38 Six Sigma-Measure Phase

Measurement system evaluation

To validate the reliability of data for drawing meaningful conclusions
Measuring quality characteristics requires:
The use of human senses
Some type of instrument or gauge to measure the magnitude of characteristic
Common types of measuring instrument:
Low-technology instrument (manual devices)
High-technology instrument (devices that depend on modern electronics, laser,
advanced optics, etc.)
Properties of a good measurement system
Accurate: it should produce a number close to the actual property being
measured
Repeatable: if the measurement system is applied repeatedly to the same
object, the measurement produced should be close to one another
Linear: should be able to produce accurate and consistent results over the
entire range of concern
Reproducible: should produce the same results when used by any properly
trained individual
Stable: should produce the same results in the future as it did in the past
Definitions (AIAG)
Bias: the difference between the average measured values and a reference
value

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Repeatability (equipment variation): the variation in measurements obtained

with one measurement instrument when used several times by one appraiser,
while measuring the identical characteristic on the same part. A measurement
system is repeatable if its variability is consistent
Poor repeatability can be caused by poor design or lack of instrument
maintenance

Reproducibility (operator variation): the variation in the average of the

measurements made by different appraisers using the same measuring
instrument when measuring the same characteristic on the same part.
(Appraiser-to-appraiser variation which represents a bias due to appraisers)
Poor reproducibility can be due to poor training of the operator

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Stability: total variation in the measurements obtained with a measurement

system on the same master or parts when measuring a single characteristic
over an extended time period

Linearity: the difference in the bias values through the expected operating
range of the gage

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Measurement system discrimination (resolution): the ability of the

measurement system to divide measurements into data categories. In Six
Sigma, a measurement system must be able to divide the region of interest into
at least five data categories
The rule of ten: the resolution of your gage should be able to fit ten
times into the process variation you are measuring
Estimating stability
The overall consistency of measurements over time, including variations from
all causes, including bias, repeatability, reproducibility, etc.
The systems statistical stability is determined through the use of control
charts
Average and range charts are plotted on measurements of a standard or a
master part
The standard is measured repeatedly over a short time (e.g. an hour); then the
measurements are repeated at predetermined intervals (e.g., weekly)
Once statistical stability has been achieved, measurement system stability can
be determined as follows:
R chart method
R

d2
s chart method
s

c4
Estimating bias
Can be determined by selecting a single reference part and a single appraiser
Example:

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Estimating repeatability and reproducibility (Gauge R&R analysis)

Can be operationalized by constructing a range or Sigma chart based on
repeated measurements of parts that cover a significant portion of process
variation or the tolerance (whichever is greater)
If the range or Sigma chart is in control, then repeatability and reproducibility
can be estimated by finding the standard deviation of measurements based on
the average range or standard deviation

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A repeatability and reproducibility study is conducted in the following manner:

Select a number of operators (inspectors) and n parts. Typically at least 2
operators and 10 parts are chosen.
Let each operator measure each part in a random order and record the results.
Repeat this procedure for a total of r trials (at least two trials must be used)
Estimate the gauge repeatability and reproducibility through calculating the
average and range of measurements as illustrated in the following example:
Example:

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Many of the averages are outside of control limits

If the averages were within the control limits, the part-to-part variation
was less than gage repeatability error
The standard deviation for repeatability:
R
e
d 2*

where d2 is computed by adjusting 2 values for the small number of

subgroups typically involved in gage R&R (repeatability &
reproducibility) studies.

R 0.51
e 0.44
d 2* 1.16
(m=2, g=10)
Estimating reproducibility
Two methods to estimate the reproducibility:
Comparing each appraisers average with that of the other appraiser
The standard deviation of reproducibility ( reproducibility ) is
estimated by finding the range between appraisers ( R o ) and
divided by d 2*

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45 Six Sigma-Measure Phase

The measurement system standard deviation:

m repeatability
2
reproducibility
2
(0.44)2 0 0.44

An alternative method: rearranging the data so that all readings for a given
part become a single row

R value measures the combined range of repeated readings plus

appraisers (two sources of error)
Control limits
o Range chart
= 1.00
= 4 = 2.282 1.00 = 2.282

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o Average chart

X 118.85
LCL X A 2 R 118.85 0.729 1 118.12
UCL X A 2 R 118.85 0.729 1 119.58

Standard deviation of repeatability and reproducibility

Ro 1
o *
0.48
d 2 2.1
(m=4, g=5)

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Estimating part-to-part variation

X charts show the part-to-part variation
If the measurement system is adequate, most of the parts will fall outside of
X chart control limits
If fewer than half of the parts are beyond the control limits, then the
measurement system is not capable of detecting normal part-to-part variation
for the process
Part-to-part variation can be estimated once the measurement process is shown
to be stable, accurate and linear, and consistent with respect to repeatability
and reproducibility
The following procedures are followed to estimate the part-to-part variation:

Evaluating the overall measurement system

1- %EV= 100 ( repeatability / t )

2- %AV= 100 ( reproducibility / t )

3- The percent repeatability and reproducibility (R&R) is 100 ( m / t )

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Example:

9.9
9
.
9

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Estimating linearity
Can be determined by choosing parts or standards that cover all or most of the
operating range of the measurement instrument
Bias is determined at each point in the range and a linear regression analysis is
performed
Linearity is defined as the slope times the process variance or the tolerance
(whichever greater).
Example:

Five parts were chosen. Each part was measured 12 times by a single
appraiser

The p-values indicate that the result is statistically significant, that is,
there is actually a bias in the gage
The slop of the line is -0.132, and the intercept is 0.74
R2=0.98, indicating that the straight line explains about 98% of the
variation in the bias readings

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The results:

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Attribute measurement error analysis

Attribute measurement can be evaluated as the variable measurement systems
The following tools are not of any standard, thus you must think about them
critically before adopting them

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Approaches to attribute inspection analysis

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0.62

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Accuracy is the average of the accuracy scores for the 2 days combined (see
table 9.9); that is,

1+0+1+0 1+0+0+1
( + )2 = 0.5
4 4

, 0) 0.38

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Introduction to Six Sigma INDU 441/INDU 6321