Course Manual

~ -.- - _----

AquaculturlJ
Engineering
"(Deemed University-leAP) , , '
.
Central Institute of Fisher.ies Education
,

Fisheries University Road ~,

Se\len B~ngalows ; <yers~va .;.
Mumbai , - 400061 _'"
Short-Terln Training Programme
On
TU I
23-30 June, 2003

Dr.S.C.MUKHERJEE Er.CHANDRAKA T.M.H

COURSE DIRECTOR PROGRAMME CO-ORDINATOR

. ... ,
"
." ',,- . _ '1

CENTRAL INSTITUTE OF FISHERIES EDUCATION

( DEEfV1ED UNI VERSi T Y, ICJlR )
UMBAI - 4 0 061
 CREDITS

COURSE DIRECTOR DR.S.C.MUKHERJEE

DIRECTOR, CIFE, MUMBAI

COURSE DR.M.P.SIN GH KOHLI

CO-DIRECTOR HOD,AQUACULTURE

PROGRAMME : ER.CHANDRAKANT M. H
CO-ORDINATOR TECH.OFFICER & OIC (WORKS)

ASSOCIATE SHRI.A.K.REDDY
CO-ORDINATORS MRS.ASHA LANDGE
SHFO.A SADANANDAN
SHRI.BH/,SKAR MANDHARE

TRAINING ORGANISER DR.S.N.OJHA

TRAINING ASSOCIATES SHRi.A. D.RAGABHAGAT

SMT.REKHA NAIR

DTP ASSlSTANCE SMT.PRAGAT ~ GAORE

GOVER PAGE DES~GN OASARP BHOI\4~A.CAH

DATE Of PUBLDGATON
 &i~64 ql~Ch~ m~~
Ut141f4 ~~q~'OIC1l1) ~ ~ 3r-JBtiR ~
CENTRAL INSTITUTE OF FISHERIES EDUCATION
- .-- ----_._.__... __ (Deemed University) Indian Council of Agricultural Research
._---------

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ff

Foreward
~irec~or Aquaculture Eng ineering is an essential and integral component in
! aquaculture Industry. The basic objective is to build, provide and suitab le
maintain environmental conditions for maintenance of aquatic life .
Aquaculture engineering programmes require integration of aquaculture
science with the eng ineering aspects like civi l, chemica l, mechanical and
agricultura l engineering . A wide range of engin eering tecl1nologi es now
find application in aquacu lture. Application of civil engineering techniques
co uld improve the designs of many aquacu lture faciliti es and such
engineering techniques require to be documented and propagated.

CIFE has been providing well organised teaching, research and

extension orienteci training programmes in vc:rious disciplines rei '"' ted ~o
aq uaculture/fisheries . In In dia, so far only liT , Kharagpur is conducting
M.Tech on Aquaculture Engineering for engine ers . Therefore , short term
training programme on "Aquacu lture Engineering" is essential to
dissem inate knowledge based training an Aqua farm design and
co nstruction techniques to the private entrepreneurs . Such training
programmes are significant as aquaculture engineering is gaini;lg
importa nce through out th e country.

It is in this context that a training programme on "Aquaculture

Engineering" is bein g organised at the Central Institute of Fisheries
Education (Deemed University), Mumbai during 4-10, October, 200~ .

I am sure the training programme would be of great benefit to the

participants . I comp lement Shri. C~'IC1ndrakant M.H., the Programme Co-
ordinator and :,le faculty for their untiring efforis to mak e this training
~rngramme successful.

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 CONTENTS

Sr. - - Name of th etopic - --- -- ._ .. --1 --Page No-.- --,

No. .- - ..-----. - I - - ---
1. Aquaculture Engineering - Evolution, recent advances I 1-5
and future prospects \
Dr.S.C.Mukherjee, Director, CIFE , Mumbai !
--t-s-=-e~l-e-c-tiO:- '-n-O-f's-u-i'ta-bl-e-site-for-Aquaculture
t
-23--. - - .-- - -- ---j- - G.i1 -- .
Er.Chandrakant M.H. I
I Design and construction of Aqua farr;','s - - -- -. - --- - .. '22 --49- --1i
Er.Chandrakant M.H I
I
I
I
.. -_. __._+ - - - - -----_... _-_._.- - - -- - .... , ..
4. Principles &. applica tions of aeration In Aquaculture : 50 - 75 I
Er.Chandrakant M.H .
.
1- 5 Operation , -working--pl~nciple- and utility of pumps in I
Aquaculture I
76 - 82

Er.Chandrakant M.H .
I --- - - .... -
r - --6~- . Design of feeder canal and other water exchange i 83 - 99
! structures
Er.Chandrakant M.H.
,- ----. -----_._-- _. j

7 Permeability, seepage analysis and seepa ge control I

1
100-10 /
Er.Chandral.;ant M.H
____ 1._____ - - - - - - - - - - _
8. II Construction equipmenls 1 oe - -; 1 ;
, Prof.Abdul Razaq A. Honnutagi
i_._ _ ._.-L
! _._ __
i
I
9. II Raceway culture systems
I Er.Chandrakant M.H. i
-10. --1' Soil dynan-iTcs and itS-application in th e construction of 1 125 - 132
I ponds :
! I Dr.(Mrs) Neelam Saharan
- ---- ----- - ___.
t -~T--I-S,te selection for Shrimp-/--=P-r-a-w n- hatchery : 13 2 - 137
Ii I Er. Chandrakant M.H. I

:----I~ De~igna-nd construction of ha tchery fa cil iti es

; 1 .. I Shrr. AK .Reddy and Er.Chandrakant M.H.
'----"-ri I

!.. _ - J-----. . - -- _ . - -- - ._-! - -

'13. I Design of water treatment and fil tration systems for : 153- 159
, Shrimp/Prawn hatcheries I
II Shri . AK.R!::ddy and Er.Chandrakant IVl .H. ,
 - 14_
--
"\...,//
Water intake systems in hatcheries
.- -
Shri. A.K.Reddy and Er.Chandrak ant M.H.
--------.--.-J-- 160 - 165

-- I
i 5. Layout plan & design of carp hatch ery '1 66 - 171
Shri.A. K. Reddy I
I

.. - --
Status of cage and pen Aquacult ure in freshwaters of
-172- - 197
-
. 1~V
./
India
Dr. P. Kumaraiah
I

17 . Earth moving equipments & soil --------1----- _.

COl npaction techniques 198 - 2 13
Prof.Abdul Razaq A. Honnutagi

18. Air blowers and design of aeration grids

--_ .... I
~ ..... -
2 '14 - 236
Shri .lbrahirn O.K.
I
.... ..
~- -- .- ._-_._--- _ 1_
237 - (/,G
19 . Aquaculture Engineering

L- 20 .
Or.S. D.Tripathi
,
----------
Contour Surveying
Prof.Abdul Razaq A. Honnutagi
247-261

_. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ .J_
-
21 . Estimation of Important V\fater quali ty parameters 2G2 - 27 1
I
______ 1 Or.Chandra p_ra_k_a_s_h_ _ __ ;
- ,
I
~

22. Cesign and ccr.struction of Integruted fi sh fa ~ m :2'7') - 287

Or.Anand S. Upadhyay
I1- - . - - - - - - - - - - - - -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
I 23 . Design and construction of Aquaculture farm 2ce - 299
I Dr.Anand S. Upadhyay

,'- 24 . II~vestn;ent opportur~ity-i"nscampT-(freshwater prawn ) ;-

i farming ,

1__ 25 _j:i~:and SUP'~dh\:~ _____________ .____ !

