Two methods for making PCB :

1) direct screen printing

2) Indirect screen printing

Direct screen printing:

we draw the circuit by using X circuit application
Karnatak Microelectronic Training Center Nesargi Pvt. then take the printout on the tracing paper. To get
Ltd. this circuit on the silk cloth of the wood frame we
2011-2012 have certain procedure :
use 20mL coating solution & 2.5ml
ammonium bichromate, mix them and coat on the
Project Co-ordinate: silk screen frame . Keep the screen for drying in a
Dr|| S.S. Mahant-shetti dark place, because ammonium bichromate is
sensitive to light and will react with sun light . After
Under the guidance: drying we have to put circuit for exposing under the
Tambur sir ultraviolet waves. This exposure . Will take 1 minute
in sun light or 45 minute under tube light .after
PROJECT MEMBERS exposure , wash the screen by spraying water on the
1) Sunilkumar Nagaral image area till the circuit is completely visible ...then
2) Savitra Didagur coat the remaining area of the screen by coating
solution . Keep the screen to dry for 15minutes and
********************************************** fix dried wooden frame screen upside down to the
PCB: A printed circuit board or PCB is used to printing table by using G clamp take a spoon of
mechanically support and electrically connect printing ink (poly bond )on a boundary of the circuit
electronic components using conductive pathways, area horizontally and squeeze the ink on the printing
tracks or single traces etched from copper sheets image area evenly , using a rubber squeeze .the image
laminated onto a non conductive substrate . of the circuit is printed on the copper clad .after
printing keep the clad for 15minuits for drying .clean
How to make PCB ? the clad with citric acid softly and wash with water.
*******************************
Required materials Etching : mix 10grm of ferric chloride and 100ml
water immerse the printed circuit copper clad in
*wood frame (use in print) mixture for etching for about 20minutes. The entire
*silk cloth (140 mesh) copper is etched out leaving bi hand the printed
*bread board circuit on the board. then clean the clad using PVC
*hand drill&drill bit, thinner and drill the circuit for fixing the appropriate
*soldering gun & soldering paste components. Fix the components , solder then on
*Bleaching powder (cleaning for wood frame silk board and test the circuit working .
cloth)
*poly bond (for circuit print on the clad )
*Thinner (n,c& p, v, c use the cleaned printed copper Breadboard
plate )
*cromoline film (use the indirect method )
*squeezy
*Water sprayer
*Coating solution
*Tracing paper (used to take printout of the circuit )
*ferric chloride
*ammonium bichromate (sensitize r)

1)copper clad a) single sided copper clad b) dubble

sided copper clad.
Breadboard
First we need to check the working of the circuit on Breadboard for quick and easy circuit testing and
the bread board before making on the copper plate . experimentation. Plastic Body for reduced static,
suitable for CMOS devices. Pins are designed for *******************************
multiple insertions and will withstand heavy use. All circuit components
pins are identifiable.
uses of bread board * diode d1-d4=1N4007
a bread board is used to make up temporary * IC 7805 regulator
circuits for testing or to try out an idea. No soldering * cap 1000u , 25v
is required so it is easy to change connections and * cap 0.1u
replace components .parts will not be damaged so * cap 1u ,16v
they will be available to re-used after wards . * transistor pnp sk100
Almost all the electronics club projects started * transistor npn bc 547
life on a bread board to check that the circuit worked * Re 1 470 Ohm
as intended . * Re 2 1k
* Re3 270Ohm
Connections on Breadboard * Re4 10k
Breadboards have many tiny sockets (called 'holes') * Re5 470 Ohm
arranged on a 0.1" grid. The leads of most Red led
components can be pushed straight into the holes. IC Green led
are inserted across the central gap with their notch or
dot to the left. 1.How does 7805 Ic work?(regulator Ic)
7805 is a voltage regulator integrated circuit.
Wire links can be made with single-core plastic- It is a member of 78xx series of fixed linear
coated wire of 0.6mm diameter (the standard size). voltage regulator IC. The voltage source in a
Stranded wire is not suitable because it will crumple circuit may have fluctuations and would not
when pushed into a hole and it may damage the give the fixed voltage output. The voltage
board if strands break off. regulator IC maintains the output voltage at a
constant value. The xx in 78xx indicates the
fixed output voltage it is designed to provide.
Bread board ADVANTAGES: 7805 provides +5V regulated power supply.
1. A QUICK CHECK FOR EASY AND COMPLEX Capacitors of suitable values can be connected
CIRCUITS BOTH AND VERIFIES CIRCUITS AT at input and output pins depending upon the
INITIAL STAGE. respective voltage levels.

