Sweeteners: Classification, Sensory and Health Effects
A Das and R Chakraborty, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India
2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction
For most of human history, sweetness has provided a reliable
orosensory cue to a foods energy content. Sweet-tasting foods
are more calorically dense than less sweet foods, making
sweetness a valid predictor of subsequent energy availability.
The fondness of humans for sweet foods is inborn: studies
have shown a preference for sweet-tasting nutrition in new-
borns. Therefore, mankind has always added sweet sub-
stances to their food. The first recorded sweetener was
honey, which was used in the ancient cultures of Greece
and China. Honey was later replaced by saccharose, common
sugar, which was originally obtained from sugarcane. During
the World Wars, sugar beets were the major source of sacchar-
ose. Saccharin was the first artificial sweetener, which was
synthesized in 1879 by Remsen and Fahlberg in Baltimore,
the United States. It was well accepted during World Wars I
and II because of its low production costs and the shortcom-
ing of regular sugar. As economies recovered and living stan-
dards increased after the wars, sugar became affordable.
Artificial sweeteners are currently being used as sugar sub-
stitutes in considerable and increasing amounts in food and
beverages, especially for those who are diabetic and/or obese.
There are numerous known intense sweeteners that provide
little or no energy, but only a few of them are approved for
use in the food industry. They have also been used in other
personal care and pharmaceutical products such as tooth-
pastes. Although, from the beginning of their use, there has
been a controversy over their risk as potential carcinogens,
these sweetener compounds are generally considered to be
safe for use in foodstuffs. Some of the low-calorie sweeteners
currently approved by different international authorities as
direct food additives include acesulfame, aspartame, cycla-
mate, saccharin, and sucralose. Over the past 30 years, the
incidence of obesity has increased dramatically, which led to
consumer awareness of a healthy lifestyle, maintaining nor-
mal body weight by consumption of a balanced diet and
adequate physical activity. Sucrose, the most well-known
carbohydrate, is present in numerous food products in
which it affects their taste, texture, and consistency. However,
as the main cause of obesity, as well as diabetes and dental
cavities, sucrose is often replaced with alternative sweeteners.
In order to find adequate replacement for refined white sugar,
the food industry is intensively promoting its artificially
sweetened products (frequently called diet or light),
highlighting their benefits. Intense sweeteners are among the
most controversial food additives due to concerns of adverse
health effects. On the other hand, there are a wide range of
natural, unrefined sweeteners that, aside from providing
sweetness to the product, contain various bioactive com-
pounds, such as vitamins, minerals, or polyphenols that are
known to exhibit positive health effects and contribute to the
concept of functional foods.
234 Encyclopedia of Food and Health
Classifications
Consumers have a wide range of choice in sweeteners. One
distinguishing characteristic of sweeteners is the provision of
energy. Sweeteners can be grouped in various ways. For the
purpose of this article, sweeteners will be grouped as nutritive
and nonnutritive. Nutritive sweeteners provide a sweet
taste and a source of energy; nonnutritive sweeteners (NNS)
are sweet without energy. Nutritive sweeteners contain
carbohydrates and provide energy; they may be further classi-
fied into monosaccharides or disaccharides, which impart
4 kcal g
1, or sugar alcohols (polyols), which provide an aver-
age of 2 kcal g
1. Different terms are used to refer to nutritive
sweeteners, including sugars, sugar, caloric sweeteners, and added
sugars. Sugars occur naturally (intrinsic) in all fruits, vegetables,
and dairy foods or are added (extrinsic) to foods during
processing or in preparation for consumption by an individ-
ual. Sugars commonly found in foods include glucose, fruc-
tose, galactose, sucrose, maltose, corn-based sweeteners, and
agave nectar. Sugar often refers to sucrose, which is derived
from sugarcane or sugar beet. The US Department of
Agriculture uses added sugars to refer to sugars and syrups
added to food during processing and preparation or before
consumption. In addition to imparting a sweet taste, sugars
have the following functions that are important to the safety
and quality of foods:
Inhibit microbial growth by binding water in jams and
jellies.
Add texture, flavor, and color to baked goods.
Support the growth of yeast for leavening or fermentation.
Contribute volume in ice cream, baked goods, and jams.
Enhance the creamy consistency of frozen desserts.
Enhance the crystallization of confectionery products.
Balance acidity in salad dressings, sauces, and condiments.
Help to maintain the natural color, texture, and shape of
preserved fruits.
