VOL NOT UARCH te, #30 A high-frequency sequence study: a Miocene deltaic and estuarine succession in the Eastern Maracaibo Composite Foreland Basin, Western Venezuela M, Toko MILANO: RAJ. Steet PDYSA Intevep Department of Geology and Geophysies Apartado 76343 University of Wyoming Caracas 1070-4 Laramie, Wyoming 82071 Venezuela USA AnstRA ‘The Maracaibo Basin in northwestern Venezuela, one of the most prolific oil-producing areas in the world, ‘composite foreland basin limited by foredeeps both to the south and west, as well as by pigay-back basins and half-grabens in the east, The western foredeep is part of a retro-foreland basin associated with the Oligocene- Miocene uplified Sierra de Perijd The La Rosa and the lower Lagunillas formations (lower-middle Miocene} were deposited in the distal portion Of this retro-foreland basin. Cores and well logs allow the identification of tidally influenced fluvial, tidal fat, central basin ‘and embayment, shoreface and offshore, lagoonal and organic rich deposits, as well as zones of subaerial exposure within regressive deltaic or strandplain, and transgressive barrier bar or estuarine environments. Core-lag calibrations and the identification of stacking patterns and key stratigraphie surfaces allow two types of high-frequency stratigraphic sequences to be recognized, Most sequences are ofa simple transgressive-regressive type, implying continuous but irregular rates of telative rise of sea level. However, some have a lowstand segment, implying a relative sea level fall associated with the regressive-to-transgressive turnaround, The repetition of high-frequency sequences, each one of duration less than 0.3 my, is believed 10 have been controlled by high subsidence rates in the basin, The basinward and landward stepping of sequences is interpreted in terms of milder and strong advance of the western thrust-belt wedge and the accompanying variable migration of a forebulge to the cast Résumé Le Bassin de Maracaibo au Nord-Ouest de Venezuéla, une des régions pétroliéres les plus profifiques dans le monde, ‘est un bassin de type composé davant-pays limité au sud et a ouest par des avant-fosses, des bassins transportés et des 43860/-f et Mad fal lagoon, and strandplains Mud flats and barrier island remmants = Reap i vats? Estuarine channel tow |“ Barrier island/ inlet ( a 2 = §5 3 Bs — + x Creontormiy) e = he y é (Ureanermiy) a . 8 a 3. & 2 oO 5 § 2 - Lower = ue Miocene = Team) Eocene Fig. 16. Spontaneous polanval ane resist gs showing ype see tions of tho La Rosa and the lower Lagunilas formations. Major ‘sequence bounéaries (uncon‘ormitas) are aso shown,MIOCENE DELTHIC AND ESTUARINE SUCCESSION subaerial evidence that can identify the turnaround (sequence boundary) that may have associated erosion. ‘The high- frequency sequences without lowstand deposits represent around 90% of the sequences present in the succession. Type B (ig, 17B) shows a greater separation between the SB and the first transgressive surface (coincident with MPS in Fig. 17B), ‘The strata between these two surfaces are part of the lowstand system tract. Type B basal surfaces have two variants: 1) sharp surfaces beneath which there is a loosely cemented heteroge- ‘neous interval with conglomerates, sandstones and mudstones, and above which there are better cemented, coarsening-upward sandstones (c.g. Fig. 9, well R, about 3118 m); and 2) surfaces with ferruginous carbonate nodules The first variant is closely associated with oxidation processes. In places, desiccation cracks cut a hard, black mmudstone bed (Fig. 10B). A variant of this particular kind of surface is where FA4 overlies the surface as a very thin bed (eg. Fig. 9, well R, about 3085 m). Where that happens, highly bioturbated shaly sandstones occur above and below and show good diversity in trace fossils (e.g. Thalassinoides, Planolites, Ophiomorpha, Diplocraterion and Teichichnus). Shell fragments and intra-formational detritus also occur. There fare places where the FA7 causes superposition of other trace fossils, perhaps from shallow marine water (e.g. Fig, 13A). The second variant is