:_::,1 1 - 3111
i I Dr. K.Venk ateshwaran
i i
 CHAPTER-I
AQUACULTURE ENGINEERING - EVOLUTION, RECENT ADVANCES
AND FUTURE PROSPECTS

S.C.Mukherjee
Director, Centra/Institute Of Fisheries Education ,Mumbai-61

INTRODUCTION
Aquaculture is science and technology of producing aquatic plants and
animals. It is not new but has been practiced for over 2000 years. However the role of
aquaculture in helping to meet the world's food shortages has become more recently
apparent. Aquaculture engineering can simply be defined as the application of engineering
principles to the production of food and fiber from aquatic environments . Experts predict
ttl'at, at ,the present rate' of population growth, by the year 2020, we will be hard pressed to
fill the food and fiber needs of th e world 's masses. Two means by which we may meet th e
world's .ftiture food needs are: (1) greater production of traditional agronomic crops: and
(2) aqual.,;ulture,
Commercial aquacul ture production lies in the realm of biotechnology,
which , requires a balanced support from the biological and engineering sciences.
H'o.wev,er, commercial aquaculture has become so complex that, in order to be successful,
one must also draw upon tile expertise of biologists, marketing speCiali sts, lawyers, and
others .. The multidi sciplinary approach to aquaculture production became apparent during
the early 1990s. It is beli eved that thi s trend will continue 3S aquaculture production
becom es mOi'e and more intensive in order for the producer to squeeze as much pmduct
as possible out of 3 given parcel of land .
Trw first p:md for aquacu lture was co nstructed more than 2000 years ago .
Yet Aquaculture has not received th e concentrated research effort th at has been applied
to agriculture, or enjoyed widespread practical use, Developed countries con afford th e
necessary investment, w herea~ developing countries tend to concentrate th eir limited
funds on Agriculture. Developing countries, especia:Jy in Asia, many of which rely on
Aquaculture as an important protein 50urce, lack the financial assets to fund large
Aquaculture research programmes . Most biological studies indicat8 that traditional
. fisheries are approaching the maximum sustainabl e yie:d th e ocean and major bodies of
freshvJater are capCtlJle of supporting . In add iti(ln to this, increasing world demand for
fishery ' products, b JS stim~d~t".;d rapid!;; i:v;;reasing interest in aquaculture, even in
developed nations .

EVOLUTION OF AQUACU LIUf~t= [NGlr~E[RING

T odzy Aq;Ja cultu,'G i':l practiced to some exte,.,t in every country of world,
including ~:')f) Antarctic contin8n ~. Aqu2f;uitu;e is t~,~ !)fCGu.::;l:on, processing and marketin g
of biologic.:; l organisms from Aqu3tiG sY::5tems, \vileretls KtlUacu!iure cngineerir,g is the
application ot Engineering principles ~n(j procedures to fisherie s and to th r:; culture of
Aquatic organisms, Th 6 e n g in eerin~ :nrlJ t~; in tll~~ aquClculture system in the early years of
Aquaculture used to be done exc:usively by Aqua cu iturists, As culture techniques
improved, the input of engineE:rin9 technology beCClfnc e'v'ident. The earl)1 aquacu!turist
engineer tee;m was not withol!t ditfi(';~ljtles an::1 a rl S-W discipline of Aqucll;ulture engineering
evolved. A wide range of engineering technologies now find application in aq
Engineering techniques employed in aquaculture are drawn from the -~'~nUI
engineering disciplines of Agriculture, Civil, Chemical, Mechanical, Eu:"I"':rr',..,.... '
Electronics .engin~eri~g, among others . The ~ndian Institute of Technology . (liT),
Kharagpur In India Introduced a Post Graduate (M.Tech) ~urse in Aquaculture
Engineering during the year 1984, a first of its kind in Asia. The Aquaculture Engineering
is growing very fast following are the areas of interest to modernize and improve
aquaculture for augmenting its production effectively.

1. Selection of an ideal site for establishment of aqua farms, hatchery, feed mill and
processing centers .

~. Layout plan, Design and construction of aquaculture farm, preparation of master

plan for large scale aquaculture complex, aquaculture estate and satellite farming
etc.

3. Design and construction exchange structures of water intake systems such as

seawater intake system in diH'e rent coastal regions, intake of tidal water system,
freshwate r intake system from major muitipurpose project, barrages, canals sluice
gates, proper drainage systerr:s a.nd other perennial water source system.

4. Construction and maintemmce of proper infrastructu ~e for effective implementation

of Aquaculture projects,
E- . Selection and design of major equipments for aquaculture such as ,high discharge
pumps, aerators, fceders , feed plant, efflu ent treatm ent plant and other mechanical
and electrical equipment s .

6. Design, Development and construct ion of other .:Jquacultura: facilities such as

species specific or multispecies hatchery, cage culture, pen culture, raft culture eic.

7. To update the mod ern technique available or applicable in th e field of Aquaculture

and Aqu aculture Engineering through R & [.) CentGrs.

ROLE OF AN ENGINEER IN AQUACULTURr=

Aquaculture was once view8,J d3 on:)' C:l Ir, ir:or j)8rt of tr.e fl S: l and seafood
indu stri es. However, in recent years its im pac~ h[1s bec(,m8 sig;'lific3n~ i? both the public
a:ld pllvate oq~~;:~ :. !!!I_'re sectors a:'e conside red 'fh8 artif;c!ai pr:::'f=, '~9a lio :l Clj' fish h2s
become very compl(;x over the years . iod2Y'S nquac u~\:..!r8 l er;;-':1 o :r_; ~:' cGi1,'3rld s a good
understanding of th e phy~iC:nl, chemica l, and blo!QG!c(':! 1 prl';(:~';"':~(;S r,G':essary for
successful production . Because SUCC'2SS 'dep~ncjs 0.1 :;; i):sr.d ..):- : ' ;~. ;.:;;:k>8 from many
disciplines, many government resea.ch institulions a:lC t~i~' :;Hgcr ;j~i\'3if; cornpanies take
the "teamINork" approach to aquacu lture p;,u,:uctic.n , :\ iL';;!Tl ;),lcY :;onr..is'l of '-3 fishery
biologis.t, a chemist., an economist. a lTiClrl::8ting___~;pec;~!isl, a IG!:t3; ;:,rj'/isor, and an
as
engir.e~r. Other specialists may be brougn~ in . tI:8 r.r:;e:; ,,:""
mise:..
 The aquaculture engineering specialty developed as a spin-off from the agricultural
engineering programs in several major universities in the United States in the early 19705.
Aquaculture continues to be closely align ed with the agriculture sector, and agricultural
engineers long ago recognized the need for blending the engineering sciences into the
aquacul.ture sector if the industry was to survive and grow. Other engineering disciplines
have filled niches as needs arose. Today rnany chemical, civil, sanitary, environmental,
and other specialty engineers are involved with the aquaculture industry. Any of these
engineers may call themselves aqua cultural engineers.

. The aquaculture engineer may find himself involved in endeavors other than those
for ~h.e production of 'food and fiber. The functions of th e industry also include the
propagf3tion of fish for restocking program s; ornamental pool and aquarium fish; aquatic
fish al'ld/or plants used in the pharmaceutical industry; aquatic organisms for production of
industrial products such as oil, jewellery, or animal feed; and sport fish . Technological
advances in any of these sub areas may require an engineer's input .

AQUA'CUL TURE ENG!NEERlNG

" . Aquaculture engineering aims to develop aq uaculture industry. The basic object is
to build and maintain the environmental conditions for aquatic life. In fact, the application
of engineering in aquacultu're starts right from the initial stage of selection of sites for
. construction of aquaculture facilities, facilities design and const;uction, water
management, maintenance of th e faciliti es and goes up to the end of the activi ties of th e
aquaculture indu stry, i.e., harvesting, transportation and marketing including th e post-
harvest technology . Eng ineering expertise is also required for cages, raceways , water re-
circulation, aeration, automatic feeding and processin g of the crop. Even for capture
fisheries of inland waters, tile aquaculture engineering has to playa substantial role. It is
not only with regard to the gears and harvesting mechani sm, but also with regard to th e
protection of breeding grounds and providing facilities for migration of anadromous fish es
in case of obstructions created by construction of barrages, dams, etc.

A considerable amount of engineering information dealing ei th er comprehensively

or partly with design and construction of Rquaculture facilities is available, which couid
profitably be app lied to aquaculture enterprises . ;\pplication of civil engineering
technique s could improve the designs of many aquaculture fa cilities . Such engineering
techniques require to be documented beca use of the fact that the conventional designs
worked out by simple calculation or prepared imprecisely can no lo nger keep up with th e
progress of aquaculture and meet the resultant demands for greater diversity of th e
products. Chem :cal, hydraulic and marine engineering da ta and graphs are also used in
designing aquaculture faci lities. The knowledge and information on th e bio technical
requirements are very v:ta\ for the facilities design in aquaculture. Aquaculture
engineering programmes I equire integratio n of aquacultu~e science with the engineering
disciplines like civil, chemical, mechanical and agricultural engineering and naval
architecture.
 Civil engineering is defined as a field of engineering covering planning, designing
and execution of work, operation and maintenance of management, which are required for
the construction, installation and development of structures and establishments. Civil
engineering is, in general concerned with the improvement of the welfare of human
society. Indirectly aquaculture engineering is also meaning the welfare of human society,
except that, the immediate concern of aquaculture engineering is to improve the
production of aquatic life.

