LAPEA, Leandro I.

4ECE-B ECE 424L W 1 4 PM

What is SWR?

The standing-wave ratio (SWR) is defined as the ratio of the maximum voltage to the minimum voltage or the maximum
current to the minimum current of a standing wave on a transmission line. SWR is often called the voltage standing-
wave ratio (VSWR).
In many instances,
characteristics of transmission
line performance are amenable
to measurement. Included in
these are measurements of
unknown load impedances, or
input impedances of lines that
are terminated by known or
unknown load impedances.
Such techniques rely on the
ability to measure voltage
amplitudes that occur as
functions of position within a
line, usually designed for this
purpose. A typical apparatus consists of a slotted line, which is a lossless coaxial transmission line having a longitudinal
gap in the outer conductor along its entire length. The line is positioned between the sinusoidal voltage source and the
impedance that is to be measured. Through the gap in the slotted line, a voltage probe may be inserted to measure the
voltage amplitude between the inner and outer conductors. As the probe is moved along the length of the line, the
maximum and minimum voltage amplitudes are noted, and their ratio, known as the voltage standing wave ratio, or
VSWR, is determined.
To understand the meaning of the voltage measurements, we consider a few special cases. First, if the slotted line is
terminated by a matched impedance, then no reflected wave occurs; the probe will indicate the same voltage amplitude
at every point. Of course, the instantaneous voltages that the probe samples will differ in phase by (z2 z1) rad as the
probe is moved from z = z1 to z = z2, but the system is insensitive to the phase of the field. The equal-amplitude voltages
are characteristic of an unattenuated traveling wave.
Second, if the slotted line is terminated by an open or short circuit (or in general a purely imaginary load impedance),
the total voltage in the line is a standing wave and, the voltage probe provides no output when it is located at the
nodes; these occur periodically with half-wavelength spacing. As the probe position is changed, its output varies as |cos(z
+ )|, where z is the distance from the load, and where the phase, , depends on the load impedance. For example, if the
load is a short circuit, the requirement of zero voltage at the short leads to a null occurring there, and so the voltage in
the line will vary as |sin(z)| (where = /2).
Example, two voltage waves having equal frequencies and amplitudes propagate in opposite directions on a lossless
transmission line. Because the waves have the same frequency, we can write their combination using their phasor forms.
Assuming phase constant, , and real amplitude, V0, the two wave voltages combine in this way:
() = 0 + 0 + = 20 cos()
In real instantaneous form, this becomes
(, ) = [20 cos() ] = 20 cos()cos()
We recognize this as a standing wave, in which the amplitude varies, as cos(z), and oscillates in time, as cos(t). Zeros in
the amplitude (nulls) occur at fixed locations, zn = (m)/(2) where m is an odd integer.
We define the phase constant , phase velocity, p.



A more complicated situation arises when the reflected voltage is neither 0 nor 100 percent of the incident voltage. Some
energy is absorbed by the load and some is reflected. The slotted line, therefore, supports a voltage that is composed
of both a traveling wave and a standing wave. It is customary to describe this voltage as a standing wave, even though a
traveling wave is also present. We will see that the voltage does not have zero amplitude at any point for all time, and the
degree to which the voltage is divided between a traveling wave and a true standing wave is expressed by the ratio of the
maximum amplitude found by the probe to the minimum amplitude (VSWR). This information, along with the positions
of the voltage minima or maxima with respect to that of the load, enable one to determine the load impedance. The
VSWR also provides a measure of the quality of the termination. Specifically, a perfectly matched load yields a VSWR
of exactly 1. A totally reflecting load produces an infinite VSWR.
To derive the specific form of the total voltage, we begin with the forward and backward-propagating waves that occur
within the slotted line. The load is positioned at z = 0, and so all positions within the slotted line occur at negative values
of z. Taking the input wave amplitude as V0, the total phasor voltage is
() = 0 + 0 (1)
The line, being lossless, has real characteristic impedance, Z0. The load impedance, ZL, is in general complex, which leads
to a Complex Reflection coefficient:
0
= = || (2)
+ 0
If the load is a short circuit (ZL = 0), is equal to ; if ZL is real and less than Z0, is also equal to ; and if ZL is real and
greater than Z0, is zero. Using (2), we may rewrite (1) in the form:

() = 0 ( + || (+) ) = 0 2 ( 2 + || 2 ) (3)
To simplify (3), we can apply the algebraic trick of adding and subtracting the term V0(1 ||)ejz :