Existing evidence does not support the claim that diets high in
nutritive sweeteners by themselves have caused an increase in
obesity rates or other chronic conditions (e.g., hyperlipidemia,
diabetes, dental caries, and behavioral disorders). Nonetheless,
consumers who want the taste of sweetness without added
energy may select NNS to assist in the management of weight,
diabetes, and other chronic diseases. NNS offer little to no
energy when ingested. They are referred to as high-intensity
sweeteners because, as sweetening ingredients, they are many
times sweeter than sucrose. NNS can replace the sweetness of
sugar or energy-containing sweeteners. However, they do not
have the same functional properties such as browning, crystal-
lization, and microbial inhibition. NNS also have the potential
to assist in dental health and dietary quality. Scientists have
responded to consumer demand by developing, researching,
and producing a number of energy-reduced or NNS.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-384947-2.00677-2

The use of nutritive and NNS is evaluated by governing
bodies throughout the world; these include the Food and
Drug Administration (FDA) of the United States and the
European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) of the European
Union and expert scientific committees such as the Joint Expert
Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) of the United Nations
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World
Health Organization (WHO). In the United States, some
sweeteners are considered generally recognized as safe
(GRAS) ingredients, and others are food additives as defined
by the 1958 Food Additives Amendment to the Federal Food,
Drug, and Cosmetic Act. GRAS sweeteners have scientific con-
sensus on their safety based on a history of use prior to 1958 or
on well-known scientific information (21 CFR, parts 182 and
184). Some, but not all, GRAS substances are listed in 21 CFR
182 and 184. Manufacturers often determine that use of a
substance is GRAS and sometimes will notify FDA of their
conclusions. Because substances whose use is GRAS are not
subject to FDA approval, manufacturers may market on the
basis of their own determination, provided that such a deter-
mination is correct.
Nutritive Sweeteners
Sucrose and fructose, which are GRAS substances, are primary
sugar sweeteners that occur naturally or are added to foods. In
addition to their sensory qualities, nutritive sweeteners add
functional properties to foods through their effects on the
physical (e.g., crystallization and viscosity), microbial (e.g.,
preservation and fermentation), and chemical (e.g.,
caramelization and antioxidation) characteristics. Sucrose is a
disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose that provides
4 kcal g
1 (16 kcal per teaspoon). Commercially, sucrose
comes by processing sugarcane or sugar beets. Refinement
removes the yellow-brown pigments of unrefined sugar to pro-
duce the white crystal form of table sugar. Molasses is the least
refined form of sucrose. The monosaccharide fructose also pro-
vides 4 kcal g
1. Fructose is present in fruit (also known as fruit
sugar or levulose) and is added to foods and beverages as high-
fructose corn syrup (4255% fructose) or in the crystalline form.
Fructose has replaced sucrose in many foods and beverages
because of its sweetening power, lower cost, and functional
properties that enhance flavor, color, and product stability.
Fructose also synergizes the sweetness potential of sucrose and
certain NNS. Polyols or sugar alcohols have been used in food
products for many years to decrease the intake of carbohydrates
that raise blood glucose levels. Polyols can be used alone but are
more often used in combination with other polyols or NNS
because of the bulking property of some polyols. Many polyols
are found in nature but may be manufactured from monosac-
charides or polysaccharides to be used as food ingredients.
Foods containing polyols and no added sugars can be labeled
as sugar-free. Trehalose and D-tagatose are other sweeteners
used in food. Trehalose is found naturally in foods such as
honey and unprocessed mushrooms. The enzyme trehalase is
present in the brush border membrane of the small intestine
and hydrolyzes the a-1,1 bond of trehalose into two glucose
molecules. D-Tagatose is similar to fructose in structure other
Sweeteners: Classification, Sensory and Health Effects 235
than an inversion of the hydroxyl and hydrogen groups at the
fourth carbon and is found in many foods, including dairy
products. Thus, consumers should base their selection of nutri-
tive sweeteners on sensory or functional properties and not on
misconceptions of differences in nutrient value.