AQUACULTURE ENGINEERING RESEARCH IN INDIA

The major constraints in engineering inputs in the development of aquaculture

come in the way of design, execution and maintenance of facilities required for
aquaculture projects. The constraints are not only in the nature of non-availability or
property trained engineers, but also insufficiency of research and development in the field
of aquaculture engineering . Presently research in the field of aquaculture engineering is
being undertaken in a very limited way in liT, Kharagpur and in different Fisheries
Research Institute of ICAR and only a handful number of workers are working in the field .

The research on aquaculture engineering so far has been done in the country in a
very limited way and th e attempts have been made to solve the problems of engineering
aspects of aquaculture on an ad-hoc and piece-meal manner. As a result, some of the
very' ;mp0rtant and crucial problems for the development of aquaculture in the country
remain unsolved . Therefore, for undertaking the much needed research .and development
programmes in the field of aquacu lture engineering in India, a central organization with
adequate facilities should be es tablistied .

In the field of agricu lture, a well-knit set-up of research institutes, agricultural

universities and agricultural enginee ring colleges have been established, but in the field of
aquaculture, though some research institutes and fisheries colleges have been
established, no institution having su itable infrastruc~ure has yet come up in the field of
aquaculture engineering. Therefore, to accelerate the pace of development in aquaculture
and to establish practical and economically viable aquaculture industry in th e country, it is
urgently necessary to establish an institute on aquaculture ~ngineering for developing
suitable faciliti es, design, equipment and technologies needed for the development of
aquaculture. Hence, to develop the aquaculture industry the role of engineers invdlved in
aquaculture is most vital in view of enhancing the protein food production of our country.
RECENT ADVANCES AND FUTURE PROSPECTS OF AQUACULTURE
ENGINEERING
. Aquaculture Engineering has attracted more and more aquaculturists in the recent
past.: Like mechanization of Agriculture through agricultural Engineering, modernization of
Aqu~culture through Aquaculture Engineering has high potentials. 'Since aquaculture
engineering deals with the engineering principl es related to aquaculture, economical
layout and design , use of modern equipment such as high discharge pumps, aerators,
water testing kits, blowers, etc. have been worked out by the Aquaculture Engineering
discipline though the integration of other engineering branches .

. Future research and development in aquaculture engineering may focus on indoor

aquaculture system, re-circulation system, super intensive culture system, water quality
maintenance, remote control feed distribution system, remote senSing of water quality
parameters, and their control, remote sensing and contro l in operation of outlet, inlet,
aerators and pumps. The pen and cage culture are the other major thrust area for their
design. Also many new species have been found suitable for aquaculture and design and
de~elopment of hatchery for such species will be of major help to boost th e production
through aquaculture.
 CHAPTER-II

SELECTION OF SUITABLE SITE FOR AQUACULTURE

INTRODUCTION

Selection of a suitable site is the first and foremost step in the design and
construction of an aquafarm. A mistake made during the phase of site selection may
result il"' ~:Qher costs of construction and culture operation, and creates environmental
problems as well. Selection of a suitable site strongly influences the ultimate success of
the resulting aquaculture enterprise.

Selection of an ideal site is really a challenging task. For high production and
efficient management, knowledge of local area and experience coupled with scientific and
engin~ering expertise is required.

No site will possess all desired characteristics. Topography changes from placi! to
place making it very difficult to formulate a standard approach for site selection. However
the basic criteria for selecting a good site shou ld be to obtain maximum production at
minimum cost of construction and management.

Important questions that are to be looked into prior to the actual commencement
of process of site selection are:-

1. Whether the culture of propos ed species in that locality is really profitable

(i .e. feasibility of culture) .
2. Whether the water management is within the reach of an aquaculturist.
3. How about the cost of construction (i.e . economy factor).

If an aquaculturist is satisfied after analyzin g the above questions, then he may look
for a suitable site. in consultation with Engineers and Biologists . However the following
guidelines formul ated by the Govt. of India be kept in mind before selecting a site for
construction of an aquafarm .

GUIDELINES FORMULATED BY THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA REGARDING

CONSTRUCTION OF AQUAFARMS

IMPORTANT Do's

Select appropriate site

Social and physical needs of community should be assessed and their-activiti es shou ld
nnt hI=! ("'~r~;:~ ;;; ?ny way
Give emphasis on environmental impact assessment
Have separate water supply and drainage .system
Allow the ponds to dry between harvest
 Treat waste water for reducing organic load
Provide not less than 10% of total pond area for treatment of waste water
Resort to aeration and daily water excha nge
InC;:Qrporate Environment Management plan in all projects above 10 ha . Area

IMPORTANT Don'ts

Do not use land fit for Agriculture for constructing aquafarms

Do not destruct ma ngrove a reas and ecologically sensitive w et la nd s
Do not discharg e th e wa ste w ater into the open environment
Db not disch a rge the trea ted waste into open wat er courses which form source of
water for other farm s
Over capitalization of aquaculture lead ing ' 0 intensification and l1per-intensification
should not be encouraged

SITE SELECTION CRiTERIA

Criteria of selecting a site malr, !y depends upon th e following points .

".1. The sp_ecies to be :ul tured

2. The targeted produ ction level
: 3.

<
The phySiological requiremen t of species

. Th e process of site selection is not only to determin e the suitability of site, it is also
valu able in determining the modifi ciJ lions required with regard to mak farming possible at
a given site . "A suitable si te is one that provid es optimum conditions for the growth
of species aultured at th e ta rgeted production level, g iven an effec tive pond design
and support facilities" .

. ' To se lect a proper site for an aqua farm, first of all a reconnai ssance su rvey should
be Gonducted. During the reconna issa nCE) survey following points may be analyzed
i) fl..ccessibility of th e site
ii) Number of active tidal creeks( resource) points available
iii) Free interplay of ti dal action
iv) Reservoirs/strcdn ' ~ica nals. etc: nearby
v) Whether ground i.., fla t or slopi ng
vi) Existence and d8nsitv of mangrove vegetatio.,
vii) Type of soil
viii) High Flood Le vel of the locality (HFL)
ix) Approximate range of tid al va riations
x) Intrastructure facilitie s
xi) Availability of freshwater Jnd power supply
- . ' xii) Meteorological parameter:; , etc.
xiii) Pollution problems
 After the reconnaissance survey, if the things appear promising, a detailed
survey will then be necessary before further planning and design is undertaken.

CHARECTERISTICS OF A GOOD SITE

1. Maximum productive area and minimum area occupied by bunds and other
accessories
2. Effective and efficient water exchange system
3. Good water holding capacity
4. Individual pond de-watering and harvesting
5. Free from pollution
6. Very close to water source
7. Gravitational flow system
8. Good accessibility and marketing facilities
9. Levelled ground with gentle slope in one or two directions

IMPROPER SITE LEADS TO

1 Higher cost of construction

2 Higher cost of culture operation
3 Pollution and Environmental problems
4 Low production
5 D:ffivult farm management

CRITICAL PROBLEMS IN AN IMPROPER SITE

1. Excessive seepage
2. Lack of draining by gravity
3. High turbidity
4. Impracticability for drying of pond bottom
5. Improper water exchange

AVOID AREA

1 Having large rocks, Oeep rooted vegetation, Broken soil

2 Having substantial shading of surface of waters from surrounding vegetation
3 Where adequate water source is not available
4 Having acidic and acid sulphate soil
5 Having uneconomical topography
6 Where the water source is polluted
7 Where tidal range is abnormal
SELECTION OF A SUITABLE SITE FOR CONSTRUCTION OF AN AQUAFARM

Level of the site with reference to tide levels is an important factor in selecting a site
for establishment brackishwater aquafarms. The site should be such that good water
exchange is possible whenever required. should' retain water to the required levels and
should have the facility of draining completely preferably by gravity.
Following factors are to be considered in order to select a best posstble site for
brackishwater aquafarms.

A. MAIN FACTORS

1. Topography and tidal amplitude

2. Type of soil and .its quality
3. Water source and th e quality of water
4. Drainage facilities

B. OTHER FACTORS

1. Environmental factors (Meteorological factors)

2. Accessibility
3. Socio-econumic conditions
4. Pollution problems
5. Availability of seed and feed
6. Availability of freshwater & electricity (public am enities)
7. Transportation and Marketing facilities (communications)
8. Social and political factors
9. Availability of technical guidance
10 . Security. etc.

