Metalwork Formulas and Tables Metal

Textbook for Vocational Training Formulas and Tables Metal
Table of Contents
Textbook for Vocational Training Formulas and Tables Metal..................................................................1
Preface...................................................................................................................................................1
1. Mathematics.......................................................................................................................................1
1.1. Mathematical symbols...............................................................................................................2
1.2. Greek alphabet..........................................................................................................................3
1.3. Rounding off numbers...............................................................................................................4
1.4. Basic arithmetical operations....................................................................................................5
1.5. Calculation of plane faces.........................................................................................................8
1.6. Calculation of bodies...............................................................................................................11
1.7. Preferred numbers..................................................................................................................13
2. Physics, mechanics..........................................................................................................................14
2.1. Physicotechnical quantities...................................................................................................14
2.2. Quantities and their admissible units......................................................................................15
2.3. Transformation of forces.........................................................................................................22
2.4. Translation and rotation..........................................................................................................26
2.5. Friction coefficients.................................................................................................................27
2.6. Mass moments of inertia.........................................................................................................27
2.7. Stress and strain.....................................................................................................................27
2.8. Deformation in the case of bending stress..............................................................................30
2.9. Areal moments of inertia, moments of resistance...................................................................31
2.10. Moduli of elasticity.................................................................................................................33
2.11. Admissible strains (reference values)...................................................................................34
3. Technical drawing.............................................................................................................................34
3.1. Types of drawing.....................................................................................................................34
3.2. Sizes of drawings....................................................................................................................36
3.3. Subdivision of the sheet..........................................................................................................36
3.4. Lines........................................................................................................................................36
3.5. Lettering..................................................................................................................................38
3.6. Scales.....................................................................................................................................39
3.7. Rectangular project ion...........................................................................................................40
3.8. Figuring...................................................................................................................................42
3.9. Working and material characteristics......................................................................................48
3.10. Sectional view.......................................................................................................................49
3.11. Partial and interrupted representation...................................................................................52
3.12. Representation of thread.......................................................................................................53
3.13. Simplified representation of holes and counterbores............................................................54
3.14. Simplified representation of disconnectable connections.....................................................55
4. Metal materials.................................................................................................................................58
4.1. Characteristics........................................................................................................................58
4.2. Subdivision..............................................................................................................................58
4.3. Properties and use of important metals..................................................................................59
4.4. Ferrous materials....................................................................................................................65
4.5. Alloys of nonferrous metals...................................................................................................75
4.6. Hard metals.............................................................................................................................79
5. Plastics.............................................................................................................................................80
6. Semifinished products of steel........................................................................................................81
6.1. Bars, strips, sheets..................................................................................................................81
6.2. Standard sections...................................................................................................................85
6.3. Steel pipes for water and gas lines.........................................................................................91
7. Semifinished products of aluminium and aluminium alloys............................................................92
7.1. Square bars.............................................................................................................................92
7.2. Hexagon bars..........................................................................................................................92
7.3. Round bars..............................................................................................................................93
8. Semifinished products of copper and copper alloys.......................................................................94
8.1. Square bars.............................................................................................................................94
8.2. Hexagon bars..........................................................................................................................95
8.3. Round bars..............................................................................................................................96
9. Semifinished products of hard metal..............................................................................................97
9.1. Blanks of sintered metal carbide.............................................................................................98
9.2. Cutting ceramics.....................................................................................................................98
i
Table of Contents
10. Semifinished products of rigid polyvinyl chloride..........................................................................98
10.1. Thin sheets of rigid PVC.......................................................................................................98
10.2. Panels of rigid PVC, standard types.....................................................................................99
11. Semifinished products of moulded laminate...............................................................................100
11.1. Laminated paper sheets......................................................................................................100
11.2. Laminated fabric sheets......................................................................................................100
12. Plates and sheets of different materials........................................................................................100
13. Wire of different materials.............................................................................................................101
13.1. Steel wire............................................................................................................................101
13.2. Copper or brass wire...........................................................................................................102
14. Types and functions......................................................................................................................103
15. Connecting elements....................................................................................................................103
15.1. Bolts....................................................................................................................................103
15.2. Screws................................................................................................................................106
15.3. Nuts.....................................................................................................................................107
15.4. Washers..............................................................................................................................108
15.5. Securing devices for screws...............................................................................................108
15.6. Pins.....................................................................................................................................109
15.7. Keys....................................................................................................................................110
15.8. Springs................................................................................................................................112
15.9. Rivets..................................................................................................................................115
16. Loadcarrying elements...............................................................................................................116
16.1. Elastic springs.....................................................................................................................116
16.2. Bearings..............................................................................................................................117
17. Transmission elements.................................................................................................................123
17.1. Shafts..................................................................................................................................123
17.2. Toothed gears.....................................................................................................................129
18. Subdivision of test procedures......................................................................................................133
18.1. Nondimensional testing.....................................................................................................133
18.2. Dimensional testing.............................................................................................................135
19. Fitting systems..............................................................................................................................145
19.1. Types of fits.........................................................................................................................145
19.2. Systems of fits, basic hole, basic shaft...............................................................................146
19.3. Examples of fits...................................................................................................................148
20. Scribing.........................................................................................................................................152
20.1. Types of scribing.................................................................................................................152
20.2. Notes on scribing................................................................................................................155
21. Fundamental forming by casting...................................................................................................157
21.1. Shrinkage measures...........................................................................................................157
21.2. Machining allowances for castings......................................................................................158
22. Forming.........................................................................................................................................159
22.1. Mechanical bevelling...........................................................................................................159
22.2. Bending...............................................................................................................................160
22.3. Forging................................................................................................................................161
23. Separating....................................................................................................................................162
23.1. Chiseling.............................................................................................................................162
23.2. Shearing..............................................................................................................................166
23.3. Sawing................................................................................................................................168
23.4. Filing....................................................................................................................................170
23.5. Flame cutting.......................................................................................................................171
23.6. Drilling.................................................................................................................................172
23.7. Countersinking....................................................................................................................175
23.8. Reaming..............................................................................................................................179
23.9. Thread cutting.....................................................................................................................180
23.10. Turning..............................................................................................................................183
23.11. Milling................................................................................................................................188
23.12. Planing, slotting.................................................................................................................192
23.13. Broaching..........................................................................................................................196
23.14. Grinding.............................................................................................................................196
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Table of Contents
23.15. General data on cutting.....................................................................................................200
24. Joining..........................................................................................................................................203
24.1. Screw joints.........................................................................................................................203
24.2. Welded joints.......................................................................................................................210
24.3. Riveted joints.......................................................................................................................215
24.4. Soldered joints....................................................................................................................221
25. Changing of material properties....................................................................................................224
25.1. Annealing of steel................................................................................................................224
25.2. Hardening of steel...............................................................................................................226
25.3. Tempering and hardening with subsequent drawing of steel..............................................230
iii
iv
CRYSTAL
Lehr und Lernmittel,

Informationen Beratung
Educational Aids
Literature, Consulting
Moyens didactiques,
Informations, Serviceconseil
Material didctico,
Informaciones, Asesora
Feedback: IBE e.V.

90340101/2
Deutsche Gesellschaft fr
Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH
Institut fr berufliche Entwicklung e.V.

Berlin
Original title:
Formeln und Tabellen Metall
Authors: Ingo Womer
Horst Thulke
Second edition IBE
Institut fr berufliche Entwicklung e.V.

Parkstrae 23
13187 Berlin
Order No.: 90340101/2
Preface
This book of tables concentrates on the fields of the metalworking industry and the metal trade. The book is
intended as a proper reference book, both for trainees and as an aid to practical work by craftsmen. Important
mathematical, physical and technical fundamentals and essential specific technical concepts, work tables,
work rules, etc., are given in the clear and concise manner characteristic of a book of tables.
This book has been elaborated on the basis of advanced knowledge and findings contained in the vocational
training.
The subjectmatter has been suitably compiled in main sections.
1. Mathematics
1
1.1. Mathematical symbols
Symbol Explanation
... to
e.g.: k = 1, 2, ..., n
= equal to
identically equal to
e.g.: f(x) 0. The function f has the value

of zero at any point.
? not equal to, unequal
not identically equal to
~ proportional, similar
? approximate, almost equal, about
(The last figure is determined by means of

the rounding rule. For rounding off, see
Section 1.3.)
corresponds to
< smaller than
> greater than
? smaller than or equal to, equal at most
? greater than or equal to, equal at least
small as against of another order
great as against of magnitude
+ plus
minus
.,x times
,/,: by, divided, by, to
% percent, of a hundred (102)
per mille, of a thousand (103)
|| parallel
not parallel
parallel in the same direction
? parallel in the opposite direction
at right angles to, perpendicular on
triangle
E congruent
angle
2
line AB
arc AB
z amount of z
arc z arc z
n! factorial n
n above p binominal coefficient
? sum
? product
square root; nth root of
? Pi of this circle, ? = 3.14159...
f(x) f of x
value of the function f at point x
? infinite
loga logarithm to base a
lg logarithm to base ten lg x = log10x
lb logarithm to base two lb x = log2x
ln natural logarithm ln x = logex
sin sine trigonometric
cos cosine functions
tan tangent or
cot cotangent functions of angles
arc sin inverse sine arc functions,
arc cos arc cosine inverse functions of
arc tan arc inverse tangent the trigonometric
arc cot arc inverse cotangent functions
1.2. Greek alphabet
Letter capital small Designation Representation in roman type
A ? Alpha A, a
B ? Beta B, b
? ? Gamma G, g
? ? Delta D, d
E ? Epsilon E, e
Z ? Zeta Z, z
H ? Eta E, e
3
? ? Theta Th, th
I ? Jota I, i
K ? Kappa K, k
? ? Lambda L, l
M ? My M, m
N ? Ny N, n
? ? Xi X, x
O ? Omikron O, o
? ? Pi P, p
P ? Rho R(h), r(h)
? ? Sigma S, s
T ? Tau T, t
Y ? Ypsilon Y, y
? ? Phi Ph, ph
X ? Chi Ch, ch
? ? Psi Ps, ps
? ? Omega O, o
In technology, letters of the Greek Alphabet are frequently used as symbols of physical quantities; e.g. ?, ?, ?
for angle quantities; ? for efficiency; ? as the unit symbol for electrical resistance. (See Section 2.1.).
1.3. Rounding off numbers
When rounding off numbers, one or more figures at the end of a number are substituted by zeros. The figure
immediately to the left is either retained (rounding down) or increased by 1 (rounding up).
Rounding Rule Example

off
Rounding The last figure to be given is retained when followed by a 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4 3.01234

down
? 3.0123
? 3.012
? 3.01
? 3.0 ? 3
Rounding up The number to be indicated is increased by 1 when followed by a 6, 7, 8 or 9. 4.6789
? 4.679
? 4.68
? 4.7 ? 5
Rounding off If the last figure to be given is followed by at least one number which differs 5.153 ?
5 from 0 after a 5, the last figure is increased by 1. 5.2
If the last figure to be given is followed by a 5 which is known to have been
obtained by rounding off,
4
rounding down is done if the 5 was rounded up and 7.4149
? 7.415
? 7.41
rounding up is done if the 5 was founded down. ? 8.4752
? 8.475
? 8.48
Rule of even number
If the last number to be indicated is followed by a 5 and then by zeros only,
rounding down is done if this number is even and 0.1250
? 0.12
rounding up is done if this number is odd. 0.3750
? 0.38
1.4. Basic arithmetical operations
1.4.1. Designations
Designation Definition Example
Addition Summand plus summand a+b=c
add equals sum 4+3=7
Subtraction Minuend minus subtrahend cb=a
subtract equals difference 73=4
(inversion of addition) c b = c + (b)
Multiplication Factor times factor ab=c
multiply equals product 4 3 = 12
Division Dividend divided by divisor c: b = a (b ? 0)
divide equals quotient 12: 3 = 4
(Inversion of multiplication)
1.4.2. Basic arithmetical operations with zero and one (b ? 0)
Designation Operation
Addition and subtraction a + 0 = a;
a 0 = a; 0 a = a
Multiplication and division a 0 = 0; a 1 = a;
a: 0 (not explained);
a: 1 = a; 0: a = 0
5
1.4.3. Laws of addition and multiplication
Addition Multiplication
Commutation laws
a+b=b+a ab=ba
13 + 3 = 3 + 13 13 3 = 3 13
Association laws
a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c a (b c) = (a b) c
3 + (5 + 2) = (3 + 5) + 2 3 (5 2) = (3 5) 2
3+7=8+2 3 10 = 15 2
Distribution law
a (b + c) = ab + ac
3 (5 + 2) = 3 5 + 3 2
3 7 = 15 + 6
1.4.4. Arithmetic with expressions in brackets (a, b, c, d arbitrary numbers)
Operation Rule
Addition a + (b + c) = a + b + c;
a + (b c) = a + b c
Subtraction a (b + c) = a b c;
a (b c) = a b + c
Multiplication a(b + c) = ab + ac; a(b c) = ab ac
(a + b)(c + d) = ac + ad + bc + bd;
(a + b)(c d) = ac ad + bc bd
(a b)(c + d) = ac + ad bc bd;
(a b)(c d) = ac ad bc + bd
Binomial formulae
(a b)2 = a2 2ab + b2;
(a + b) (a b) = a2 b2
Division
1.4.5. Arithmetic with powers, roots, logarithms
Powers with integral exponents
Definition
Base with raised exponent equals power:
6
an = c (a ? 0)
In the case of natural exponents, raising to a power can be explained as the repeated multiplication of the
same factors:
Laws
(m, n integral; a b ? 0; a, b arbitrarily real)
1 0
a = a; a = 1; (a ? 0); (a ? 0)
am an = am+n; am bm = (ab)m
m n mn
; (a ) = a
Roots
(Extraction of a root, 1st inversion of raising to a power)
Definition
The nth root from radicand b is equal to that nonnegative value a which results in b when raised to the power
n:
(b ? 0; n natural)
(n index of root; b radicand; a value of root)
Laws
(m, n natural; a ? 0; b > 0)
(n natural); (n natural)
(not explained)
Logarithms
(Taking the logarithm of a number; 2nd inversion of raising to a power)
Definition
7
The logarithm of b to base a is the number c which must be used for raising to a power in order to obtain b:
c = loga b (a, b positive; a ? 1); a logab = b
(b inverse logarithm; a base; c logarithm)
Laws
(equal bases; b, b1, b2 > 0; a > 0; a ? 1; n arbitrarily real)
loga 1 ? 0 (a ? 1; positive)
log1 a not explained
loga (b1 b2 = loga b1 + loga b2;
loga bn = n loga b
1.5. Calculation of plane faces
Surface area A, circumference of face u
u=a+b+c
General triangle
Equilateral triangle
Altitude theorem: h2 = p
Euclidean theorem: a2 =
b2 = q c
Pythagoras theorem; a2 +
= c2
Rightangled triangle
8
A = a2
u = 4a
Square
A=ab
u = 2a + 2b
Rectangle
A=gh
u = 2g + 2a
Parallelogram
u=a+b+c+d
Trapezoid
9
u = 2? r = ? d
Circle
Circular ring
u = b + 2r
Sector of a circle (circular sector)
Ellipse
10
1.6. Calculation of bodies
Volume of body V; surface of body A0
V = a3
A0 = 6a2
Cube
V=abc
A0 = 2 (ab + ac + bc)
Cuboid
Pyramid
11
Cylinder
V = ? h (R2 r2)
Hollow cylinder
A0 = ? r (r + s)
Cone
12
A0 = 4? r2 = ? d2
Sphere
1.7. Preferred numbers
Basic series Basic series
R5 R 10 R 20 R 40 R5 R 10 R 20 R
40
1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00
1.06 4.25
1.12 1.12 4.50 4.50
1.18 4.75
1.25 1.25 1.25 5.00 5.00 5.00
1.32 5.30
1.40 1.40 5.60 5.60
1.50 6.00
1.60 1.60 1.60 1.60 6.30 6.30 6.30 6.30
1.70 6.70
1.80 1.80 7.10 7.10
1.90 7.50
2.00 2.00 2.00 8.00 8.00 8.00
2.12 8.50
2.24 2.24 9.00 9.00
2.36 9.50
2.50 2.50 2.50 2.50
2.65
2.80 2.80
3.00
3.15 3.15 3.15
3.35
3.55 3.55
3.75
13
2. Physics, mechanics
2.1. Physicotechnical quantities
Physicotechnical quantities (known as quantities) are measurable characteristics of objects, processes or

conditions. With regard to quality, they are clearly defined and can be quantitatively determined (measured).
Example:
Numerical value unit =

quantity
3.500 mm =1
2.1.1. Units of physicotechnical quantities
Type of unit Explanation Example
Basic units of SI Basic units are defined units which are chosen independently of Metre for length
one another and form the basis of the international system of units Kilogramme for
(Systme International dUnits, abbreviated SI in all languages) weight
Second for time;
Ampre for
current intensity;
Kelvin for
temperature;
Mol for amount of
substance;
Candela for
luminous intensity
Derived SI units Derived SI units are all units formed as a power product with the 1 N = 1m kg s2
numerical factor 1 from the basic of the SI 1 Pa = 1N m2
Supplementary SI The supplementary SI units should be used like basic units of the Radian for plane
units SI if physical circumstances require it angle;
Steradian for solid
angle;
Units extraneous Units extraneous to SI do not belong to the SI and are units whose
to SI relation to the SI units contains a numerical factor which differs
from one.
Units extraneous These are admissible units which are extraneous to the SI:
to the SI
SI units with SI prefixes 1 mm = 103 m
Generally accepted units; 1 min = 60 s
Units valid in special fields 1 ha = 104 m2

hectare for land
and real estate
Valid units for relative quantities 1 % = 1 102
2.1.2. SI prefixes
SI prefixes are used for forming decimal multiples and parts of SI units and units extraneous to the SI (if not
expressly omitted).
(See Section 1.4.5.)
14
Examples: 1 mm = 103 m
1 MN = 106 N
Prefix Prefix sign Meaning
Tera T 1,000,000,000,000 (1012)
Giga G 1,000,000,000 (109)
Mega M 1,000,000 (106)
Kilo k 1,000 (103)
Hecto h 100 (102)
Deca da 10 (101)
Deci d 0.1 (101)
Centi c 0.01 (102)
Milli m 0.001 (103)
Micro ? 0.000 001 (106)
Nano n 0.000 000 001 (109)
Pico p 0.000 000 000 001 (1012)
2.2. Quantities and their admissible units
2.2.1. Space and time
Type of quantity Designation of unit

Equation of quantity (Symbol of unit)
Length l Basic unit of SI

h height Metre m
b width Other customary units
r radius Centimetre cm
d diameter 1 cm = 102 m
s path Millimetre mm
1 mm = 103 m
Micrometre
1 ?m = 106 m
Area A SI unit
A = l2 Square metre m2
1 m2 = 1 m 1 m
Other customary units
Square centimetre cm2
1 cm2 = 102 m 102 m
100,000 cm2 = 1 m2
Square millimetre
1 mm2 = 103 m 103 m
1,000,000 mm2 = 1 m2
10,000 mm2 = 1 cm2
Volume V SI unit
V = l3 Cubic metre m3
1 m3 = 1 m 1 m 1 m
Cubic millimetre mm3
15
1 mm3 = 103 m 103 m 103 m
1,000,000,000 mm3 = 1 m3
Millilitre ml
1 ml = 109 m3
1 ml = 1 mm3
Litre l
1 l = 103 m3
1 l = 1,000 ml
Hectolitre hl
1 hl = 101 m3
1 hl = 100 l
Plane angle SI unit

Radian rad
Other customary units without SI prefixes

Degree
1 = 60 = 3600
Minute
60 = 1
Second
60 = 1
Solid angle ? SI unit

Steradian sr
Time t Base unit of the SI

Second s
Other customary units without SI prefixes
Minute min
1 min = 60 s
Hour h
1 h = 60 min = 3600 s
Day d
1 d = 24 h = 86,400 s
Frequency f SI unit
Hertz Hz
1 Hz = 1/s = 1 s1
Kilohertz kHz
1 kHz = 103 Hz
Megahertz MHz
1 MHz = 106 Hz
Speed n Other customary units without SI prefixes

Revolutions per second
1/s = 1 s1
(Frequency of revolutions) Revolutions per minute
1/min = 1 min1
Velocity v SI unit
Metre per second m/s
Kilometre per hour km/h
1 km/h = 0.2778 m/s
Cutting speed
Metre per minute m/min
v=?dn
1 m/min = 1.667 102 m/s
16
Acceleration a SI unit
Metre per square second m/s2
Angular velocity SI unit

Radian per second rad/s
Degree per second /s
? = 2? n
Angular acceleration SI unit

Radian per square second rad/s2
Degree per square second /s2
SI unit
Volumetric rate of flow (volume flow, volume throughput) Cubic metre per second m3/s
Cubic metre per hour m3/h
Litre per minute l/min
Weight m Basic unit of the SI

Kilogramme kg
Gramme g 1 g = 103 kg
Milligramme mg
1 mg = 103 g = 106 kg
2.2.2. Mechanics

Equation of quantity Symbol of unit
Megagramme Mg
1 Mg = 106 g = 103 kg
Decitonne dt 1 dt = 102 kg
Tonne t 1 t = 103 kg
Megatonne Mt 1 Mt = 109 kg
Density ? SI unit
Kilogramme per cubic metre kg/m3
Kilogramme per cubic decimetre kg/dm3
1 kg/dm3 = 103 kg/m3
Gramme per cubic centimetre g/cm3
1 g/cm3 = 103 kg/m3
Force F SI unit
Mechanical F = m a Newton N 1 N = 1 m kg 32
Weight force Other customary units
F=mg Kilonewton kN 1 kN = 103 N
Electrical Meganewton MN 1 MN = 106 N
F=EQ
Moment of force M SI unit

(turning moment, bending moment) Newton metre Nm
M=Fl 1 Nm = 1 m2 kg s2
Newton centimetre Ncm
1 Ncm = 102 Nm
Kilonewton metre kNm
1 kNm = 103 Nm
17
Pressure SI unit
Pascal Pa
1 Pa = 1 N/m2 = 1 m1 kg s2
Mechanical stress
Kilopascal kPa 1 kPa = 103 Pa
Megapascal MPa 1 MPa = 106 Pa
Bar bar 1 bar = 105 Pa
Millibar mbar 1 mbar = 102 Pa
Kilobar kbar 1 kbar = 108 Pa
Work W, A SI unit
Mechanical work Joule J
Watt second Ws
1J=1Ws=1Nm
W=Fs Other customary units
Electrical work Kilojoule kJ 1 kJ = 103 J
W=IUt Megajoule MJ 1 MJ = 106 J
Gigajoule GJ 1 GJ = 109 J
Terajoule TJ 1 TJ = 1012 J
Energy W, E Watt hour Wh

Potential energy 1 Wh = 3,6 103 Ws
W=mgh Kilowatt hour kWh
Kinetic energy 1 kWh = 3,6 106 Ws
Megawatt hour MWh
1 MWh = 3,6 109 Ws
Heat quantity W, R
Q = m c ?T
Power P SI unit
Mechanical power Watt W
1 W = 1 J/s
Milliwatt mW 1 mW = 103 W
Kilowatt kW 1 kW = 103 W
Electrical power
Megawatt MW 1 MW = 106 W
Heat output
Mass moment of inertia I SI unit

Kilogramme square metre kgm2
SI unit
Mass flow Kilogramme per second kg/s
(mass throughput) 1 kg/s = 1 kg s1
Kilogramme per hour kg/h
1 kg/h = 0,2778 103 kg/s
2.2.3. Electricity and magnetism

Current intensity I Basic unit of the SI

Ampre A
Milliampre mA
1 mA = 103 A
18
Kiloampre kA
1 kA = 103 A
Quantity of electricity Q SI unit

(electric charge) Coulomb C
Q=It 1C=1sA
Millicoulomb mC 1 mC = 103 C
Kilocoulomb kC 1 kC = 103 C
Ampre hour Ah
1 Ah = 3600 C = 3,6 kC
Electric power P SI unit

Watt W
1 W = 1 J/s
Milliwatt mW 1 mW = 103 W
Active power Kilowatt kw 1 kw = 103 W
P = I U cos ? Megawatt MW 1 MW = 106 W
Reactive power
Q = I U sin ?
Apparent power
S=IU
Voltage U SI unit
Volt V 1 V = 1 W/A
Millivolt mV 1 mV = 103 V
Kilovolt kV 1 kV = 103 V
Megavolt MV 1 MV = 106 V
Electric field strength SI unit

E Volt per metre V/m
1 V/m 1m kg s3 A1
Kilovolt per metre kV/m
1 kV/m = 103 V/m
Volt per centimetre V/cm
1 V/cm = 102 V/m
Electric capacity C SI unit