Nonnutritive Sweeteners
Up to nine in ten consumers in the United States buy or use
low-calorie products, including sugar-free and reduced-fat
foods and beverages. NNS have also seen increased use in
European countries (due to the growing interest in health
and an aging population) and in developing countries (with
interest in making limited diets more palatable). High-
intensity sweeteners can offer consumers a way to enjoy the
taste of sweetness with little or no energy and/or glycemic
response. NNS may assist in weight management, control of
blood glucose, and prevention of dental caries. The trend is to
blend high-intensity sweeteners with other nonnutritive and
nutritive sweeteners to create new sweet taste profiles. Blending
can cause sweetness synergy (i.e., the combination is sweeter
than the individual components), which can decrease the
amount of sweetener needed and can improve the overall
sweet taste profile.
Since the discovery of saccharin in the late 1800s, NNS have
been used by consumers to achieve a sweet taste, for reasons of
economics, blood glucose control, or energy control. NNS
approved for use in the United States have been tested and
determined to be safe at levels that are within the acceptable
daily intake (ADI). Food products may contain a blend of differ-
ent NNS, which further complicates estimation of intake.
Although consumption of NNS in foods and beverages has
increased since 1965, only about 15% of the population reported
consuming any foods or beverages with NNS in 20032004. A
systematic review of NNS intake data indicated that average
intakes by adults are consistently well below their ADIs.
The FDA has approved five NNS and regulates them as food
additives: saccharin, aspartame, acesulfame K, sucralose, and
most recently neotame. NNS, like other food ingredients,
appear on the food label in the ingredient declaration. Other
NNS include alitame, cyclamate, stevia, and thaumatin.
Acesulfame K
Acesulfame K has been developed as a sweetener by Hoechst.
This high-intensity sweetener is a potassium salt of 6-methyl-
123-axathiazine-4 (3H)-one 2,2-dioxide with molecular formula
C4H4KNO4S and molecular weight of 201.24. It is a white crys-
talline powder and  120 times sweeter than sucrose and has
high water solubility. Acesulfame K is heat-stable so it can be
used in cooking and baking. It may have a bitter aftertaste when
used alone to sweeten food or beverages. Ace K is often blended
with other sweeteners (usually sucralose or aspartame) whereby
each sweetener masks the others aftertaste and exhibits a syner-
gistic effect by which the blend is sweeter than its components.
The European Commissions Scientific Committee on Food
(SCF) reevaluated this sweetener and supported its safety but
recommended an ADI from 09 mg kg
1 to 015 mg kg
1
236 Sweeteners: Classification, Sensory and Health Effects
body weight per day. The amount of acesulfame K added to food
products is very small because of its intense sweetening power
and because it is often used in combination with other sweet-
eners. The estimated daily intake is estimated at 20% of the ADI
because of its intense sweetening power. Estimated intakes in
children are below the ADI (ranges from 3 to 9 mg kg
1 body
weight per day).
Alitame
Alitame is composed of L-aspartic acid, D-alanine, and a novel
C-terminal amide moiety and is 2000 times sweeter than
sucrose without the bitter or metallic qualities of high-intensity
sweeteners. The JECFA reviewed safety data on alitame in 2002.
The committee concluded that there was no evidence that
alitame is carcinogenic. An ADI of 01 mg kg
1 body weight
was allocated on the basis of the no-observed-adverse-effect
level of 100 mg kg
1 body weight per day to an 18-month
study in dogs. Alitame has already been approved in Mexico,
Colombia, and China and Australia and New Zealand.
Aspartame
Aspartame, a dipeptide (L-aspartyl-L-phenylalanine methyl
ester), is 160220 times sweeter than sucrose. Intestinal ester-
ases hydrolyze aspartame to aspartic acid, methanol, and phe-
nylalanine. These components are found in much greater
amounts in the normal diet in fruits, vegetables, meat, and
milk. For example, a serving of nonfat milk provides about 6
times more phenylalanine and 13 times more aspartic acid,
whereas a serving of tomato juice has about 6 times more
methanol than an equal volume beverage sweetened 100%
with aspartame. In 1981, the FDA approved aspartame as a
sweetener for a number of dry uses (e.g., tabletop sweetener,
cold breakfast cereal, gelatins, and puddings) and in chewing
gum. This approval was expanded in 1983 to include carbon-
ated beverages. The Council on Scientific Affairs of the American
Medical Association in 1985 concluded that Available evidence
suggests that consumption of aspartame by normal humans is
safe and is not associated with serious adverse health effects. In
EFSAs first ever full risk assessment of the food additive aspar-
tame, the experts concluded that aspartame and its breakdown
products are safe for human consumption at current levels of
exposure. Aspartame does not have any carcinogenic effect, and
there are no possible effects of aspartame on the development of
the unborn organism (fetus). The sweetener is authorized in the
European Union for use in drinks, desserts, sweets, dairy prod-
ucts, chewing gums, and energy-reduced and weight control
products and as a tabletop sweetener. This assessment was car-
ried out as part of the reevaluation of the safety of all previously
authorized food additives in the EU. The first safety assessment
of aspartame carried out in Europe was published by the SCF in
1984, and an ADI for aspartame of 40 mg kg
1 body weight per
day was established.