A. MAIN FACTORS

(a) TOPOGRAPHY AND TIDAL AMPLITUDE

Topography is one of the most important criteria in the proce ss of site selection .
When selectin for aquaculture venture. preference should be given to locations
where th ravitational flo ma be used to fill the ond s, tanks, racewa s etc' as ravity
ow IS economical. It is also advantageous to rain the ponds by gravity flow . To take the
advantage of gravity flow. the R_ond bottom should be at a higher elevation than the water

-
table when the pond is drained (for pond drainage).

. Topography refers to the changes in the surface eleyatjon of oallJ(al groyod i.e .
whether the ground is ~ slopinq. undulating,. or ~ The best area for fish
ponds/shrimp ponds is wnere th~ . eled ~flat) or wh ere there is a sli hLSl.o .
The optimum slope is between .5 to 1.0;' The ground slop shouldn't be more th an

---
2%, as I needs construc Ion 0 Ig S yembankments .
 flat areas located near the active creek and
other n:;a;u;r;a;~w
~a;e;_r"'::':'re~s~o~u~r~c~e::':s~li~k~e::;;n~v~e:::rs~/~c~a~n:::a~s/reservoirs/streams, etc; with an
average natural ground elevation of 1 to 3 meter above the mean sea level, having
minimum vegetation on it and slight sloping in one or two directions are ideal
coastal aquaculture development",

Sites with excessive undulating topography should be avoided as a lot of cut and fill
would be needed during the construction, which will increase the cost of construction.
Sites with average elevation lower than the mean low water should be avoided as ponds
cannot be drained properly. Areas covered with large number of big trees and thick
vegetation should be avoided as cleaning of the site will be difficult and will increase the
cost.
Proper elevation of the site in relation to tidal datum is another question, which
needs to be considered especially in brackishwater projects. At the places where tidal
fluctuations (daily fluctuations) are too high (say 4 m and above) would be problematic
because very big and costly dikes would be required to prevent flooding during the high
tide . Areas where tidal fluctuations are too small (say 1 m or less) would pose serious
problems because filling and draining of the pond cannot be fully executed. In general, the
sites where tidal fluctuations are moderate (say between 2 m and 3 m) are most suitable
for proper management. Ideal tidal amplitude for extensive and semi-intensive
cUlturei~ ~

For extensive and semi-intensive culture practices where the water supply and
draining are mostly done by gravity, the sites with an elevation above tvlHWL ar'e not
suitable as they would require much excavation, similarly sites with elevation below LLWL
are also not suitable as the draining and drawing of the water in ponds become a big
problem. For extensive and semi-intensive ponds, elevation of the land should be slightly
above MLLW (M ean lower low water) and slightly below MHWL; while intensive ponds
should be slightly above MHWL, but should not exceed 2 meter above MHWL (Mean
Higher High Water Level) .

Speed of ti dal currents and its characteristics, patterli .of water circulation are to be
given due importance in the process of site selection . High currents of tidal water leads to
soil erosion of the embankments . Therefore there must be a minimum distance of 50 .00
meter between the creek and oute,r dike of the farm. The HFt and storm surge Ievels
~. also 6e stll(:iied to fix up the top levels of dikes.

The area should be sufficiently extensive to allow future expansion and preferably
of regular shape to facilitate farm design and construction. Dense vegetation particularly
tall trees make clearing more difficult and expensive . However in areas exposed to strong
winds & cyclonic weather conditions, tall vegetative cover around the farm can seNe as
effective wind breaker.
(b) TYPE OF SOIL AND ITS QUALITY

The type of soil and its composition at -a site is of crucial importaoce. It has direct
bearing on the productivity of pond.

The site should contain soft bottom sailor mixed soil comprising of clay, sand aDd
silt to ensure ood water bearin ca acity as well as r ' ral food or anisms
on w Ich fish and prawn could feed and grow. ne of the most important characteristics IS
the ability of soil to d the wa e Good soil should contain a layer of impervious material
t~ick enough to prevent excessive seepa~e .....C~nd~re excellent impervious
materials . A soil permeability of K (Cae Icie"iit"QfPermeabllity) less than 5 x 10-6 m/sec
is desirable.

A _andy claye~ soil to clayey loam soi~ is the best soil type for fish/shrimp pond
construction. Clayey loam is an ideal soil as it has low permeabi' and also rich in
organic matter. n case a mixed soils, a clay can en up to 30% is desirable.. Loamy
soi ls have great fertility . <;.t~ ~s both properties i.e. 'Iow petmeability and hi gh
fertilitY;.. Organic matter af 'cfayeylaam nelps in th e ~roduction of benthic b~e_~jg_e, which
In t-urn along with some associated micro-organisms form natural food for fishes and
prawns . Clayey loam soil also has high load bea ring capacity , therefore it is the best
material for co nstructing the embankments .

Soil texture requirements vary with the level of cu lture technology to be applied. In
extensive culture system, which relies mainly on benthic organism~ as natural food for the
shrimp, loamy to sandy bottom is preferred. On olher hand sandy clay loam to saody
loam is:.
prete rredfor semi-intensive and intensive cultures where artificial food is given as
main source of food .

Table: Soil texture for coastal shrimp ponds

--
Culture Soil Texture Soil fraction {%?
Technolo_g), CI~ Silt Sand
Extensive Loam 15 - 20 35 - 40 25 - 30

Semi-intensive
Sandy Clay
Sandy Clay Loam
40 - 50
25 - 30
5 - 10
10 - 20
1I 46 - 55
50 - 60
Intensive -
Sandy Loam 10 - 20 ~
20 - 30 I 50 - 60

Pond bottom soil reacts with water and influences water quality. It plays a very
important rol e in the storage and releas e of nutrients to w ter and mineralization of organic
waste matter. Hence soil characteri sti cs (Like texture composition and fertility) govern
water quality and pond productivity.

Nutrients .asily leach off from sandy soil affecting the pond fertility. Clayey soil
hold too much of organic matter. The ma ssive putrification (rotting) of organic matter lead
to acidity and oxygen depletion . When basic fertility of soil is low, it tends to absorb
nutrients from water. Polluted soils can red uce the growth of benthic food organisms.
Polluted soils can release toxic substances back into the water if disturbed, with harmful
effects on fish and other aquatic organisms.

Oxygen is required for decomposition of organic matter. Anaerobic condition can

develop in pond waters if input of organic matter exceeds the supply of oxygen and is
stage is called as reducing condition, which can be measured as the redox potential.
Reduced or anaerobic sediment may occur at the pond bottom of heavily stocked ponds
with heavy organic load and poor water circulation. Under anaerobic bottom conditions
due to web of chemical reactions many toxic compounds are liberated. The black colour
of surface mud caused by ferrous iron indicates anaerobic condition at pond bottom. This
can be reduced by keeping water under constant circulation and providing bottom slope
towards out let.

T()() m',,=,h 0 r :; :I1''!:: :;;=tt~!" !!1 ~ni l ic: h8rmflll. L~nd with a layer of organic matter
greater than 0.6m deep is unsuitable for ponds because organic stratum will cause
excessive seepage losses when it decays. Highly organic soil is not suitable for dike
construction. Organic soils also cause rapid oxygen depletion in the pond water. Cat's
clay soils (i.e . soils those formed from marine sediments containing sulphide contents) are
to be avoided.
Acid and acid sulphate soils shou ld be rejected. Acid sulphate soil has a very low
pH(3~4). The soil is easily recognizable by the reddish colour that may form on the pond
bottom after flooding . Iron pyrites in soils cause mineral acidity in pond waters. High soil
acidity (pH 2.5 - 5.0) upon drying of the pond bottom after completion of pond construction
is a commo" php,nomenon dis(;overed in coastal areas . The acidity arises only after the
oxidation of these .it;gn pyrites (FeS2). Under anaerobic conditions due to seri8s of
It:dCliuf1::> ClnluI18 :::~ilohite. fprrc" .,s 'rnn . mp.f~h()li7P.rl organic matter and sulpher reducing
bacteria, iron pyrites are formed . When these pyrites are exposed to atmosphere,
oxidation takes lace and as a result sulphuric acid (H2S04) is liberated and will increase
the aCI I y 0 ond wate and thereby sod looses its fertilizing power which in turn causes
. poor production
FeS2 - ~ ';ir, water = H2S04 + Rusty Sediments of iron
- Oxidation

In this process, due to increased acidity, pH value of pond water decreases. If pH

of soil becomes less than 4.0, the colour of soil changes to @. Soil pH should by
preferably between 6 to 9. The Ideal pH range I - Acid ponds do not respOnd well to
fertilizers . Liming is tv way to improve the quality of water in ponds with acid soils.
Soils of pH 5 requireSC! tones)?f limestone tCaC03 ) per hectare ,& those with pH 4,
requires 4 - 6 tlh for treating the acidic soils.