less common, The ferruginous ear- bonate nodules are no more than | or 2 mm in size, and are reddish in colour. They occur within green mudstones (FA6) ‘and with black to grey rich siltstones and mudstones (FA8), Interpretation of Type B High-Frequency Sequence Boundaries ‘The sharp, erosive contacts are believed to reflect subserial ‘exposure. The black mudstone with desiccation eracks prob- ably represents a marginal marine setting that became exposed during a relative base level fall. This is supported by the presence of intervals showing superposition of trace fossils. Analogous examples of Glossifingites ichnofacies have been related to similar discontinuities (MacEachern et al., 19926). Other analogous surfaces are those of Goldring (1995, p. 166), where they are interpreted as omission surfaces and sequence boundaries. On the other hand, the ferruginous carbonate particles are believed to be siderite minerals. The siderite nodules ate interpreted to reflect an abrupt drop in water depth. Van Wagoner (1995) has a similar interpretation for ferruginous particles found in marine muds. Because of the sum of the above features, these surfaces are interpreted 10 represent important erosive zones that reflect subaetial and/or submarine surfaces that indicate a basinward facies shift and base-level fall (Forced regressive surfaces, in the sense of Posamentier et al., 1992, could also be interpreted here). Maxis FLOODING SURFACES (MFS) Maximum flooding surfaces (Posamentier et al., 1988; Galloway, 1989) represent the time of maximum marine ‘wansgression in any sequence and separate transgressive deposits (TST) below from regressive deposits (HST) above (ex. Fig. 17). The MPS commonly occurs in the finest- ‘grained strata at the top of the TST. The maximum flooding surfaces are often easy to recognize and are one of the main ‘ways of correlating in the studied succession, RaviNeMENT SuRsaces (RS) ‘The ravinement surface (Nummedal and Swift, 1987) is an erosional surface produced by storm-wave eresion on the shoreface during rising sea level (e.g. Fig. 178). Such surfaces ‘occur within the transgressive systems tract and can repeat sev- ral times if the transgression is punctuated. They are recog~ nized by the fact that they are erosive, and they separate shallower water facies below from deeper water facies Tag Patern ‘Graphic | Sysiem | Depostoral and Key Suaces Descroton | Trace | Enviomnen wens Apo Hic tee > pepe Yo 3 q 1st a Hs Tag Panes and Key Suroces ves B) rs — ‘Geaphie Deserpin ‘yatem Depestoral Enwronment J fee : Eeaces) TST eaten Fig, 17. etales spontaneous potent a stay ops shaw ing high-frequency sequences with A) SB associated only with ‘TSTIHST, and B) SB associated with LST and base level fl» above. Tidal channel migration landwards during transgression ccan also create a ravinement surface (see Zaitlin etal, 1994). Maximum PROGRADATION SURFACES (MPS) ‘The maximum progradation surface (Helland-Hansen and. Gjelberg,1994), represents the time of maximum coastal ‘regression and separates lowstand deposits (LST) below from ransgressive deposits (TST) above (e.g. Fig. 17B). This sur- face tends to occur at the coarsest-grained level in the lowstand. systems tract or at the top of a regressive sandstone wedge, inside the LST (Mellere and Steel, 1995). M. TORO amd R STEEL Lowstaxp Systems Tracts (LST) ‘The criteria for the recognition of lowstand deposits include 1) the occurrence ofa basal erosion surface that separates more landward facies above from more basinward facies below, and 2) the occurrence ofa progradational or aggeadational stacking, pattem overlain by a transgressive flooding surface. Examples, of this type of tract, mainly in tdally influenced Mluviel and subtidal deposits, are shown in Figs. 17B, 18B, C, D. and 194, B. The LST tends to fill the lower parts ofthe incised valleys. The lowstand deposits are generally coarser than the underly ing highstand systems tract. Lge aoe svitersesen | ooeeton 0] osesine Daan (Baacsactn B) bie: = a Yon Fig. 18. Spontaneous potential, gamma ray, and sedimentary logs showing high-frequency sequences