Farad F 1 F = 1 C/V
Picofarad pF 1 pF = 1012 F
Nanofarad nF 1 nF = 109 F
Microfarad ?F 1 ?F = 106 F
Electric resistance R SI unit

Ohm ? 1 ? = 1 V/A
Milliohm m? 1 m? = 103 ?
Kiloohm k? 1 k? = 103 ?
Megaohm M? 1 M? = 106 ?
Specific electric resistance SI unit

Ohmmeter ?m
Type of electric conductor G SI unit

Siemens S 1 S = 1/?
Millisiemens mS 1 mS = 103 S
Kilosiemens kS 1 kS = 103 S
19
Electric conductivity SI unit
Siemens per metre S/m
1 S/m = 1/(? m)
Magnetic flux ? SI unit

?=BA Weber Wb
1 Wb = 1 V s
Magnetic induction B SI unit

Tesla T 1 T = 1 Wb/m2
Magnetic field strength H SI unit

Ampre per metre A/m
1 A/m = 1 m1 A
Ampre per millimetre A/mm
1 A/mm = 103 A/m
Ampre per centimetre
1 A/cm = 102 A/m
Inductance H SI unit
Henry H 1 H = 1 Wb/A
Picohenry pH 1 pH = 1012 H
Nanohenry nH 1 nH = 109 H
Millihenry mH 1 mH = 103 H
Magnetic permeability ? SI unit

Henry per metre H/m
1 H/m = 1 m
Field constant ?0
?0 = 12.566 107 H/m
2.2.4. Heat

Temperature T Basic unit of the SI

(thermodynamic) Kelvin K
Celsius temperature Indication of temperature differential in Kelvin
= T 273,15 Other customary unit
Degree Celsius C
Heat quantity Q SI unit

Joule J 1 J = 1 W s
Calorific capacity C SI unit

Joule per Kelvin J/K
2.2.5. Physical chemistry

Amount of substance n Basic unit of the SI

Mol mol
20
Micromol ?mol
1 ?mol = 106 mol
Millimol mmol
1 mmol = 103 mol
Kilomol kmol
1 kmol = 103 mol
Molar mass MM SI unit

Kilogram per mol kg/mol
1 kg/mol = 1 kg mol1
Gramme per mol g/mol
1 g/mol = 103 kg/mol
Gramme per kilomol g/mol
1 g/kmol = 106 kg/mol
Molar volume Vm SI unit

Cubic metre per mol m3/mol
Cubic metre per kilomol m3/kmol
1 m3/kmol = 103 m3/mol
Litre per mol l/mol
1 l/mol = 103 m3/mol
Molal concentration SI unit

(molarity) Mol per cubic metre mol/m3
Kilomol per cubic metre kmol/m3
1 kmol/m3 = 103 mol/m3
Mol per litre mol/l
1 mol/l = 103 mol/m3
2.2.6. Optical radiation

Luminous intensity IV Basic unit of the SI

Candela cd
Millicandela mcd
1 mcd = 103 cd
Kilocandela kcd
1 kcd = 103 cd
Luminance LV SI unit
Candela per square metre cd/m2
Candela per square centimetre cd/cm2
1 cd/cm2 = 104 cd/m2
Luminous flux SI unit

Lumen lm 1 lm = 1 cd sr
Millilumen mlm
1 mlm = 103 lm
Kilolumen klm
1 klm = 103 lm
Illumination EV SI unit
Lux lx 1 lx = 1 lm/m2
Millilux mlx 1 mlx = 103 lx
21
Kilolux klx 1 klx = 103 lx
Light quantity Q SI unit

Q = ?v l t Lumen second lms
1 lms = 1 s cd sr
2.3. Transformation of forces
Designation Equilibrium
Parallelogram of forces
F has the same effect as F1 and
F1 l1 = F2 l2
Lever (theorem of moments)
FH = FG. sin ?
FN = FG. cos ?
FH l = FG h
FN l = FG g
FH = force at the slope
FN = normal force
FG = weight
22
Inclined plane
F1,2 forces at the faces

FE drivingin force
Twosided wedgeshape
ME drivingin moment
FSp interior force in the core
FH force at the lever (e.g. hand forc
FE drivingin force
l vertical distance from the axis of t
r2 flank radius
p pitch
23
Thread with vertical flanks
F1 = F2
s1 = s2
F1 S1 = F2 S2
Fixed pulley
s1 = 2 s2
Loose pulley
24
Shaft with pulleys
s1 = n s2
n Number of carrying cables
Pulley block
Fu1 = Fu2; Vu1 = Vu2
;
Fu Peripheral force
Vu Peripheral velocity
Belt drive
25
A piston area
p pressure in the medium
Hydraulic systems
2.4. Translation and rotation
Translation Rotation
Uniform movement Angular velocity

Velocity ? = constant; n = constant
v = constant
Peripheral velocity
vu = ? r = 2 ? r n
Uniformly accelerated movement Angular acceleration

Acceleration ? = constant
a = constant
Angle
Path
Tangential acceleration
Free fall at = ? r
Radial acceleration
(g = 9.81 m/s2)
Total acceleration
Force Turning moment

F=ma M=Fr=?
Work W=M?
W=Fs
Power
26
Kinetic energy
2.5. Friction coefficients
Material combinations Static friction ?0 Sliding friction

?
d1) l2) d1) l2)
Steel on steel 0.15 ... 0.33 0.1 0.15 0.01 ...

0.05
Steel on bronze 0.18 0.07
Steel on grey iron 0.2 0.1 0.18 0.01
Leather belt on grey iron 0.22 0.2 ...

0.7
Leather packing on metal 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.12
Brake lining on steel 0.55 0.4

1) dry, 2) lubricated
2.6. Mass moments of inertia
Body Equation
I = axis of rotation
Cylinder
I = axis of rotation
Hollow cylinder
2.7. Stress and strain
Stress for Strain
27
1 bar axis
Tension
1 bar axis
Pressure
Unit pressure plane areas of contact
28
A=dl
curved areas of contact (intensity of bearing pressure)
Mb bending moment
Ja axial areal moment of intertia
Y distance from the neutral layer
Wa axial moment of resistance
1 line of cut, 2 pressure, 3 tension, 4
neutral layer
Bending
Mt torsional moment
Jp polar areal moment of inertia
? distance from the centre of the
crosssectional area
Wp polar moment of resistance
29
1 line of cut
Torsion (distortion)
1 plane of shear
Shear
Hookes law
?=E?
? = elastic strain
E = modulus of elasticity
l1 = length before loading
l2 = length after loading
Deformation in the case of tensile stress
2.8. Deformation in the case of bending stress
Stress
30
Bearing reactions
Bending moment (max.)
Deflection
2.9. Areal moments of inertia, moments of resistance
Figure Axial areal moment of resistance Moment of resistance
31
Figure Polar areal moment of resistance Moment of resistance
32
2.10. Moduli of elasticity
Material Modulus of elasticity in GPa Material Modulus of elasticity in GPa
Al alloys 65...75 Red brass 90
33
Lead 15...18 Silver 70...80
Copper 125 Steel 200...220
Grey iron 75...105 Cast steel 210
Brass 80...100 Tungsten 350...400
Nickel 200...220 Zinc 110...130
2.11. Admissible strains (reference values)
Material Load condition Admissible load in MPa when stressed for
Pressure Tension Thrust Shear deformation
General structural steel I 70 70 60 70
II 50 50 40 50
III 40 30 40
Cast iron I 90 30 30
II 55 13 18
III 18 15
Nickel steel I 75 75 80
II 65 60 60 60
III 45 45 45
Wrought steel I 90 90 75 90
II 60 60 50 60
III 30 25 30
Cast steel I 120 90 72 95
II 75 50 45 55
III 40 35 47
Special steels I 180 180 120 180
II 150 150 100 150
Spring steel III 100 100 65 100
Tool steel
I dead; II increasing; III varying
3. Technical drawing
3.1. Types of drawing
Type Content Example
34
Total drawing Assembly, machine,
building, plant ready
for operation
Installation plan for turning lathes
Assembly drawing Several assembled

parts (often in the
sequence of
assembly)
used for mounting the assemblies
Detail drawing Single part with data

on manufacture
Erlenmeyer flask; the letters show that it can be manufactured in different sizes
35
3.2. Sizes of drawings
Size Dimensions in mm Size Dimensions in mm
A0 1189 841 A3 420 297
A1 341 594 A4 297 210
A2 594 420 A5 210 148
3.3. Subdivision of the sheet
A3, broadside A4, upright A5, broa

1 protective margin, 2 parts list, 3 space for text, 4 stitching margin, 5 drawing area
3.4. Lines
3.4.1. Groups of lines
Group of lines Group of lines

1.2 0.5
36
Broad solid line
Narrow solid line
Dashed line
Broad dotdash line
Narrow dotdash line
Freehand drawn line
Dashdotdotline
The group of lines with the bradest lines which are practical with regard to size, type and purpose of the
drawing should be used on a drawing. The breadths of lines specified for the individual types of lines within a
group should be observed as far as possible.
The different breadths of lines within a group of lines facilitate reading of the drawing.
3.4.2. Types of lines
Type of line Use
1 broad solid line visible edges of bodies characteristic lines of internal threads
(e.g. 0.5 mm)
2 narrow solid line dimension lines, hatchings

(e.g. 0.2 mm)
3 dashed line hidden edges of bodies

(e.g. 0.3 mm)
4 narrow dotdash line centre lines, pitch circles

(e.g. 0.2 mm) of toothed gears break lines
5 freehand drawn line

(e.g. 0.2 mm)
Example
37
3.5. Lettering
For lettering technical drawings, standardized vertical mediumspaced lettering is being used increasingly.
3.5.1. Main dimensions of vertical mediumspaced lettering
Height of letters h 2.5 3.5 5.0 7.0 10.0 14.0 20.0
Breadth of letters s 0.25 0.35 0.5 0.7 1.0 1.4 2.0
3.5.2. Vertical mediumspaced lettering
38
3.6. Scales
Scaling up 50:1 10n:1
5:1 10:1 20:1
2:1
Natural size 1:1
Scaling down 1:2
1:20 1:10 1:5
1:200 1:100 1:50
1:(210n) 1:10n 1:(510n)
39
Diagram for selected scales
I Picture size
II Natural size
3.7. Rectangular project ion
40
Perspective representation
1 Front view
2 Lefthand view
3 Righthand view
4 Top plan view
5 Bottom view
6 Rearside view
Arrangement of the views
front views, topplan views and lateral views are most frequently shown.
41
3.8. Figuring
3.8.1. Basic principles
Depending on its purpose, the drawing contains the figuring corresponding to the final state valid for the
workpiece. The following are used for figuring: dimension lines, reference lines, arrowheads, dimension
figures. The following aspects in particular are decisive for figuring:
The drawing should contain all dimensions required for the manufacturing of the workpiece
Dimensions indicate the final condition of the workpiece
Each dimension occurs only once
Dimensions should be entered according to function and manufacture
Function dimensions are tolerated
Dimensions must be capable to being checked by workshop test equipment
Dimensions resulting from manufacture are not entered
Dimensions which are checked particularly well by the customer should be marked
Figuring is done in millimetres, otherwiese the units should be entered after the dimension
figure
3.8.2. Elements of figuring
Elements of figuring
M1 dimension figure
M2 dimension line
M3 arrowhead
M4 reference line
The dimension figures must be able to be read from below or from the right.
42
Arrangement of dimension figures and arrowheads
Figuring between
two body edges

two reference lines
reference line and body edge
3.8.3. Special symbols
Diameter symbol
43
Symbol for circular cross
sections entered before the
dimension figure
Square symbol
Diagonal cross
Symbol for square cross

sections, entered before the
dimension figure.
The diagonal cross marks
quadrilateral plane areas
Radius symbol R
44
Symbol for roundings, entered
before the dimension figure
Sphere symbol, sphere
In the case of spherical shapes

the word sphere must be
entered ahead of the diameter
symbol
3.8.4. Notes on figuring
Dimensional reference system
Axis area
Area area
Two areas at right angles to each other are decisive for for symmetrical parts supported on one surface
function
Dimensional reference system
45
Axis axis
for parts with which bores are principally decisive for function, no bearing surfaces existing (castings)
Shoulders and bores
To be dimensioned starting from the reference surfaces
46
Symmetrical parts
to be dimensioned starting from the bearing surface and axis of symmetry
3.8.5. Indication of tolerances
Dimension without tolerances
Degree of accuracy Admissible tolerance in mm

with nominal range of
dimensions in mm
>6...30 > 30...100 >

100...300
Fine 0.1 0.15 0.2
Medium 0.2 0.3 0.5
Rough 0.5 0.8 1.2
Very rough 1 1.5 2

Dimensions with tolerances
External dimension
47
Internal dimension
Spacing dimension
Angular dimension
3.9. Working and material characteristics
3.9.1. Surface characteristics
Symbol Explanation Manufacturing process
Optional manufacturing process casting, pressing, milling
Separation specified turning, filing, grinding
Operating process excluding separation forging, rolling
48
Example of figuring
3.9.2. Surface roughness
Medium roughness Rz in Function Manufacturing process

mm
160, 80 External surfaces which are not stressed chill casting
40 resting bearing surfaces precision pressing,

milling
20 resting connecting and sliding surfaces (low finish drilling, finish

speed) milling
10 sliding surfaces (medium speed) precision grinding
3.9.3. Material characteristics
Material Sectioning Material Sectioning
Metal (steel, cast steel, grey iron, copper) Wood
Nonmetal (felt, fibre, rubber, leather, plastic) Sintered metal
Electric windings Brickwork
Transparent and translucent matter (glass, celluloid) Plain concrete
Liquids Earth
3.10. Sectional view
Use Representation
49
Full section
The internal shape of the

workpiece should be
visible over the whole
cross section
1 Drawing plane
2 Section plane
Half section
The internal and external

shapes of the workpiece
should be visible over
the whole cross section;
for symmetrical
workpieces only;
the lower or the right half
of the workpiece should
be shown in section
50
Part section
The internal shape of a

limited part of the
workpiece should be
visible; limitation of the
part section by a
freehand drawn solid line
or by a solid zigzag line
51
3.11. Partial and interrupted representation
Type Examples
Partial representation
with limitation by a narrow

solid zigzag line
with limitation by a narrow

freehand drawn solid line
52
Partial representation
Without limiting line (with

cut surfaces)
Interrupted representation
With limitation by two

parallel narrow solid zigzag
lines
with limitation by two

narrow freehand drawn
solid lines
without limiting lines (with

cut surfaces)
3.12. Representation of thread
Type of thread Representation
External thread
1 Thread symbol line
53
Internal thread
1 Thread symbol line
3.13. Simplified representation of holes and counterbores
Type Representation
Round through hole

(hole diameter is
indicated)
Tapped through
hole (thread symbol
and numerical
value are indicated)
Round blind hole

and threaded blind
hole (Dimensional
data are
supplemented by
the cylindrical depth
of the hole and the
effective length of
thread,
respectively)
Holes with
tolerances
(Tolerances to be
indicated after the
dimension)
54
Counterbores;
conical or
cylindrical
(Diameter and
angle of cone or
diameter and depth
to be indicated after
the dimension)
3.14. Simplified representation of disconnectable connections
3.14.1. Connecting elements
Connecting element Representation simplified symbol
Screw with hexagon

head and trunnion,
thread not up to the
head
Crossslotted screw
with fillister head
Screw with cylinder

head and transverse
slot
Screw with
countersunk fillister
head and transverse
slot
55
Plain pin
Taper pin
Hexagon nut
Washer
Spring washer
3.14.2. Screw joints
Type of joint Representation simplified symbol
Screw joint with hexagonhead screw,

washer and nut
56
Screw joint with cheesehead screw
Screw joint with countersunk screw
57
4. Metal materials
4.1. Characteristics
Characteristics of metals
Crystalline structure;
Metallic lustre;
Strength, formability (chipless),
Workhardenability (highly temperaturedependent);
Good electric and thermal conductivity;
Decomposition in acids with the generation of salts;
Cations in aqueous metallic salt solutions;
Solid (crystalline) state at room temperature and normal pressures (with the exception of mercury)
4.2. Subdivision
Aspect Subdivision (examples)
General ferrous materials nonferrous

pure iron materials
steel (alloyed or unalloyed)
cast iron
According to density light metals heavy metals

(? < 5 g/cm3) (? > 5 g/cm3)
aluminium iron
magnesium (or the corresponding alloys) copper
gold
Aspect Subdivision (examples)
58
according to melting point low melting highmelting very highmelting
(ts 900C) (ts 900...2000C) (ts 2000 C)
lithium silver molybdenum
tin copper tantalum
lead iron tungsten
according to production meltmetallurgical electrolytic powermetallurgical sintered

(reguline metals metals, heavy base metals
except iron
according to colour ferrous metals nonferrous metals

iron and its alloys lead
zinc
nickel
according to chemical precious metals base metals

properties gold aluminium
silver iron
platinum
4.3. Properties and use of important metals
Metal Symbol Density in Melting point

103 kg/m3 in C
Aluminium Al 2.7 660
General (technological) properties
Whitish; a protective oxide film is formed on fresh

shoulders of cut which increases its resistance to
wear; relatively resistant to acids; lyes attack Al
seriously; formed by drawing, spinning, pressure
deepdrawing, deepdrawing, forging, rolling; can
be welded, soldered or glued; metalremoving
processes possible under certain circumstances
(lubrication)
Use
Winding or cable wire, condenser foil in electrical

engineering; foil for food packing; aluminothermic
welding; with the addition of alloys in aircraft and
vehicle construction.
Antimony Sb 6.68 630
Silver white, bright, very brittle, easily pulverizable;

increases the hardness of alloys; toxic, resistant to
hydrochloric acid and diluted sulphuric acid
Use
Only as alloying metal for babbitt bearings, hard

lead, batteries, die cast products
Cadmium Cd 8.64 320.9
59
Bright, white; easily soluble in nitric acid, vapours
and soluble salts are toxic; soft, well formed by
hammering, rolling, drawing
Use
For cadmiumplating; for the production of

lowmelting alloys, fusible hard solder, batteries,
bearing metals
Chromium Cr 7.19 1903
Silver white; very toxic, resistant to nitric acid, not

resistant to diluted sulphuric acid; very hard and
brittle
Use
Alloying metal for iron materials (cutting metals and

heavyduty engineering components); coating metal
for surface protection
Cobalt Co 8.83 1495
Steel grey, bright; soluble in diluted oxidizing acids;

great toughness and hardness, forgeable, magnetic
Use
Almost exclusively as alloying metal for hard metals

and tool steels; radioactive isotope for material
testing
Copper Cu 8.93 1083
Light red; soluble in oxidizing acids, soluble copper

compounds are toxic; best electrical conductivity
apart from silver, very soft, but tough and very
ductile, properly formable without chip,
metalremoval forming difficult (lubricant); can be
brazed, soldered and welded
Use
Wiring material in electrical engineering; material for

boilers, heating tubes, cooling coils in the chemical
industry; for galvanic cells; alloyed with zinc (brass),
alloyed with tin (bronze)
Gold Au 19.28 1063
Yellowred, bright, polishable, precious metal,

extremely resistant to chemicals, not resistant to
halogens, calcium cyanide and aqua regia only; soft,
greatest ductility of all metals, very well formed by
60
rolling, drawing, forging, hammering
Use
Alloyed with Ag, Cu, Pt, Pb and Ni for jewellery,

dental material, precisionmechanical and optical
parts, electrical contacts, spinnerets
Iron Fe 7.87 1536
Bluishwhite, polishable, easily magnetized; not

resistant to humidity or water (formation of rust),
soluble in diluted acids; high strength, corrosion
resistance and resistance to scale by the addition of
alloying metals
Use
Wide field of application as steel, cast steel or cast

iron when adding alloying elements (e.g. carbon, Cr,
Ni, Wo, Mo)
Lead Pb 11.34 327.4
Bluishwhite fracture of silvery gloss,

finegrain; very toxic,
resistant to sulphuric acid and hydrofluoric acid; very
soft easily cast, very well formed by rolling,
hammering, pressing; cannot be drawn.
Use
Coating metal in tank construction (chemical

industry); pipes and packing rings; lead paints, such
as white lead, red lead; radiation protection in
medicine; alloying metal for bearing materials; lead
cable
Magnesium Mg 1.74 650
Silver white, bright; thin, dullwhite oxide layer in the

atmosphere, burns with a dazzling white flame (t 500
C), soluble in diluted acids, resistant to lyes;
castable only with difficulty, easily worked when hot,
well suited for forming by metal removal, (danger of
chip ignition!).
Use
Used in pyrotechnics; alloying element, especially

together with Al and Zn for vehicle construction and
mechanical engineering.
Manganese Mn 7.21 1244
61
Silver white, steelgrey if containing carbon; easily
soluble in diluted acids, has a deoxidizing effect in
steel and casting melts; very hard, brittle
Use
Exclusively as alloying element and deoxidant of

steel; manganese steel for rails; all types of
heavyduty components
Mercury Hg 13.55 38.87
Silverwhite bright precious metal; liquid at room

temperature, high surface tension, vapours and
soluble compounds highly toxic; insoluble in diluted
sulphuric and hydrochloric acid
Use
In thermometers, gas pressure gauges, electric

switches, highvacuum pumps, mercuryvapour
rectifiers, mercuryvapour lamps; for moulds in the
production of precision components
Molybdenum Mo 10.2 2625
Silver white; very resistant, very ductile, very strong,

easily formed by embossing, hammering, rolling,
drawing
Use
Worked into sheets, tubes, bars and wires for

electron tubes and incandescent lamps; important
alloying element of steel; alloys with other
highmelting metals (Wo, Ta, Ti)
Nickel Ni 8.9 1455
bright white; resistant to water, air, alkalis, diluted

acids (except nitric acid); polishable, tough,
ferromagnetic, easily formed by rolling, forging,
drawing, weldable
Use
Carrier of oxide cathodes in radio valves; alloying

element of steel (Cr, Ni steel); surface protection by
nickelplating
Platinum Pt 21.45 1733
Greywhite, bright precious metal; high solubility for

hydrogen, resistant to oxygen and acids; very
ductile, easily formed by hammering, rolling, drawing
62
Use
For the manufacture of laboratory equipment, wires,

electrodes, galvanic cells, contacts in weakcurrent
engineering, catalyst in the chemical industry
Silicon Si 2.33 1412
Semimetal; dark grey, bright or brown powder

(depending on surface condition); easily soluble in
lyes; very brittle, easily pulverizable
Use
Deoxidant; alloying element for steel (steels of high

silicon content with high resistance to acids), for
aluminium and copper alloys
Silver Ag 10.5 960.8
White lustre, polishable, precious metal; easily

soluble in diluted nitric acid; very soft; the most
ductile metal apart from gold, easily formed by
hammering, forging, rolling, drawing; very good
conductor of heat and electric current
Use
Important mirror metal; for silverplating and

cladding; alloys for chemical equipment and surgical
instruments
Tantalum Ta 16.67 2990
Grey, bright; soluble in a mixture of concentrated

nitric and hydrofluoric acid; very hard, extremely
ductile, can be drawn to thin threads
Use
Chemical apparatuses, tantalum rectifiers and

capacitors, surgical auxiliary devices; alloying
element for stainless steels and special steels;
tantalum carbide for hard metal
Tin Sn 7.29 231.9
Silver white, bright; resistant to diluted organic acids;

low hardness, high ductility, can be rolled, can be
drawn to wire at 100 C; tin cry when bending a tin
bar
Use
Coating metal; alloying element together with Pb and
63
Cu; important tin alloys; tin solders, tin bearing
metals
Titanium Ti 4.5 1690
Silver white, similar to steel; resistant to the

atmosphere, soluble in hydrofluoric acid, very
corrosionresistant; hard and brittle, forgeable only
with red heat, cold rollable, high strength but low
weight
Use
Material for chemical plants; in the form of alloys with

Al, Cr and V it is an important construction material
for rocket and jet propulsion systems; alloying
element for steel; titanium carbide for hard metal
Tungsten W 19.3 3380
White, metallic lustre; soluble in a mixture of

concentrated nitric and hydrofluoric acid; ductile by
hammering, can be drawn to wires
Use
Alloying element for special steels; for the production

of electriclamp filaments, incandescent lamps and
electron tubes; for hevyduty electrical contacts
Vanadium V 5.98 1730
Bluish grey, bright, resistant to the atmosphere,

soluble in oxidizing acids; very hard, can be
hammered and rolled in its purest state
Use
Filter for Xrays; alloying element for tool steels