() = 0 (1 ||) + 0 || 2 ( 2 + 2 ) (4)
The last term in parentheses in (4) becomes a cosine, and we write

() = 0 (1 ||) + 20 || 2 ( + ) (5)
2
The important characteristics of this result are most easily seen by converting it to real instantaneous form:
() = [ ] = +

= 0 (1 ||)0 ( ) + 20 || 2 ( + ) ( + ) (6)
2 2
Equation (6) is recognized as the sum of a traveling wave of amplitude V0(1 ||) and a standing wave having amplitude
2||V0. We can visualize events as follows: The portion of the incident wave that reflects and back-propagates in the
slotted line interferes with an equivalent portion of the incident wave to form a standing wave. The rest of the incident
wave (which does not interfere) is the traveling wave part of (6). The maximum amplitude observed in the line is found
where the amplitudes of the two terms in (6) add directly to give V0(1 + ||). The minimum amplitude is found where the
standing wave achieves a null, leaving only the traveling wave amplitude of V0(1 ||). The fact that the two terms in (6)
combine in this way with the proper phasing is not immediately apparent, but the following arguments will show that this
does occur.
To obtain the minimum and maximum voltage amplitudes, we may revisit the first part of Eq. (3):
0 ( + || (+) ) (7)
First, the minimum voltage amplitude is obtained when the two terms in (7) subtract directly (having a phase difference
of ). This occurs at locations
 1
= ( + (2 + 1)) ; ( = 0, 1, 2, ) (8)
2
Note again that all positions within the slotted line occur at negative values of z. Substituting (8) into (7) leads to the
minimum amplitude:
( ) = 0 (1 ||) (9)
The same result is obtained by substituting (8) into the real voltage, (6). This produces a null in the standing wave part,
and we obtain

( , ) = 0 (1 ||)sin( + ) (10)
2
The voltage oscillates (through zero) in time, with amplitude V0(1 | |). The plus and minus signs in (10) apply to even
and odd values of m in (8), respectively.
Next, the maximum voltage amplitude is obtained when the two terms in (7) add in-phase. This will occur at locations
given by
1
= ( + 2) ; ( = 0, 1, 2, ) (11)
2
On substituting (11) into (7), we obtain
( ) = 0 (1 + ||) (12)
As before, we may substitute (11) into the real instantaneous voltage (6). The effect is to produce a maximum in

( , ) = 0 (1 + ||)cos( + ) (13)
2
where the plus and minus signs apply to positive and negative values of m in (11), respectively. Again, the voltage oscillates
through zero in time, with amplitude V0(1 + | |).

The Plot of the magnitude of VsT as found from Eq. (7) as a function of position, z, in front of the load (at z = 0). The
reflection coefficient phase is , which leads to the indicated locations of maximum and minimum voltage amplitude, as
found from Eqs. (8) and (11).
Finally, the voltage standing wave ratio is defined as:
(max ) 1 + ||
= (14)
(min ) 1 ||
Since the absolute voltage amplitudes have divided out, our measured VSWR permits the immediate evaluation of ||.
The phase of is then found by measuring the location of the first maximum or minimum with respect to the load, and
then using (8) or (11) as appropriate. Once is known, the load impedance can be found, assuming Z0 is known.

What is Reflection coefficient?

The concept of wave reflection was introduced in Section 10.1. As implied there, the need for a reflected wave originates
from the necessity to satisfy all voltage and current boundary conditions at the ends of transmission lines and at locations
at which two dissimilar lines are connected to each other. The consequences of reflected waves are usually less than
desirable, in that some of the power that was intended to be transmitted to a load, for example, reflects and propagates
back to the source. Conditions for achieving no reflected waves are therefore important to understand.

In it, a transmission line of characteristic impedance Z0 is terminated by a load having complex impedance, ZL = RL + j XL. If
the line is lossy, then we know that Z0 will also be complex. For convenience, we assign coordinates such that the load is
at location z = 0. Therefore, the line occupies the region z < 0. A voltage wave is presumed to be incident on the load, and
is expressed in phasor form for all z:
() = (15)
When the wave reaches the load, a reflected wave is generated that back-propagates:
() = 0 + + (15)
The phasor voltage at the load is now the sum of the incident and reflected voltage phasors, evaluated at z = 0:
() = 0 + 0 (16)
Additionally, the current through the load is the sum of the incident and reflected currents, also at z = 0:
1 1
= 0 + 0 = [0 0 ] = = [0 + 0 ] (17)
0

We can now solve for the ratio of the reflected voltage amplitude to the incident voltage amplitude, defined as the
Reflection Coefficient :
0 0
= = || (18)
0 + 0
where we emphasize the complex nature of meaning that, in general, a reflected wave will experience a reduction in
amplitude and a phase shift, relative to the incident wave.