Rocky, sand stone SQils . hiSlhlv organic soils, permeable soils, 100% clayey soils,
ole ~vut! avoided ,
For physical and chemical analysis, soil cores should be taken from the area
proposed for the construction of ponds . Core samples of surface and sub-surface soils
should be taken from many locations on the proposed site. Soil properties change
 abruptly a short distance away. Sub-surface cores are obtained by digging test pits
approximately 2m deep, these pits should be deep enough to extend below pond bottom
elevations.

A c.hemical analysis of soil should be performed in the laboratory to assess the

propert~es like permeability, plasticity, load bearing capacity, nutrient values, organic
matter. presence of metals, etc.

Organic soils including peat and muck containing an appreciable amount of

decayed vegetable matter in various stages of decomposition are commonly found in
mangroves of south Asia . These mangrove soils also contain constituents, which make
Iron pyrites (FeS2) . Such soils should be carefully analyzed during the process of site
selection.

Mangrove land should not' be used (or culture and should be allowed for natur.::1
growth which heips for soil binding and nutrient cycling .

(C) W TER RESOI LaCES ANJ) ITS QUALlIY

A reliable water supply is perhaps the single most imoortant factor to be considered
when selecring a site tor an aquaculture venture . Water of prop er quantity and quality
should be aVClilable in acc.;oroance with the cycles of aqua cultural op era tion. Therefore
when selecting an aquaculture site the water supply must be th oroughly investigated .
Although well water is usually the preferred source of water but it is uneconomical
es pecially when water is pumped from deep in the ground . Depend~n g upon the nature of
occurrence water sources can be Classified in to following two grou ps

FRESHWATER RESOURCES

Ground water resources W~lIs,springs, etc

Surface water resources Streams, ri~rs, res e rvoirs
Miscellaneou s resour.ces Rain water, Cycled water, etc.

BRACKISHWATER RESOURCES

Sea, creeks, estuaries, lagoons, artificial sea water, etc

. (a) . GROUND WATER SOURCES

Water is constantly evaporated from earth and is precipitated back to earth in the
form of rain, snow, etc. One part of this infiltrates into the ground, forming ground water
reservoir, second major part flows as runoff in the form of rivers, and the rest is lost as
evaporation and transpiration. The process whereby rain water enters the surface strata of
the soil and moves downwards tow.ar?s wate~ table is known a~infjltJa tion . The rain wa er
trapped in the voids as a result of infiltration IS called as ~ f te ground water
source is preferred water source for aquaculture than surface waters. Following are the
advantages and disadvantages of ground water sources.

Advantages

more de endabJ and more uniform

Fr e rom wild fish . predatory insectsL ~etc.
ess pollution
Constant water temperature throughout the year

Limited use in some geographical area as shallow aquifers are contaminated with
septic fields , chemical, radioactive waste dumps, land fills and agricultural chemicals .
Ground water may also contain toxic gases like Hydrogen sulphide (H2S). Methane
(CH 4 ), and Carbon dioxide (C0 2).
ess dissolved oxygeQ and iTfUst be aerated
May contain high concentrations of dissolved iron and other metals .

SPRINGS

Springs occur when an aquifer is exposed at th e ground surface through a fault or

crack in an upper confining layec_ T~)ese can occur as a point source or sp reacf over a
'lJrO'ad region . Generally only point source provide sufficient flow to use for aquaculture.
Springs have all of the advantages of ground water and usually do not require pumping
that saves an energy costs .
:!~! :o~:!:~~1 ()f a ~pring must be assessed before selecting it as a main source of
water for an aquafarm . SlJi:ngs may not be reliable during dry spe ll s in summer season
hence springs may be considered as supplementary source of water. Rightful ownership
of the springs mu st be established .

WELLS

W ell waieL' usually th e best source of w _ r aQ ulture . The quality of well

water is tYPically better t an e su ace wa er, ..R.eJ....I1J..8~~n.:1.. which is capable to
yield ground water under gravity, is known as Aquirer~ Wh enanaquifer is .9.ver laid by a
confined bed of over burdel1.. Hien th e confined bed is call ed as Aquiclude , Aquifers vary
in depth, lateral exten t and thicknes s, ~

The top most water bearing stratum having no confined impermeable over burden
(i.e . Aquiclude) lying over it, is called as unconfined aquifer or non-artesian aquifer. The
ordinary gravity well s of 2m to 5m dTameter which are constructed to tap water' from the
top most water bearing strata are known as non-artesian wells . The water level in theses
wells will be equal to the level of the ground water table . Such wells are, therefore known
as wells or gravity wells or shallow wells or water table well s"
 They are essentially holes dug into water table aquifer. The water table is the
upper most surface of the water layer in the saturated zone. The pressure exerted on the
water layer surface is in equilibrium with the atmospheric pressure. Shallow wells are
affected by fluctuating water tables and may totally dry up during severe period of
droughts . Yields of these wells vary during the course of year and are dependent upon
surface area of the well, v'ertical thickness and soil permeability.

ARTESIAN WELL

When an aquifer is confined on its upper and under surface bl impervious rock
forqlations (i .e. Aquiclude) and IS broadly mcllned so as 1 expose the aquifer some where
to the catchment area at a higher level for creation of sufficIent hydraulic head IS callea as
confined aQuifer. A well excavated through such an aquifer, yield s water that often tlows
oUt automatrcally under the hydrostatic pressure, and may thus even rise out of the
surface of earth for a reasonabl e height. Such wells are call ed as Flowin W ell.
However where the ground level is high, the water may remain well below the ground leve
and such wells are called as non-flowing artesian well or simpl e artesian well.

(b) . OTHER FRESHWATER SOURCES

SURFACE WATERS

Ri vers, streams , rese rv oi rs, lake s, pond s are th e oth er important water resources .
Surface waters are often subject to environmental reg ul ation s th at may change from time
to time . Permits may be required before surface waters are d iverted for aquaculture use .
Rivers and streams are subject to variations in flow and th e availability during dry periods
may be limited . Historical flow records may be obse rved .

Surface waters may be carefully evaluated and thoroughly analyzed before use
since they are subject to contamination and often ca rry high silt loads . They may also
contain wild fish, parasites , waterborne predators and di seas e organisms. Surface water
must be filtered before use to remove these constitu ents. Surface waters from areas
where agriculture is intensively practiced may corltain pesticides or other potentially
harmful chemicals . Surface water sources always require pump ing . The cost of pumping
is generally high .

RAIN WATER

Rainwater is a source of free water: Rainfall can be collected in tanks and

impoundment and stored for later use . However, rainwater can't be dependable source,
only it can be considered as supplementary source . Rainwater is generally of good
quality, but it is somewhat acidic and poorly buffered. Pond waters prepared with a
mixture of well water and rain water are usuall y of good quality for aquaculture purposes
without much treatment other than aeration .
 BRACKISH WATER AND SEAWATER SOURCES r.

Like other surface waters, brackish and seawater sources are subject to
contamination usually increasing in severity the closer one is to the shoreline. Coastal
pollution is an ever worsen without strict governmental regulation . Water intakes should
be located as far offshore as economically practical and should not be located near
industrial or municipal discharges or near area subject to agricultural runoff. Salt water is
very corrosive, therefore, pipes, fixtures, pumps, and other components that come into
contact with the water should be fabricatea from corrosion-resistant material&..., Fouling is
also a considerable roblem wherever salt water is s d Measures that can be taken to
mitigate fouling problems are discussed at length by Wheaton (1977).

The saltwater source should be of constant salinity. This is generally not a problem
where the water intake is located far offshore. Intakes located near freshwater inflows
from rivers and streams or in shallow water areas that may be affected by evaporation and
rainfall are subject to rapid fluctuations in salinity and should be used with caution.