2.REUSABLE.
3.NO SOLDERING REQUIRED.
4.CAN BE DEBUGGED EASILY.
5.CHEAP AND CONNECTIONS CAN BE
CHANGED.
DISADVANTAGES:
1. UNRELIABLE.
2. DELICATE.
3.TEMPORARY.
4.HEAVIER.
Whatarethedisadvantagesofusinga 1 pin : Input voltage (5v-18v)
input
breadboard? 2 pin :Ground (0v)
ground
Breadboards are noisier than properly laid-out circuit 3 pin : Regulated output 5v(4.8v -5.2v) out put
boards -- sometimes far too noisy.
Breadboards, in general, do not support frequencies ****
as high as properly laid-out circuit boards. 7805 working? why are 2 capacitors used in the
Breadboards, almost always, take up more physical circuit? can 2 diodes be used for making 5v supply?
space than the final circuit board design.
beforeis7805c1capacitorisused
forreducingtherippalindcinput
supplywherevernextc2capacitoris
usedforfillingthesupplyatthe
timeofoverloadingonIc7805at
thattimec2capacitorwillfeedthe
supplytoloadandnoanyloadwill
comeonIc.7805thatsallc2
capacitorusedonlyforprotectionof
Ic7805.
1) project :short circuit protection in dc low voltage
system
**********************************************
What is a Step Down Transformer?
A step up transformer is a device that has its
secondary voltage less than its primary voltage.
This transformer reduces voltage and often
ranges in sizes from 0.5 Kva to 500 Kva.
The uses of step down transformers range from
large devices used in our electrical power
systems to smaller units found in electronic
equipment. In our electrical power systems, a
step up transformer is used at power plants to
carry current through transmission lines. Before
the electricity's arrival at its final destination, a
step down transformer is used to lower voltage
input. In electronic equipment, step down
transformers are used largely ahead of a
rectifier. These step down transformers, which
primarily are the 1-100-W power level, are used
in loudspeakers in radios, television sets and
high fidelity equipment. They are sometimes
called audio transformers, and they reproduce
sound-wave frequencies with minimal distortion
over the full sound power levels.
How does a Step Down Transformer work?
The basic concept of a transformer is that is has
step up or step down power. Without these
transformers, distribution of our electric power
over long distances would be impossible. There
a primary circuit and a secondary circuit. There
is no connection between the two circuits, but
each of these circuits contains a winding, which
links it inductively to the other circuits. The
windings are wound onto an iron core. The iron
core channels the magnetic flux generated by
the current flowing around the primary winding,
and as much as possible, also links the
secondary winding. The ratio of the peak
voltages and peak currents in the primary and
secondary windings are determined by the ratio
of the number of turns in the primary and
secondary windings. The latter ratio is usually
called the turn ratio of the transformer. If the
secondary winding contains less turns than the
primary winding, the peak voltage in the
secondary circuit is less than that of the
primary circuit. This type of transformer is
called a step down transformer.
What is a Step Up Transformer?
A step-up transformer is one whose secondary voltage
is greater than its primary voltage. This kind of
transformer "steps up" the voltage applied to it. For
instance, a step up transformer is needed to use a
220v product in a country with a 110v supply.
What is the function of step up transformer?
When the output voltage is higher than the
input voltage that is considered a step up
transformer. When the output is less than the
input you have a step down transformer. Input
is also called primary and output secondary.
Transformer : . A transformer is a static
piece of apparatus by means of which
electric power in one circuit is
transformed into electric power of the
same frequency in another circuit. It can
raise or lower the voltage in a circuit but
with a corresponding decrease or increase
in current.
In brief, a transformer is a device
that :
1) transfers electric power from one circuit
to another.
2) it does so without a change of
frequency.
3) it accomplishes this by electromagnetic
induction and
4) where the two circuit are in mutual
inductive influence of each other.
:transformer :
A transformer is a device which is use to
convert high alternating voltage to a low
alternating voltage and vice versa.
:working on principle :
Transformer works on the principle of
mutual induction of two coils. When
current in the primary coil is changed the
flux linked to the secondary coil also
changes. Consequently an EMF is induced
in the secondary coil
construction
A transformer consists of a rectangular
core of soft iron in the form of sheets
insulated from one another. Two separate
coils of insulated wires, a primary coil and
a secondary coil are wound on the core.
These coils are well insulated from one
another and from the core. The coil on the
input side is called Primary coil and the
coil on the output side is called Secondary
coil.
How does it wok?
* Electricity moving through the primary coil creates
a magnetic fields. * This magnetic field induces (cause
to happen) an electric field and moves electrons in the
secondary coil thus producing an electric current.
The construction of a transformer includes a
ferromagnetic core around which multiple coils or
windings of wire are wrapped. The input line
connects to the primary coil while
the output lines connect to secondary coils. The
alternating current in the primary coil induces an
alternating magnetic flux that flows around the
ferromagnetic core,changing direction during each
electrical cycle. The alternating flux in the core in
turn induces an alternating current in each of the
secondary coils . The voltage at each of the
secondary coils is directly related to the primary
voltage by the turns ratio or the number of turns
in the secondary coil divided by the number turns
in the primary coil, for instance , if the primary
coil consists of 100 turns and carries 480 volts and
a secondary coil consists of 25 turns,the secondary
voltage is then ;
secondary voltage =(480 volts )*(25 /100)=120volts.
Types of transformer ;
1) step up ;Transformers that increase the voltage at
the secondary end are called step up transformers.
2) Step down ; Transformers that decrease the
voltage at the secondary end are called step down
transformers.
conclusion : It is very low power circuit
BRIDGE RECTIFIER :
The bridge rectifier circuits are mainly used as;
a) a power rectifier circuits for converting ac power to
dc power and ,
b) a rectifying system in rectifier type ac meters such
as ac voltmeter in which the ac voltage under
measurement is first converted into dc and measured
with conventional meter . In this system the
rectifying elements are either copper oxide type or
selenium type.
The bridge recttially a full-wave rectifier
circuit using four diodes forming the four arms of an
electrical bridge . To one diagonal of the bridge . The
main advantage of this circuit is that it does not
require a center tap on the secondary winding of the
transformer . Hence wherever possible,ac voltage can
be directly applied to the bridge.
Advantages of bridge rectifier circuit:
1) The current in both the primary and
secondary of the power transformer flows for the
entire cycle and hence for a given power output
,power transformer of a small size and less cost may
be used;
2) No center tap is required in the transformer
secondary . Hence wherever possible ac voltage can
directly be applied to the bridge .
3) The circuit in the secondary of the
transformer is in opposite direction in two half cycles
.Hence net d.c component flowing is zero which
reduces the losses and danger of saturation .
Disadvantages of bridge rectifier circuit:
The only disadvantage of bridge
rectifier is use of four diodes as compared to two
diodes in normal full wave rectifier. This causes
additional voltage drop as indicated by term to Rf
present in expression of Im instead of Rf. This
reduces the output voltage .
*********************************************
I. KIND OF CAPACITORS
1. ELECTROLYTIC
2. CERAMIC
negative terminal. Tantalum electrolytic capacitors
have larger capacitance per volume ratios when
compared with aluminum electrolytic. A majority of
electrolytic capacitors are polarized. Electrolytic
capacitors, when compared with non electrolytic
capacitors, typically have greater capacitances but
have poor tolerances (as large as +/- 100 percent for
aluminum and about +/- 5 to +/-20 percent for
tantalum), bad temperature stability, high leakage,
and short lives. Capacitances range from about 1 uF
to 1 F for aluminum and 0.001 to 1000 uF for
tantalum, with maximum voltage ratings from 6 to
450 V.
2. CERAMIC
This type is very popular
non polarized capacitor that is small and inexpensive
but has poor temperature stability and poor accuracy.
It contains a ceramic dielectric and a phenolic
coating. It is often used for bypass and coupling
applications. Tolerances range from +/-5 to +/-100
percent, while capacitance range from 1 pf to 2.2 uF,
with maximum voltage rating from 3 V to 6 kV.