(increases hardness and stability)
Zinc Zn 7.14 419.4
Bluishwhite, very bright; surface oxidation in humid

atmosphere, soluble in aqueous hydrochloric acid
(soldering fluid); brittle at room temperature, can be
formed without chips at high temperatures (90...200
C), pulverizable, easily cast, soldered and welded
Use
Sheets, strips, foils; extruded cups for dry elements;

for galvanizing; for zinc paints; alloying element
(brass, nickel silver)
64
4.4. Ferrous materials
4.4.1. Terms
Term Explanation
Steel ferrous materials melted

from pig iron, scrap and
stabilizer for steel
carbon content 0.05
2.06 % can be worked
cold or hot
Unalloyed steel The iron admixtures do

not exceed the following
maximum values:
0.8 % Mn
0.5 % Si
0.25 % Cu
0.1 % Al or Ti
0.1 % P and S together
Alloy steel The iron admixtures

exceed the maximum
values of the unalloyed
steel, or other
components (alloying
elements) are added in
order to achieve certain
properties
Lowalloy steel
alloying elements
<5%
Highalloy steel
alloying elements
>5%
Ordinary Maximum values of

detrimental iron
admixtures P and S
together ? 0.1 %,
ensurance of
mechanical properties
such as tensile strength,
yield point, strain at
failure
Highgrade steel High degree of purity

from nonmetallic iron
admixtures, P and S <
0.04 % each, suitable
for heat treatment
processes
Stainless steel High uniformity of

properties and very
good surface condition.
P and S ? 0.040 % each
65
Cast steel tough, forgeable, strong
steel for highly stressed
castings, cast into
moulds
Grey castiron Ferrous material from

pig iron, cast iron scrap
and scrap with the
following general
composition which is
cast into moulds:
C = 2.8 3.5 %
Si ? 3.8 %
Mn ? 1.2 %
P ? 1.0 %
S ? 0.15 %
not forgeable, great
rigidity and damping
property
Malleable castiron Material melted from

white pig iron which
becomes forgeable by
heat treatment
(tempering) at 950
1000 C, duration of
treatment approx. 4 6
days.
Chilled castiron hard and wearresistant

cast iron with the
following, general
composition:
C = 2.06 3 %
Si = 0.4 1.2 %
Mn = 0.8 1.3 %
White cast iron The casting is very hard

throughout
Chilled cast iron The casting is very hard

on the surface only
4.4.2. Steel
Elements of symbols
Steel type or steel production
Symbol Meaning
C unalloyed highgrade and stainless steel
St unalloyed structural steel
W unalloyed tool steel (w at the end of the symbol)
X highalloy steel
E electric steel
M openhearth steel
66
T Thomas steel
W steel produced in a special process (W at the beginning of the symbol)
1 Grade 1, type of melting according to the producers own judgement (exception: St 38 S is

produced according to the Thomas process)
2 Grade 2, type of melting either according to the openhearth process, the Ld process or
the improved Bessemer process
3 Grade 3, Ld process or openhearth process; the steels are to be cast as nonageing

structural steels, especially killed (e.g. using Al)
u Cast unkilled, gas formation during casting results in voids in the material
hb Cast semikilled
b Cast killed, gas formation is prevented by the addition of metals (e.g. aluminium)
Heat treatment condition
Symbol Meaning Symbol Meaning
U Untreated S stressrelief annealed
G Soft annealed V hardened and tempered
N Normalized K+V Cold drawn and hardened and tempered
V Oil treated K+G Cold drawn and softannealed
VL Tempered in air A Tempered
AS Quenched H+A Hardened and blown

Alloying component of lowalloy steels
Factor Alloying element
4 Al, Cr, Co, Cu, Mn, Ni, Si, W
10 Be, Mo, Nb, Ta, Ti, V
100 C, Ce, N, P, S
Scope of guarantee in the case of cast steel
Symbol Meaning
.1 Yield point
.2 Yield point and transverse bending test
.3 Yield point and notchedbar impact strength
.5 Yield point, notchedbar impact strength and transverse bending test
.9 Magnetic induction
Examples of designation
Unalloyed structural steel:
Examples:
St 38 u 2
MSt 42 3
67
Meaning:
St 38 u 2
General structural steel Minimum tensile strength 380 Mpa unkilled Grade 2
M St 42 3
Openhearth Steel structural steel minimum tensile strength 420 MPa Grade 3
Unalloyed highgrade steel or stainless steel
Examples:
C 45 V 90
C 115 W 1
Meaning:
C 45 V 90
Unalloyed highgrade steel or stainless steel; 0.45 % hardened and tempered minimum tensile strength
C 900 MPa
C 115 W 1
Unalloyed highgrade steel 1.15 % C tool steel Grade 1

Lowalloy steel
Examples:
13 Cr Mo 4.4
M 37 Mn Si 5 V
Highalloy steel
Examples:
X 97 W Mo 3.3
X 125 W V 12.4
68
Cast steel
Examples:
GS 40.2
GS 22 Cr Mo 5.4
GS X 10 Cr 13
Meaning:
Properties and use of steel brands
General structural steels
Unalloyed steels of high toughness, marked yield point and guaranteed minimum tensile strength; frequently
used in mechanical engineering and steel construction
Steel brand of grade Tensile Yield point in MPa Strain at Rolling and forging
strength in at a thickness in failure in % temperature in C
MPa mm of
1 2 3 ? 20 to 40 to (l0 = 5d0)
20 40 100
St 33 ? 330 22 1200...900
St 34 St 34 St 340...420 220 210 200 30

u2 343
St 34
hb2
St 34
b2
St 38 380...470 240 230 220 25
69
St 38 St
u2 383
St St 38
385 hb2
St 38
b2
St 42 St 42 St 420...520 260 250 240 23 1150...850

u2 423
St 42
hb2
St 42
b2
St 502 500...620 300 290 280 19
St 520...620 360 350 340 22

523
(...) 600...720 340 330 320 14 1100...850
700...850 370 360 350 10

Casehardening steels
Unalloyed and alloyed structural steels in which the external zone is enriched with carbon after forming
(possibly at the same time with nitrogen) and subsequently hardened
Steel Tensile strength Hardness Heat treatment Examples of

brand (casehardened in (normalized) use
the core) in MPa (HB30)
Normalizing Hardening Tempering

in C in C in C
C 10 420...550 140 890...920 890...920 150...180 Wearing parts of

small
dimensions:
pressed parts
and punched
parts, rollers,
levers
15 Cr 3 600...900 202 870...900 870...900 150...180 Bolts, spindles,

measuring tools
16 Mn 800...1100 229 850...880 850...880 170...210 Camshafts,

Cr 5 toothed gears,
worms, pressing
dies for artificial
resin
15 Cr 900...1200 840...870 170...210 Toothed gears,

N 16 shafts, axles
readjusting
screws
20 Mo 800...1100 229 850...880 870...900 180...280 Shafts, axles,

Cr 5 toothed gears,
Pressing dies
for artificial resin
70
18 Cr 950...1200 245 850...880 870...900 170...210 Toothed gears,
Mn Ti shafts, axles
5
Quenched and subsequently tempered steels
Unalloyed and alloyed structural steels, whose toughness, tensile strength and yield point can be adapted to
the purpose of use by hardening (800 900 C) and subsequent tempering (530 670 C)
Steel Hardened and tempered Tensile Minimum Soft Examples of use

brand strength in MPa at a diameter in yield point annealed
mm of hardness
16...40 40...100 100...160 in MPa in HB
C 60 750...900 700...850 450 229 Small parts of high tensile

strength: gear parts, shafts,
lock components
30 Mn 800...950 700...850 450 217 Lowstressed components:

5 shafts, bolts, nuts, screws
37 Mn 900...1100 800...950 700...850 450 229 Crankshafts, gear wheels,

Si 5 bolts, Cardan shafts
34 Cr 4 900...1100 800...950 700...850 450 197 Mediumstressed

components; gear
components
50 Cr 1100...1300 900...1100 800...950 550 235 Highstressed

V4 components; pinions,
connecting rods
30 Cr 1250...1450 1100...1300 950...1150 700 248 Highstressed components

of larger crosssections
Steels resistant to pressurized hydrogen
heattreatable steels whose resistance to pressurized hydrogen at operating temperature is ensured by the
addition of Cr, Mo, W, or V
Steel brand Tensile strength in MPa Resistance to Examples of use

pressurized hydrogen
P in MPa t in C
10 Cr Mo 9.10 450...600 32.5 400 Petroleum refining
16 Cr Mo 9.3 550...650 32.5 375 Welded highpressure

hollow bodies
24 Cr Mo 9 650...800 32.5 350 Regenerators, furnace

shells
17 Cr Mo W 11 650...800 32.5 480 Highpressure pipes,

shaped parts
Unalloyed tool steels
Highpurity steels with uniform hardening behaviour;

mainly used for cold working tools (high surface quality and tough core)
Grade Steel Hardening in temperature in Examples of use

brand water oil
in C in C
71
1 C 100 W 760 to 790 to Milling cutters, reamers, cutting dies,
1 thread cutting tools, cutting dies
C 110 W 790 820

1
2 C 70 W 2 780 to 800 to Clamping screws and adjusting screws,

embossing dies, milling cutters
C 90 W 2 810 830
3 C 60 W 3 780 to 800 to Hot dies, hot rolling, vice jaws and

machine jaws
C 75 W 3 810 830
780 to
810
Steels for special C 55 WS 800 to 830 Hand saws, mill saws and circular
purposes saws, anvils, axes
C 85 WS 780 to 810 790 to 820

Alloyed cold working steels
Tool steels for chipless or metalremoving shaping of materials, mainly when cold (room temperature)
Steel brand (example) Application group
125 Cr 1, 130 Cr 2, 140 Cr 2 Files
90 Mn V 8, 105 W Cr 6, 115 Cr V 3, 100 Cr 6 Thread cutting tools
37 W Cr V 7, 80 Cr V 3, X 90 Cr Mo V 18, 80 W Cr V 8 Mechanical cutting

blades
100 Cr 6, 110 Mo V5, 120 WV 4, 115 Cr V3, 115 W 8 Metal saws
35 W Cr V7, 45 Cr Si V6, 105 Mn Cr 4, 55 W Cr V7 Dies, punchers
140 Cr 2, 142 W Cr V 13, X 210 Cr 12 Drawing tools
90 Mn V8, 100 Cr 6, 145 Cr V 6, 105 Mn Cr 4 Measuring tools

Hot working steels
Tool steels for chipless or metalremoving forming of materials, mainly when hot (> 300 C); the working
surfaces are subject to great heat and frequent temperature change.
Steel brand Hardness when Hardening Hardening Examples of use

softannealed temperature medium
HB in C
28 Cr Mo 225 1030...1060 oil Extruding and

11.28 spinning tools for
heavy and light
metals
37 Cr Mo WV 225 980...1050 oil Extruding and hot

20.15 upsetting tools
1000...1050 air
40 Ni Cr Mo 265 820...850 oil Hot pressing dies for

15 light metals and Cu
72
alloys
850...870 air
45 Cr Mo V 225 930...970 oil Die casting tools for

6.7 light metals
Highspeed steels
Highalloy tool steels with a high wear resistance and special suitability for metalremoving tools for high
cutting speeds at great thermal stress (? 600 C)
Steel brand Highspeed steel Hardening Tempering Examples of use

class temperature temperature
in C in C
X 97 W Mo ABC III 1190...1210 530...550 Spiral drills, milling

3.3 cutters, reamers (for
materials up to ?B = 850
MPa)
X 74 WV B 18 1230...1260 550...570 tools of difficult shape

18.1 which are sensitive to
grinding
X 82 W Mo DM 05 1190...1230 540...560 highquality spiral drills

6.5 and milling cutters
X 125 WV EV 4 1210...1240 550...570 smoothing tools for

12.4 automatic operation
X 133 W Co EV 4 Co 1120...1250 560...580 tools for difficult roughing

12.5 operations
X 79 W Co E 18 Co 5 1250...1280 560...580 turning tools, planing

18.5 tools and slotting tools
Corrosion and acidresistant steels
Highalloy steels with a chromium content ? 12 %, highly resistant to atmospheric attack, and to numerous
organic and inorganic acids, lyes and salt solutions
Steel brand Tensile Maximum hardness Examples of use

strength HB
in MPa
X 10 Cr 13 600...750 210 Valves, pipes, turbine blades
X 20 Cr No 13 750...900 260 Steam turbine blades, moulds for die casting
X 12 Cr Mo S 650...850 235 fittings, screws (easily machinable)

17
X 35 Cr Mo 17 800...950 275 shafts, spindles, valves, hightemperature

resistant parts
X 90 Cr Mo V ? 900 260 cutlery, antifriction bearings

18
X 12 Cr Ni 700...900 210 springs, sheets, highstrength strips

17.7
Heat and scaleresistant steels
Highalloy steels which form protective layers at temperatures above 600 C and for this reason have an
increased resistance to scale in air, fuel gases and other chemical substances
73
Steel brand Tensile Hardness Usable in air up Examples of use
strength HB to C
in MPa
X 10 Cr Al 7 450...600 140...185 800 for moderate mechanical stress,

annealing and hardening boxes,
pipes
X 10 Cr Al 24 500...650 170...215 1200
X 8 Cr Ni Ti 500...750 130...190 800 for higher mechanical stress;

18,10
X 15 Cr Ni Si 600...750 145...190 1200 see above

25,20
Unalloyed cast steel
Steel cast into metal or nonmetal moulds (free of graphite and ledeburite) with guaranteed mechanical
properties at temperatures from 10 250 C; no particular specifications
Grade Tensile strength Yield point Strain at failure

in MPa in MPa in % (l0 = 5d0)
GS 40 400 20
GS 40.5 400 200 25
GS 45 450 17
GS 45.3 450 230 22
GS 50.2 500 260 20
GS 60.1 600 320 15

Corrosion and acidresistant cast steel
Cast steel with a Cr content of ? 12 %, highly resistant to atmospheric influences, to numerous organic and
inorganic acids, lyes and salt solutions; high resistance to corrosion and strength owing to the addition of Ni,
No, Ti and Nb
Grade Examples of use
GS X 10 Cr 13 Turbine blades, valves for hydraulic presses, cracking plants
GS X 60 Cr 29 Components for the food and chemical industries
GS X 120 Cr Mo 29.2 Highly corrosionresistant castings for the chemical industry
GS X 12 Cr Ni 18.9 Pumps, valves in the chemical industry (heattreatment required after

welding)
Hightemperature resistant cast steel
Cast steel with favourable strength values (in particular a relatively high yield point), usable in the temperature
range of 250 540 C
Grade Tensile strength Yield point in MPa at Strain at failure in %

in MPa temperatures in C of (l0 = 5d0)
20 200 300 350 400
GS C 25 450...600 250 220 170 150 130 22
GS 22 Mo 4 450...600 250 240 210 190 170 22
74
GS 22 Cr Mo 5.4 530...700 300 290 280 260 240 20
GS 20 Mo V 8.4 600...800 340 350 320 310 290 15
4.4.3. Cast iron
Elements of symbols
Symbol Meaning
GGL Cast iron with lamellar graphite
GGG Cast iron with spheroidal graphite
X Highalloy cast iron
GH White cast iron
GHK Chilled cast iron
GT Malleable cast iron (white or black)
GTW White malleable cast iron) ) previous
GTS Black malleable cast iron) ) symbols
GTP Pearlitic malleable cast iron) )

Properties and use of the cast iron grades
Grade Tensile strength Hardness (max.) Examples of use

q (min.) HB
in MPa
GGL 00 Bench, gearing, columns
GGL 25 250 245 Castings for mechanical engineering
GGG 40 400 190 Couplings, housings, crankshafts, toothed

gears
GGG 50 500 240
GH 200 300 Upper dies, lower dies, balls for mills
GH 300 ? 300
GHK 400
GT 35 350 190 Spanners, keys, levers,
GT 35E 350 220 Clamps differential casings rear axle

housings, gearboxes, pressure levers
GT 40E 400 220
GT 45 450 200
GT 65 650 250
4.5. Alloys of nonferrous metals
4.5.1. Terms
Term Explanation
75
Wrought Alloy which is to be further formed without chips after casting into ingot moulds, pig or ingot
alloy slab moulds (e.g. to pressed parts, bars, sections, sheets or strips)
Cast alloy Alloy which, in most cases, is cast into moulds (by sand casting, pressure casting or die
casting) and, as a rule, is finished by metal removal only
4.5.2. Elements of symbols
Symbol Meaning Symbol Meaning
G sand casting Kb cable

metal
GD pressure casting L soldering

metal
GK die casting Lg bearing

metal
GZ centrifugal casting R pipe metal
4.5.3. Properties and use of grades of alloys
Material Grade Tensile Hardness Technological

strength HB properties Use
(min.)
in MPa
Aluminium wrought alloys
Al Mg alloys AlMg1 100...160 30...50 Corrosionresistant and

seawaterproof, not
hardenable linings in
shipbuilding and vehicle
construction;
foodstuffs industry
AlMg5 240...320 55...80
Al Mg Si alloys AlMgSi1 200...320 60...95 Hardenable when cold

or hot at 140160 C in
12 4 hours, resistant
to chemicals; Structural
parts in shipbuilding and
vehicle construction,
construction
engineering, foodstuffs
industry
Al Cu Mg alloys AlCuMg1 370...400 90...100 Hardenable when cold,

susceptible to corrosion;
mechanically
highlystressed parts in
vehicle construction,
aircraft manufacture and
mechanical engineering
AlCuMg2 390...440 105...110
Aluminium casting alloys
G Al Si Cu Ni alloys Hardenable when hot

(at 185 C in 15 hours),
good strength
76
properties;
pistons of combustion
engines
G Al Si alloys GAlSi12 Very easily castable,

hardenable when hot or
cold by a small addition
of Mg;
complicated thinwalled
castings (resistant to
chemicals, resistant to
great mechanical
stress)
Lead casting alloys (bearing metals)
Babbitt 5 LgPbSn5 22 Can be soldered on

alloys
(CuZnSnbasis),
steel, cast steel;
Bearings of general
mechanical engineering
(P stat ? 25 MPa)
Babbitt 10 free of copper LgPbSn10 23 Loadable and

solderable as above;
bearings coming into
contact with media
containing ammonia
Babbitt 80 LgSn80 28 Optimum solderability

and castability, loadable
up to P stat ? 30 MPa
Babbitt 80 containing LgSn80Cd 35 Optimum solderability

cadmium and castability; bearings
for diesel engines
Copper wrought alloys
Brass (CuZn) CuZn40Pb2 370...680 90...170 Very easily formed by

CuZn40 metal removal, slightly
CuZn39Pb chipless forming when
cold; screws, rotating
parts; formable when
hot or cold; Hot
castings, screws,
rotating parts
CuZn37 300...550 70...160 Main alloy for cold

forming
CuZn37Pb1 300...550 70...160 Screws, pipes, radiator

strips
CuZn30 280...530 70...155 Very easily formable

when cold pipes,
sleeves
CuZn20 270...500 65...150 Pipes, sleeves, netting

wires, wiring parts
Special brass CuZn29Al 370...650 75...170 Corrosion resistant,

antifatigue; leaf
springs and spiral
77
springs
(CuZn...) CuZn21Al2 330...350 80...95 Seawaterproof;

condenser tubes,
machine parts
Tin bronze CuSn2 260...370 55...100 Formable, slightly

chipless;
(CuSn) CuSn8 400...700 90...200 springs, screws
Multicomponent tin CuSn4 320 70 Membranes, heat

bronze Zn4Pb4 exchanger tubes,
Bourdon tubes for
pressure gauges
CuSn6Zn6 400...750 100...215
Nickel brass CuNi12 500...600 150...175 Medical and precision

Zn30Pb instruments,
tableplates
(CuNiZn) CuNi18 520...620 155...180
Zn19Pb
Aluminium bronze CuAl5 320...450 75...125 Acidresistant,

(CuAl) equipment for the
chemical industry
Copper casting alloys
Cast tin bronze (CuSn) GCuSn10 Good sliding properties,

resistant to alkalis, heat
resistant up to 180 C
Cast multicomponent GCuSn Tenacious,

10Zn5 wearresistant, average
sliding properties
tin bronze and GCuSn6 Heat resistant up to 200

C, high wear
resistance
red brass Zn7Pb4
(CuSnZn...) GCuZn33 Fittings, housings,

Pb2 construction parts
Cast multicomponent GCuAl10 High corrosion

aluminium bronze Fe3Mn2 resistance and wear
(CuAl...) resistance
Cast multicomponent GCuAl9 Bearings for highest

aluminium bronze Ni4Fe4Mu2 requirements on sliding
(CuAl...) properties and surface
pressures (composite
casting with protective
steel skin)
GCuPb22Sn5 Good sliding and

antifrictional properties;
Bearings with maximum
surface pressures and
low running speeds
Zinc casting alloys
78
GZnAl4 250 70 Components with high
requirements on
dimensional stability
GZnAl6 180 80 Castings which are

difficult to cast
GKZn 220 80
Al6Cu1
Tin alloys
Soft solders (Sn Pb b) LSn25 Solder for flame

soldering
LSn30 surfacer soldering
LSn50 general soldering

purposes
LSn60 Tinplating of wire in

electrical engineering
4.6. Hard metals
4.6.1. Term
Hard metals contain tungsten, titanium and vanadium carbide and cobalt, nickel and molybdenum as binding
agents; they are presintered (pressing with subsequent heat treatment), worked to shape and then finally
sintered (at 1500 1900 C); used as cutting tools and for drawing tools, wire drawing dies and mining tools;
cutting tips are brazed on basic bodies of lowalloy steel.
4.6.2. Properties and use of hard metals
Properties
Grade Density Hardness Identification colour Cutting conditions, properties of the

in g/cm3 HRC hard metal
HS 01 6.1 6.4 91.5 93.0 blue increasing cutting speed feed possible
HS 02 9.9 10.2 91.5 93.0
HS 10 11.1 11.4 90.8 92.3
HS 20 11.2 11.5 90.0 91.5
HS 30 13.2 13.5 89.3 90.8
HS 40 13.1 13.4 88.6 90.1
HS 50 12.8 13.1 87.8 89.3
HU 10 12.6 12.9 90.8 92.7 yellow ? ?
HU 30 12.8 13.1 90.0 91.5
HU 40 13.6 13.4 87.5 89.0
HG 01 14.9 15.2 91.5 93.0 red
HG 10 14.6 14.9 90.5 92.0
HG 15 14.9 15.2 90.5 91.5
79
HG 20 14.6 14.9 89.0 90.5
HZ 10 15.6 15.9 91.5 93.0
HZ 20 14.9 15.2 90.5 90.0 increasing resistance to
HZ 30 14.3 14.7 88.5 90.0 wear toughness
HZ 40 13.8 14.2 87.0 88.5

Use
Grade Type of Chip formation or Examples

forming application
HS 01 metalremoving long chips Smoothing, finishmachining of steel and cast steel; high
HS 02 cutting speed
HS 10 Roughing, smoothing of steel, cast steel, malleable cast

HS 20 iron, manganese hard casting; medium to low cutting
HS 30 speed
HS 40 Roughing of steel and cast steel with casting (forging)

HS 50 crust; low cutting speed
HU 10 long or short chips Roughing, smoothing of steel, cast steel, grey iron,
HU 30 malleable cast iron, hard castings (hardness = 5000 MPa),
copper alloys
HU 40 Roughing, smoothing of free cutting steel
HG 01 short chips Turning, fine hole drilling of grey iron, chilled cast iron,
AlSi alloys, plastics
HG 10 Roughing, smoothing of grey iron, nonferrous alloys,

HG 20 plastics, glass, porcelain, stones (turning, planing, milling)
HG 30 wood, laminated wood
HG 40
HG 15 chippless wearing parts Guide bushes, sand blasting nozzle sets, centres,
measuring gauges, liners
HZ 10 forming technology Drawing tools for wire (especially wetdrawing of

to nonferrous metals)
HZ 40
5. Plastics
Survey of some important plastics
Designation Examples of use
Modified natural products
Vulcanized fibre Electrical engineering, luggage, automobile and machinebuilding industries
Cellulose acetate Photographic industry (safety films), packing, clothing and varnish industries
Polycondensation products (thermosetting plastics)
Phenolic resins Electrical engineering, optical industry, machine and vehicle construction,
medical instruments, domestic appliances
Urea resins Electrical engineering, foodstuffs, varnish and toy industry, commodities)
(aminoplastics)
80
Polymerization products (thermoplastics)
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
soft PVC Almost all branches of industry, chemical industry, building and packing
industries
rigid PVC Almost all branches of industry, chemical and consumer goods industry,
electrical engineering
Polyethylene (PE) Chemical industry, packing industry, toys, unbreakable commodities
Polyamide (PA) Clothing industry, highstrength technical parts, unbreakable commodities,
Polymethacrylate Vehicle and aircraft construction, measuring and drawing instruments, dress
jewellery
Polystyrene (PS) Weakcurrent engineering, toys, fashion goods
Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) Highstrength weather, light and chemicalresistant fabrics
Polyaddition products
Polyurethane Wearresistant technical parts and commodities, e.g. varnish, cast resins, elastic
rubber materials, foamed plastics, adhesives, compression moulding material
Polyutilization products
Unsaturated polyester For casting purposes and adhesion with fillers for moulded bodies
resins (PU)
Epoxy resins (EP) Casting resins, adhesive resins and resin binders (casting together with fillers)
6. Semifinished products of steel
6.1. Bars, strips, sheets
6.1.1. Square bar steel
Designation
a lateral length
A crosssectional area
m weight
81
Weight of square bar steel in kilogrammes per metre
a A m a A m
in mm in mm2 in kg in mm in mm2 in
kg
5 25 0.196 32 1024 8.04
6 36 0.283 36 1296 10.2
7 49 0.385 38 1444 11.2
8 64 0.502 40 1600 12.6
9 81 0.636 45 2025 15.9
10 100 0.785 50 2500 19.6
11 121 0.95 56 3136 24.6
12 144 1.13 60 3600 28.3
13 169 1.33 65 4225 33.2
14 196 1.54 70 4900 38.5
15 225 1.77 75 5625 44.2
16 256 2.01 80 6400 50.3
17 289 2.27 85 7225 56.7
18 324 2.54 90 8100 63.6
20 400 3.14 95 8025 70.9
22 484 3.80 100 10000 78.5
24 576 4.52 110 12100 95.0
25 625 4.91 120 14400 113
26 676 5.30 130 16900 133
28 784 6.15 140 19600 154
30 900 7.06 150 22500 177
6.1.2. Hexagon bar steel
Designations
SW width across flats