Cyclamate
Cyclamate was discovered in 1937. It was used as a low-calorie
sweetener in the United States in the 1950s and 1960s. It is a
salt of cyclohexylsulfamic acid. Sodium cyclamate is used as
an NNS, and the analogous calcium salt is used especially in
low-sodium diets. Cyclamate is 30 times sweeter than sucrose.
It has a bitter aftertaste but has good sweetness synergy with
saccharin. It is soluble in water and its solubility can be
increased by preparing the sodium or calcium salt. It is
approved by the JECFA and SCF and is in use by more than
50 countries worldwide. The JECFA set an ADI for cyclamate at
11 mg kg
1 body weight per day. Cyclamates were banned by
the FDA as a food ingredient in 1969 because the saccharin/
cyclamate mixture was shown to cause cancer in experimental
laboratory rats. The primary concern was that it could be toxic
to some individuals who appear to metabolize cyclamate to
cyclohexylamine.
Neotame
Neotame is a derivative of a dipeptide compound of the amino
acids aspartic acid and phenylalanine. Neotame has been
developed as a sweetener with a high degree of sweetness and
is obtained by N-alkylating aspartame. Its degree of sweetness
varies according to the kind of food and blend composition. It
is 700013 000 times and about 3060 times sweeter than
sugar and aspartame, respectively. Globally, neotame is
approved for use in multiple countries in North America,
South America, Europe, Africa, Asia, and Australia. In June
2003, the JECFA confirmed the safety of neotame and granted
an ADI of 2 mg kg
1 body weight per day.
Saccharin
Saccharin was discovered by Remsen and Fahlberg in 1878 at
the Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore. It is an NNS of 1,2-
benzoisothiazol-3-(2H) on 1,1 dioxide. Saccharin has an
unpleasant bitter or metallic off-taste. As the parent compound
is only sparingly soluble in water, the sweetener is usually used
as the sodium or calcium salt. Both salts are highly water-
soluble, 0.67 g ml
1 of water at room temperature. It is about
300 times sweeter than sucrose. The FDA has approved saccha-
rin (in the ammonium saccharin, calcium saccharin, and
sodium saccharin forms) as a sweetener in beverages in
amounts not to exceed 12 mg per fluid ounce, as a sugar
substitute packaged in amounts not to exceed the sweetening
power of 1 teaspoon of sugar (20 mg) for use in cooking or at
the table, and in processed foods in amounts exceeding 30 mg
per serving. The label must state saccharin in the ingredient
declaration, the amount of saccharin listed per fluid ounce for
beverages, milligrams in the dispensing unit for cooking or
tabletop use, and milligrams per serving for processed goods.
The FDA lists the ADI for saccharin at 5 mg kg
1.
Stevia
Stevia (stevioside), derived from a South American shrub,
imparts a sweet taste but cannot be marketed or sold as a
sweetener in the United States. It is a natural herb. This zero-
calorie sweetener mainly contains steviol glycoside, which is
1015 times sweeter than sucrose. The human body does not
metabolize these sweet glycosides and so obtains no calories
from stevia. Unlike artificial sweeteners, the sweet glycoside
does not break down in heat, which makes stevia an excellent
sweetener for cooking and baking. Studies have indicated that
stevia tends to lower elevated blood pressure. The ADI is

4 mg kg
1 body weight expressed as steviol equivalents based
on GRAS notification. It also significantly improves the nutri-
tional status of diabetic patients.
Sucralose
Sucralose was discovered in 1976. This NNS is made from
sucrose by a process that substitutes three chloride atoms for
three hydroxyl groups on the sucrose molecule. Sucralose is
450650 times sweeter than sucrose and has a pleasant sweet
taste, and its quality and timeintensity profile are very close to
that of sucrose. It has a moderate synergy with other nutritive
and NNS. Sucralose was approved in April 1998 by the FDA as
a tabletop sweetener and for use in a number of desserts,
confections, and nonalcoholic beverages. In 1999, sucralose
was approved as a general purpose sweetener. The FDA con-
cluded from a review of more than 110 studies in human
beings and animals that this sweetener did not pose carcino-
genic, reproductive, or neurologic risk. According to the EFSA,
the ADI of sucralose is 40 mg kg
1 body weight per day.