with ‘mere expressions of LST. TST, anid HIST. Note the LST related to Facies Association t and 2 (Figs. 18 D) fr Facies Association 4 (Fig. 188). Also note TST thicker th HST (Fig. 18C) in dally ivfuenced fuvial ‘channels. The formar could imply important erosive processes (erosional vaculies) during the HST deposition.MIOCENE DELTAIC AND ESTUARINE SUCCESSION "TRANSGRESSIVE SYSTEMS TRACTS (TST) ‘The main criterion for the recognition of the transgressive system tracts is the progressive deepening of the depositional environments through time, often interpreted from an ieregu- lar but overall fining-upward, grain-size pattern, Where there are no lowstand deposits, the TST is initiated by a basal ero- sion surface (e.g. a ravinement surface) and directly overlies a HST (e.g. Figs. 17, 8A, C, and 19C, D), In such eases, tools oF other indications of paleosols are expected in the underlying HST. TST deposits tend (0 be shallow marine, subtidal and tidally influenced fluvial sediments, These environments also constitute part of the fill of the incised valley systems. Hicustayp Systems Tracts (HST) “The criterion forthe recognition of highstand system tracts is, their position above a TST, and a coarsening upward pattern that implies progradation and aggradation during arise of relative sea level. The base of the HST is the marine looding surface. The "uppermost contact of HST is commonly an erosive surface rep- resenting a period of sediment by-pass. Examples of HST are shown in Figs, 17, 18, and 19, HST deposits also tend to be shal- em cy. D) Fig. 19. Spontanoous diferent expressions of 'S otonta. gamma fay, and sedimentary lags shaving high tox 7 ad HST. Nole Ihe IST related lo Facies Associabon 1 (Fa ‘Associaton 5 (Fig. 198), or Facies Association 4 (Fig. 190). Also noto the presence of a Glossfungitas ney sequence SA {ace (Thalassinodes etc. in Fig, 19), and soft deformation (Fig. 194) where important discontinulies have ‘boon intorpreted4 low marine, subtidal, and tidally influenced fluvial sediments but they are more common in the lower part of lower Lagunillas. Hicn-FREquency SeQUENCES ‘ConiMents ON THE HIGH-FREQUENCY SEQUENCE DeVvELoPMENT ACROSS THE REGION Figure 20 illustrates the regional architecture of the La Rosa and lower Lagunillas formations using the correlation of high-frequency sequences across the study area. The panels ACA’, B-B’, C-C’, and D-D’, cover the north, south, and cen- tral areas of the studied Lake Maracaibo Basin, respectively (see Fig, 4 for location), The following features of the high- frequency sequences emerge from the correlations: 8) Twenty-one high-frequency sequences were identified five in the La Rosa Formation (RI through RS), and sixteen in the lower part of the Lagunillas Formation (L1 through L16) ig. 20), b) The high-frequency sequences are more numerous in the ‘westem part of the basin than in the cast (c.g Fig. 20B). This is because of an castward onlap and general thinning of the succession across older (Eocene) strata. Seventeen sequences (Re through L16) can be identified inthe northwest (Figs. 20A, 1D), inereasing to twenty sequences in the central-western por- tion, and twenty-one in the southwestern portion. This ten- dency suggests more rapid subsidence and better preservation of strata in @ southwestem direction, In the northeastern area (Fig, 208), only eleven sequences are present, and inthe south- ceastern area only seven are developed. 6) In the central-western and southwestern areas of study (Fig. 4), a complete set of the La Rosa Formation high- froqueney sequences (RI-RS) are present (Fig. 208, C). In the northwestern and eastern regions, RI through R3 are missing, In the northeastern area, only RS is present. 