82
m weight
Weight of hexagon bar steel in kilogrammes per metre
SW A m SW A m
kg
8 55.4 0.435 21 382 3.00
9 70.2 0.551 22 419 3.29
10 86.6 0.680 24 499 3.92
11 105 0.823 26 585 4.59
12 125 0.979 27 631 4.96
13 146 1.15 28 679 5.33
14 170 1.33 30 779 6.12
15 195 1.53 32 887 6.96
16 222 1.74 36 1122 8.81
17 249 1.96 41 1466 11.5
18 281 2.20 46 1833 14.4
19 313 2.45 50 2164 17.0
6.1.3. Round bar steel
Designations
d diameter
m weight
Weight of round bar steel in kilogrammes per metre
d A m d A m
kg
5 19.63 0.154 38 1134 8.90
6 28.27 0.222 40 1257 9.87
6.5 33.18 0.260 42 1385 10.9
83
7 38.48 0.302 45 1590 12.5
8 50.24 0.395 48 1810 14.2
9 63.59 0.499 50 1964 15.4
10 78.54 0.617 53 2206 17.3
11 95.03 0.746 56 2463 19.3
12 113.1 0.888 60 2817 22.2
13 132.7 1.04 63 3117 24.5
14 153.9 1.21 65 3318 26.1
15 176.7 1.39 70 3848 30.2
16 201.1 1.58 75 4418 34.7
17 227.0 1.78 80 5027 39.5
18 254.5 2.0 85 5675 44.6
19 283.5 2.23 90 6362 49.9
20 314.2 2.47 95 7088 55.6
21 346.4 2.72 100 7854 61.7
22 380.1 2.98 105 8659 68.0
24 452.4 3.55 110 9503 74.6
25 490.9 3.85 120 11310 88.8
26 530.9 4.17 125 12270 96.3
28 615.8 4.83 130 13270 104
30 706.9 5.55 140 15390 121
32 804.2 6.31 150 17670 139
34 907.9 7.13 160 20110 158
36 1018 7.99 170 22700 178

6.1.4. Strip steel, flat steel, universal mill products and sheet steel
Designations
b width
s thickness
m weight
84
Weight of strip steel, flat steel, universal mill products and sheet steel in kilogrammes per metre
b s in mm 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
in mm 0.75
m in kg
4 0.024 0.031 0.063 0.094 0.126 0.157 0.188 0.251 0.314 0.377 0.471
5 0.030 0.039 0.079 0.118 0.157 0.196 0.235 0.314 0.393 0.471 0.588
6 0.036 0.047 0.094 0.141 0.188 0.236 0.283 0.377 0.471 0.565 0.707
7 0.039 0.055 0.110 0.165 0.220 0.275 0.330 0.440 0.550 0.660 0.825
8 0.046 0.063 0.126 0.188 0.251 0.314 0.377 0.502 0.628 0.754 0.942
10 0.059 0.079 0.157 0.236 0.314 0.393 0.471 0.628 0.785 0.942 1.178
12 0.065 0.094 0.188 0.283 0.377 0.471 0.565 0.754 0.942 1.130 1.230
16 0.094 0.126 0.251 0.377 0.502 0.628 0.754 1.005 1.260 1.510 1.880
20 0.118 0.157 0.314 0.471 0.628 0.785 0.942 1.256 1.570 1.880 2.360
25 0.147 0.196 0.393 0.589 0.785 0.981 1.178 1.570 1.960 2.360 2.940
30 0.177 0.236 0.471 0.707 0.942 1.178 1.413 1.884 2.360 2.830 3.530
35 0.207 0.257 0.550 0.824 1.099 1.374 1.649 2.198 2.750 3.300 4.120
40 0.236 0.314 0.628 0.942 1.256 1.570 1.884 2.512 3.140 3.770 4.710
45 0.266 0.353 0.707 1.060 1.410 1.770 2.120 2.830 3.530 4.240 5.300
50 0.294 0.393 0.785 1.178 1.570 1.962 2.355 3.140 3.930 4.710 5.890
60 0.354 0.471 0.942 1.415 1.884 2.355 2.826 3.768 4.710 5.650 7.070
70 0.412 0.549 1.099 1.649 2.198 2.748 3.297 4.396 5.500 6.590 8.240
80 0.471 0.628 1.256 1.884 2.512 3.140 3.768 5.024 6.280 7.540 9.420
90 0.530 0.706 1.413 2.119 2.826 3.532 4.239 5.652 7.070 8.480 10.60
100 0.589 0.785 1.570 2.355 3.140 3.925 4.710 6.280 7.850 9.420 11.80
150 0.883 1.177 2.355 3.532 4.710 5.887 7.065 9.420 11.80 14.10 17.70
200 1.178 1.570 3.140 4.710 6.280 7.850 9.420 12.56 15.70 18.90 23.60
300 1.767 2.355 4.710 7.065 9.420 11.78 14.13 18.84 23.55 28.30 35.30
400 2.355 3.140 6.280 9.420 12.56 15.70 18.83 25.10 31.40 37.70 47.10
500 2.945 3.925 7.850 11.78 15.70 19.63 23.55 31.40 39.25 47.10 58.90
750 4.417 5.888 11.78 17.67 23.55 29.44 35.33 47.10 58.88 70.60 88.30
1000 5.887 7.850 15.70 23.55 31.40 39.25 47.10 62.80 78.50 94.20 118.0
6.2. Standard sections
6.2.1. steel, equalsided
85
Designations
b widths of legs
s thickness of legs
r radii of curvature of the legs
m weight
Weight of angle steel in kilogrammes per metre
(a b s) r A m
in mm in cm2 in
kg
20 20 4 3.5 1.45 1.14
25 25 5 3.5 2.26 1.77
30 30 5 5 2.78 2.18
40 40 4 6 3.08 2.42
40 40 6 6 4.48 3.52
50 50 5 7 4.80 3.77
60 60 6 8 6.91 5.42
60 60 10 10 11.1 8.68
80 80 8 10 12.3 9.66
80 80 12 10 17.9 14.1
100 100 10 12 19.2 15.1
100 100 16 12 29.6 23.2
120 120 11 13 25.4 19.9
120 120 17 13 38.1 29.9
160 160 15 17 46.1 36.2
160 160 19 17 57.5 45.1
200 200 16 18 61.8 48.5
200 200 20 18 76.4 59.5
86
6.2.2. steel, unequalsided
Designations
a width of the short leg

b width of the long leg
r radii of curvature
m weight
Weight of angle steel in kilogrammes per metre
(a b s) r A m
in mm in cm2 in
kg
20 30 4 3.5 1.85 1.45
20 40 4 3.5 2.25 1.77
30 45 5 4.5 3.53 2.77
30 60 5 6.0 4.29 3.37
40 50 4 4.0 3.46 2.71
40 80 6 7.0 6.89 5.41
50 65 5 6.5 5.54 4.35
65 80 8 8 11.0 8.66
50 100 10 9.0 14.1 11.1
65 130 10 11 18.6 14.6
80 120 8 11 15.5 12.2
80 160 12 13 27.5 21.6
100 150 10 13 24.2 19.0
100 150 12 13 28.7 22.6
100 200 10 15 29.2 23.0
100 200 16 15 45.7 35.9
87
6.2.3. Tsteel
Designations
h height of section
b width of base
s thickness of web at a spacing

r1, r2, r3 radii
m weight
Weight of Tsteel in kilogrammes per metre
(b = h) (s = t) A m (b = h) (s = t) A m
mm mm in cm2 in kg mm mm in cm2 in
kg
20 3 1.12 0.88 50 6 5.66 4.44
25 3.5 1.64 1.29 60 7 7.94 6.23
30 4 2.26 1.77 70 8 10.6 8.32
35 4.5 2.97 2.33 80 9 13.6 10.7
40 5 3.77 2.96 100 11 20.9 16.4
6.2.4. bar and shaped steel
88
Designations
h height of section
b width of flange
s thickness of web
t thickness of flange at a spacing

r, r1 radii
m weight
Weight of steel in kilogrammes per metre
dimensions
h b s t r r1 A m
mm mm mm mm mm mm in cm2 in
kg
80 42 3.9 5.9 3.9 2.3 7.58 5.95
100 50 4.5 6.8 4.5 2.7 10.6 8.32
120 58 5.1 7.7 5.1 3.1 14.2 11.2
140 66 5.7 8.6 5.7 3.4 18.3 14.4
160 74 6.3 9.5 6.3 3.8 22.8 17.9
180 82 6.9 10.4 6.9 4.1 27.9 21.9
200 90 7.5 11.3 7.5 4.5 33.5 26.3
220 98 8.1 12.2 8.1 4.9 39.6 31.1
240 106 8.7 13.1 8.7 5.2 46.1 36.2
260 113 9.4 14.1 9.4 5.6 53.4 41.9
280 119 10.1 15.2 10.1 6.1 61.1 48.0
300 125 10.8 16.2 10.8 6.5 69.1 54.2
320 131 11.5 17.3 11.5 6.9 77.8 61.1
340 137 12.2 18.8 12.2 7.3 86.8 68.1
360 143 13.0 19.5 13.0 7.8 97.1 76.2
380 149 13.7 20.5 13.7 8.2 107 84.0
89
400 155 14.4 21.6 14.4 8.6 118 92.6
425 163 15.3 23.0 15.3 9.2 132 104
475 178 17.1 25.6 17.1 10.3 163 128
500 185 18.0 27.0 18.0 10.8 180 141
550 200 19.0 30.0 19.0 11.9 213 167
600 215 21.6 32.4 21.6 13.0 354 199
6.2.5. bar and shaped steel
Designations
h height of section
b width of flange
s thickness of web
t average thickness of flange
r1 inside radius, r2 radius of curvature
m weight
Weight of bar and shaped steel in kilogrammes per metre
dimensions
h b s r1t r2 A m
mm mm mm mm mm in cm2 in
kg
30 33 5 7 3.5 5.44 4.27
40 35 5 7 3.5 6.21 4.87
50 38 5 7 3.5 7.12 5.59
80 45 6 8 4 11.0 8.64
100 50 6 8.5 4.5 13.5 10.6
120 55 7 9 4.5 17.0 13.4
160 65 7.5 10.5 5.5 24.0 18.8
200 75 8.5 11.5 6 32.2 25.3
90
240 85 9.5 13 6.5 42.3 33.2
320 100 14 17.5 8.75 75.8 59.5
400 110 14 18 9 91.5 71.8
6.3. Steel pipes for water and gas lines
Designations
D outside diameter
s wall thickness
m weight
Weight of steel pipes for water and gas lines in kilogrammes per metre
D s in mm
in mm
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
m in kg
15 0.345 0.499 0.641 0.771 0.888
16 0.370 0.536 0.690 0.832 0.962 1.08 1.16
18 0.419 0.610 0.789 0.956 1.11 1.25 1.38
20 0.469 0.684 0.888 1.08 1.26 1.42 1.58
22 0.518 0.758 0.962 1.20 1.41 1.77
25 0.592 0.869 1.13 1.39 1.63 1.86 2.07
28 0.666 0.980 1.28 1.57 1.85 2.11 2.37
30 0.715 1.05 1.38 1.70 2.00 2.29 2.56
32 0.764 1.13 1.48 1.82 2.15 2.46 2.76
35 0.838 1.24 1.63 2.00 2.37 2.72 3.06
38 1.35 1.78 2.19 2.59 2.98 3.35
40 0.962 1.42 1.87 2.31 2.74
42 1.01 1.97 2.44 2.89 3.32 3.75
45 1.09 1.61 2.12 2.62 3.11 3.58 4.04
50 1.21 1.79 2.37 2.93 3.48 4.54
91
7. Semifinished products of aluminium and aluminium alloys
7.1. Square bars
Designations
a lateral length
m weight
Weight of square bars in kilogrammes per metre
a A m a A m
in mm in cm2 in kg in mm in cm2 in kg
4 0.16 0.043 11 1.21 0.327
5 0.25 0.068 12 1.44 0.389
6 0.36 0.972 14 1.96 0.529
7 0.49 0.132 15 2.25 0.608
8 0.64 0.173 16 2.56 0.691
9 0.81 0.219 17 2.89 0.780
10 1.00 0.270 18 3.24 0.875
19 3.61 0.975 30 9.00 2.43
20 4.00 1.08 32 10.24 2.76
22 4.84 1.31 36 12.96 3.50
24 4.76 1.56 41 16.81 4.54
26 6.76 1.28 46 21.16 5.71
27 7.29 1.97 50 25.00 6.75
28 7.84 2.12
7.2. Hexagon bars
92
Designations

m weight
Weight of hexagon bars in kilogrammes per metre
SW A m SW A m
4 0.14 0.037 19 3.13 0.844
5 0.22 0.059 22 4.19 1.13
6 0.31 0.084 24 4.99 1.35
7 0.42 0.115 27 6.31 1.70
8 0.55 0.150 30 7.79 2.10
9 0.70 0.189 32 8.87 2.39
10 0.87 0.234 36 11.22 3.03
11 1.05 0.283 41 14.56 3.93
12 1.25 0.337 46 18.33 4.95
14 1.70 0.459 50 21.65 5.85
17 2.50 0.676
7.3. Round bars
Designations
93
d diameter
m weight
Weight of round bars in kilogrammes per metre
d A m d A m
2 0.031 0.008 18 2.55 0.687
2.5 0.049 0.013 19 2.84 0.766
3 0.071 0.019 20 3.14 0.848
3.5 0.096 0.026 21 3.46 0.935
4 0.126 0.034 22 3.80 1.03
5 0.196 0.053 24 4.52 1.22
5.5 0.238 0.064 25 4.91 1.33
6 0.283 0.076 26 5.13 1.43
6.5 0.332 0.090 27 5.73 1.55
7 0.385 0.104 28 6.15 1.66
7.5 0.442 0.119 29 6.61 1.78
8 0.503 0.136 30 7.07 1.91
8.5 0.586 0.153 32 8.04 2.17
9 0.636 0.172 33 8.55 2.31
9.5 0.701 0.191 34 9.08 2.45
10 0.785 0.212 35 9.62 2.60
12 1.13 0.305 38 11.34 3.06
13 1.33 0.358 40 12.57 3.39
14 1.54 0.416 42 13.85 3.7
15 1.77 0.477 45 15.90 4.2
16 2.01 0.543 48 18.1 4.8
17 2.27 0.613 50 19.6 5.3
8. Semifinished products of copper and copper alloys
8.1. Square bars
94
Designations
a lateral length
m weight
Weight of square bars in kilogrammes per metre
a A m a A m
in mm in mm2 in kg in mm in mm2 in kg
4 16 0.135 10 100 0.850
4.5 20.3 0.171 11 121 1.03
5 25 0.211 12 144 1.22
5.5 30.3 0.256 14 196 1.66
6 36 0.304 15 225 1.91
7 49 0.417 16 256 2.17
8 64 0.541 18 324 2.75
9 81 0.688 20 400 3.40
22 484 4.11 35 1230 10.45
24 576 4.90 36 1296 11.02
25 625 5.31 41 1681 14.30
26 676 5.75 46 2116 17.99
27 729 6.20 50 2500 21.25
30 900 7.65 55 3025 25.71
32 1024 8.70 60 3600 30.60
8.2. Hexagon bars
95
Designations

m weight
Weight of hexagon bars in kilogrammes per metre
SW A m SW A m
kg
3 7.79 0.066 11 105 0.89
3.2 8.87 0.076 12 125 1.06
3.5 10.6 0.090 14 170 1.44
4 13.9 0.118 15 195 1.65
4.5 17.5 0.149 16 222 1.88
5 21.7 0.184 17 250 2.13
5.5 26.2 0.223 19 313 2.66
6 31.2 0.265 22 419 3.56
7 42.4 0.360 24 498 4.24
8 45.4 0.471 27 631 5.37
9 70.2 0.596 30 779 6.62
10 88.6 0.736 32 887 7.50
8.3. Round bars
96
Designations
d diameter
m weight
Weight of round bars in kilogrammes per metre
d A m d A m
2 3.14 0.028 16 201 1.79
2.5 4.91 0.044 17 227 2.02
3 7.07 0.063 18 254 2.27
3.5 9.62 0.086 20 314 2.80
4 12.6 0.112 22 380 3.38
4.5 15.9 0.142 24 452 4.03
5 19.6 0.175 25 491 4.40
5.5 23.7 0.211 26 531 4.73
6 28.3 0.252 28 616 5.48
7 38.5 0.343 30 707 6.29
8 50.3 0.447 32 804 7.16
9 63.6 0.566 33 855 7.61
10 78.5 0.699 34 908 8.08
11 95.0 0.846 35 962 8.56
12 113 1.01 36 1017 9.06
13 133 1.18 40 1256 11.2
14 154 1.37 42 1385 13.1
15 177 1.57 45 1590 14.2
9. Semifinished products of hard metal
97
9.1. Blanks of sintered metal carbide
Nominal size Tolerance Nominal size Tolerance

in mm in mm in mm in mm
above up to above up to
4 0.3 45 50 1.6
4 6 0.4 50 55 1.8
6 8 0.5 55 60 2
8 10 0.6 60 70 2.4
10 13 0.7 70 80 2.8
13 16 0.8 80 90 3.2
16 20 0.9 90 100 3.6
20 25 1 100 110 4
25 30 1.1 110 125 4.4
30 35 1.2 125 140 5
35 40 1.3 140 155 5.6
40 45 1.4 155 170 6
9.2. Cutting ceramics
Cutting material Form as supplied Radius in mm Clearance

angle ?
Kawenit HC 20M KA (KSQ 128) 0.5;
1.2; 2
EV 10 HC 20M KA (KSQ 168) 1.2; 2
Kawenit HC 20M KB (KSR 128) 0.5;
1.2; 2
EV 10 HC 20M KB (KSR 168) 1.2; 2
Kawenit HC 20M KA (KSQ 128) 1.2 5
Kawenit HC 20M KB (KSR 128) 1.2 5
10. Semifinished products of rigid polyvinyl chloride
10.1. Thin sheets of rigid PVC
Mechanical characteristics
Uncoloured Coloured
Quality Quality
1 2 1 2
Tensile strength in MPa longitudinally 50 45 47 42
98
transversely 50 40 42 37
Elongation at break longitudinally 2.5 1.0 1.5 1.0
transversely 1.0 0.5 0.5 0.3

Dimensions
Thickness Width Max. interruptions per reel max. Weight

in mm in mm in kg
0.04 1000 2 30
0.05 1000 2 30
0.06 1000 2 30
0.08 1000 2 30
0.10 1000 2 30
0.15 1000 2 30
10.2. Panels of rigid PVC, standard types
Mechanical characteristics
Types
H HS HA HL
Tensile strength in MPa 45 55 55 45
Strain at failure in % 15 10 10 10
Dimensional stability in C 70 70 70 70
Dimensions
Thickness in mm Width Length

in mm in mm
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 800 1500
4.0 5.0 6.0 8.0 800 1400
10.0 12.0 15.0 750 1400
18.0 20.0 700 1400
1.0 20.0 1000 2000
25.0 30.0 800 1800

Weight
Thickness Weight per m2 Thickness Weight per m2 Thickness Weight per m2

in mm in kg in mm in kg in mm in kg
1.0 1.5 4.0 6.0 12.0 18.0
1.5 2.3 5.0 7.5 15.0 22.5
2.0 3.0 6.0 9.0 20.0 30.0
2.5 3.8 8.0 12.0 25.0 37.5
3.0 4.5 10.0 15.0 30.0 45.0
99
11. Semifinished products of moulded laminate
11.1. Laminated paper sheets
Dimensions in mm Dimensions in mm
Width length Thickness Width length Thickness
Type HP 2061 Type HP 2061.9
1050 1950 0.2...60 720 950 0.1...1
950 1500 1...30 950 1200
970 970 0.3...60 1000 1200
970 1590 2...60 1000 1750
1050 1750 1...50
1050 1200 8...150
Type HP 2061.5 Type HP 2065.5
470 2500 3...25 1050 1050
720 1000 0.2...2 Type HP 2062.8
550 1050
970 2500
11.2. Laminated fabric sheets
Dimensions in mm Dimensions in mm
Width length Thickness Width length Thickness
Type HGw 2081 Type Hgw 2082
970 970 20...40 970 970 1.5...40
970 1590 20...150 970 1590 1.5...150
1030 1030 20...150 1030 1080 1...25
1030 1080 30...150 1020 1050 1...30
Type Hgw 2082 Type Hgw 2082.5
950 1200 1...150 1030 1030 1...100
1000 1000 1020 1050 1...30
720 1000 0.5...7 Type Hgw 2083
550 1050 0.5...10
12. Plates and sheets of different materials
Thickness Weight per m2 in kg in the case of

in mm
Grey Mild steel, Copper, Brass Bronze Zinc Lead Aluminium Synthetic
100
iron cast steel resin
1 7.25 7.85 8.9 8.5 8.6 7.2. 11.37 2.7 1.5
2 14.50 15.50 17.8 17.0 17.3 14.4 22.74 5.4 3.0
3 21.75 23.55 26.7 25.5 25.8 21.6 34.11 8.1 4.5
4 29.00 31.40 35.6 34.0 34.4 28.8 45.48 10.8 6.0
5 36.25 39.25 44.5 42.5 43.0 36.0 56.85 13.5 7.5
6 43.50 47.10 53.4 51.0 51.6 43.2 68.22 16.2 9.0
7 50.75 54.95 62.3 59.5 60.2 50.4 79.59 18.9 10.5
8 58.00 62.80 71.2 68.0 68.8 57.6 90.96 21.6 12.0
9 65.20 70.65 80.1 76.5 77.4 64.8 102.33 24.3 13.5
10 72.50 78.50 89.0 85.0 86.0 72.0 113.70 27.0 15.0
13. Wire of different materials
13.1. Steel wire
Diameter Weight per km Diameter Weight per km

in mm in kg in mm in kg
0.10 0.0617 1.3 10.4
0.12 0.0888 1.4 12.1
0.14 0.121 1.6 15.8
0.16 0.158 1.8 20.0
0.18 0.200 2.0 24.7
0.2 0.247 2.2 29.8
0.22 0.298 2.5 38.5
0.24 0.355 2.8 48.3
0.26 0.417 3.1 59.2
0.28 0.483 3.4 71.3
0.31 0.592 3.8 89.0
0.34 0.713 4.2 109.0
0.37 0.844 4.6 130.0
0.4 0.986 5.0 154.0
0.45 1.25 5.5 178.0
0.5 1.54 6.0 222.0
0.55 1.87 6.5 260.0
0.6 2.22 7.0 302.0
0.7 3.02 8.8 477.0
101
0.8 3.95 9.4 545.0
0.9 4.99 10.0 617.0
1.0 6.17
1.1 7.46
1.2 8.88
13.2. Copper or brass wire
Diameter Weight per km Diameter Weight per km

in mm in kg in mm in kg
copper brass copper brass
0.1 0.070 1.1. 18.458 8.078
0.12 0.101 1.2 10.066 9.613
0.15 0.157 1.3 11.810 11.282
0.18 0.226 1.4 13.697 13.085
0.2 0.280 0.267 1.5 15.727 15.020
0.22 0.338 0.323 1.6 17.898 17.090
0.25 0.437 0.417 1.7 20.201 19.293
0.28 0.548 0.523 1.8 22.650 21.630
0.3 0.629 0.601 1.9 25.231 24.100
0.32 0.716 0.684 2 27.963 26.704
0.35 0.856 0.818 2.1 30.830 29.441
0.38 1.009 0.964 2.2 33.828 32.311
0.4 1.118 1.068 2.3 36.979 35.315
0.45 1.415 1.352 2.4 40.264 38.453
0.5 1.747 1.667 2.5 43.690 41.724
0.55 2.114 2.019 3 62.914 60.083
0.6 2.615 2.403 3.5 85.626 81.780
0.65 2.953 2.821 4 111.838 106.821
0.7 3.425 3.271 4.5 141.546 155.186
0.75 3.932 3.775 5 174.731 166.951
0.8 4.474 4.273 5.5 211.446 201.946
0.85 5.051 4.832 6 251.638 240.323
0.9 5.662 6.024 7 342.508 527.117
1 6.990 6.676 8 447.358 427.257
102
14. Types and functions
Type Function Examples
Connecting disconnectable and permanent connection bolts, screws, nuts washers, locking
elements of structural members screws, pins, springs, keys, rivets
Supporting supporting of structural members, reception axles, sliding, antifriction bearings,

elements of forces frames, elastic springs
Transmitting transmission, distribution, conversion of shafts, couplings, toothed gearings, belt

elements mechanical energy drives, trains of sprockets, crank
mechanisms, worm gears, hydraulic
gearings
Working elements Performance of the necessary working tools

motions (rotating or straightline
reciprocating)
Driving elements Provision of the required energy by energy electric motor, combustion engine
conversion
Control elements Control of energy and mass flow hand crank, hand wheel, switch
15. Connecting elements
15.1. Bolts
15.1.1. Bolts with heads
Representation Designation example
with splitpin hole
103
without splitpin hole
15.1.2. Bolts without heads
with splitpin holes
104
without splitpin holes
15.1.3. Bolts with threaded journals
105
15.2. Screws
Figure Designation Figure Designa