Thaumatin
Thaumatin is a sweet-tasting basic protein extracted from the
fruits of a tropical plant, Thaumatococcus daniellii Benth., found
in rain forests of Western Africa from Sierra Leone to Zaire,
Sudan, and Uganda. The first description of this plant was
made in the mid-nineteenth century. It is a mixture of proteins
with tight disulfide bonds, imparts an intensely sweet taste,
and acts as a flavor enhancer. In the United States, thaumatin is
GRAS as a flavor adjunct for a number of categories. Thauma-
tin at a recommended use range of 15 mg kg
1 complete feed
is safe for all animal species with a considerable margin of
safety. Consequently, thaumatin can be administered simulta-
neously via feed or water for drinking. Thaumatins are highly
digestible proteins and no residues in edible tissues/products
are expected. Consequently, there are no concerns for
consumer safety.
Sugar Alcohols
Sugar alcohols are neither sugars nor alcohol; it includes lactitol,
xylitol, maltitol, polydextrose, mannitol, isomalt, polyols,
palatinit, sorbitol, polyol syrups, hydrogenated starch, and
hydrolysates. They are used to sweeten foods labeled sugar-
free or no added sugar. Small amounts of sugar alcohols are expected to increase, especially with the new practice of
Table 1 Properties of some nutritive sweeteners
Sweetener Glycemic index Type
Glucose 100 Monosaccharide
Fructose 1923 Monosaccharide
Lactose 46 Disaccharide
Lactulose 0 Disaccharide
Maltose 105 Disaccharide
Mannitol 0 Sugar alcohol
Sorbitol 9 Sugar alcohol
Sucrose 6165 Disaccharide
Tagatose 0 Galactose isomer
Xylitol 713 Sugar alcohol
Sweeteners: Classification, Sensory and Health Effects 237
found naturally in fruits and vegetables. They can also be man-
ufactured. They are only partly absorbed by your body, have
fewer calories than sugar, and have no major effect on blood
glucose. Consumption of more than 10 g of sugar alcohols a day
can cause side effects such as gas, bloating, and diarrhea.
Sensory and Health Aspects of Sweeteners
The sense of taste mainly consists of saltiness, sourness, sweet-
ness, bitterness, and umami, the so-called five basic tastes.
These basic tastes indicate different biological signals. Salti-
ness, which is basically caused by salt, is a signal of the elec-
trolyte balance in foods and beverages. Sourness and bitterness
are good indicators of rottenness and poisons, respectively.
Umami is a signal of proteins and certain amino acids. Sweet-
ness is a signal of nutrient sources, such as sugars and sugar
alcohols. In human taste sensing, each basic taste is perceived
on taste buds, which are sensory organs on the tongue. Taste
buds consist of about 50150 taste receptor cells. The mecha-
nisms of sweetness and umami taste perception were clarified
by the discovery of sweetness receptors and umami receptors,
which have broad selectivity to the corresponding tastes and
are capable of detecting substances with various chemical
structures in spite of only one type of heterodimeric receptor
in each cell. In a biological taste system, the signal responses to
sweeteners are initially coded in taste buds of the epithelium by
action potentials. It is known that all sweeteners are mediated
by heterodimeric G protein-coupled receptors in type cells in
the bud, which have a plurality of binding sites to correspond-
ingly identify sweet stimuli of different structures. However,
studies have suggested that there are two kinds of sweetness
signal transduction models that are different but interdepen-
dent to conduct different types of sweet stimuli. One is the
cyclic adenosine monophosphate pathway utilized by natural
sugars such as sucrose to elicit membrane depolarization, and
the other is the inositol triphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol
pathway used by artificial sweeteners for signal transduction.
Many researchers have pointed out that receptor activities
toward the artificial sweeteners greatly depend on residues in
the amino terminal domains of the sweet taste receptors as
ligand binding sites. This means the signal responses of taste
receptor cells to natural sugars and artificial sweeteners may be
different and can be used to characterize different sweeteners.