(c) SALTWATER WELLS

Saltwater intrusion in some coas tal regions makes it possible to extract brackish
water from the ground . The quality of such well s depends on si te conditions and the
geology of the watEF bearing strata. S8:ltwater wells often must, be drille'd very deep to
reach below freshwa,ter a uif TypicallY, tHe tj~ep~r me well, the more expensive tlie
construction and pumping costs . Also, the deeper one drills, the warmer Jhe tmrter.
_ Cooling may be required before use if the well water has too high a temperature . If the
system appears to be economical, saltwater wells have all of the sa me advantages as
fresh groundwater. Where sa lt- or brackishwater is required, saltwater wells reduce
system complexity and costs by reducing the need for treatment. A disadvantage of salt
water wells is that site conditions and geology often produce unfavorable groundwater
quality (Huguenin and Colt 1989).

WATER QUALITY

Water quality management is one of the most important aspect of coastal

aquaculture . An ideal site must have clean and pollution free freshwater and sea water
source to get th e desired sal inity, The sea- IS the main source of water to brackishwater
farms . The creek, backwaters and estuaries are other sources of brackishwater.
Therefore the site should be selected closer to these water bodies . The cheapest sources
UI Il'csh Wd\C:,' 0 e rivt;, S aflu iClKe~ . Ground water or deep well water is most reliable
source of high quality freshwater as it is naturally filtered from unwanted pollutants.
The management of water quality is the most important factor in the productive fish
farming . Water quality management is ongoing and never-ending process. An analysis of
physical, chemical and biological properties of the proposed source of water must be
conducted, The quality of water must be such that it should suppo rt culture of desired
fish/prawn species. A good quality is nothing but a web of chemical, biological and
physical factors, which constitute the water environment and influence the production of
fishes and shrimps .

. Acidity and alkalinity of water are two important factors to be considered.

Alkalinity of water refers to the total concentration of bases in water. pH is a measure of
hydrogen ion concentration in water and indicates how much water is acidic or basic.
Water pH affects metabolism and physiological process of fish. pH also exerts
considerable influence on toxicity of Ammonia and hydrogen sulphide as well as solubility
of nutrients and thereby water fertility. Low pH affects the productivity of pond. Acidity
imp~des the re-circulation of nutrients by reducing the rate of decomposition of organic
n:1atter and inhabiting nitrogen fixa~ion . Accurate determination of water pH is made by
using pH meter. By application of lime pH can be controlled .

Waters ranging in pH from 6.5 - 9.0 are generally regarded as most suitable for
pond fish productlofl . A pH less than 6.5 causes lowered yields while pH above 9.0 are
detrimental to the health of fishes & prawns. Water pH in the range of 4.5 - 5.0 is toxic to
most of the warm water fishes, and acid waters with pH range of 5.0 - 5.5 can be harmful
. to fish re-production since eggs and fry are most sensitive to lower pH values than large
fishes. At pH range of 5.5 - 6.5 fish production is low. Water of excessive alkalinity is also
detrimen(ai1(Mish health. PH values of 9.5 are quite common in productive ponds and it
may ~ven reach to 10 - 10.2 in ponds receiving sewag e efflu ent s. Fishes am aff,ected
wtien pH reaches to 10.5 and that of pH 11 is lethal to fish life . .

.The presence of high content of suspended solids and excessive pro'dl:Jction of

photo plankton (algal bloom) impart1.u;:tJldjty t9 water which interferes with the passage of
light. Suspended sonds originate' troITltne water supply (externally) or within farm
(inter~ally). External sources include nature of water supply, phytoplankton blooms or
from various sources of pollution . On farm sources include fish faeces, uneaten food and
algae. Turb idity can affect fish directly by killing them, reducing their growth rate and
indirectly by reducing the natural food available in the pond . Major mechanical effect of
suspended solids is through the injury of gill struct~re . Mechanical effect of suspended
solid' (s/s) occur when the water contains abou 4% by volume of suspended solid .
Turbidity can be reduced by scatterin(;l(9ypsun~)>n e entire surface of pond water at a
rate of'200kg/1 000m 3 of fLond .

'Salinity is the total concentratioo of dissolved ions in water. Salinity is the most
important factor influencing many functional responses sucR as tnetabolism, growth,
migration, osmotic behavior, re roduction, etc. Salinity is expressed in milligrams per liter
or pqdS per tb@sand. Optimum salinity requirement changes from species to species .
Salinity of most inland waters r~30ges from 0.05 to 1.0 ppt. Salinity of ground waters (tube
weir, open well, etc) may sometimes will be higher than surface water. Sea water salinity
ranges from 30-35 ppt. Many species of brackishwater fishes can tolerate wide range of
salinity. For brackishwater, general salinity range is 10-40 ppt. Ideal range for P.
Monodon is 15-25 ppt.
'. 1
 Temp'erature sets the pace of metabolism by controlling molecular dynamics
(diffusivity, solubility, fluidity) and bio-chemical reaction rates. Optimum temperature
range for many cold water and warm water species are 14-18oC and 24-30oC respectively.
Ta bl e : W at er quar t f
ItyreqUiremen 5 or Sh'
nmp cu Iture
Parameter Unit Rang_e Optimum
Temperature uC 26-33 29-30
Salinity ppt 10 - 35 15 - 25
Transparency (Plankton) cm 25-60 30-40
DO RQm 3 -12 4-7
PH - 7.5 - 8.7 8.0 - 8.5
NH3 (Total) ppm 1.0 0.1
NH3 (Free) ppm 0.25 0
N0 2 ppm 0.25 0
H2 S p_Qm 0.25 0
Heavy metals
Mercury 2e m 0.0025
Copper ppm 0.1
Iron ppm 0.01
line ee m 0.25
Cadmium ppm 0.15

B. OTHER FACTORS (MISC. FACTORS)

(1) HYDRO-METEOROLOGICAL( ENVIRONMENT Ai...) PARAMETERS

Meteorological parameter like rain fall and its distribution, rate of evaporation,
temperature, ~, storms ... fjEL. ~tc. have a great role in the growth of fish food
o an isms as well as in the design of farm elements. A thorough Hydro-meteorological
survey of the proposed area or the neighboring area should be conducted and engineering
data for the last 15 to 20 years shall be collected . The major data to be collected are
average annual; rainfall, mean monthly rainfal', maximum precipitation in 24 hours, tidal
fluctuation during different tides and seasons, wind direction and velocity with respect to
different seasons, wave height, flood mark, rainfall in the catchment area, critical velocity
in the water basin, maximum and minimum temperature, relative humidity, evaporation
rate, frequency and time of occurrence of storm, cyclone hail storm etc. Dry seasons of 1-
3 months help in the preparation of soil for optimal algal growth/production; which is a
favorablE:: i~ ti(i81 fed farms . If the evaporation rate is more, water becomes more saline,
pH increases and other water parameters will also be affected.

(2) AVAILABILITY OF SEED AND FEED:

The availability of seed of the proposed species for culture can be met from the
natural resource or hatchery. For this purpose a seed resource survey can be conducted
in one or more places near the site done" to assess the av_ailability of seed of required
species. Nowadays availability of wild seed near the site is very difficult as more and
more farmers are engaged in fish/shrimp farming. If adequa te quantity of seeds of required
species are not available from the natural resource. a hatchery should be proposed in the
project at a suitable location. If such hatcheries are already in existence. the same can be
used and seed can be transported from such hatcheries .
. Availability of quality feed is one of the criteria for selecting the culture system such
as semi-intensive and intensive culture systems. In case of large farms of size more than
5 hectares need high energy palletized feed.

(3) ACCESSIBILITY

In order to dispose of catch as well as procurement of inputs for construction and

management of the farm, the site should be located near transportation routes and should
have an easy approach .

(4) SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS

Informatior: regarding socio-economic conditions of th e locality is important for

managing farm efiir;iently. Details regarding seasonal availability of labourers,
professionals like competent biologists, skilled operators, local customs, traditions. etc .
should be ga th ered . Man power planning mainly depends uron local wages. and th e
availability of skilled labourers.

(5) POLLUTION PROBLEMS

It would be unwise to select a site where industrial developments may cause air
and water pollution . Industrial effluents, sewage out fall s, insecti cide affected agricultural
Ian? affect, the growth rate as well as acceptability of farm products .

