Admissions to a psychiatric unit [118,119]
Associations with hallucinations [120,121]
Positive associations with suicide [42,62,122]
Negative associations with suicide [36,48,123,124]
Weak or no association with suicide [125127]
Correlations with Seasonality of suicide rates peaks during spring and autumn
seasonality or [123,125,126,128,129]
solar cycle Greatly diminished seasonal effect [130]
Inverse correlation of first psychiatric admissions with monthly GMA [131]
Associations between geomagnetic disturbance and seasonality of schizophrenic
births [132]
Association of solar cycle with schizophrenia [133]
No association of solar cycle with schizophrenia [134]

Epilepsy
Correlations of Associations with sudden unexpected death [135]; authors argued that GMA
GMA with health suppresses the activity of the endogenous anticonvulsant melatonin and lowers
outcomes the threshold for paroxysmal electrical seizures.
No association between sudden unexplained death in epilepsy [136138]
Association between postnatal geomagnetic activity and development of
epilepsy [139]
Correlations of Associations with epileptic seizures [140,141], seizure latency [142] or severity
GMA with animal of limbic seizure-induced hypothermia [143] in rat epileptic model
health outcomes
Animal studies Enhancement [144,145] or increase [146] of limbic seizures in rat epileptic
using simulated model; authors relate effect to suppression of nocturnal melatonin
magnetic fields Association with sudden unexplained death in rat epileptic model [147]
Correlations with Association of annual seizures and GMA [148]
seasonality or
solar cycle
Immune System
Correlations of Significant changes in autoimmune markers [149]
GMA with human Prolactin expression [35]
physiological
No significant association with prolactin [34]
outcomes
C-reactive protein expression [150]
Correlations with Associations between the solar cycle and flu pandemics [151155]
seasonality or Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection synchronised with the solar cycle [156]
solar cycle
Leishmaniasis infection synchronised with solar cycle [157]
Animal Rats shielded from the natural GMF revealed significant differences in immune
experimental system function [158]; the authors conclude that GMF shielding eliminates
studies fluctuations in the GMF that would normally act to supress melatonin, with
subsequent positive benefits to the immune system.
Suppression of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis in rats associated with
specific frequency, timing and intensity of applied magnetic fields [159161]

Other Health Outcomes

Correlations of Total number of deaths [47,162]
GMA with health Sudden infant death syndrome [163]
outcomes
Association with foetal cardiotocography [164]
Intra- and postoperative complications or prognosis with lung [165] and breast
cancer patients [166]
Neural tube defects [167]
Migraine severity [35,168] and frequency [169]
Correlations with Correlation of longevity with solar cycle [170174]
seasonality or No correlation of longevity with solar cycle [175]
solar cycle
Correlation of total monthly number of deaths with GMA [48]
No correlation of total monthly number of deaths with GMA [53]
Monthly solar activity associated with premature labour [176]
Correlation of solar cycles with the incidence of malignant melanoma [177
180]; geomagnetic-melatonin interactions being cited as one of the plausible
explanation [178]
Inverse correlation of monthly oncology deaths with geomagnetic activity [181]
Animal studies Reduced litter sizes in rats [182]; authors note implications for sudden infant
using simulated deaths
magnetic fields Neuronal cell migration during in utero development in rats [183]; authors note
implications for sudden infant deaths
Behavioural & Other Outcomes
Correlations of Anxiety and irritability, lower attention and accuracy [184]
GMA with human Negative influence on emotional state [185,186]
behavioural
Road accidents [48,62,123,187,188]
outcomes
Pilot errors [189] & air crashes [190]
Crime [191]
Religious experience [192]
Partial epileptic-like experiences [193]
Bizarreness of dreams [9]
Trigger for suicide bombers [194,195]
Reduced EEG spatial synchronisation [196]
Speed of acoustic-motor reaction [197]
Effective and cognitive competence in preschool [198]
Stock market returns [199]
No association with stock market returns [200]
Animal studies Increased aggression in rats [201]
using simulated Increased sucrose consumption in rats [202]
magnetic fields

Correlations of Increased aggression in rats [203,204]

GMA with animal Nociceptive behaviour in mice [205,206]; authors suggested this effect may be
outcomes mediated by pineal gland [205]
Increased sucrose consumption in rats [202]
Navigational disorientation in birds [207209], bees [210] and whales [211]
No association with behaviour in fish or cockroaches [212]
Correlation with Drosophila lifespan [213], fertility and egg survival [214]
Correlations with Births with monthly GMA [215]
seasonality or Riots, revolutions, battles [44]
solar cycle
Wars, economic cycles, social crises and intellectually creative works [216]
Moderate association with wars [217]
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