The worldwide demand for high-potency sweeteners is
Source
Hydrolyzed starch
Enzymatically isomerized glucose
Milk sugar
Alkaline isomerization of lactose when milk is heated
Enzymatic hydrolysis of starch
Hydrogenation of invert sugar or fructose
Hydrogenated glucose
Cane and beet
Hydrolyzed lactose, galactose converted by alkali
Hydrogenated xylose
238 Sweeteners: Classification, Sensory and Health Effects
combining different sweeteners. The properties of some
nutritive sweeteners are given in Table 1. Among naturally
derived sweeteners, stevia and licorice root are likely to become
prevalent sources of high-potency sweeteners for the growing
natural food market in the future. Rebaudioside A derived from
stevia is the least astringent and the least bitter, has the least
persistent aftertaste, and was judged to have the most favorable
sensory attributes of the four major steviol glycosides. Both
stevioside and rebaudioside A are synergistic in mixtures with
other high-potency sweeteners and are, like glycyrrhizin, good
candidates for inclusion in various food products. Sweet sub-
stances are compounds with diverse chemical structures and
sizes, for example, sugars (sucrose), sugar alcohols (xylitol),
sulfonyl amides (saccharin), peptides (aspartame), D-amino
acids (D-tryptophan), and proteins (thaumatin). Sweetness
receptors are heterodimeric proteins that consist of two kinds
of G protein-coupled receptors (T1R2 and T1R3). T1R2 T1R3
heterodimeric receptors are activated by all sweeteners. Sweet-
ener potency is defined as the number of times that a sweetener
is sweeter than sucrose. The potency of a sweetener is com-
pared with sucrose mainly in the threshold levels of the sweet-
ener and sucrose. Sugars and sugar alcohols, such as sucrose
and xylitol, are low-potency sweeteners, whose sweetener
potencies are about 1 and under. On the other hand, sweet-
eners that have a sweetener potency exceeding 10 are called
high-potency sweeteners, such as saccharin and aspartame.
Interestingly, low-potency sweeteners, such as sucrose, exhibit
higher sweetness intensity than high-potency sweeteners at
very high concentrations. That is why low-potency sweeteners
are also called high-intensity sweeteners. Some approved NNS
are given in Table 2.
Sweetness is not the only relevant sensory characteristic
when evaluating sucrose replacement by low-calorie sweet-
eners. Other sensory characteristics, such as bitterness, after-
taste (metallic, sour, etc.), texture attributes (viscosity and
mouthfeel), and freshness, should also be taken into account.
Bitterness and metallic off-flavors have been one of the most
common problems of low-calorie sweeteners. The dynamic of
these sensory characteristics throughout consumption, partic-
ularly onset and linger, is also relevant for the performance of
these ingredients. Temporal dominance of sensations (TDS) is
a new dynamic methodology that consists of presenting a list
of attributes to the assessors, who are asked to continuously
select the attribute that is perceived as dominant at each time of
the evaluation. Considering that TDS is focused on dominant
Table 2 Some approved nonnutritive sweeteners
Type Regulatory status
Acesulfame K Approved as a general purpose sweetener
Aspartame Approved as a general purpose sweetener
Neotame Approved as a general purpose sweetener
Saccharin Approved as sweetener for beverages and as a tabletop
sweetener in food with specific maximum amount allowed
Sucralose Approved as a general purpose sweetener
attributes, instead of quantifying attribute intensity, results
from this methodology could better explain consumers per-
ception and more accurately identify the sensations that deter-
mine their hedonic perceptions.
In sensory evaluations of foods, beverages, or pharmaceu-
tical products, well-trained sensory panelists actually taste sam-
ples to evaluate them; therefore, sensory tests have some
problems such as low objectivity and reproducibility and the
stress possibly imposed on panelists. In addition, it is very
costly to select and train panelists. In particular, in the medical
and pharmaceutical industries, it is difficult to perform sensory
tests because of the potential for side effects. Though quantita-
tive analysis is conducted, it cannot estimate the strength of
each basic taste. Thus, taste evaluation methods without using
human sensory systems have attracted attention. The develop-
ment of taste evaluation methods should contribute greatly
to the palatability of drug products and the quality of foods
and beverages. To solve the problem, electronic tongues
(e-tongues) have been introduced and used successfully to
evaluate the taste. e-Tongues primarily use metal and ion-
selective electrodes in a potentiometric multisensor system;
therefore, principal component analysis and partial least
squares are generally used to analyze taste information
obtained by sensor outputs with low selectivity.