Dimensions Dimensi
Hexagon head screw
Hexagon Hexagon
head screw head scre
for steel M3 M4
structure 14 220
M 10 M 30 mg
30 175, m
Hexagon Hexagon
head screw head scre
thread with journ
almost up to M6 M4
the head 12 220
M 5 M 24 mg
15 80, g
Hexagon Hexagon
head screw dowel bo
with fine M10 M
screw thread 30 200
M12 x 1.5 to mg
M24 x 2
30 220, m,
mg
Countersunk screws, ovalhead countersunk screws, ovalhead screws
Countersunk Ovalhea
screw with screw wit
cross slot large hea
M1 M10 M1 M3
2 70, m 2 18, m
106
Ovalhead O
countersunk s
screw with s
cross slot M
M1 M10 1
2 60, m
Other types of screws
Designation Dimensions
Fillister head screw with cross slot Shape A, B, C; M1M10; 2 70, m
Squarehead bolt with shoulder M5 M16; 10 100, m
Knurled screw, high M2 M10; 4 40, m
Fillister head sheet metal screw with cross slot d1 2.2 6.3; 9.5 50, m
Wing screw M6 M12; 22 65, m
Threaded pin with cross slot and point M1 M12; 2 45, m
Stud bolt threaded end approx. 1d; M3 M48; 16 220, m
15.3. Nuts
Figure Designation Figure D

Dimensions D
Hexagon nuts
Hexagon nut H
M1.6 M150 f
2, m M
m
107
Hexagon nut Hexagon
M5 M42, g pipe nut
Whitwort
pipe thre
R 1/8 R
mg
Other types of nuts
Square nut Knurled n

with shoulder high
M8 M24, m M3 M1
15.4. Washers
Figure Designation
Washers for fillister head screws and bolts

Hole diameter 1.1. 81, m
Bolt diameter 1.1. 80
Fillister head screws M1 M42
Washers
Hole diameter
5,8 52, g
15.5. Securing devices for screws
Figure Designation Figure
108
Spring
washers
a) bent open
b) smooth 2
48, m
Locking
plates with
tangs
d 3.2 50,
m
15.6. Pins
15.6.1. Cylindrical pins
15.6.2. Taper pins
109
Taper 1:50
Dimensions in mm
d1 h10 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 8 10
r 1 1.6 3 6 10
l 8 160
15.6.3. Notched pins
Figure Designation Dimensions in mm
d l
Cylindrical notched pins 0.8 16; 1.2 4 125
Taper notched pins 1.5 16 4 125
Edged adjusting pins 1.5 16 6 125
Roundheaded notched nails 28 3 36

1.4; 1.6
15.7. Keys
15.7.1. Sunk keys, drivefitted keys
110
A sunk key, B drivefitted key; 1: 100 inclination
b width of key, bN width of keyway, d shaft diameter, h height of key, l length of key, t1 depth of shaft groove, t2
depth of hub groove
Designation example
Dimensions in mm
b 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 16 20
h 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8 10 12
l from 6 6 8 10 14 18 22 28 45 56
to 20 28 38 45 56 70 90 100 180 220
d from 5 7 10 14 18 24 30 36 48 65
to 7 10 14 18 24 30 36 42 55 75
t1 0.6 0.7 1.1 1.6 2.1 2.6 3 3 4.5 5.5
t2 1.1 2.0 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 4.5 5.0 6
15.7.2. Gibhead keys
111
b Width of key, bn width of keyway, d shaft diameter, k height of key, h1 height of gib, length of key, t depth of
shaft groove, t2 depth of hub groove 1 fitted in
Designation example
Dimensions in mm
b 4 5 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
h 4 5 6 7 8 8 9 9 11 12
l from 14 14 14 18 22 28 36 45 50 56
to 36 45 56 70 90 110 140 180 200 220
d above 10 14 18 24 30 36 42 48 55 65
to 14 18 24 30 36 42 48 55 65 75
t1 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 4.5 5 5 5.5 6
t2 1.1 1.6 2.1 2.6 3 3 3.5 4.5 5 5.5
15.8. Springs
15.8.1. Disk springs
112
Designation example
Version Use
A the whole torque is transmitted the
B position of the driving element is retained

Dimensions in mm
b 2 2.5 3 4
h9
h 2.6 3.7 3.7 3.7 5 6.5 5 6.5 7.5
d1 7 10 10 10 13 16 13 16 19
l 6.8 9.7 9.7 9.7 12.6 15.7 12.6 15.7 18.6
d2A 7 10
above 5 to 7 10 14
B above 7 10 14
to 14 8 24
15.8.2. Feather keys
Version Roundended Straightended
113
without
holding
screw
Shape B
Shape A
with
holding
screw
Shape D
Shape C
with two
holding
screws
and
forcing
screws
Shape F
Shape E
Designation example
Dimensions in mm
b h9 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 16 20
114
h f3 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8 10 12
l1 from 6 6 8 10 14 18 22 28 45 56
to 25 36 45 56 70 90 110 140 180 220
d1 above 5 7 10 14 18 24 30 36 48 65
to 7 10 14 18 24 30 36 42 55 75
15.9. Rivets
Figure Designation Dimensions in

mm
d l
Rivets with buttonheads 19 260
Rivets with buttonheads for steel 10 16

structures 30 200
Countersunkhead rivets 19 260
Countersunkhead rivets 10 20
30 150
115
Belt rivets 35
16. Loadcarrying elements
16.1. Elastic springs
Figure Designation, version
Wire diameter Coils Spring steel

grade
Compression springs
View 0.1 0.45 5.5 18.5 A, B, C
0.5 16 5.5 17.5 A, B, C
Symbol
Tension springs
View 0.1 0.45 6 60 C
0.5 60 10 60 A, B
Symbol
116
Designation example
16.2. Bearings
16.2.1. Types of bearings
Classification aspect Designation Explanation
Direction of force Radial or thrust bearing (journal the bearing forces act transversely to
application bearing) the bearing axis
Axial or side bearing (step bearing) the bearing forces act in the direction of
the bearing axis
Radialaxial bearing (journal and the bearing forces act transversely to

step bearing) and in the direction of the bearing axis
Friction Sliding bearing sliding friction becomes effective
Antifriction bearing rolling friction becomes effective
Design unsplit sliding bearings consist of bearing casing and bearing

bush
split sliding bearings consist of bearing casing and bearing

shells
Use of materials solid bearings made of one bearing metal throughout
composite bearings made of steel backing shells to which

bearing metal is applied
16.2.2. Sliding bearings
Shells
Shells without collars
Solid Composite for solid and com

bearings
117
1 sliding layer, 2 supporting body, 3 marking
Shells with a collar
Solid Composite with butting face Composite without buttin
1 sliding layer, 2 supporting body, 3 undercut shape B, 4 marking
Dimensions in mm
d1 40, 45, 50, 56, 63, 70, 80, 90, 100,
110, 125, 140, 160, 180, 200, 220, 250
l 20 250
Bushes
118
Bushes without collars
Type Material
Solid steel, grey cast iron, nonferrous metal sinter metal moulded material
Composite Sliding layer of nonferrous metal, supporting body of steel
Designation example
Dimensions in mm
d1 4, 8, 10, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 25, 28, 32,
36, 40, 45, 50, 55, 63, 70, 80, 90, 100
l 3 100
119
Bushes with steel collars, cast iron, material other than metal
Dimensions
in mm
d1 20 100
l1 10 100
16.2.3. Antifriction bearings
Types of antifriction bearing
Group Designation Symbol
Axial grooved ball bearings, acting on one side, singlerow 51 10051

168
Axial bearing
51 200 51
252
51 305 51
330
51 405 51
440
120
Axial grooved ball bearings, acting on two sides 52 202 52
220
52 305 52
314
52 408 52
420
Radial grooved ball bearings without loading slots, singlerow 60 60/500
Radial bearings
607 609
623 626
627, 629
634, 635
6200 6244
6300 6330
Selfaligning ball bearings, doublerow 1200 1222
1204k
1222k
1300 1318
1340k
1318k
Cylindrical roller bearings with outside restraining flanges Nu 1005 NU

1020
121
NU 204 NU
264
NU 304 NU
348
NJ 204 NO
264
NJ 304 NJ
348
Needle bearings with needles in cages NA 4900 NA

4928
Bearing symbols
1 Bearing symbol
2 Year of manufacture
3 Distinguishing mark
4 Material
5 Country of manufacture
Designation example
Bore characteristic
(d = 44 5 = 220)
122
Bore diameter in mm Bore characteristic Example
39 Bore diameter in mm 609
10 00 62 00
12 01 62 01
15 02 62 02
17 03 62 03
20 480 1/5 bore diameter 62 44
(d = 44 5
= 220)
22, 28, 32 Bore diameter in mm
> 480 Separated by diagonal stroke from the symbol of the 60/500 bearing
series
17. Transmission elements
17.1. Shafts
17.1.1. Types of shafts
Classification Designation Function Explanation

aspect
Longitudinal Straight shafts simple transmission of rotary motions

section
Crankshafts conversion of rotary motions into straightline motions

and vice versa
Mobility Rigid shafts, articulated shafts like straight shafts compensation of parallel
displacement or angular displacement between the
central axes of two shafts
123
Flexible shafts drive of mechanical tools which must be freely
handled, multiple deflection of rotary motion
(tachometer)
Cross section Solid shafts in gears not requiring lightweight construction
Hollow shafts lightweight gears, spindles on machine tools for

passing material or tie bars
Profile shafts Transmission of the torque with longitudinal

displacement (sliding gears, cardan shaft)
124
17.1.2. Diameters of shafts (axle diameters)
Preferred dimensions, selection series
Ra5 Ra10 Ra20 R40 Ra5 Ra10 Ra20 R40
10 10 10 10 32 32 32
10.5 34
11 11 36 36
11.5 38
12 12 12 40 40 40 40
13 42
14 14 45 45
15 48
16 16 16 16 50 50 50
17 52
18 18 55 55
19 60
20 20 20 60 60 60 63
21 65
22 22 70 70
24 75
25 25 25 25 80 80 80
26 85
28 28 90 90
30 95
100 100 100 100 200 200 200
105 210
110 110 220 220
120 240
125
125 125 125 250 250 250 250
130 260
140 140 280 280
150 300
160 160 160 160 320 320 320
170 340
180 180 360 360
190 380
17.1.3. Cylindrical shaft ends (axle ends)
Designation according to application of Designation according to shape Explanation

force
easy to
manufacture and
install
Pivot (radial application of force)

End journal
frequently split
bearing shells
required,
timeconsuming
installation
Neck collar journal
unfavourable,
lubricating
conditions, since
there is slow
sliding speed at
the pivot point
Pivot journal (axial application of force)
Solid pivot journal
126
Pivot journal improved
lubricating
conditions 1 oil
duct
Ring pivot
changes in
angles of axles
and shafts have
not influence on
bearing
conditions
Ball journal
17.1.4. Shaft packings
Designation Explanation
only suitable for grease

lubrication (simple packing); oil
passes unhindered
Felt ring
127
prevents oil leakage; contact
force is increased by spring
washer (gear shafts)
1 inner ring, 2 spring washer, 3
casing, 4 gasket
Radial packing
prevents oil leakage and

penetration of dust (crankshafts)
1 space to be sealed
Radial packing with dustproof lip
turnedin grooves relieve

pressure stepwise to approx. 0
(pistons, centrifugal compressors)
1 pressure side, 2 pressure drop
Sealing grooves
oil is centrifuged by centrifugal

force and prevented from leaking
128
Oilthrower ring
17.2. Toothed gears
17.2.1. Quantities at the toothed gear
1 pitch circle
2 outside circle
t tooth pitch
(T = m ?)
m module
d0 pitch circle diameter
dk outside circle diameter
z number of teeth
m t m t m t
in mm in mm in mm in mm in mm in mm
0.3 0.942 2.75 8.639 9 28.274
0.4 1.257 3 9.425 10 31.416
0.5 1.571 3.25 10.210 11 34.558
0.6 1.885 3.5 10.996 12 37.699
0.7 2.199 3.75 11.781 13 40.841
129
0.8 2.513 4 12.566 14 43.982
0.9 2.827 4.5 14.137 15 47.124
1 3.142 5 15.708 16 50.265
1.25 3.927 5.5 17.279 18 56.449
1.5 4.712 6 18.850 20 62.832
1.75 5.488 6.5 20.420 22 69.115
2 6.283 7 21.991 24 75.398
2.25 7.069 8 25.133 27 84.823
2.5 7.854
17.2.2. Types of toothed wheel gearings
Representation complete simplified sym
Spur gears on parallel axes

Outside gears
1 spur gears, 2 helical gears

Inside gears
Spur gear with rack
130
1 straight teeth. 2 herringbone teeth
Helical gears
cylindrical crossed helical gears, crossing angle ? 90
Worm gear
cylindrical worm
Bevel wheel train

Shaft angle ?A = 90
131
17.2.3. Transmission ratios
Transmission ratio
Series i
R 10 1 1.25
R 20 1 1.12 1.25 1.40
R 40 1 1.06 1.12 1.18 1.25 1.32 1.40 1.50
R 10 1.60 2.00
R 20 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.24
R 40 1.60 1.70 1.80 1.90 2.00 2.12 2.24 2.36
R 10 2.50 3.15
R 20 2.50 2.80 3.15 3.55
R 40 2.50 2.65 2.80 3.00 3.15 3.35 3.55 3.75
132
R 10 4.00 5.00
R 20 4.00 4.50 5.00 5.60
R 40 4.00 4.25 4.50 4.75 5.00 5.30 5.60 6.00
R 10 6.30 8.00
R 20 6.30 7.10 8.00 9.00
R 40 6.30 6.70 7.10 7.50 8.00 8.50 9.00 9.50
18. Subdivision of test procedures
Term Explanation
Testing Comparison of workpieces in the respective stage of manufacture with the technical
specifications for dimensions, form, surface condition, hardness and strength
Nondimensional Comparison without auxiliary means, e.g. visual inspection, resonance test
testing
Dimensional testing Comparison with technical auxiliaries (testing tools); the workpiece is not changed
during testing
Measuring Test procedure for determining the dimensions of lengths or angles
Gauging Testing whether dimensions vary from the required measures only by a permissible
quantity (observance of the specified tolerance band),e.g. limit gauging, form
gauging.
18.1. Nondimensional testing
18.1.1. Spark testing
Test
The test specimen and the reference bar (steel grade known) must be pressed gently onto a medium grained,
hard grinding wheel (dia. = 250 mm; n = 1400 r.p.m)
Appearance of sparks
Carbon steel with
0.1 % C 0.4 % C 1.1 % C
133
1 few spearshaped lines, bright 2 bunch of spears denser than in 1. bright 3 bunch, thicker than in
yellow yellow 2, ramified, bright yellow
Alloyed tool steels with
1.5 % Si 2.0 % Mn 13 % Cr 2.0 % W
figure
figure
bright part shorter and brighter form as with 13, ray ray short, fine, ray long, interrupted
tan in 3, yellowishwhite brighter, bright yellow ramified, orange dark red lines
18.1.2. Bending test
Type of test Test Explanation

specimen
Double folding The test specimen gives an

test indication of the toughness of the
plate; cracks must not occur at the
outer bend radius
Specimen for Number of bends up to rupture from

reverse bend centre position to a right angle and
test back indicate the toughness of the
plate under bending stress
134
Specimen for Notch the specimen, clamp into vice and bend to Casehardened:
strength test and for until it ruptures fine grained barrier layer and fibrous
core;
hardened steel:
fine grained point of rupture of
velvetlike appearance;
unhardened steel:
coarse fibrous point of rupture;
workpiece cracked:
old point of rupture dark, new point
of rupture light
18.1.3. Other material tests
Type of test Test Explanation

specimen
Resonance Strike rods; plates, hollow bodies, Cracks and loose joints are recognizable by a
test screwed and riveted joints with a clinking sound; Structural steel: simple metal sound;
light hammer Tool steel: pure, continuous metal sound
Oil test Dip the workpiece into thin fluid oil Cracks on the surface are recognizable by
(100 180 C); then clean and darkcoloured spots (oil is absorbed by the powder)
dust with talc powder
Magnetic Place the workpiece into a Cracks or slag inclusions below the surface change
powder testing magnetic field and suspend with the magnetic field; chips collect here in larger
fine iron dust numbers
18.2. Dimensional testing
18.2.1. Measuring lengths
Steel ruler (1 mm)
Measuring range: 150 mm; 300 500 mm

Measuring accuracy: 0.5 mm
135
Vernier caliper (0.1 mm)
1 fixed arm, 2 movable arm, 3 rule with main division, 4 vernier
Measuring range: 120 mm 2000 mm

Measuring accuracy: 50 ?m
Used for external dimensions internal dimensions depth dimensions
External micrometer (0.01 mm)
136
1 anvil, 2 measuring spindle, 3 clamping device, 4 1 mm reading, 5 graduated drum, 6 ratchet
stop, 7 1/2 mm reading, 8 bow
Measuring range: 0 25 mm; 25 50 mm; 50 75 mm; up to 475 500 mm

Measuring accuracy: 5 ?m
18.2.2. Measuring angles
Goniometer with pointer (1)
When using a goniometer with pointer, the angle is measured on one side of the measuring leg and read on
the other side.
1 Measuring the angle on the workpiece, 2 reading the measured angle on the scale
Measuring range: 0 180

Measuring accuracy: 0.5
If the workpiece with the angle to be measured is placed on the right of the measuring leg, the measuring
value corresponds to the indicated value, measuring value = 79
137
If the workpiece with the angle to be measured is on the left of the measuring leg, the indicated value does not
correspond to the measuring value. The measuring value must be calculated by subtraction. 180 103,
measuring value = 77
Universal bevel protractor (5)
Main division and vernier of a universal bevel protractor 1 the main division is subdivided into 4 ranges of 90
each, one graduation mark corresponding to 1, 2 the vernier is subdivided in two directions of 60 each, one
graduation mark corresponding to 5
138
Measuring range: 0 180
Measuring accuracy: 5
Reading of the measuring value on the universal bevel protractor
a measuring value 4635

b measuring value 330
When reading the measuring value, starting from zero, the full degrees at the zero stroke of the vernier are
read on the main division, and the minutes are read in the same direction at the graduation mark of the vernier
which coincides with a graduation mark on the main division.
139
18.2.3. Limit gauging
Limit gauge
Includes the maximum and minimum dimension; tolerances and dimensional variations are marked
Limit gauge plug two test cylinders or plugs; cylinder diameter of the go end = minimum diameter, cylinder
diameter of the notgo end = maximum diameter
Limit snap gauge two test gaps; width of gap of the go end = maximum diameter, width of gap of the notgo
end = minimum diameter;
Notgo end is marked red
140
Use of limit gauges
Workpiece dimension between maximum and Workpiece dimension greater than maximum Workpiece dimen
minimum dimension dimension reworking dimension reject
Feeler gauge
Dimensional testing of narrow distances, e.g. when adjusting valves or set screws; in steps of 0.1 mm or 0.05
mm
Sheetiron gauge
The widening at the end of the slot receives the burr of the sheet; steps according to commercial sheet
thicknesses
141
Hole gauge
Rapid determination of the diameter of twist drills or wires
Block gauges
Prismatic steel pieces, hardened throughout, with polished gauging surfaces; plane and faces which are
parallel to each other embody a particular length; any dimensions can be achieved by joining the
corresponding gauge blocks
142
18.2.4. Form gauging
Hairline gauge
Conically ground measuring faces the measuring edge is somewhat rounded;
Test patterns:
Uniformly fine light gap the measuring face is plane.