4) In the central-western portion of the basin (Fig. 20B) 15 hhigh-frequeney sequences from the lower Lagunilles Formation (L1 through L16) occur. Only LS is missing above the prominent X-sequence boundary. In the southwestem area (Fig, 20C) the record is more complete, and 16 sequences ‘occur LS and L6 are partially eroded. In the northwestern area, 15 sequences occur. Only L1 is missing, In the northeastern area, only 10 sequences are present. LI through L6 are missing. Inthe southeastern portion, only six sequences occur. ¢) Where there is a clear onlap of strata against the eastem ‘margin of the basin (e.g. Figs. 20A, B) the high-frequency sequences thicken westwards, The thickest sequences tend t0 be in those areas with more pronounced basal incision, The aver- age thickness of sequences in such cases is around 14 to 29 m. ‘The thickest incision (up to 44 m) is that found in tidally influ- enced fluvial deposits (well “A”, Fig. 20). In Figure 21, the stratigraphic cross-section B-B' illustrates the onlapping and ‘runeation in the basin, 4) The high-frequency sequences showing the most pronounced basal incision are also those that show valley-fil, lowstand deposits. Many of these marked incisions relate clearly to the M. TORO amd R STEEL presence of its or older structures (eg. Fig. 208, B, wells A, B and H). Furtrmore, the study region shows some major fits (e.g. Pueblo Viejo and Icotea faults) that have been reactivated at Afferent times since the Jurassic (Bueno and Pinto, 1997; Fimlay and Gov, 1997}; in addition, other studies have documented the syntectonic characte ofthe Miocene deposits (De Mena Arenas, 1985; Bueno and Pinto, 1997), ln Figure 208 and B, the HFS L8 and R1 are good evidences ofthis tectonic activi. In gener, i noted that sequences with lowstand deposits (the lowermost it of incised valleys), have a tendency to migrate eastward through time (eg. Fig, 20C, D), This tendency is probably related to the cistward migration of the faulted forebulge through Gime, For instance, Figure 20D shows the wells FP, nd T with a lowstand deposits lincament (HES L8, L14, and L16, espoctvely),expos- ing an eastvard angle of approximately 2 degrees 2) High-frequency sequences that show the most marked crosion and incision occur proferentially ncar the ebange from barrier or strandplain up to Muvial or estuarine deposits (e.g HFS LS, L6 and L7 in Fig, 20D). The X major sequence boundary is what separates both intervals, They are also well represented at the base of La Rosa Formation (eg. HFS RI in Fig. 20B, C). hh) Considering the time span of 8.5 m.’, suggested by Molano and Araujo (1997) for the La Rosa through lower Lagunillas formations, and assuming that each high-fre- quency sequence represents about the same interval of time, the time span ofthe typical high-frequency sequence ean be estimated to around 0.4 m.. Although this is a very crude estimation, the high-frequency sequences identified here can be compared with fourth-order stratigraphic eycles (Vail et al,, 1991; Miall, 1995). Discussion an ConcLustons, ‘The correlation of systems tracts and sequence boundaries across the study area shows the lower-middle Miocene La Rosa and Lagunillas formations to consist of numerous map- pable high-frequency sequences, many bounded by regional crosion surfaces, others showing a simple T-R structure with= ‘out marked erosion at their base (Figs. 20A-D). Most ofthe individual, high-frequency sequences consist of| regressive deltaic or strandplain and transgressive barrier bar oF estuarine suecessions. The rapidly subsiding tectonie setting has caused the sequences to stack repetitively. Researchers who have evaluated the deposition of strata in analogous foreland basins have considered a series of variables that can affect the basinal stratigraphy. These variables include the relative importance of the sediment yield from the thrusted and forebulge source areas respectively Jordan and Flemings, 1989); the rate of thrusting and its effect on the sediment infill (Flemings and Jordan, 1989); and how the migration of the forebulge through time influenced the stratal patterns in the distal reaches of the basin (Flemings and Jordan, 1990; Sinclsit etal, 1991; Crampton and Allen, 1995). Other factors that influence the basinal stratigraphy include the relative roles played by eustatic change versus tectonicMIOCENE DELTAIC AND ESTUARINE SUCCESSION Well H Well | Well J X Sequence’Boundary Y Sequence Boundary ‘Eocene Miocene Uncanformily — Maximum Flooding Surfaces Truncation 250 metres: 5km Fig. 21. Simplified cross-section 8-8 ilustrating the cnlapsing and truncation in the basin. Maximum Roding ‘surfaces and major sequence boundaries are shown, Nols the truncation by major sequence boundaries. change (Jordan and Flemings, 1991; Ryer, 1994); climatic changes (Flemings and Jordan, 1989; Beaumont etal, 1992); the style and distribution of basin subsidence (Dorobek, 1995): and the strike variation in tectonic: processes (Johnson and Beaumont, 1995). The influence of these factors on the high-fre- quency sequences varies throughout the basin, They will be considered below. ‘The high-frequency sequences documented herein occupy the distal portion of the upper Oligocene-middle Miocene Maracaibo Forcland Basin. Because of the tectonic complexity and the migration ofthe forebulge through time, the foredeep, forebulge, and back-bulge depozones (DeCelles and Giles, 1996) are fairly difficult to identify. In fact, forebulges are potentially migratory features, that become eroded and leave ‘only an unconformity as they pass through a region (De Celles, ‘and Giles, 1996). Nevertheless, Figure 22 shows an isopach imap of lower Lagunillas and La Rosa formations with the sug- ‘gested configuration of the depozones as they were during the deposition of the upper part of lower Lagunilins (datum time). The faredecp deparone (Fig 29), during the danim time, was located in the relatively deep western part ofthe study area, This conclusion is consistent with the western presence of main depocentre, created by the lower-middle Miocene uplift of the Sierra de Peri (Lugo, 1991), Eastward ofthe foredeep area, the sirata progressively onlap towards the suggested forebulge area The foredeep to forebulge area is also the site of local fault- controlled depocentres, fault movement being one ofthe factors that influenced the style of eastward migration ofthis depozone through time. For instance, De Mena Arenas (1985) demon- strated the presence of active normal faults during the deposition of the upper part of lower Lagunillas deposits. The forebulge depozone (Fig. 22), during the datum time, is interpreted t0 have been a narrow area immediately 10 “e Wells 2 Wells with eset Fig. 22 sopach map {contours in metres) show ng te thickness of lower Lagunilas and La Rosa formations with the prooesed foredeep, forebulge, and speculative, but possible back-bulge cepozones inthe ‘Maracaibo Basin: Note that conlour inervals could represent depazane remnants% M, TORO and R. STE Fertig in Tim Fombuie nT Sig cpston dng epoailn East Forebulge La Rosa Formation ssioation vera Regressive ‘dita Log Response vara Regressive onman ‘Single Sequence og Response Highstend deposits {svandplains-ofshore) segsy Transgessive deposits ESD (oanerislands shore) High-requency sequence boundaries lowereat 4 alow lage weston wea) arose sin down edness Formation coms es as) vera Tasaessve c east vera Tanegestne ) Los Response ‘orn iors aps ‘Single Sequence Log Response A eae age Sr (idoinmences dl) Lowland Tansessie epost estares) onc Hoegiaoy commen ourdres sent son Lgns ia : Foreuige nine =12 Temi ring deposnon tages over Laps sameson! ‘to freulse) \, | ceoquence vasa 2 varoarn Fig, 23. Conceptual mode! forthe depesiton of the La Rosa and lower Lagunilas formation, A) As the orogenic wedge advances ‘ratonwara (east Maracaibo Basin), the forebulge also migrates to the eas. B) Before the development ofthe X-sequence boundary periods cof quiescence or miger trusting may Nave caused migration ofthe forebulge info the basin, resulng minor regressive trend in the La Rosa {and the lower part of lower Lagunilas deposition. C) After the development of the X-sequence boundary orogenic wedge advancement caused ‘gration ofthe ferebulge to the east and veal transgressive rend in he upper part of lower Lagunilas deposition. Not lo scale.MIOCENE DELTHIC AND ESTUARINE SUCCESSION the east of the foredeep. This zone was subaerially exposed, ‘though not necessarily with much topography, atleast several times, as shown by the presence of unconformities. This suggests