(6) AVAILABILITY OF FRESHWATER AND POWER SUPPLY

In any type of aquacul ture well designed freshwat er supply system is required .
Sites should have freshwater resources near by for drinking, cooki ng and other daily
activities. The availability of electric power, proximity to th e substa tion and transformers
are to be considered . Preference should be given for a site where required capacity qf
electricity is available near by. Exact quantity of power requiremen t should be assessed
and it's avai lability sha ll be ascertai ned from the concerned au th ori ti es .

.(7) . TRANSPORTATION AND MARKETING FACILITIES

Market with cold storage and processing plant shoul d be closely located . It should
be possible to procure required number of good quality seed from nearby for stocking as
and when required without much difficulty. The sp,ecies selected for culture should be
easily marketable locally or of export commodity to fetch better return . Also the seasonal
variation in prices in the internal market should be well studies so that harvest can be
arranged in such a season to meet the high demand . The likely prices which the
aquaculture products will fetch in both the local and overseas markets have to be
th.oroughly studies for the long term trends. keeping in mind changing consumer tastes
arld preferences.
(8) SOCIAL AND POLITICAL FACTORS

Legal restrictions, governmental regulations, security and social amenities at the

site should also be given due importance during the site selection.

(9) TECHN,ICAL GUIDANCE

Tech'nical guidance from fisheries departments or private consultants help the

farmers to solve common problems like excessive seepage, soil erosion, fish/prawn
diseases, etc. A good technical guidance can even motivate the other farmers to take up
fish/prawn culture. Farmers will come to know the latest researches, findings,
developments, etc. if proper technical guidance is given.

(10) AVAILABILITY OF MACHINERIES AND EQUIPMENT

Availability of earth moving machinery such as bulldozers, scrapers, hydraulic

power shovel etc. should be considered for proper earth work excavation and construction
of bunds. Also availability of other construction materials such as sand cement, mild steel
etc. are to be considered . Low head high discharge pumps, aerators, water testing kits,
other in-site equipment can be purchased locally or imported .

(11) iNFRASTRUCTURE FACILITIES

Other far::iliti es such as 8pproach road/water ways, availabili ty of

TelephonelTelexiFax system, proximity to market and major port, public conveyance
system such as Bus stand Railway station or Airport are to be considered .

(12) AVAILABILITY OF PRE-PROCESING AND PROCESSING CENTRE

the produce from the aquaculture farm has to be preprocessed immediately and
sent to market or to the processing center. Thus establishing such centers if not already in
existence will be of great help in marketing the produce wiU1 supreme quality for a better
price.

(13) SOURCE OF FINANCE AND INSURANCE COVERAGE

the source of capital to finance suitable land acquisition as well as the development
of the farm site has an indirect relationship to site selection. To encourage aquaculture
development mrlny 8ge ncies likp ~~DS, BFDA, MPEDA etc extend financial assistance in
India in the form of subsidy or equity participation. Also financial institution such as
Nationalized Banks, NABARD, SCICI etc. in India -extend financial help to the
entrepreneurs . Since without finance it is impossible to develop the area, the availability of
fund from such institutions are to be ascertained. Insurance facilities should be available to
insure the farm against losses occurred due to theft and pilferage, diseases and other
natural calamities .
-

-
 CHAPTER - III
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF AQUAFARMS

TYPES OF AQUACULT URE SYSTEMS

Aquaculture systems range from very extensive. through semi-intensive and highly
intensive to hyper intensive. When using this terminology the specific characterization of
each system must be defined. as there . are no clear distinctions and levels of
intensification represent a continuum .

Aquaculture farming systems are classified into following groups.

(A) L~
fr) Aquafarms - pond s and tanks
(ii) Raceways
(iii) Reservoirs
(8) Water-based systems
(I) Enclosures 7/"
(ii) Cages ./
(iii) Pen ./
(C) I.ntegrated farming_sy.sl.e.ms
(0) Recycling sy ~ rns . .
Land ased-systems in general and designs of Aquafarms in particular have been
discussed in this chapter.

The importance and crucial role of engineering expertise in sound development

work have come into sharper focus with the expansion of aquaculture in many countries .
Defective design and construction of facilities have often been the cause of the
failures in the past. Design of an aquafarm requires very careful consideration of
engineering and scientific aspects to make it functionally efficient and economically viable .

DESIGN OF AN AQUAFARM

Depending upon the nature of work involved. the process of farm design has been
classified into following groups.

1) Layout Planning
2) Manpower Planning
3) Material Planning

1) LAYOUT PLANNING:

Layout planning is the most important aspect of any aquafarm project. because the
~of the farm and ponds and the arraClgement of w~nd ponds dictate
the efficacy and cost of construction of the farm. .
~ . '
 Layout planning deals with the distribution of total farm area for various farm
elements depending upon the requirement based on the scientific considerations. Layout
planning answers to the questions like- what must be productive area? Where to locate
main channel? What should be the dimensions of a sluice gate? Etc. The best layout
would be one that gives maximum cultivable area and minimizes the area occupied by
bunds and channels, which in turn reduce the cost of construction per hectare of water
area of the farm .
Layout planning also deals with design of all the farm elements like_embankmen_!,
ponds, inlets, outlets, water channel and drainage units, hatcheries, other sheds, etc._
'TIiYout planning vanS"eonslderably from site to Site, depending Upon topography, level of
the site, location of water resources and purpose of the farm. Layout should also be
planned to have a good water exchange system .

2) MANPOWER PLANNING
Manpower planning deals with economical aspects i.e. Estimation of cost of the
project and time required to complete the project. Total number skilled abours, unskilled
.l?bPIlCS, Masons, supervisors, technical and ~ieDtifjc persQ[lal, required in total
cons ru fion of the farm is calculated In addition to calculation of total number orman days
required to cO.mplete the project. Sound knowledge of locality, Socio-economic conditions
of the locality, daily wages id, tllne Reriod required for various farm elements is very
much desired for roper manpower planning. Since it deals witl., fin.ancial aspects of the
farm construction, propei CDre shOUld 03 taken during pl an:ling.

3) MATERIAL PLANNING
Material planning deals with the procurement of construction materials and
construction equipment's . All the material required for construction must be brought and
kept in a safe dry store room as non availability of construction material during the time of
construction greatly hamperS1he progress of work. Construction of a temporary shed to
store the materials is also important. Cement bags should be kept away rom water
spread area. Transportation of men and malerials shoUld also be planned properly.

TYPES OF AQUAFARMS
Depending upon the source of water, the Aquafarms have been classified in to
following groups
(A) Brackishwater Aquafarms
(a) Tide-fed farm
(b) Pump-fed farm
(c) Tide-cum-pump farm

(8) Freshwater Aquafarms

(a) Surface water fed farms
(b) Ground 'Nater fed farms

(C) Cold water Aquafarms

(D) Sewage fed Aquafarms

TYPES OF BRACKISHWATER FISH FARMS

Following are the different types of Brackishwater Aqu~ farms

1) Tide-fed farms
2} Pump-fed farms
3) .' Tide-cum-pump fed farms

TIDE-FED FARMS

Tide-fed farms are best suited for traditional ane!. extensive systems. Tipe-fed farms
are suitable at the places where mean sp~ng tide range is i tween ...1.3 - 2.0m with
maximum and minimum spring tide ranges aroun 2.5 and .0 respectively, provided
the ground levels are around the mean sea level. nvariably tide-fed aquafarms require
only one water channel, which is generally called as "Feeder channel cum draioaQB
chann?" These farms require a main sluice ate that controls the flow of water into the
feeder channel as well as all the ponds . he main sluice gate also prevents the farm from
flooding during heavy floods. Every pond of the farm needs individual sluice for water
exchange.
Tide-fed farm s Br~ r!0t S!..!!t21J!e for semi-intensive culture systems, as it is very
difficult to maintain the quality of water due to inadequate water exchange. Sudden
dewatering of the pond is not possible as there is no separate drainage system.
Following are the some of the major disadvantages of tide-fed farms.

i. Water quality mao..ag.ament poses a problem since entire water intake

process is mainly based on tidal influence. It may also be difficult to maintain
the des.lgned a_nd desired water level.ln the ponds .
ii. .Cost of construction of dikes.. ponds and water channels, etc. will be higher
as design of these elements mainly depends upon the tidal levels.
iii. Since individual pond dewatering is very difficult, efficient harvesting is not
possible in tide-fed farms.
iv. Control of predators in tide farm is difficult. -
v. Pond preparation IS difficult as tidal water seep through the dikes and sluices
due 0 tidal thru st.