Light gap is wider in the centre the measuring face is hollow.
Light gap is wider at the sides the measuring face is convex.
Light gap is irregular the measuring face is wavy
Squares
Design as solid steel squares (30, 45, 60. 90, 120), try squares, bevelled edge steel squares
143
Drill grinding gauge
Angle gauge for the drill bit
Roundness gauge
Measuring of internal and external roundnesses; measuring individually or joined to sets
Screwpitch gauge
Measuring external or internal threads
144
19. Fitting systems
19.1. Types of fits
Clearance fit
Sg maximum clearance,
Sk minimum clearance
The minimum size of the hole is greater than the maximum size of the shaft. After assembly, there is
clearance; it is possible to move the shaft in the bore.
Transition fit
Sg maximum clearance,
Ug maximum allowance for fit
The tolerance zones are superposed.
After assembly, clearance or compression is possible.
Interference fit
145
Ug maximum fit,
Ub minimum allowance for fit
The maximum size of the hole is smaller than the minimum size of the shaft.
After assembly there is compression. Shaft and hole are securely connected to each other.
19.2. Systems of fits, basic hole, basic shaft
In the system of fits, 21 tolerance zones are marked by letters of the alphabet. Capital letters are used for
marking the hole and small letters for marking the shaft.
Basic hole system
In the basic hole system a standard hole with uniform diameter is used.
Use: General mechanical engineering, tool manufacture
146
1 clearance fit,
2 transition fit,
3 interference fit,
4 clearance is increased,
5 fit becomes tighter,
6 nominal size,
7 clearance,
8 allowance for fit
The shafts a g are below the 0line. They are therefore smaller than the nominal size, thus having
clearance. The shafts h n are below or above the 0line. They are samller or greater than the nominal size,
thus having either clearance or allowance for fit. The shafts p z are above the 0line. They are greater than
the nominal size, thus having allowance for fit.
Basic shaft system
In the basic shaft system a standard shaft with uniform diameter is used.
Use: Office machines, textile machines, construction and agricultural machinery, lifting appliances and
conveying plants.
147
1 clearance fits,
2 transition fits,
3 interference fits,
4 clearance is increased,
5 fit becomes tighter,
6 nominal size,
7 clearance,
8 allowance for fit
Holes AG are above the 0line. They are therefore greater than the nominal size, thus having clearance.
The holes HN are above and below the 0line. They are greater or smaller than the nominal size, thus
having either clearance or allowance for fit. The holes P Z are below the 0line. They are smaller than the
nominal size, thus having allowance for fit.
19.3. Examples of fits
Example: dia. 30H11
148
Example: dia. 10r6
Nominal dimensional variations for holes (preferred series)
Range of nominal D11 F9 F8 H12 H11 H10 H8 H7 J7 J6 K7 K6 N7

dimensions mm
Nominal dimensions in ?m
over 1 + 80 + 32 + 21 + 90 + 60 + 40 + +9 +3 +3 4
to 3 + 20 +7 +7 +0 0 0 14 0 6 4
0 13
over 3 + + 40 + 28 + + 75 + 48 + + +5 +4 4
to 6 105 + 10 + 10 120 0 0 18 12 7 4
+ 30 0 0 0 16
over 6 + + 49 + 35 + + 90 + 58 + + +8 +5 +5 +2 4
to 10 130 + 13 + 13 150 0 0 22 15 7 4 7
+ 40 0 0 0 10 19
over 10 + + 59 + 43 + + + 70 + + + +6 +6 +2 5
to 14 160 + 16 + 16 180 110 0 27 18 10 5 9
+ 50 0 0 0 0 8 12 23
over 14
to 18
over 18 + + 72 + 53 + + + 84 + + + +8 +6 +2 7
to 24 195 + 20 + 20 210 130 0 33 21 12 5
+ 65 0 0 0 0 9 15 11 28
over 24
to 30
over 30 + + 87 + 64 + + + + + + + 10 +7 +3 0
to 40 240 + 25 + 25 250 160 100 39 25 14 6
+ 80 0 0 0 0 0 + 18 13 33
11
over 40
to 50
over 50 + + + 76 + + + + + + + 13 +9 +4 9
to 65 290 104 + 30 300 190 120 46 30 18 6
+ + 30 +0 0 0 0 0 21 15 39
100 12
over 65
to 80
over 80 + + + 90 + + + + + + + 16 + +4
to 100 340 123 + 36 350 220 140 54 35 22 6 10 10
+ + 36 0 0 0 0 0 18
120 13 25 45
over 100
to 120
149
over 120
to 140
over 140 + + + + + + + + + + 18 + +4
to 160 395 143 106 400 250 160 63 40 26 7 12 12
+ + 43 + 43 0 0 0 0 0 21
145 14 28 52
over 160
to 180
over 180
to 200
over 200 + + + + + + + + + + 22 + +5
to 225 460 165 122 460 290 185 72 46 30 7 13 14
+ + 50 + 50 0 0 0 0 0 24
170 16 33 60
over 225
to 250
over 250
to 280 + + + + + + + + + + 25 + +5
510 186 137 520 320 210 81 52 36 16 14
over 280 + + 56 + 56 0 0 0 0 0 7
to 315 190 16 36 27 66
over 315
to 355 + + + + + + + + + + 29 + +7
570 202 151 570 360 230 89 57 39 17 18
over 355 + + 62 + 62 0 0 0 0 0 7
to 400 210 18 40 29 73
over 400
to 450 + + + + + + + + + + 33 + +8
630 223 165 630 400 250 97 63 43 18 17
over 450 + + 68 + 68 0 0 0 0 0 7
to 500 230 20 45 32 80
Nominal dimensionsal variations for shafts (some preferred series)
Range of nominal D11 D9 E8 F9 F7 H12 H11 H8 H7 H6 J6 K6 N6

dimensions mm
Nominal dimensions in mm
over 1 20 20 14 7 7 0 0 0 0 0 +6 +
to 3 80 45 28 32 16 90 60 9 7 1 13
14 +6
over 3 30 30 20 10 10 0 0 0 0 0 +7 +
to 6 60 38 40 22 75 8 1 16
105 120 18 12 +8
over 6 40 40 25 13 13 0 0 0 0 0 +7 + +
to 10 76 47 49 28 90 9 2 10 19
130 150 22 15 +1 +
10
over 10 50 50 32 16 16 0 0 0 0 0 +8 + +
to 14 93 59 59 34 3 12 23
160 180 110 27 18 11 +1 +
150
12
over 14
to 18
over 18 65 65 40 20 20 0 0 0 0 0 +9 + +
to 24 73 72 41 4 15 28
195 117 210 130 33 21 13 +2 +
15
over 24
to 30
over 30 80 80 50 25 25 0 0 0 0 0 + + +
to 40 89 87 50 11 18 33
240 142 250 160 39 25 16 5 +2 +
17
over 40
to 50
over 50 60 30 30 0 0 0 0 0 + + +
to 65 100 100 60 12 21 39
106 104 300 190 46 30 19 7 +2 +
290 174 20
over 65
to 80
over 80 72 36 36 0 0 0 0 0 + + +
to 100 120 120 71 13 25 45
123 123 350 220 54 35 22 9 +3 +
340 207 23
over 100
to 120
over 120 85 43 43 0 0 0 0 0 + + +
to 140 145 145 83 14 28 52
148 143 400 250 63 40 25 +3 +
395 245 11 27
over 140
to 160
over 160
to 180
over 180 50 50 0 0 0 0 0 + + +
to 200 170 170 100 96 16 33 60
165 460 290 72 46 29 +4 +
460 285 172 13 31
over 200
to 225
over 225
to 250
over 250 56 56 0 0 0 0 0 + + +
to 280 190 190 110 16 36 66
186 108 520 320 81 52 32 +4 +
510 320 191 16 34
over 280
to 315
151
over 315 62 62 0 0 0 0 0 + + +
to 355 210 210 125 18 40 73
202 119 570 360 89 57 36 +4 +
570 350 214 18 37
over 355
to 400
over 400 68 68 0 0 0 0 0 + + +
to 450 230 230 135 20 45 80
223 131 630 400 97 63 40 +5 +
630 385 232 20 40
over 450
to 500
20. Scribing
20.1. Types of scribing
Scribing according to reference edge
The reference edge is a wellprepared edge of the workpiece to which all dimensions are referred.
Scribing according to the reference line
152
The reference line is a scribed line on the workpiece to which all dimensions are referred.
Scribing according to reference surface
The reference surface is a plane surface of the workpiece to which all dimensions are referred.
153
Scribing with scribing block
Scribing with scratch gauge
Scribing according to template
154
20.2. Notes on scribing
The material used for the scriber is important
Scriber Workpiece
Steel (hardened) rough or rough machined
Brass finishmachined
Graphite notchsensitive, (surfacerefined, light metal, plastic)

Guiding the scriber
155
Making punch marks
Set the centre punch exactly on the scribed line straight scribed line large distance between the punch
marks curbed scribed line short distance between the punch marks
Scribing of spacings with the compass
156
Do not punch until the last markings of the spacings coincide.
21. Fundamental forming by casting
21.1. Shrinkage measures
Shrinkage measure Material

in %
1.0 1.5 aluminium cast alloys (AlMg)
1.0 1.2 aluminium cast alloys (AlSi)
1.5 leadbronze, leadtinbronze (CuPb)
0 nodular cast iron (GGG), ferritic annealed
0.3 nodular cast iron (GGG), ferriticpearlitic annealed
0.8 1.0 nodular cast iron (GGG), in the cast state or pearlitic annealed
1.0 cast iron with laminated graphite (GGL)
1.85 cast copper
1.6 2.2 special brass (CuZn), aluminium bronze, multicomponent aluminium bronze
2.0 2.5 cast steel, highalloy (CrNi, Mn cast steel)
2.0 cast steel, unalloyed, lowalloy
0.5 1.5 malleable cast iron, pearlitic (GTP)
0 1.0 blackhaert malleable cast iron (GTS)
1.0 2.0 whiteheart malleable cast iron (GTW)
1.5 tinbronze (CuSn), red brass (CuSnZn), cast brass
157
21.2. Machining allowances for castings
21.2.1. Cast steel, allowances for external surfaces
Nominal Allowances per surface in mm

size
in mm
Maximum hand moulded machine moulded

size of the
casting (1,
b, h or dia.)
over to bottom side top bottom side top
160 4 4 6 3 4 6
160 250 5 5 7 4 4 7
250 400 6 6 8 5 5 8
400 630 7 7 9 6 6 9
630 1000 8 8 10 7 7 10
21.2.2. Cast steel, allowances for holes and openings

sizes
in mm
Lengths of the holes and

openings in mm
Max. inside over

diameter or
max. internal
dimension
250 400 630 1000 1600
to
250 400 630 1000 1600 2000
over to
80 160 7 9
160 250 8 10 12 14 16
250 400 9 11 13 15 17 19
400 630 10 12 14 16 18 20
630 1000 11 13 15 17 19 21
21.2.3. Grey cast iron and malleable cast iron, allowances

sizes
in mm
hand moulded machine

moulded
158
over to bottom side top bottom side top
40 2 3 2 2
40 100 2 3 2 3
100 160 3 4 3 4
160 250 3 5 3 4
250 400 4 6 3 5
400 630 5 7 4 6
630 1000 6 9 5 7
21.2.4. Light metal cast alloys, allowances

sizes
in mm
hand moulded machine

moulded
over to bottom side top bottom side top chill casting
100 2 2 1.5 1.5 1.5
100 160 2.5 2.5 2 2 1.5
160 250 2.5 2.5 2 2.5 2
250 400 3 3 2.5 3 2.5
400 630 3.5 3.5 3 3.5 3
630 1000 4.5 3.5 3.5 4 3.5
22. Forming
22.1. Mechanical bevelling
Bend radius Minimum length of leg in mm

in mm for plate thickness in mm of
1 1.5 2.5 4 6 10 16
1 4
1.2 4 6
1.6 4 6
2 6 6
2.5 6 6 8
3 6 8 10
4 8 8 10 12
5 8 8 10 14
6 8 10 12 14 18
159
8 10 12 14 16 22
10 12 14 16 18 22 32
20 22 25 25 28 32 40 60
40 45 50 55 60 80
50 60 60 80 90
22.2. Bending
22.2.1. Bend radii
Bend radius r in mm
1.0; 1.2; 1.6; 2.0; 2.5; 3.0; 4.0;
5.0; 6.0; 8.0; 10.0; 12.0; 16.0; 20.0;
25.0; 28.0; 32.0; 36.0; 40.0; 45.0; 50.0;
63.0; 80.0; 100.0; 110.0; 125.0; 140.0; 160.0;
180.0; 200.0;
In the roundness, the thickness is reduced by about 20 %.
22.2.2. Radius of the neutral layer
Figure Calculation
1. r > 5s
neutral layer is in the centre of the
workpiece
1 neutral layer 2. r < 5s

R radius of the neutral layer neutral layer is shifted to the inside of the
r bend radius bending point
s thickness of the workpiece
22.2.3. Extended length
Figure Calculation (rule of thumb)
160
r > 5s
L = l1 + l2 + l3
22.2.4. Instruction for bending
Before bending carry out a bending test with the material used; one lot of material may exhibit different
behaviour to another.
Before bending, always determine the extended length.
The bending edge should not be in the direction of rolling; if this is unavoidable, larger bend radii should be
used.
Do not scribe the bending points with a steel scriber.
Place the seams of welded pipes into the neutral layer.
22.3. Forging
22.3.1. Forging temperatures
Material Average forging temperatures
Structural steel 700 1200 C
Tool steel 850 1000 C
Highspeed steel 1000 1200 C
Aluminium 500 C
AlCuMgalloys 440 C
AlMgalloys 400 C
AlMgSialloys 450 C
Copper 850 C
Brass 750 C
Mg alloys 380 C
22.3.2. Annealing colours
Forging colour Forging temperature Remarks

in C
161
Bluish black 250 300 danger of rupture
Bluish grey 350 425
Red (in the dark) 450 525 slight forming operations
Dark red 550 700
Dark cherryred 700 780 forging and hardening of tool

steels
Cherryred 780 825
Bright cherryred 825 850
Bright red 875 structural steels
Yellowish red 950
Orange 1000 alloyed steels
Yellow 1200
White 1300 forge welding
White with over sparks 1400 steel burns
22.3.3. Temper colours
Temper colour Temperature in C Example of use
Pale yellow 200 Measuring tools
Light yellow 220 tools (drills)
Dark yellow 240 thread taps, cutting tools,

milling cutters
Yellowish brown 250 centre punches
Brownish red 260 cutting and shearing tools,

hammers
Purple 270 chisels
Violet 290 springs
Cyaneous 300 woodworking tools, springs
Light blue 310 metal saws
Greyish blue 320 files
Grey 330 dies, riveting tools

The temper colours are reference values for the temperatures indicated since they depend on the material
and the rate of heating.
23. Separating
23.1. Chiseling
162
23.1.1. Design and types of chisels
1 cutting edge
2 head
3 shank
? = 30 70
Chisels are made of unalloyed tool steel with a carbon content of 0.9 %; cutting edge forged, hardened,
ground and tempered; Weight of hammer: weight of chisel = 2: 1
Types of chisels
Flat chisel Crosscut chisel Gouge Slotting bit Separating c
23.1.2. Working techniques for chiseling
Separating with the chisel
163
Chiseling off a sheet strip
Cutting out a bend
Cutting out a corner roundness
164
Cutting out straps
Cutting with the chisel
Chiseling a groove
Chiseling a surface
165
23.2. Shearing
23.2.1. Types and use of shears
Types of shears Use
for short cuts;

suitable workpiece
thicknesses:
steel 0.5 1;
brass 0.8;
copper 1.2 2.5;
zinc 1.6;
1 shear blade
2 limit of lift
Hand plate shears
for curved cuts;

for thickness of
workpiece,
see above
Punching shears
for long straight cuts;

for thickness of
workpiece, see above
Through shears
for plates, panels, bends
1 upper shear blade

2 lower shear blade
Plate shears
166
for steel plate up to
about 6 mm thick;
cuttingwedge angle
? = 75 85;
cutting gap angle:
b = 0.05 s for soft
materials
b = 0.1 s for hard
materials
1 hand lever,
2 lever locking device,
3 frame, 4 holddown,
5 shear blade
Hand lever shears
23.2.2. Shearing strength of materials
Material Shearing strength in MPa
Aluminium
soft 70 90
hard 130 160
Lead 20 30
Bronze
soft 220 400
hard 400 600
Artificial 25 30
resin
Copper
soft 180 220
hard 250 300
Brass
soft 220 300
hard 350 400
Zinc 120 200
167
Tin 30 40
23.3. Sawing
23.3.1. Hand sawing
Design of the hand hacksaw
1 handle,
2 clamp dog.
3 saw frame,
4 wing nut for clamping
? clearance angle
? cuttingwedge angle
? rake angle
Saw pitches for hand saw blades
Designation Number of Shape Use

teeth on a
length of 25
mm
Coarse 14 16 Soft steel, aluminium,

copper, plastic, moulded
material
Medium 22 Medium hard steel, hard

light metals, brass;
sectional steel, sections,
thickwalled pipes
Fine 32 Hard materials,

Thinwalled pipes, weak
sections
Instructions for sawing
Clamp the saw blade so that the teeth point in the direction of sawing.
168
Assist the start of sawing by notching the rear edge of the workpiece with a triangular file.
Select the correct number of strokes (50 60 double strokes per minute)
Utilize the full length of the saw blades.
Relieve the saw of load in the return stroke.
Do not saw pipes straight through; turn them during sawing.
23.3.2. Mechanical sawing
Cutting speed when using a curcular saw
Material Strength in MPa ?B Cutting speed in m/min
Structural steel 340 420 26 28
over 420 550 24 26
over 500 600 22 24
over 600 700 18 20
over 700 850 14 16
Alloyed steel 750 800 14 16
over 800 850 12 15
over 900 950 10 14
over 950 1050 9 12
over 1050 1200 8 10
Cast steel 400 500 18 20
over 500 600 14 16
over 600 8 10
Aluminium 300 500
Bronze 80 120
Grey cast iron 150 220 14 18
over 220 300 12 15
Copper 100 200
Zinc 150 300
Brass
Cutting speed when using a band saw
Material Strength in MPa ?B Cutting speed in m/min
Copper 100 200
Brass light metal 400 1200
Steel over 600 30 40
600 800 20 30
169
800 1200 15 20
over 1200 10 15
Laminated plastic 300 900
23.4. Filing
23.4.1. Design of files
1 handle
2 tang
3 nominal length
4 workpiece
5 chip space
6 chips
Files are made of carbon steel (0.9 1.5 % C) or alloyed steel (Mn, Si, Cu); cutting wedges are cut or milled.
23.4.2. Designation of files
Cut no. Designation Number of cuts

on a file length
of 10 mm at a
nominal length
in mm of
100 200 375
0 rough file 10 7.1 5
1 bastard file 14 10 7.1
2 roughfinishing file 22.4 16 11.2
3 smoothcut file 31.5 22.4 16
170
4 fine smoothcut file 45 31.5
5 finest smoothcut file 63 45
23.4.3. File crosssections
Crosssection Designation Cut no. Nominal length in mm
knifeedge file 25 100 250
round file 05 100 450
halfround file 05 100 450
cant file 15 80 200
crossing file 15 80 200
flat file 05 100 450
square file 15 100 450
triangular file 15 100 450
23.4.4. Instructions for filing
Carefully lay the files next to each other, as otherwise the hardened teeth can break out.
Clamp the workpiece as short as possible.
Do not file hardened workpieces.
Degrease the workpieces for filing.
Check that the file handle fits tightly on the tang
Clean greased files with a brass plate at right angles to the direction of cut
Hold the file correctly
23.5. Flame cutting
23.5.1. Cuttable materials
Material cuttable up to Preheating temperature

(alloying elements)
Chrome steel 1.5 % Cr cold cuttable
Carbon steel ?2%C
171
Manganese steel 13 % Mn + 1.3 % C
Nickel steel 34 % Ni + 0.5 % Cu
Silicon steel 4 % Si + 0.2 % C
Coppered steel 0.7 % Cu
Titanium
Titanium alloys
Tungsten steel 10 % W + 55 % Cr + 0.2 % Ni + 0.8 % C
Chrome steel 1.5 10 % Cr hot cuttable
Carbon steel 2 2.5 % C above 200 C
Tungsten steel 10 17 % W
23.5.2. Reference values for oxyacetylene cutting
Plate thickness Cutting speed Nozzle elevation Nozzle sizes in mm

in mm in mm/min in mm
Cutting nozzle Heating nozzle
3 10 600 360 23 3 10 3 25
15 25 380 240 24 10 25
30 50 280 170 35 25 50 25 80
60 80 20 140 35 50 80
100 120 165 125 46 80 120 80 180
140 180 145 115 48 120 180
200 240 130 108 6 10 180 240 180 300
300 100 115 8 12 240 300
Plate thickness in Oxygen pressure consumption in Acetylene Hydrogen

mm in MPa l/m consumption in l/m consumption
in l/m
3 10 0.15 36 79 3.5 10 17 48
15 25 0.25 92 208 15 31 61 125
30 50 0.35 208 530 30 64 119 255
60 80 0.5 525 975 59 96 236 386
100 120 0.65 1310 1630 89 126 353 507
140 180 0.75 1640 2640 115 156 460 626
200 240 0.85 2590 3700 144 183 575 732
300 0.9 1.0 5000 4350 212 184 850 735
23.6. Drilling
172
23.6.1. Types of drills
Type of drill (selection) Use
Twist drills suitable for most holes; special drills for specific work include deephole twist
drills or pin hole drills
Multicut stepped drills mainly for countersinking; drilling and countersinking are carried out in one
operation
Singlelip drills (simple for deep boring (there must already be low depth bores)
Dbit)
Centre drills for centering workpieces (the tool is a drill and countersink at the same time)
23.6.2. Design of twist drills
Design
1 shank, 2 margin, 3 helical groove, 4 main cutting edge, 5 chisel edge, d = 0.3 100 mm
Designation of angles
173
? clearance angle,
? cuttingwedge angle,
? rake angle,
? complementary angle of the chisel edge angle,
? point angle
23.6.3. Point angles of twist drills
Workpiece material Point angle in Workpiece material Point angle in

Hard rubber 40 Electron 130
Marble, slate 60 Copper, lead, brass 140
Compression moulding material, thermosetting 90 Al alloy strong, tough 150

plastic steel
Steel, cast steel 118 thin sheets 160
23.6.4. Speed and feed for drilling
Material Drill diameter in mm (highspeed steel)
1 3 5 8 10 12,5 15 20 25 30 40 50
Speed in 1/min
Feed in mm/revolution
174
St34, St42 7100 2800 1800 1400 925 700 600 450 350 300 280 224
C15 manual 0,05 0,1 0,2 0,22 0,3 0,35 0,3 0,8 0,4 0,4 0,5
St60, C45 4500 1800 1400 900 710 400 380 355 280 224 180 180
manual 0,04 0,08 0,1 0,2 0,2 0,25 0,28 0,3 0,36 0,4 0,4
Mn and CrNi 3000 1800 1400 900 700 600 400 355 280 224 180 140
alloyed steels (?B = manual 0,04 0,08 0,18 0,2 0,22 0,3 0,3 0,3 0,33 0,4
700 850 MPa)
Grey cast 4500 1800 1400 900 710 500 400 355 224 180 140 120
iron Malleable cast manual 0,05 0,11 0,2 0,2 0,22 0,2 0,3 0,35 0,4 0,5 0,56
iron
Brass 11200 4500 3550 2240 1800 1000 900 800 560 400 400 350
manual 0,05 0,11 0,2 0,22 0,3 0,3 0,3 0,4 0,4 0,5 0,56
Copper 11200 4500 3550 2200 1800 1400 1200 900 700 560 450 355
manual 0,04 0,08 0,1 0,2 0,25 0,28 0,2 0,3 0,3 0,4 0,4
Aluminium 14000 7100 5600 3550 2800 2000 1800 1400 1000 900 710 560
alloys manual 0,05 0,1 0,2 0,22 0,25 0,28 0,3 0,32 0,4 0,45 0,5
Magnesium 14000 9000 7100 5600 4500 3500 2800 2240 1800 1400 1120 900
alloys manual 0,09 0,1 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,6 0,7 0,7 0,8 0,9
Compression 5600 2240 1400 1120 900 750 550 450 380 280 224 180
moulding materials manual 0,03 0,06 0,12 0,14 0,15 0,2 0,2 0,25 0,26 0,28 0,28
and fabric reinforced
laminates
The speeds indicated here are maximum values; the feed applies to the next greater hole diameter in each
case. The maximum possible speed should be adjusted for diameters from 13 mm. When using the
indicated values, maximum conditions must be provided; if this cannot be achieved, the corresponding
reductions should be made and the next lower speed selected. Casting, forging and rolling crusts are taken
into account by adjusting to the next lower speed.
23.6.5. Instructions for drilling
Use the correct ground surface of the drill.
Hold the drill tightly and check for unbalance.
Clamp the workpiece, but do not deform it.
Predrill holes with a large diameter with a smaller drill
Always use a taper drift for loosening drills with a tapershank.
Ensure cooling when drilling holes (drilling fluid, compressed air, air); use short drills for short drill holes.
23.7. Countersinking
175
23.7.1. Types of countersinks
Countersink
Flat countersink
Spiral countersink
176
Head countersink
Form countersink
Combined drill and countersink
Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure
23.7.2. Instructions for countersinking
Clamp the workpiece and tool tightly.
Lubricate the pilot pin of the head countersinks and the countersinking tool with pilot.
If chatter marks occur, adjust to the next lower speed.
177
When countersinking thin workpieces, particularly observe the hole: countersink ratio.
When operating with pinguided countersinks, make the pilot hole with a diameter which is only 0.2 mm
greater; so not bore until it is necessary.
23.7.3. Cutting speed and feed for countersinking
Material of workpiece Type of countersink Cutting speed

in m/min for
tools of
WS SS
Red brass Z 12 15 25
30
Brass S 16 18 35
40
Aluminium Z 68 8
12
Grey cast iron S 6 10 12

18
Steel Z 68 8
12
Cast steel S 8 10 10
20
Malleable cast iron

Hard bronze
S spiral countersink WS tool steel
Z countersinking tools with pilots SS highspeed steel

Explanation to the figure on page 206
Rake angle ? = 0 Clearance angle ? = 5 8
Cutting angle ? = 90 Cuttingwedge angle ?