that the forebulge depozone filled completely at times. This also suggests that the height of the forcbulge equalled or was slightly higher than the magnitude of the eustatic sea level changes (Crampton and Allen, 1995, expect forebulge heights of $0-200 m). Ifths is true, due to eustatie sea level changes the forebulge passage across the basin should have produced composite unconformities rather than single unconformity surfaces. Progressive onlap of foredeep deposits towards the forebulae area results in an castward increasing stratigraphic gap at the base of the scetion. The forcbulge depozone is also the site of increased frequency of unconformities and lowstand incisions and condensed intervals. Glauconitic-rich intervals occur in the northem part ofthe study area (see the “glauconitic hard bed” in Fig. 20A, between wells A and B). Glaueonitic-rich intervals and other associated minerals above this type of depozone have been suggested elsewhere to evidence the emergence of the crest ofthe forebulge (Plint etal, 1993), related to condensed sections (Crimeyrolle et al, 1991). The suggested forebulze depozone is possibly the northern extension of the late Oligocene forebulge described by Castillo etal. (1997) in the southem part of Lake Maracaibo. Figure 23 shows a conceptual model for the deposition of | the La Rosa Formation and the lower part of Lagunillas Formation. In Figure 23A, as the orogenic wedge advances “eratonwards” (east Maracaibo Basin), the forebulge also ‘migrated to the east. Figure 2B shows that before the devel- ‘opment of the X-sequence boundary, petiods of quiescence or mild thrusting may have caused migration of the forebulze into the basin, with slight uplift and erosion of the bulge and underlying suecession, resulting in minor regressive trends in the deposited succession. The overall basinward-stepping of facies can be seen superimposed on individual high-fre- quency, transgressive to regressive sequences. Figure 23C shows that after the development of the X-sequence bound- ary, orogenic wedge advancement caused continued castward migration of the forebulge, resulting in an overall transgres- sive succession. Transgressive and lowstand deposition in the sequences is represented by fluvial and estuarine systems, ‘whereas highstand deposition is represented by tide inftu- ‘enced deltaic systems. A speculative, but possible shallow back-bulge depozone (Fig, 22), during the datum time, is located in the eastern most part of the study area and itis unclear how extensive it was to the east. This area shows thick, high-frequency sequences with dominant transgressive tracts. Carbonate lower shoreface deposits (eg. well R), occur near the condensed section. Finally the recognition of unconformities related to forebulge ‘areas can have economic implications. Tectonic predictions from the rock succession can help petroleum geologists infor the locations of potential reservoirs, and to establish the timing of structural modifications. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ‘This paper forms part of an M.Sc. thesis written at the University of Wyoming. PDVSA Intevep is thanked for provid- ing to the first author the financial support during his two-year study period at University of Wyoming and for authorizing the publication of this paper. PDVSA E&P is acknowledged for giving permission to access the data, We would like to thank reviewers J. Suter and J. Knight for their very detailed reviews, We are also grateful to Lisa Griffith for many helpful sugges- tions, and Omar Colmenares for manuscript reviews. Alle, GP. 1991, Sedimeniary processes and facies inthe Gide estay 12 recent model for macrotis! estuarine systems. In: Clasic Tial Sodimonology: DG. Smith, GE. Reiagon, B.A Zain and R.A Rahmasi (eds), Canadian Society of Peoleum Geologists, Memoir 16 29-9, ‘snd Posen, H.W, 1993. Sequence straigaphy and facies model (oF an incised alley fll the Gironde estuary. France. Journal of Sedimentary Peroogy 63, 9. 378-291 Amirose, WA. Akhter, MS., Mendez, M. and ANarez,R. 1997. 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