Over the years, the effects of nutritive and NNS use on
human health have been a concern among health profes-
sionals and the public for a variety of reasons. One area
involves the safety of sweeteners for use by children, when
sweetener intakes are high relative to body weight, and preg-
nant women, when the goal of the diet is to support maternal
and fetal health. The use of nutritive sweeteners is acceptable
during pregnancy. Recommendations for NNS use during
pregnancy must be based on well-designed and approved
clinical investigations to ensure healthy pregnancy outcomes.
Women who consumed one or more NNS-sweetened soft
drinks per day were significantly more likely to deliver pre-
term. The association was stronger for carbonated than for
noncarbonated drinks. At the time of the study, aspartame
and acesulfame K were used most often for carbonated
drinks, and saccharin and cyclamates were more often
used for noncarbonated drinks. From the survey, it was con-
cluded that daily intake of beverages containing NNS may be
associated with an increased risk of preterm delivery. It is
important to point out that the incidence of preterm birth
was low, and the increased risk was primarily as a result of
Description
200 times sweeter than sucrose, noncariogenic, and produces no
glycemic response
160220 times sweeter than sucrose, noncariogenic, and produces
limited glycemic response
8000 times sweeter than sucrose, noncariogenic, and produces no
glycemic response; sweetening power is not reduced during heating
200700 times sweeter than sucrose, noncariogenic, and produces no
glycemic response
600 times sweeter than sucrose, noncariogenic, and produces no
glycemic response
 Sweeteners: Classification, Sensory and Health Effects
medically induced preterm birth. This finding has not been
confirmed in other studies.
Dental caries are the localized destruction of dental hard
tissue by acidic material from bacterial fermentation of dietary
carbohydrates. Factors that influence the development of den-
tal caries include microbiological shifts in the biofilm, salivary
flow, buffering capacity of saliva, frequency and kind of dietary
sugars consumed, length of time the oral bacteria have to
ferment the fermentable carbohydrate and make organic
acids, tooth susceptibility, and preventive behaviors such as
cleaning of teeth. A child who consumes more than three
between the meals nutritive sweetener-containing snacks or
beverages per day is considered at increased risk for dental
caries. Xylitol is considered cariostatic and anticariogenic and
aids in the prevention of dental caries. It is very soluble in water
and sparingly soluble in ethanol. Human tolerance studies
indicate that consumption exceeding 50 g per day leads to
diarrhea. Excess body fat arises from the energy imbalance
caused by taking in too much energy and expending too little
energy. Recent concerns have been expressed regarding high
intakes of sweetened foods and beverages and the possible
association with the increasing prevalence of overweight and
obesity across the population, including children. Of particular
interest is consumption of high-sugar, low-nutrient dense
foods, specifically sweetened sodas and drinks. There is specu-
lation that high intakes of fructose (particularly in the form of
sweetened liquids) increase energy intake and obesity risk
through the blunting of circulating insulin and leptin levels.
Obesity is another complex problem, and its cause cannot
simply be attributed to any one component of the food supply
such as sweeteners. Troiano and colleagues found higher
intakes of energy from sweetened soft drinks among over-
weight than nonoverweight youths, yet they suggest that phys-
ical inactivity may be more significant to the secular increase in
weight within this population. Nutritive sweeteners containing
fructose and sucrose are of primary interest related to hyper-
lipidemia. Diets high in these sweeteners have been shown to
increase serum triacylglycerol and low-density lipoprotein cho-
lesterol levels in short-term studies, particularly if the diet is
low in fat, with fructose being more hyperlipidemic than
sucrose. It should be emphasized that not all studies show a
positive association. LDL concentrations have been shown to
rise with increases in sugar intake. The effects on high-density
lipoprotein levels are inversely related to sugar intake. As part
of the FDA approval process, toxicology testing can examine
the impact of NNS on behavior. The approved NNS did not
show significant effects on behavior, especially when con-
sumed within the ADIs. Attention has been paid to the associ-
ation between aspartame and a range of central nervous system
and behavioral conditions including headaches, seizures, cog-
nitive impairment, and mood disorders; a recent critical review
of the scientific literature refutes all such associations.
Conclusion
Nutritive and NNS add to the pleasure of eating. Consumers
can enjoy a wide range of sweeteners in a wide variety of foods
and beverages. Consumers can incorporate nutritive
239
sweeteners into a healthful eating plan and meet current guide-
lines for healthful diets. The range of nutritive and NNS allows
choice in the type and amount of sweeteners to include in the
diet. NNS are safe for use within the approved regulations.