The surface quality and dimensional accuracy are improved by reaming (reamed holes as bearings, for the
reception of fitting pins, etc.).
Type of Speed in mm/revolution for drill

countersink diameters in mm
10 15 16 25 26 40 41 60
WS SS WS SS WS SS WS SS
Z 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
Z 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
S 0.2 0.25 0.25 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5
S 0.2 0.25 0.25 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5
Z 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.15 0.15 0.2 0.15 0.2
178
0.1 0.15 0.15 0.25 0.25 0.35 0.35 0.45
to to to to to to to to
0.15 0.25 0.25 0.35 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
23.8. Reaming
23.8.1. Design of reamers
1 Cutting direction,
2 margin,
3 square,
4 shank,
5 chamfer
23.8.2. Cutting speed and feed for reaming
Material of workpiece Reamer of tool steel highspeed steel
V in m/min s in mm/rev. V in m/min s in

mm/rev.
Bronze, soft 68 0.8 1.5 10 12 0.8 1.5
Bronze, hard 56 0.6 1 8 10 0.6 1
Cast brass 20 25 0.8 2 25 30 1 2.5
Basis brass 8 12 0.4 1.2 12 17 1 2.5
Steel
up to 500 MPa 45 0.3 0.8 56 0.3 0.8
500 750 MPa 34 0.3 0.8 45 0.3 0.8
Grey cast iron
120 180 MPa 45 0.5 3 6 0.5 3
180 300 MPa 34 0.5 3 56 0.5 3
179
Malleable cast
iron
soft 45 0.5 3 6 0.5 3
hard 34 0.5 1 56 0.5 3
Cast steel
soft 34 0.5 1 56 0.5 1
rigid 3 0.5 0.8 5 0.5 0.8

V cutting speed, s feed
23.8.3. Instructions for reaming
The hole made by other processes must be about 0.1 0.2 mm smaller than the reamed final size.
Chatter marks (marks on the surface of the hole) can be avoided if reamers with an unequal number of
cutting edges are used.
Choose a relatively low cutting speed and a great feed.
Holes with a groove should be reamed with twisted reamers only.
Never turn reamers opposite to the cutting direction (cutting edges break out).
Keep the reamer only in its protective sheathing.
23.9. Thread cutting
23.9.1. Thread profiles
Metric ISO thread Whitworth

pipe thread
Acme thread Knuckle

thread
Sawtooth thread Flat thread
23.9.2. Thread cutting tools
Thread cutting tools Explanation
for internal thread
180
twopiece or threepiece with different
diameters and different lengths of bevel
lead; threepiece serial tap (entering tap,
plug tap and third tap)
1 threaded part, 2 shank,

3 designation of thread,
4 chip grooves, 5 bevel lead
Serial tap
Tap wrenches used for clamping the taps

Singlehole tap wrenches
Adjustable tap wrench
for external threads
can be used manually and mechanically;

slotted threading dies can be adjusted
and readjusted.
Threading dies
mainly used for thread diameters of 12

mm
1 bolt die,
2 holder
Thread die stock
23.9.3. Diameters of screw taps and punches for tappingsize holes
Thread Drill diameter in mm Punch diameter in mm
M 1.7 1.3 1.35
181
M 2.6 2.1 2.2
M3 2.5 2.56
M4 3.3 3.3
M5 4.2 4.2
M6 5 5
M8 6.7 6.75
M 10 8.4 8.5
M 12 10
M 16 13.75
M 20 17.25
M 24 20.75
M 30 26
M 36 31.5
23.9.4. Cutting speed for cutting threads
Worked material Cutting speed in m/min for
tool steel Highspeed

steel
Unalloyed steel
up to 700 MPa 37 9 15
over 700 MPa 23 58
Cast steel 23 57
Malleable cast iron 2 56
Grey cast iron
hard 35 8 12
soft 68 12 16
Alloyed steel
700 900 MPa 12 57
Aluminium alloys 12 20 20 30
Bronze 6 12 13 25
Magnesium 15 20 25 30
23.9.5. Instructions for cutting threads
Cutting internal threads
Ensure proper starting of the thread tap by previous countersinking (approx. 60, at least by one height of
pitch) of the tappingsize hole.
Apply the thread tap vertically to the tappingsize hole.
182
Use coolants and refrigerants in accordance with the material.
To remove the chips and feed the lubricant, turn the thread tap back in the direction of cutting for a short
time, then forward again.
When cutting threads in blind holes avoid contact between the thread tap and the bottom of the drilled hole.
Cutting external threads
Chamfer the bolt end by about 60.
When starting the cut, place the threading die or the thread diestock horizontally onto the bolt end.
Start cutting the thread with a slight pressure in the direction of the bolt, then continue cutting without
pressure.
Use appropriate coolants and lubricants.
To remove the chips and feed the lubricant, turn the thread cutting tool from time to time in the opposite
direction to cutting for a short period.
23.10. Turning
23.10.1. Operating process for turning
Operating process Explanation
Turning cutting motion (1); the tool is fed in the radial

direction (3) by cutting depth a; feed in axial direction (2);
circular cylindrical faces are formed
Longitudinal turning
Turning cutting motion (1); the tool is fed in the axial

direction (3) by cutting depth a; feed in radial direction
(2); plane faces are formed
Facing
183
Turning cutting motion (1); cutting width a corresponds to
the width of the turning tool; feed in radial direction; plane
and cylindrical faces are formed (Use: recessing annular
grooves, cuttingoff workpieces)
Recess turning
23.10.2. Designation of turning tools
Example Explanation
Turning tools are mainly standardized (nationally and internationally). The

designation lefthand turning tool aplies when the primary cutting edge
is on the left; similarly, in the righthand turning tool, the primari cutting
edge is on the right. The nose must face towards the viewer and the top
face must point upward.
1 primary cutting edge,

2 secondary cutting edge
Lefthand turning tool
23.10.3. Types of turning tools
Type Explanation Type Explanation
for longitudinal turning, used like the straight

possibly facing, mainly turning tool; advantage:
for turning external can be used for facing
diameters without resetting
straight turning tool bent turning tool
184
for working internal faces for working internal plane
(holes) surfaces
internal turning tool internal corner turning

tool
for finishmachining for turning workpieces

external surfaces cylindrically along the
outside or recessing wide
grooves
pointed turning tool Broad turning tool
for universal use for cutting grooves,

(longitudinal turning, cutting off workpieces
facing, corner turning); in (with of tool = width of
particular for turning groove = infeed)
collars, shoulders
offset sidecutting
Cutoff turning tool
turning tool
cutting grooves in simple tool for making

hollow bodies, holes threads, suitable for
internal and external
threads
internal recessing turning
185
tool
Singlepoint threading
tool
23.10.4. Tool angles for turning
Turning tools of highspeed steel
Material Angles Material Angles

in in
? ? ? ?
Aluminium alloy 12 14 Bronze 8 0
Cast iron 8 0 Red brass 8 0
Fabric reinforced Pure aluminium 12 30
laminate 12 14 St 3470 8 14
Hard rubber 12 10 St 85 8 10
White cast iron 8 0 Cast steel
Copper 8 18 500 MPa 8 10
500 to 700 MPa 8 10
Alloyed steel Malleable cast iron
700 to 850 MPa 8 14 8 10
850 to 1000 MPa 8 10
1000 to 1800 MPa 8 6 Tool steel 8 6
Magnesium alloy 8 6 Zinc alloy 12 10

Turning tools with hard metal
Material Strength in Roughmachining Angles in Finishmachining Angles in

MPa or hard metal grade hard metal
hardness
? ? ? grade ? ? ?
Structural ? 500 HS20, HS40 6 10 5 HS01, HS10 6 12

steel 4
6
Cast iron ? 200 HB HG20 6 6 HG20, 6 6
186
0
6 4
> 200 HB HG10 6 0 6 HG01, HG10 6 4

4 4
White cast HG10 6 0 6 HG10 6 0

iron 4
Copper HG20 8 10 4 HG20 8 15

4
12
Alloyed 700 850 HS20, HS40 6 6 5 HS01, HS10 6 8

steels 8 4
6
850 1000 HS20, HS40 6 6 6 HS01, HS10 6 6

4
8
1000 1400 HS20, HS30 6 0 8 HS01, HS10 6 4

4 4
Pure HG20 8 20 4 HG20 8 25

aluminium 4
Cast steel 500 700 HS20, HS40 6 2 6 HS01, HS10 6 6

4 4
Tool steel 1500 1800 HS20 6 0 6 HS01, HS10 6 2

4
23.10.5. Cutting speed and feed for turning
Material to be Cutting speed in m/min for

machined
Highspeed steel Hard metal
Roughmachining Finishmachining Roughmachining Finishmachining
St 33, St 34, C 10, CK 26 40 130 180

10
C 15, C 20, St 50, St 52, 23 35 115 160

St 55
C 35, C 45, St 60, CK 45 20 30 100 140
C 45, C 55, C 60, St 70 17 25 90 120
Alloyed steels, tool steel 10 15 30 45
Grey cast iron 20 30 75 110
Malleable cast iron 15 22 50 75
White cast iron 10 15 20 40
Copper 50 75 250 350
Red brass 50 75 250 350
Brass 34 50 170 240
Bronze 26 40 130 180
187
Aluminium 200 300 1000 1500
Aluminium alloys 400 600 1500 2000
Aluminium alloys, hard 100 200 200 500
Aluminiumsiliconalloys 75 150 200 300
Magnesium alloys 200 400 1000 2000
Fabric reinforced 50 150 100 200

laminate
Artificial resins 100 300 200 400

The values for the cutting speed apply to feeds of 0.5 to 2 mm per revolution (roughmachining) and 0.1 0.5
mm per revolution (finishmachining).
23.11. Milling
23.11.1. Operating process for milling
Milling opposite to the direction of rotation. The chip is cut

at the thinnest point; the tool slides on the workpiece
(bright, wavy surface)
Upcut milling
1 cutting speed, 2 feed motion
Milling in the direction of rotation. The chip is cut at the

thickest point and then torn off (dull, rough surface); high
labour productivity owing to high cutting speed and feeds
Downcut milling
23.11.2. Types of milling cutters
188
Cylindrical cutter
Endmilling cutters
End face mill
Side and face milling cutter
Angular mill
189
End mill cutter for Tgrooves
End mill cutter for grooves and oblong holes
Tooth milling cutter
Equalangle cutter
190
23.11.3. Cutting speed and feed for milling
Material Milling Cutting speed in m/min for

depth in
mm
Cylindrical End End mill Side and face Form

cutters face cutters milling cutters cutters
mills
St 50, 1 24 30 22 26 20 24 18 24 18 22
C 35 5 22 28 18 24 18 22 16 20 16 20
8 18 22 14 18 14 18 12 16 12 16
St 70 1 20 22 18 20 18 20 18 20
C 60 5 16 20 14 18 16 18 14 18 14 18
8 14 16 12 14 14 16 12 14 13 14
20 Mn Cr 5 1 24 28 24 26 20 24 18 20 18 20
5 20 24 20 24 16 20 14 18 14 18
8 16 20 18 20 12 16 10 14 10 14
Feed in mm/ revolution 0.18 0.22 0.18 0.05 0.06 0.04

0.2 0.08
Cast steel 1 18 22 20 24 20 22 18 22 18 22
GS 45 5 14 18 14 22 16 20 14 18 14 16
8 10 14 12 14 14 16 10 14 10 14
Grey cast 1 18 22 20 22 20 22 18 22 16 20
iron 5 14 18 16 20 16 20 14 20 14 18
GG 18 8 10 14 14 16 14 16 10 14 10 14
Feed in mm/ revolution 0.2 0.18 0.06 0.08 0.05
Copper 1 45 60 45 55 45 55 45 60 45 60
5 30 50 40 50 30 50 30 50 25 40
8 25 35 30 40 24 30 25 30 20 25
Feed in mm/revolution 0.20 0.22 0.05 0.10 0.05
Brass 1 45 60 50 60 50 60 45 60 45 60
MS 72 5 30 50 35 55 35 55 30 50 30 60
8 25 35 30 35 30 35 25 35 25 30
Bronze 1 45 55 45 55 50 60 45 55 40 45
G Cu Sn 14 5 30 45 35 50 35 55 30 45 40 45
8 20 30 30 35 30 35 20 30 20 25
Pure aluminium 1 300 350 350 400 300 350 250 300
191
350
400
5 250 300 300 300 350 250 300 200 250

350
8 200 250 250 250 300 250 300 150 200

300
Magnesium alloys 1 400 450 400 400 450 400 450 400 450
450
5 300 400 300 300 400 300 400 300 450

400
8 250 300 250 250 300 250 300 250 300

300
Special aluminium 1 350 400 400 275 325 350 400 350 400
alloys 450
5 280 350 300 250 300 280 350 280 350

400
8 240 280 250 200 250 240 280 240 280

300
Artificial resin, Kraft 1 45 60 50 60 45 55 45 55 45 55

paper, moulded material
5 30 50 35 55 30 50 30 50 30 50
8 25 35 30 35 25 30 25 30 25 30
23.12. Planing, slotting
23.12.1. Operating process for planing and slotting
Cutting motion (1) by workpiece, feed

motion (2) by tool; machining of long,
narrow parts (e.g. guideways)
Horizontal planing
192
Cutting motion (1) by tool, feed motion
(2) by workpiece; machining of individual
parts, smaller workpieces
Horizontal slotting
Cutting motion (1) by tool, feed motion

(2) by workpiece; finishing of openings
and grooves when the hole already
exists
Vertical slotting
23.12.2. Types of planing tools
Straight and bent planing tool
193
Side plane
Machining vertical surfaces and
sharpedged shoulders
Cutting plane
Production of Ushaped grooves with
low requirements made on the surface
quality
Grooving plane
Production of Tshaped grooves with low
requirements made on the surface
quality
194
Angle plane
Making acuteangled corners, sharp
shoulders and dovetail grooves
23.12.3. Cutting speed and feed for planing and slotting (highspeed tool steel)
Material Characteristics Cutting speed per in m/min when planing with feed
double stroke in mm
0.16 0.20 0.25 0.32 0.40 0.50 0.63 0.80 1.0 1.2 1.6 2.0
St 38. St42 ?60 42 39 36 34 32 30 27 25 24 22 21 19
C 15, C 22 ?120 33 31 29 27 25 23 22 20 19 18 17 16
St50, C35 ?60 32 30 27 26 24 22 21 19 18 17 16 14
?120 26 23 22 20 19 18 16 14 13 12 12 11
St60, C45 ?60 24 23 21 20 19 17 16 15 14 13 12 11
?120 20 19 18 16 15 14 13 13 12 11 10 9
St70, C60 ?60 21 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9
?120 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 10 9 9 8 7
Cast steel ?60 33 31 28 26 24 23 21 19 18 17 16 15
GS38 ?120 27 25 23 21 20 18 17 16 15 14 13 12
Cast steel ?60 26 24 22 21 19 18 17 15 14 13 12 11
GS45 ?120 21 20 18 17 15 14 13 12 12 11 10 9
Cast steel ?60 20 19 18 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8
GS52 ?120 17 15 14 13 12 11 11 10 9 8 8 7
Grey cast ?60 44 40 36 32 28 25 22 20 18 16 15 13
iron GG12 ?120 36 32 29 26 23 21 18 16 15 13 12 11
GG14
GG18 ?60 30 27 24 22 20 18 16 14 13 11 10 9
GG22 ?120 25 23 20 18 16 15 13 12 11 10 9 8
?60 and ?120 are service lives of 60 minutes and 120 minutes, resp. Planing at ?60
corresponds to slotting at ?30; planing at ?120 corresponds to slotting at ?60.
195
23.13. Broaching
23.13.1. Broaching tools
Internal broach
1 shank, 2 roughing teeth, 3 finishing teeth, 4 burnishing part, 5 end piece
The design of the broaching tools depends
on the workpiece (material, broaching length, space crosssection).
on the machine used.
The tool (internal or external broach) is drawn or pressed through or over the workpiece horizontally or
vertically.
23.13.2. Cutting speed for broaching
Material Cutting speed in m/min
Internal broaching External broaching
Al alloys 10 14 10 16
Cast iron 68 810
White cast iron 1 1
Brass 810 812
Steel, medium 48 610
tough 24 46
Malleable cast iron 48 810
23.14. Grinding
23.14.1. Operating process for grinding
Cylindrical grinding Cylindrical grinding is used for rotationally symmetrical internal

and external surfaces;
1 cutting motion, 2 feed motion. 3 infeed movement, 4
movement of the workpiece
196
Longitudinal grinding
Plungecut grinding
Flat grinding Flat grinding is used to grind plane surfaces, e.g.: internal and
external guides, sliding and running surfaces, sealing surfaces,
cutting edges of tools, toothed gears
1 cutting speed, 2 feed motion, 3 infeed movement
Peripheral grinding
197
Abrasivebelt grinding
Face grinding
Abrasive cuttingoff Abrasive cuttingoff is used for the rapid separation of hard
materials (bar steels, ceramics, glass, rock).
23.14.2. Characteristics of grinding tools
Grain sizes for abrasives
Symbol Grain size Symbol Grain size
below ?m up to ?m below ?m up to ?m
Screened grains
315 3150 2500 40 400 315
250 2500 2000 32 315 250
200 2000 1600 25 250 200
160 1600 1250 20 200 160
125 1250 1000 16 160 125
100 1000 800 12 125 100
80 800 630 10 100 80
63 630 500 8 80 63
50 500 400 6 63 50
Powdery graind for abrasives
F40 40 28 F10 10 7
F28 28 20 F7 7 5
F20 20 14 F5 5 3.5
F14 14 10
23.14.3. Maximum circumferential velocity for grinding
Material Maximum circumferential velocity in m/s for
External Internal Flat grinding Tool grinding Abrasive

grinding grinding cuttingoff
198
Grey cast iron 25 25 20 45 80
Hard metal 8 8 8 22 (manual)
12 (mechanical)
Nonferrous 35 20 25 45 80
metals
Steel 30 25 25 25 45 80
Light metal 35 20 25
23.14.4. Feed and cutting depth for cylindrical grinding
Material Lateral feed Cutting depth in mm
Roughmachining Finishmachining
Steel 2/3 3/4B 0.02 0.05 0.008 0.01
Grey cast iron 3/4 4/5B 0.08 0.15 0.02 0.05
Finishgrinding 1/4 1/3B 0.002 0.008

B width of grinding wheel
23.14.5. Reference values for the grinding of tools
Tool Grinding operation Abrasive Grain Hardness

size
Twist drill
large Manual grinding NK 40 medium
Mechanical grinding EK 40 soft
small Manual grinding NK 32 medium
Mechanical grinding EK 32 soft
Manual pointing NK 32 medium
Mechanical pointing EK 40 soft
with hard metal Face grinding SK 20 soft
Regrinding SK 32 10 soft
Turning and planing tools of WS, SS,

HSS
large manual grinding NK 50, 40 medium
small Manual grinding NK 40, 32 medium
Mechanical grinding NK 40 medium
with hard metal Manual pregrinding SK 40 soft
Manual finishgrinding SK 20 soft
Steps manually ground in the SK 10 medium

face of the tool
Shank material, manual NK 63, 80 medium
199
mechanical NK 63, 80 soft
Milling cutters of WS, SS, HSS EK 32 soft
EK 32 soft
with hard metal Pregrinding SK 32 soft
Finishgrinding SK 20 soft
Band saw blades EK 32 medium
Saw blades of metal circular saws EK 40,32 soft
Gauges and devices EK 32,20 soft
EK special fused alumina, NK standard

corundum, SK silicon carbide
Ceramic is used as a binding agent
23.14.6. Instructions for grinding
Use soft abrasives for hard materials and hard abrasives for soft materials.
Check the parameters of the abrasives (maximum circumferential velocity, binding agent, grade) before
installing them in the machine.
When mounting the grinding wheels, take care that compensating shims (of cardboard or leather) are
placed on both sides.
With grinding wheels, use only the faces for grinding,
When grinding, use an eye protection device or safety goggles.
Allow rotating grinding wheels to come to rest; do not brake them manually.
23.15. General data on cutting
23.15.1. Angles, surfaces and cutting edges of tools
Angle, surface, cutting edge Explanation
Cuttingwedge angle ?. Depends

on the material of the wedge of
the cutting edge and of the
workpiece. Large cuttingwedge
angle for solid materials and poor
heat conductors.
Clearance angle ?. Ensures
cutting effect, large clearance
angle good cut but reduced
strength of the wedge of the
cutting edge and poorer heat
removal.
200
Rake angle ?. Depends on the
workpiece and the process;
influences chip formation
Exceptions:
? = 0 form cutters
? < 0 cut file tooth
Cutting angle ?. Indicates the
position of the true rake in
relation to the shoulder of the cut
formed.
True rake (1). Together with the

back rake this forms the wedge
of the cutting edge. The chip
flows over the true rake formed.
Top rake (2). The side of the
wedge of the cutting edge facing
the true rake of the workpiece. It
is frequently worked in grinding.
Side rake (3). The side of the
wedge of the cutting edge which
is limited by the secondary
cutting edge and the side rake.
Secondary cutting edge (4). Does

not face the direction of feed.
Primary cutting edge (5). Edge
between the true rake and the
top rake. It points to the feed
direction and is the decisive
component in stock removal.
23.15.2. Materials of cutting edges
Material of cutting Explanation

edges
Tool steels unalloyed or alloyed (Cr, W, Mo); hightemperature resistant up to 300 C
Highspeed steels alloyed (Cr, W, Mo, V, Co) as SS or HSS; sometimes only soldered on or welded on
as a tip; hightemperature resistant up to 600 C
Hard metals cast or sintered metallic carbides with additions of Co, Ni, Nb, Ta; soldered on or
clamped on as a tip; hightemperature resistant up to 1000 C
Cutting ceramics Clamped on as reversible tips, suitable for high cutting speeds, sensitive to impact; do
not cool!
Diamond extremely hard, expensive, for microfinishing only; hightemperature resistant up to

800 C.
201
23.15.3. Cutting velocity, speed, diameter
Diameter in mm Cutting velocity in m/min (V = d . ? . n)
6 10 14 20 30 40 50 60 80 100 150 200
at speed in 1/min
2 640 1600 2200 3200 4800 6400 8000 9600 12700 15900 23900 31800
4 480 800 1100 1600 2400 3200 4000 4800 6400 8000 12000 15900
6 320 530 750 1060 1600 2100 2650 3180 4240 5300 8000 10600
8 240 400 560 800 1200 1600 2000 2390 3180 3980 6000 8000
10 190 320 450 640 950 1300 1600 1910 2550 3180 4800 6400
12 160 265 370 530 800 1100 1320 1590 2130 2660 4000 5300
14 135 230 320 450 680 900 1140 1370 1820 2280 3410 4600
16 120 200 280 400 600 800 1000 1190 1590 1990 2980 4000
18 106 180 250 350 530 710 880 1060 1420 1770 2660 3440
20 96 160 225 320 480 640 800 960 1270 1590 2390 3180
24 79 130 190 265 400 530 660 800 1060 1330 1990 2660
28 68 115 160 228 350 450 570 680 910 1140 1710 2280
32 60 100 140 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000 1490 2000
36 53 88 125 175 280 355 440 530 710 890 1330 1770
40 48 79 112 160 240 320 400 480 640 800 1200 1590
45 42 71 100 140 210 285 350 420 570 710 1060 1410
50 38 64 89 127 190 255 320 380 510 640 950 1270
55 34 58 81 115 180 230 290 350 460 580 870 1160
60 32 53 74 106 160 210 265 320 420 530 800 1060
65 30 49 70 98 145 195 245 290 390 490 740 980
70 27 46 64 91 135 180 230 270 360 450 680 910
75 26 42 60 85 128 170 210 260 340 430 640 850
80 24 40 56 80 120 160 200 240 320 400 600 800
90 21 35 50 71 105 140 177 215 285 355 530 710
100 19 32 45 64 96 125 159 190 255 320 480 640
115 17 28 39 55 84 110 139 165 220 275 415 550
125 15 25 36 51 76 100 127 155 200 255 380 510
140 14 23 32 45 69 91 113 137 180 228 340 460
150 13 21 30 42 64 86 106 125 170 215 320 425
160 12 20 28 40 60 80 100 120 160 200 300 400
180 10.5 17 25 35 53 71 88 105 140 175 265 355
200 9.6 16 22 32 48 64 80 96 125 160 240 320
202
24. Joining
24.1. Screw joints
24.1.1. Designation of threads
Type of thread Symbol Dimension Example
Metric ISO coarse screw thread M nominal thread diameter in mm M 12
Metric thread nominal thread diameter in mm pitch in mm M 80 6
Metric ISO fine screw thread
Whitworth thread nominal thread diameter in inches 2
Whitworth fine thread W nominal thread diameter in inches pitch in W 99

inches 1/4
Whitworth pipe thread R thread diameter = nominal width of pipe in inches R 3/4
Acme thread Tr nominal thread diameter in mm pitch in mm Tr 48 8
Knuckle thread Rd nominal thread diameter in mm pitch in inches Rd 40

1/6
Sawtooth thread S nominal thread diameter in mm pitch in mm S 70 10
Electric thread E nominal thread diameter in mm E 27
24.1.2. Dimensions of threads
Metric ISO coarse screw thread
1 nut, 2 bolt
Dimensions in mm
d=D P d2 = D2 d3 D1 h3 H1 Crosssect ion of tap in mm2
0.25 0.07 0.201 0.158 0.169 0.046 0.041 0.02
0.3 0.08 0.248 0.202 0.213 0.049 0.043 0.032
203
0.4 0.1 0.335 0.277 0.292 0.061 0.054 0.06
0.5 0.125 0.419 0.347 0.365 0.077 0.068 0.095
0.6 0.15 0.503 0.416 0.438 0.092 0.081 0.136
0.8 0.2 0.67 0.555 0.583 0.123 0.108 0.242
1 0.25 0.838 0.693 0.729 0.153 0.135 0.377
1.2 0.25 1.038 0.893 0.929 0.153 0.135 0.626
1.6 0.35 1.373 1.171 1.221 0.215 0.189 0.08
2 0.4 1.740 1.509 1.57 0.245 0.217 1.79
2.5 0.45 2.208 1.948 2.03 0.276 0.244 2.98
3 0.5 2.675 2.387 2.459 0.307 0.271 4.47
4 0.7 3.545 3.141 3.242 0.429 0.379 7.75
5 0.8 4.480 4.019 4.134 0.491 0.433 12.7
6 1. 5.350 4.773 4.917 0.613 0.541 17.9
8 1.25 7.188 6.466 6.647 0.767 0.677 32.8
10 1.5 9.026 8.160 8.376 0.920 0.812 52.3
12 1.75 10.863 9.853 10.106 1.074 0.947 76.2
16 2 14.701 13.546 13.835 1.227 1.083 144
20 2.5 18.376 16.933 17.294 1.534 1.353 255
24 3 22.051 20.319 20.752 1.840 1.624 324
30 3.5 27.727 25.706 26.211 2.147 1.894 519
36 4 33.402 31.093 31.670 2.454 2.165 759
42 4.5 39.077 36.479 37.129 2.760 2.436 1045
48 5 44.752 41.866 42.587 3.067 2.706 1377
56 5.5 52.428 49.252 50.046 3.374 2.977 1905
64 6 60.103 56.639 57.505 3.681 3.248 2520