Simplified equations by Blake

= | |+| | = | || |
| |
| |+| | | | (1 + ) 1 + ||
| |
= = = =
| || | | | 1 ||
| | (1 )
| |
 1
|| =
+ 1
0
1 + || 1 + + 0 + 0 + 0
= = = =
1 || 1 0 + 0 + 0 0
+ 0
0
= 0 >
0
Reflections can cause the power delivered to the load to be less than it would be with a matched line for the same
source, because some of the power is reflected back to the source. Since power is proportional to the square of voltage,
the fraction of the power that is reflected is 2, that is,

= 2
= power reflectedd from load
= incident power at the load
= voltage reflection coefficient
2 = power reflection coefficient

The amount of power absorbed by the load is the difference between the
incident power and the reflected power, that is,

= 2 = (1 2 )

Since SWR is easier to measure than the reflection coefficient, an expression for the power absorbed by the load in terms
of the SWR would be useful. It is easy to derive such an expression by using the relationship between and SWR

4
=
(1 + )2

Meters
Relatively simple circuits can be used to measure power in transmitters and RF power circuits. An example is the
monomatch circuit shown in Fig. 22-1. It uses a 50-V transmission line made with a microstrip on a small printed-circuit
board (PCB). The center conductor is the segment labeled 2 in the schematic. On each side of the center conductor are
narrower pickup loops labeled 1 and 3. An RF voltage proportional to the forward and reverse (reflected) power is
produced as the result of capacitive and inductive coupling with the center conductor. The voltage in segment 3 represents
the forward power. It is rectified by diode D1 and filtered by C1 into a proportional dc voltage. This voltage is applied
through multiplier resistors R3 and R5 to a meter whose scale is calibrated in watts of power. Note the 50-V resistors that
terminate the pickup loops for impedance matching.

The voltage induced in pickup loop 1 is proportional to the reflected power. It is rectified by D2 and filtered into a
proportional direct current by C2. A switch is used to select the display of either the forward or the reflected power.
Resistor R5 is used to calibrate the meter circuit, using an accurate power meter as a standard.
Another popular power measurement circuit is the directional coupler shown in Fig. 22-2. A short piece of 50-V coaxial
cable serves as the single-turn primary winding on a transformer made with a toroid core and a secondary winding of
many turns of fi ne wire. When RF power is passed through the coaxial section, a stepped-up voltage is induced into the
secondary winding. Equal-value resistors R1 and R2 divide the voltage equally between two diode rectifier circuits made
up of D1 and D2 and the related components.

A voltage divider made up of C1, C2, C3, and L1 samples the voltage at the output of the circuit. This voltage is applied to
both diode rectifi ers along with the voltages from the transformer secondary. When these voltages are combined, the
rectified outputs are proportional to the forward and reflected voltages on the line. Low-pass filters R3-C6 and R4-C7
smooth the rectified signals into direct current. A meter arrangement like that in Fig. 22-1 is used to display either forward
or reflected power.

Both circuits can be designed to handle power levels from a few milliwatts to many kilowatts. When low-level signals are
used, the diodes must be of the germanium or hot carrier type with low bias threshold voltages (0.2 to 0.4 V) to provide
sufficient accuracy of measurement. With careful design and adjustment, these circuits can give an accuracy of 90 percent
or better. Because the circuits are so small, they are often built into the transmitter or other circuit along with the meter
and switch.

The SWR can be determined by calculation if the forward and reflected power values are known. Some SWR meters use
the monomatch or directional coupler circuits described above and then implement the SWR with op amps and analog
multiplier ICs. But you can also determine SWR directly
Fig. 22-3(a) shows a bridge SWR meter. A bridge is formed of precision, noninductive resistors and the antenna radiation
resistance. In some SWR meters, resistors are replaced with a capacitive voltage divider. The meter is connected to
measure the unbalance of the bridge. The transmitter is the ac power source.