They can increase the palatability of fruits, vegetables, and
whole grain breads/cereals and thus have the potential to
increase the nutrient density of the diet while promoting
lower energy intakes. The trend in sweetener blending will
maximize the sweetening potential and support intakes of
NNS well within the acceptable levels.
See also: Beverage: Health Effects; Fructose: Sources, Metabolism,
and Health; Pregnancy: Metabolic Adaptations and Nutritional
Requirements; Saccharin How Sweet It Is; Sucrose: Dietary
Importance.
Further Reading
Bassoli A and Merlini L (2003) Sweeteners intensive. In: Caballero B (ed.) Encyclopedia
of food sciences and nutrition, 2nd ed., pp. 56885695. Oxford: Academic Press.
Butchko HH, Stargel WW, Comer CP, et al. (2002) Aspartame: review of safety.
Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 35: S1S93.
Burt BA (2006) The use of sorbitol- and xylitol-sweetened chewing gum in caries
control. Journal of the American Dental Association 137(2): 190196.
Cadena RS, Vidal L, Ares G, and Varela P (2014) Dynamic sensory descriptive
methodologies timeintensity and temporal dominance of sensations. In: Varela P
and Ares G (eds.) Novel techniques in sensory characterization and consumer
profiling, pp. 333364. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
DuBois GE and Prakash I (2012) Non-caloric sweeteners, sweetness modulators,
and sweetener enhancers. Annual Review of Food Science and Technology
3: 353380.
Elliott SS, Keim NL, Stern JS, Teff K, and Havel PJ (2002) Fructose, weight gain, and
the insulin resistance syndrome. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
76: 911922.
Farkas A and Hid J (2011) The black agonist-receptor model of high potency
sweeteners, and its implication to sweetness taste and sweetener design. Journal of
Food Science 76: S465S468.
Food and Drug Administration. (2002). Agency response letter GRAS notice no. GRN
000045. http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/fcn/gras_notices/214653A.pdf.
Accessed December 16, 2011.
Hayes C (2001) The effect of non-cariogenic sweeteners on the prevention of
dental caries: a review of the evidence. Journal of Dental Education 65(10):
11061109.
Kaiser LL and Allen L (2002) Position of the American Dietetic Association: nutrition
and lifestyle for a healthy pregnancy outcome. Journal of the American Dietetic
Association 102: 14791490.
Kinghorn AD, Chin Y-W, Pan L, and Jia Z (2010) Natural products as sweeteners and
sweetness modifiers. In: Liu H-W and Mander L (eds.) Comprehensive natural
products II, pp. 269315. Oxford: Elsevier.
Lorenz JK, Reo JP, Hendl O, Worthington JH, and Petrossia VD (2009) Evaluation of a
taste sensor instrument (electronic tongue) for use in formulation development.
International Journal of Pharmaceutics 367: 6572.
Mattes RD and Popkin BM (2009) Nonnutritive sweetener consumption in humans:
effects on appetite and food intake and their putative mechanisms. American Journal
of Clinical Nutrition 89(1): 114.
Relevant Websites
http://www.agriculturejournals.cz/publicFiles/50308.pdf Czech Journal of Food
Science: Sensory Profiles of Sweeteners in Aqueous Solutions.
240 Sweeteners: Classification, Sensory and Health Effects
http://www.bcmj.org/article/regulation-disorders-sensory-processing-infants-and-
young-children BC Medical Journal: Regulation disorders of sensory processing
in infants and young children.
http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ901179.pdf Rebecca L. Withrow: Sensory Integration
Dysfunction: Implications for Counselors Working with Children.
http://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/artificial-sweeteners-sugar-free-but-at-what-cost-
201207165030 Harvard Health Publications: Artificial sweeteners: sugar-free, but
at what cost?
http://www.ianrpubs.unl.edu/pages/publicationD.jsp?publicationId287 University
of Nebraska: Sweeteners.
http://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-living/nutrition-and-healthy-eating/in-depth/
artificial-sweeteners/art-20046936 Mayo Clinic: Artificial sweeteners and other
sugar substitutes.
http://www.mercola.com/Downloads/bonus/aspartame/report.aspx Mercola.com:
Sweet Isnt All There Is To Aspartame and Other Artificial Sweeteners.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22908895 Pubmed.gov: Sensory
characteristics and relative sweetness of tagatose and other sweeteners.