Metric ISO fine screw thread
Dimensions in mm
d=D P d2 = D2 d3 D1 h3 H1 Crosssection of tap in mm2
1 0.2 0.870 0.755 0.783 0.123 0.108 0.448
1.6 1.470 1.355 1.383 1.44
2 0.25 1.838 1.693 1.729 0.153 0.135 2.25
2.5 0.35 2.273 2.071 2.121 0.215 0.189 3.37
4 0.5 3.675 3.387 3.459 0.307 0.271 9.01
6 5.675 5.387 5.459 22.8
10 9.675 9.387 9.459 69.2
16 15.675 15.387 15.459 186
204
6 0.75 5.513 5.080 5.188 0.460 0.406 20.3
10 9.513 9.080 9.188 64.8
16 15.513 15.080 15.188 179
24 23.513 23.080 23.188 418
10 1 9.350 8.773 8.917 0.613 0.541 60.4
16 15.350 14.773 14.917 171
24 23.350 22.773 22.917 407
42 41.350 40.773 40.917 1306
64 63.350 62.773 62.917 3095
10 1.25 9.188 8.466 8.646 0.767 0.677 56.3
16 1.5 15.026 14.160 14.376 0.812 0.920 157
24 23.026 22.160 22.376 386
42 41.026 40.160 40.376 1267
64 63.026 62.160 62.376 3035
100 99.026 98.160 98.376 7568
24 2 22.701 21.546 21.835 1.083 1.227 365
42 40.701 39.546 39.835 1228
64 62.701 61.546 61.835 2975
100 98.701 97.546 97.835 7473
160 158.701 157.546 157.835 19494
42 3 40.051 38.319 38.742 1.624 1.840 1153
64 62.051 60.319 60.742 2858
100 98.051 96.319 96.742 7286
160 158.051 156.319 156.742 19192
250 248.051 246.319 246.742 47652
42 4 39.402 37.093 37.670 2.165 2.454 1081
64 61.402 59.093 59.670 2743
100 97.402 95.093 95.670 7102
160 157.402 155.093 155.670 18892
250 247.402 245.093 245.670 47179
400 397.402 395.093 395.670 122615
100 6 96.103 92.639 93.505 3.248 3.681 6740
160 156.103 152.639 153.505 18299
250 236.103 242.639 243.505 46240
400 396.103 292.639 293.505 121081
600 596.103 592.639 593.505 275848
205
Whitworth pipe thread
cylindrical internal and external thread
1 internal thread, 2 external thread
Nominal width = thread Dimensions in mm

diameter in inches
d=D d2 = D2 d1 = D1 P Number of courses of t1

thread per inch
R 1/8 9.728 9.147 8.566 0.907 28 0.125
R 1/4 13.157 12.301 11.445 1.337 19 0.856
R 3/8 16.662 15.806 14.950
R 1/2 20.955 19.753 18.631 1.814 14 1.162
R 3/4 26.441 25.279 24.117
R1 33.249 31.770 30.291 2.309 11 1.479
R 1 1/4 41.910 40.431 38.952
R 1 1/2 47.803 46.324 44.845
R2 59.614 58.135 56.656
R 2 1/2 75.184 73.705 72.226
R3 87.884 86,405 84.926
206
Acme thread, singlestart thread
Bolt (2):
minor diameter d1 = d 2t1

Flank diameter d2 = d 0.5p
Nut (1):
external diameter
b = d + 2a
minor diameter
D1 = d2 + 2b
t11 = 02.5 P + a
Dimensions in mm
Nominal thread diameter of the bolt
fine medium coarse P t1 t2 a b T1
10 20 2 1.25 0.75 0.25 0.5 1
22 62 10 12 3 1.75 1.25 0.25 0.5 1.5
65 110 14 20 4 2.25 1.75 0.25 0.5 2
22 28 5 2.75 2 0.25 0.75 2.25
115 175 30 36 6 3.25 2.5 0.25 0.75 2.75
38 44 7 3.75 3 0.25 0.75 3.25
180 240 46 52 22 28 8 4.25 3.5 0.25 0.75 3.75
55 62 9 4.75 4 0.25 0.75 4.25
65 82 30 38 10 5.25 4.5 0.25 0.75 4.75
207
250 400 85 110 40 52 12 6.25 5.5 0.25 0.75 5.75
115 145 55 62 14 7.5 6 0.5 1.5 6.5
150 175 65 82 16 8.5 7 0.5 1.5 7.5
420 500 180 200 85 98 18 9.5 8 0.5 1.5 8.5
210 230 100 110 20 10.5 9 0.5 1.5 9.5
240 260 115 130 22 11.5 10 0.5 1.5 10.5
520 640 270 290 135 155 24 12.5 11 0.5 1.5 11.5
300 26 13.5 12 0.5 1.5 12.5
160 180 28 14.5 13 0.5 1.5 13.5
185 200 32 16.5 15 0.5 1.5 15.5
210 240 36 18.5 17 0.5 1.5 17.5
250 280 40 20.5 19 0.5 1.5 19.5
290 340 44 22.5 21 0.5 1.5 21.5
360 400 48 24.5 23 0.5 1.5 23.5

Multiple threads are provided with the corresponding multiple pitch with the thread profile belonging to the
singlestart thread.
Knuckle thread
1 nut, 2 bolt
r = 0.23851 P
R1 = 0.22105 P
= diameter
Dimensions in mm
Nominal diameter Number of courses of Pitch Depth of Bearing Roundings of

of thread d thread per inch thread t1 depth t2 nuts R
8 12 10 2.54 1.270 0.212 0.650
14 38 8 3.17 1.588 0.265 0.813
208
40 100 6 4.2 2.117 0.353 1.084
105 200 4 6.3 3.175 0.530 1.625
Dimensions of the nut in mm
Thread diameter D Minor diameter D1 Thread diameter D Minor diameter D1
8.245 5.714 44.423 40.190
9.254 6.714 48.423 44.190
10.254 7.714 52.423 48.190
11.254 8.714 55.423 51.190
12.254 9.714 60.423 56.190
14.318 11.142 95.423 91.190
16.318 13.142 100.423 96.190
32.318 29.142 110.635 104.285
36.318 33.142 120.635 114.285
40.423 36.190 200.635 194.285
Dimensions of the bolt in mm
Thread diameter d Minor diameter d1 Crosssection of tap A in mm Flank diameter d2
8 5.460 0.234 6.730
9 6.460 0.328 7.730
10 7.460 0.437 8.730
11 8.460 0.562 9.730
12 9.460 0.703 10.730
14 10.825 0.920 12.412
16 12.825 1.292 14.412
32 28.825 6.526 30.412
36 32.825 8.463 34.412
40 35.767 10.05 37.883
44 39.767 12.42 42.883
48 43.767 15.05 45.883
52 47.767 17.92 49.883
55 50.767 20.24 52.883
60 55.767 24.43 57.883
95 90.767 64.71 92.883
100 95.767 72.03 97.883
110 103.650 84.38 106.825
120 113.650 101.45 116.825
200 193.650 294.5 196.825
209
24.1.3. Characteristics of screw joints
Thread Hexagon cap screw, Fillisterhead Washer

hexagon nut screw
P mm dB mm Aq mm2 k mm sw mm m mm D mm k mm d mm
M2 0.4 1.6 1.79 4 1.6 3.5 1.4 2.2
M 2.5 0.45 2.05 2.98 5 2 4.5 1.7 2.7
M3 0.5 2.5 4.47 5.5 2.4 5 2 3.2
M4 0.7 3.3 7.75 7 3.2 7 2.8 4.3
M5 0.8 4.2 12.7 3.5 8 4 8.5 3.5 5.3
M6 1 5 17.9 4 10 5 10 4 6.4
M8 1.25 6.75 32.8 5.5 14 6 12.5 5 8.4
M 10 1.5 8.5 52.3 7 17 8 15 6 10.5
M 12 1.75 10.25 76.2 8 19 9.5 13
M 16 2 14 144 10 24 13 17
M 20 2.5 17.5 225 13 30 16 21
M 24 3 21 324 15 36 18 25
M 30 3.5 26.5 519 19 46 22 31
M 36 4 32 759 23 55 28 37
M 42 4.5 37.5 1045 26 65 32 43

P pitch, dB drill diameter for core hole, Aq crosssection of tap, k height of screw head, sw
width across flats, m height of nut head, D head diameter, d hole diameter of the washer
24.2. Welded joints
24.2.1. Types of welds in fusion welding
Type of weld Welding process
G E SG (CO2)
Plain butt weld, welded on one side > 0.5 <3 < 10
Plain butt weld, welded on both sides 25 6 25
Vweld 38 3 20 4 20
Vweld with capping pass 5 20 4 20
Squareedge weld > 10 > 20
DoubleV weld 12 40 20 40
Yweld 10 20
Yweld with capping pass 5 20 10 20
DoubleYweld 20 60
Uweld > 12 > 30
210
Uweld with capping pass > 12 > 30
Double U weld > 30 > 50
Double bevel butt weld 12 40 >15
Single bevel butt weld 3 20 3 20
Single bevel butt weld, welded on both sides 3 20 3 20
SingleJ butt weld > 15 > 20
Double3 butt weld > 30 > 40
Fillet weld >1 >1 >1
Double fillet weld >2 >2 >2
Edge joint weld >2 >2 >2
Flange weld >4 >4 >4
Edge groove weld >3 >4 >4
Corner weld >1 >2 >2

G oxyacetylene welding, E electric welding, SG(CO2) inertgas arc welding
24.2.2. Symbols for fusion welding
Weld Section (graphic) View (symbolic) Symbol

Designation
But
weld
General S
Plain butt ||
weld
Vweld V
211
Double X
Vweld
Yweld Y
Fillet
weld
Fillet weld
Double fillet
weld
Corner weld
Edge joint |||

weld
Edge groove
weld
212
24.2.3. Fusion welding processes
Process Symbol Process Symbol
Oxyacetylene welding G Gasshielded arc welding SG
Electric arc welding E Submergedarc welding UP
TIG welding TIG Firecracker welding US
MIG welding MIG Electroslag welding ES
Process Use Positions Plate and wall thicknesses
G Steel and nonferrous metals all positions small thickness
E preferably steel all positions greater thickness
WIG aluminium and alloys all positions small thickness
TIG highalloy steel all positions thickness > 4 mm
SG unalloyed and low Mnalloy steel all positions all thicknesses
US steel horizontal small thickness
UP preferably steel horizontal great thickness
ES steel upward thickness > 12 mm
24.2.4. Resistance spot welding of unalloyed steels
Dimensions in mm
Individual Electrode Electrode Spot Electrode Weld Overlapping Min. spot Spot
plate diameter tip diameter force in current spacing with shear
thickness (min.) diameter (min.) kN in kA regard to strength
(max.) in kN/
spot
shunt strength
0.4 8 4 3.2 1 5 8 9 6 1
0.6 10 5 3.8 1.5 7 10 12 8 2
0.8 10 6 4.4 2 8 11 15 9 3
1.0 13 6 5.0 2.5 9 13 18 10 4
1.2 13 8 5.5 3.0 10 14 20 11 5.25
1.4 13 8 6.0 3.5 11 15 23 12 6.5
1.6 13 8 6.4 4.0 12 16 26 13 8
1.8 16 8 6.7 4.5 13 17 28 13 9.7
2.0 16 8 7.0 5.0 14 18 30 14 11.5
2.2 16 10 7.4 5.5 15 18 32 15 13
2.4 16 10 7.7 6.0 16 19 34 15 15
2.6 16 10 8.0 6.5 17 20 36 16 17
2.8 20 10 8.3 7.0 18 21 38 17 19
3.0 20 10 8.6 7.5 19 22 40 17 21
213
3.2 20 10 8.9 8.0 20 22 42 18 23
24.2.5. Symbols for pressure welding
Weld Designation Symbol View (symbolic) Section

(graphic)
singlerow
doublerow
staggered
continuous
interrupted
214
projection in the top plate
projection in the bottom

plate
mash weld
burr weld
reinforced weld
24.3. Riveted joints
24.3.1. Arrangements of rivets
Designation Figure
215
Singlerow overlapping
Doublerow staggered overlapping
Triplerow overlapping
216
Singlerow butt riveted joint
Singlerow double butt riveted joint
217
doublerow double butt riveted joint
24.3.2. Dimensions of rivets
218
Shape A
Shape B
219
Shape of Dimensions in mm
rivet d1 10 12 16 20 24 30
A d2 18 22 28 36 43 53
d3 0.2 11 13 17 21 25 31
k 7 9.5 11.5 14 17 21
R1 9.5 11 14.5 18.5 22 27
d2 16 19 25 32 40 48
d3 0.2 11 13 17 21 25 31
k 6.5 7.5 10 13 16 19
R1 8 9.5 13 16.5 20.5 24.5
B ? + 5 75 60 45
t 2.3 3.3 5.9 9.1 11.3 13.9
R2 27 41 85 124.5 91 114
w 1 2
24.3.3. Grips of rivets
Shape A B
d1 10 12 16 20 24 30 10 12 16 20 24 30
1 max. grip in mm
16 10
20 6 14
24 9 8 17 16 15
32 17 15 13 22 22 20
40 22 22 18 16 28 28 28 26
50 32 30 26 22 36 36 34
60 40 38 34 30 26 44 42 42
80 58 52 48 44 38 60 60 60 60
100 72 68 66 62 58 78 78
125 88 86 82 78 98
160 116 112 108
200 132
Shape A B
d1 10 12 16 20 24 30 10 12 16 20 24 30
1 max. grip in mm
16 10
20 14 13
220
24 6 17 16
32 13 10 22 22 20
40 19 17 13 28 28 28 26
50 26 24 20 16 36 36 34 32
60 34 32 28 24 18 44 42 42
80 50 48 46 42 36 30 60 60 60 60
100 60 56 52 48 78 78
125 76 74 72 98
160 104 100 96
200 126
Grips of rivets in steel structures
Shape A B
d1 10 12 16 20 24 30 10 12 16 20 24 30
1 max. grip in mm
20 7 15
24 12 10 18 17
32 18 17 15 24 22 22
40 24 24. 20 18 32 30 30 28
50 34 32 28 24 20 40 38 38 36 34
60 40 36 32 28 46 46 44 44
80 56 54 50 46 42 62 62 64 64 64
100 74 72 70 66 62 78 78 80 82 82
125 86 82 100 100 104
150 108 104 120 122
24.4. Soldered joints
24.4.1. Use of soldering processes
Soldering (selection) Use Soldering Metal Glass Workpieces

process Brazing ? < 450 cermics
? > 450 C
C
Soldering soldering iron + + + smaller surfaces and

with thicknesses
Torch Torch brazing Grease + + + o larger surfaces and

brazing model thicknesses
soldering + +
Bath brazing Salt bath brazing + + o large number of

pieces (mass
221
production)
Dip brazing + + +
Ultrasonic soldering + +
Oil bath soldering + +
Furnace Chamber furnace + + + mass production

soldering soldering
Controlled + + +
atmosphere furnace
brazing
Electric Induction brazing + + + + parts accessible only

brazing
Resistance soldering + + + with difficulty
Arc brazing + +
Hotgas brazing + + o
Reaction brazing + +
+ soldering or brazing possible without difficulty; 0 brazing possible in principle; soldering or
brazing impossible
24.4.2. Soft solders
Symbol Alloying Melting range in

components in C (approx.)
% of
Sn0.5 Pb solidus liquidus
LSn 8 8 rest 270 305
LSn 25 25 183 257
LSn 30 30 249
LSn 33 33 242
LSn 40 40 223
LSn 50 50 200
LSn 60 60 185
LSn 90 90 219
24.4.3. Brazing solders on the basis of copper
Symbol Melting range in C Operating Temperature Use

(approx.) in C
solidus liquidus
LMs 60 890 900 900 steel, malleable cast iron, copper and
copper alloys, nickel and nickel alloys
LCu 1070 1080 1070 copper
LCuP8 710 730 710 copper, brass
222
24.4.4. Brazing solders for aluminium and aluminium alloys
Symbol Melting range in C Operating Temperature in Use

(approx.) C
solidus liquidus
LAlSi12 575 590 590 gap brazing with
LZnAl30 450 515 520 attached or inserted brazing

solders
LZnSnCd25 165 300 especially suitable for pure

aluminium
LSnZn40 200 310

to
350
LZnCd40 265 330

to
350
LCdZn20 265 270 280

to
280
LCdZn30 265 300 310 aluminium alloys can be tinned

to without restriction
310
Tinning temperature in
C
LZnSnCd25 220 230
LSnZn40 260
LZnCd40 300
24.4.5. Brazing solders on the basis of silver
Symbol Operating Material to be brazed Use

temperature in C
LAg 12 830 iron, steel, copper, largescale brazing of mediumthick and

copper alloys thick parts
LAg12Cd7 800 copper and copper alloys smallscale brazing of thick parts;
mediumthick and thin parts without flux
LAg20Cd15 750 iron, steel, copper smallscale brazing of thin, cladded plates
LAg25 copper alloys thin plates, wires, pipes; largescale

brazing of thick and medium thick parts
LAg25Cd14 730 copper and copper alloys smallscale brazing of thick and thin parts
LAg27 840 steel, hard metal largescale and smallscale brazing of

thick and thin parts
LAg30Cd12 700 copper and copper alloys smallscale brazing of mediumthick and
thin plates, wires, pipes (mass production)
LAg49 690 stainless steels smallscale and largescale brazing
LAg50Cd10 670
223
copper and copper brazing of thin parts (e.g. contact
alloys, silver and silver networks), knife handles
alloys
24.4.6. Fluxes for soldering and welding metallic materials
Symbol Used for
Heavy Light Brazing Soldering Oxyacetylene Explanation

metal metal welding
SHG 1 + + + over 550 C
SHG 2 + + + 750 C
SHG 3 + + + 1000 C
SW1 + + remove residues, corrosion

hazard
SW2 + + corrosive under certain

conditions
AW3 + + residues remain on the

soldering point
LH1 + + remove residues
LH2 + + residues are retained
LW1 + + reacts with aluminium
LW2 + + 200 350 C
LG1 + + remove residues
LG2 + + Al alloys up to 2 % Mg
LG3 + + Al, Al alloys above 2 % Mg
LG4 + + residues are retained

+ suitable, unsuitable
25. Changing of material properties
25.1. Annealing of steel
25.1.1. Annealing process
224
Long annealing times and high annealing temperatures result in macrostructures and should be avoided.
T Temperature, TG annealing temperature, t time,

1 heating, 2 maintaining the annealing temperature, 3 cooling
Stressfree annealing 450 650 C
Compensating of stresses after cold forming or after nonuniform cooling in heat treatment, hot forming or
joining.
Recrystallization annealing 650 750 C
Removal of the disturbed structure after cold forming.
Soft annealing. Several hours at 710 C, several times for a short period at 723 C.
Removal of hard spots in the structure after forging or casting; formation of a homogeneous soft structure for
subsequent metal cutting.
Normalizing 723 950 C (depending on the C content)
Removal of the macrostructure after hot forming, casting or welding; increase in strength and toughness
25.1.2. Annealing temperatures and annealing colours
225
Temperature in C Colour
1400
1300 white
1200 chrome yellow
1100 orange
1000 bright red
900 cherryred
800 cherryred (beginning)
700 dark red
600 dark red (beginning)

C content
1 Normalizing,
2 recrystallization annealing,
3 soft annealing,
4 stressfree annealing
25.2. Hardening of steel
25.2.1. Hardening process
226
Heating of the steel (carbon content 0.4 1.5 %); rearrangement of the carbon particles; quenching (in water
or oil) results in a new, stressed structure; the workpieces become hard and brittle
T temperature, Tu transformation temperature (740 890 C), t time 1 heating, 2 maintaining

the transformation temperature, 3 quenching
Normal hardening
Hardening effect throughout the workpiece (thinwalled workpieces)
Surface hardening
Hardening effect on the surface only; surfacehardened workpieces with a tough core
25.2.2. Quenchants
Quenchant Cooling rate (with reference to still air) Effect Use
Acidified water 35 very abrupt steel
0.5 0.9 %
Salty water 32 abrupt Ccontent
Water (20 C) 30 vigorous
Milk of lime 24 less vigorous steel
0.9 1.5 %
Water (40 C) 22 almost mild C content
Petroleum 20 almost mild
Oil 14 mild steel
Compressed air 4 very mild alloyed
Still air 1 very mild
25.2.3. Quenching process
Shape of Right Wrong

workpiece
227
Short parts
Long parts
(cutting punches,
centering pins,
(draw punches)
Parts with holes

and openings
Hollow dies 1
gas space
228
Unequal parts
Flat parts
Deep dies 1
Spray
229
Chisels,
centrepunches,
piercers (quench
only the cutting
edge)
25.2.4. Faults in hardening
Faults in Possible causes

hardening
Temperature Temperature Quenchant Quenching Faulty Drawing Insufficient Heating

too low too high too abrupt time too dipping temperature motion too
short too high rapid
too soft + + +
nonuniformly + +
hard
too hard +
brittle +
Workpiece + +
distorted
or ruptured + +
25.3. Tempering and hardening with subsequent drawing of steel
25.3.1. Tempering and hardening process
Tempering
Heating to Ta and quick cooling. Reduction in the hardness by quenching (glass hardness, brittleness).
Adjustment of different hardness degrees, e.g. for tools
230
Ta drawing temperature (depends on the hardness required)
1 hardening, 2 tempering
Hardening with subsequent drawing
Heating to Tv and cooling in still air, almost complete removal of hardness, increase in strength and toughness
owing to uniform, closegrained structure, for highly stressed workpieces
TV hardening temperature
1 hardening, 2 hardening with subsequent drawing
25.3.2. Drawing temperatures and temper colours
Temperature in C Colour Use
400 grey
380
360 greyishblue
340
320 light blue
300 cyaneous centrepunch
280 violet tools for woodworking
260 brownishred milling cutters, reamers, hammers
240 dark yellow turning tools and planer tools
220 light yellow twist drills, measuring tools, scribers
200 yellowywhite
180
231
232

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Textbook for Vocational Training Formulas and Tables Metal

Lehr und Lernmittel,

Feedback: IBE e.V.

Institut fr berufliche Entwicklung e.V.

Authors: Ingo Womer

Institut fr berufliche Entwicklung e.V.

Order No.: 90340101/2

The subjectmatter has been suitably compiled in main sections.

e.g.: f(x) 0. The function f has the value

? not equal to, unequal

not identically equal to

? approximate, almost equal, about

(The last figure is determined by means of

< smaller than

> greater than

? smaller than or equal to, equal at most

? greater than or equal to, equal at least

small as against of another order

great as against of magnitude

,/,: by, divided, by, to

% percent, of a hundred (102)

per mille, of a thousand (103)

parallel in the same direction

? parallel in the opposite direction

at right angles to, perpendicular on

n above p binominal coefficient

square root; nth root of

? Pi of this circle, ? = 3.14159...

value of the function f at point x

loga logarithm to base a

lg logarithm to base ten lg x = log10x

lb logarithm to base two lb x = log2x

ln natural logarithm ln x = logex

sin sine trigonometric

cos cosine functions

cot cotangent functions of angles

arc sin inverse sine arc functions,

arc cos arc cosine inverse functions of

arc tan arc inverse tangent the trigonometric

arc cot arc inverse cotangent functions

1.2. Greek alphabet

Letter capital small Designation Representation in roman type

P ? Rho R(h), r(h)

1.3. Rounding off numbers

Rounding Rule Example

Rounding The last figure to be given is retained when followed by a 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4 3.01234

Rounding up The number to be indicated is increased by 1 when followed by a 6, 7, 8 or 9. 4.6789

rounding up is done if the 5 was founded down. ? 8.4752

Rule of even number

If the last number to be indicated is followed by a 5 and then by zeros only,

rounding down is done if this number is even and 0.1250

rounding up is done if this number is odd. 0.3750

1.4. Basic arithmetical operations

Designation Definition Example

Addition Summand plus summand a+b=c

add equals sum 4+3=7

Subtraction Minuend minus subtrahend cb=a

subtract equals difference 73=4

(inversion of addition) c b = c + (b)

Multiplication Factor times factor ab=c

multiply equals product 4 3 = 12

Division Dividend divided by divisor c: b = a (b ? 0)

divide equals quotient 12: 3 = 4

1.4.2. Basic arithmetical operations with zero and one (b ? 0)