3. MYLAR

4. MICA

3. MYLAR This type is a

very popular non polarized capacitor that is reliable,
inexpensive, and has low leakage current but poor
temperature stability. Capacitance range from 0.001
to 10 uF, with voltage ratings from 50 to 600 V.

4. MICA

These capacitors include both aluminum and

tantalum electrolytic. They are manufactured by an
electrochemical formation of an oxide film onto a
metal (aluminum or tantalum) surface. The metal on
which the oxide film is formed serves as the anode or
positive terminal, the oxide film acts as the dielectric,
and a conducting liquid or gel acts as the cathode or
This type is an extremely accurate device with very A coupling
low leakage currents. It is constructed with alternate capacitor is
layers of metal foil and mica insulation, stacked and represented
encapsulated. These capacitors have small like this
capacitance and are often used in high frequency
circuits . They are very stable under variable voltage So a coupling capacitor allows "alternating current"
and temperature conditions. Tolerances range from to pass through because the ball valve doesn't get a
+/-0.25 to +/-5 percent. Capacitance range from 1 pf chance to close as the waves go up and down.
to 0.01 uF . However, a steady current quickly fills the tank so
that all flow stops.
HowdoesaCapacitorWork?
NOTE: This is an older web site and some Where a
information is out of date. If you see something you capacitor is
wish to order, please go to the and see the catalogue used to
there. You can not place an order on this decouple a
circuit, the
Return to
effect is to
Think of water flowing through a pipe. If we imagine "smooth out
a capacitor as being a storage tank with an inlet and ripples". Any
an outlet pipe, it is possible to show approximately ripples, waves
how an electronic capacitor works. or pulses of
current are
First, let's consider the case of a "coupling capacitor"
passed to
where the capacitor is used to connect a signal from
ground while
one part of a circuit to another but without allowing
d.c. flows
any direct current to flow.
smoothly.