Fig. 22-3(b) shows the circuit rearranged so that the meter and one side of the bridge are grounded, thereby creating a
better match to unbalanced coaxial transmission lines. Note the use of coaxial connectors for the transmitter input and
the antenna and transmission line. The meter is a basic dc microammeter. Diode D1 rectifies the RF signal into a
proportional direct current. If the radiation resistance of the antenna is 50 V, the bridge will be balanced, and the meter
reading will be zero. The meter is calibrated to display an SWR of 1. If the antenna radiation resistance is not 50 V, the
bridge will be unbalanced, and the meter will display a reading that is proportional to the degree of unbalance. The
meter is calibrated in SWR values.

Uses and Application

The following photograph shows a set of

transmission lines at a junction point in a radio
transmitter system. The large, copper tubes with
ceramic insulator caps at the ends are rigid coaxial
transmission lines of 50 characteristic
impedance. These lines carry RF power from the
radio transmitter circuit to a small, wooden shelter
at the base of an antenna structure, and from that
shelter on to other shelters with other antenna
structures:
A perfectly terminated transmission line will have
an SWR of 1, since voltage at any location along the
line's length will be the same, and likewise for
current. Again, this is usually considered ideal, not
only because reflected waves constitute energy
not delivered to the load, but because the high
values of voltage and current created by the antinodes of standing waves may over-stress the transmission line's insulation
(high voltage) and conductors (high current), respectively.
Also, a transmission line with a high SWR tends to act as an antenna, radiating electromagnetic energy away from the
line, rather than channeling all of it to the load. This is usually undesirable, as the radiated energy may "couple" with
nearby conductors, producing signal interference. An interesting footnote to this point is that antenna structures -- which
typically resemble open- or short-circuited transmission lines -- are often designed to operate at high standing wave ratios,
for the very reason of maximizing signal radiation and reception.
Flexible coaxial cable connected to the rigid lines (also of 50 characteristic impedance) conduct the RF power to
capacitive and inductive "phasing" networks inside the shelter. The white, plastic tube joining two of the rigid lines
together carries "filling" gas from one sealed line to the other. The lines are gas-filled to avoid collecting moisture inside
them, which would be a definite problem for a coaxial line. Note the flat, copper "straps" used as jumper wires to connect
the conductors of the flexible coaxial cables to the conductors of the rigid lines. Why flat straps of copper and not round
wires? Because of the skin effect, which renders most of the cross-sectional area of a round conductor useless at radio
frequencies.
Like many transmission lines, these are operated at low SWR conditions. As we will see in the next section, though, the
phenomenon of standing waves in transmission lines is not always undesirable, as it may be exploited to perform a useful
function: impedance transformation.
REVIEW:

Standing waves are waves of voltage and current which do not propagate (i.e. they are stationary), but are the result
of interference between incident and reflected waves along a transmission line.
A node is a point on a standing wave of minimum amplitude.
An antinode is a point on a standing wave of maximum amplitude.
Standing waves can only exist in a transmission line when the terminating impedance does not match the line's
characteristic impedance. In a perfectly terminated line, there are no reflected waves, and therefore no standing
waves at all.
At certain frequencies, the nodes and antinodes of standing waves will correlate with the ends of a transmission
line, resulting in resonance.
The lowest-frequency resonant point on a transmission line is where the line is one quarter-wavelength long.
Resonant points exist at every harmonic (integer-multiple) frequency of the fundamental (quarter-wavelength).
Standing wave ratio, or SWR, is the ratio of maximum standing wave amplitude to minimum standing wave
amplitude. It may also be calculated by dividing termination impedance by characteristic impedance, or visa-versa,
which ever yields the greatest quotient. A line with no standing waves (perfectly matched: Zload to Z0) has an SWR
equal to 1.
Transmission lines may be damaged by the high maximum amplitudes of standing waves. Voltage antinodes may
break down insulation between conductors, and current antinodes may overheat conductors.

References:
Tomasi, Wayne (2004). Chapter 12: Metallic Cable Transmission Media Lines Electronic Communications Systems:
Fundamentals Through Advanced 5 Ed. Pearson/Prentice Hall. ISBN 0130494925, 9780130494924.

Blake, Roy (2002). Electronic Communication Systems 2nd Ed. Delmar, 2002. ISBN 0766826848, 9780766826847.

Hayt, Jr., W., Buck, J. A., (2012). Chapter 10: Transmission Lines Engineering electromagnetics 8th Ed. Pp 320-327, The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY, ISBN 978-0-07-338066-7

Frenzel Jr., L (2016). Chapter 22: Communications Tests and Measurements Principles of electronic communication
systems, 4th Ed., McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, ISBN 978-0-07-337385-0