If the current
A decoupling
flow is
capacitor is
alternating
represented
between zero
like this
and a
maximum,
our "storage
tank"
capacitor will Working of a capacitor :
allow the
current waves Definition
to pass A capacitor is an electronic device that is used to store
through. electrical energy. They are only used to store the
However, if electrons and they are not capable of producing them.
there is a
steady Invention of the Capacitor
current, only There are many stories behind the invention of the
the initial capacitor. A German scientist named Ewald Georg
short burst von Kleist was known to invent the capacitor in
will flow until November 1745. But, he did not have any detailed
the "floating notes or records of his invention. So, he was given the
ball valve" credit for evolution of the capacitor. A few months
closes and later a Dutch professor called Pieter van
stops further Musschenbroek found a similar device called the
flow. Leyden Jar. Scientists approved this to be the first
capacitor. After years, both the scientists have been
given equal credit for the invention of the capacitor.
Years later, Benjamin Franklin experimented with the
Leyden Jar, and was able to make a smaller capacitor
which was named as Franklin Square after him.
Later English chemist Michael Faraday began
experimenting on the Leyden Jar, and invented the
first commercial capacitor. This capacitor was made
from large oil barrels. This was later progressed in
such a way that electric power could be delivered to
very large distances.
The Leyden Jar
The Leyden Jar basically consists of a glass jar, which
was lined inside and outside with metal foils usually
made of lead. The glass jar was half filled with water.
The glass jar was used as the dielectric. A brass rod is
introduced from the top of the glass jar. A static
supply was then given from the brass rod into the jar.
When this is delivered the jar will store two equal, but
opposite charges in equilibrium which passes on to
the ground if a ground wire is given. The figure of a
Leyden Jar is given below.
Leyden Jar
Working of a Capacitor
A capacitor consists of two metal plates which are
separated by a non-conducting substance or
dielectric. Take a look at the figure given below to
know about dielectric in a capacitor.
working of capacitor
Though any non-conducting substance can be used as
a dielectric, practically some special materials like
porcelain, Mylar, Teflon, mica, cellulose and so on. A
capacitor is defined by the type of dielectric selected.
It also defines the application of the capacitor.
According to the size and type of dielectric used, the
capacitor can be used for high-voltage as well as low-
voltage applications.
For applications in radio tuning circuits air is
commonly used as the dielectric. for applications in
timer circuits Mylar is used as the dielectric. For high
voltage applications glass is normally used. For
application in X-ray and MRI machines, ceramic is
mostly preferred.
The metal plates are separated by a distance d, and
a dielectric material is placed in-between the plates.
The dielectric constant of the dielectric material
e0ee0 is the dielectric of air .
*********************************************
Resistor
Function
Resistors restrict the flow of electric current, for
example a resistor is placed in series with a light-
emitting diode (LED) to limit the current passing
through the LED.
Connecting and soldering
Resistors may be connected either way round. They
are not damaged by heat when soldering.
Kinds of resister
1)carbon film
2)carbon composition
3)metal oxide film
4)precision metal film
5)ipol resister
6)filament resisters
7)power film
8)
How does a Resistor work
Imagine water flowing through a
pipe. If we make the pipe narrow
then this will restrict the flow of
water. If we force the water
(current) through the narrow gap
by increasing the pressure (voltage)
then energy will be given off as
heat. In addition, there will be a
significant difference in pressure
(voltage) above and below the
restriction.
In electronics we use a resistor
when we need to reduce the voltage
applied to a circuit.
On the right is the symbol used to
represent a resistor. You may also
see it drawn as a zigzag line.
A resistor is defined by several
parameters:
Resistance in Ohms ()
Heat Dissipation in Watts (W)
Manufacturing tolerance (%)
The value of a resistor is either printed in
normal characters or, more usually, as
coloured bands. Here is an example.
The first band is red, indicating the
number 2.
The second band is also red, indicating 2.
The third band is yellow, indicating 4
zeros.
The fourth band is gold, indicating 5%
tolerance.
(Silver would indicate 10%, brown = 1%,
red = 2%)
This resistor is 220000 Ohms in value,
often written as 220k
As the tolerance is 5%, the actual
resistance lies between 209000 and
231000
or 209k and 231k due to
manufacturing inaccuracies.