PUMP-FED FARMS

Pump-fed farms are best suited for_ semi-intensive and intensive systems. Pump-
fAn f~rms will generally have a separate water channel and drainage channel. Pump-fed
farms also require a slor(:l8t::-yu, -,-, -~Jirnen tation tank and an efficient mping unit. .
At the places where mean spring tide range is too small '<0.8m or big say>
pump fed farms prove economical and advantageous. Area around a meter below
t e ghest water level may be selected for pump fed farming, so that with a minimum
excavation of 20 cm to 50 cm economical Donds may be constructed.
A water stora e-cum- imentation tank is to be constructed to store the water.
The capacity of this storage tank should be such that, it should supply the water to all the
ponds at least for _?-3 days at the desired rate of water exchange, in case of failure, of
pumpin s stem du 0 electricity & other resons .
. Pump-fed farms do not require a big main sluice gate to supply the water. In these
farms big embankments & ponds can be avoided. At the places wh ere ground levels are
much higher than the tidal levels, the tide fed farm cons truction is more expensive
because of huge excavation and higher pond sluices. In such cases, the site can be
easily developed as pump-fed farms.

A pump-fed farm has got following advantages.

i. BUnc~~ can be formed to a minimum height.

ii. Earth to be excavated from the ponds is just sufficient to meet the
requirements of farming the bunds to the required height.

iii. D~y and continuous exchange of water is possible which need not to be
depend upon the rise and fall of tides.

IV . Emergency eXL.hange of water is possible when the quality of water

deteriorates and immediate replacement of water can be done.
e..)<.

TIDE-CUM -P UMP FED FARMS

The places where free tidal water is available only during some months period, tide-
cum-pump fed farms are suitable. In such farms for some months one has to depend upon
the pumps to lift th e water from th e creeks .

A site having mean spring tide range between a.am to 1.3m with ground levels at
about low spring tide levels is suitable for such farms. these farms would require to be
supplemented by pumping of water during certain months when spring tide range is
sma ller and exchange of water is not possible for several weeks at a stretch. This would
also require main slu ice gate and individual pond sluices like in the case of tide-fed farms .
But, in addition pumping unit is required for supplying the water during the shortage of
water.
ex; C2 co .
Tide-fed farms prove expensive on investmept hilt ecoDomical in operation, pump
fed farms prove economical on investment but ex ensive in 0 eration . The tide-cum-
pump fed farms pr'2_ve expensive on whole because 0 eavy Investrn ent and operation .

ORIENTATION OF THE FARM

Orientation is nothing but an rt of desi nin variou s farm elements taking

advantage of natural _ondition s prevailing in t 1QC.aU~ with an aim to build a good
aquatic environment Tor species to be cultured at targeted production level. By and large
total shape of the farm area should be more s~uarish tha n the oblong to minimize the cost

25
on periphery eunds. The cost of construc~ti~op.n..!o~f~~~~~:te:~~t.eap.eJ than the
r ctan ular pond; which can be illus rated by following example.

(1) Consider a Square farm of 1 hectare area

with length and breadth as 100 m X 100 m, therefore Perimeter = 400 m ,

Let the cross sectional are be : 10 Square meters

Quantity of earth work would be ,Q = L x A

Q= 400 x 10 = 4000 m3
assuming rate of earth ,Work as Rs.50/- m3.

Cost of construction = 4000 x 50

- R~. 2,uU,OOOI-

(2) Consider a Rectangular farm of are 1 hectare .

with length and breadth as 200 m X 50 m, therefore Perimeter = 500 m

Let the cross sectional are be : 10 Square meters

Quantity of earth work would be, Q = L x A

Q= 500 x 1U = 5000 m3
assuming rate of earth work as Rs .50/- m3
Cost of construction
= 5000 x 50 l

= Rs.2,50,OOOI-
Thus considerable savings can be effected in the. construction of periphery bund
alone. A squarish farm even with oblong ponds provide; considerable savings in the
earthwork of periphery dikes . Therefore a very careful stUdy of the entire topography
should be made to orient and plan the farm to minimize the length and breath Of bunds
and channels to get maximum productive area .

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF EMBANKMENTS (DIKE)

Embankment is a basic structure involved in the design and construction of

aquafarms. Foundation soil must be able to support the weight of dike . Swampy, muddy,
nr rlRstir. ~()j l ~ should be removed and dike must be constructed on the underlying
consolidated soil material. Highly organic soils like. Peat ~nd4M\Jck sbould not be used as
foundation material as they decompose and cause the dam to settle and eventually fail
altogether. Foundation material should have low permeability to prevent excessive
 seepage. Embankments are generally constructed using earth. There are mainly two types
of embankments -
(1) t:>ERIPHERY EMBANKMENT
(2) INTERNAL EMBANKMENT

PERIPHERY EMBANKMENT

Periphery dike, which is also called as main embankment, protects th~ entire farm
from floods, storm sur es and tides. It also acts as a road way around the farm. The
design and strength of periphery dike mainly depends upon the prevailing site conditions.
Proper care must be taken in the design of periphery dike. The size of pond, slope of ~ond
bottom, water holding capacity of the pond, High flood lever and the ve lCula r oad
expected on the top of emtJarTkment are im portant factors to be considered in the design.
The height of Periphery dike sbould be fixed on the highest flood level or' surge level as
tbe case ma~ be. Due cons ideration must be iven for fffli dar "e em Ho ,
wave action, etc. A minimum free board ter is necessary for well-compacted
periphery dikes . Top width of the Periphe ike mainly depends upon the type of
vehicular load expected 011 the top of diKe. Side slopes of the periphery diKe mainly
depend upon th e type of the soil available at the site . Outer slope shall not be tess than
2:1 (H :VJ under nOrmal 'conditions and it should be 3:1, if it is exposed to strong floods.
The In her slope can be the order of 1: 1.5(H:YJ. A..Beml.should be constructed to prevent
.. soil erosion l,he ~iter face of the p~r:phery ~ike be protected with grass and corners must
be protected With sto ne pl{5ning or brick pitching particularly in areas where it is exposed
to floods.

INTERNAL EMBANKMENT
2-/ ':>0
1: I' t :J>
Dikes constructed.around the ponds are generall e l l s ioternal dikes. They are
also known as secondary dikes. The helgfit of internal embankment mainly depends upon
the deSigned water level in the ponds . Allowance for free board (normally _30 em), wave
action and settlement allowan.ce must be made in the design of height of internal diKe. The
top width ranges from 1.2 meter to 2.0 meter for movement of men and material and th e
slopes on either side can be 1.5 : 1 (H : V). Necessary berms should be constructed in
case the quality of so!1 is poor. The berms would also serve as a platform for inspection
and feeding .

EARTH WORK CALCULATIONS

It is essential to know the some mathematical equations

>
that are essential for earth
work cal.culations .

CROSS SECTIONAL AREA

Embankment has got a trapezoidal cross section . The cross sectional area of an
embankment is calculated by using the following equation .

A ::

27
 Where A = Cross sectional area in sq. meters
B = Top width (Crest)
d = Depth
s ::; Slope (H : V)

If height of an embankment is not constant, then the following two methods are used to
find out the cross sectional area (I) Mid-sectional area method and (2) mean sectional
area method. In mid-sectional area method average height (dm) is calculated and
substituted in the above equation in place of "d". In case of mean sectional area method
cross sectional areas at two ends of the embankment will be calculated separately and
then the average area is calculated

QUANTITY OF EARTH WORK

The quantity of earth work required in the construction of an embankment is

calculated by uSing following equation

Q ::; LXA
Where, L = Length of an embankment
A = Cross sectional area

* COST OF CONSTRUCTION

Cost of construction =Rate of earth work prevailing in the locality X Quantity of

earth work

DESIGN OF AN EMBANKMENT

Design of any type of embankment depends upon -following factors .

(i) High Flood Level of the locality

(ii) Type of soil
(iii) Vehicular load expected on the top of embankment
(iv) Sk~f)~ ~~ t!;c emhankment
(v) Designed water level of tile ponds
(vi) Purpose of construction
(vii) Free board
(viii) Site conditions

Foliowing are thp ir'flr'0rtrlnt desiqn p::::-3ii1aters

1. Height
2. Top width
3. Side slope

28
1 HEIGHT

Total height (H) = HFL or WL + Fa + Hs + Hw

Where, HFL = High Flood Level (for periph~ry dikes)
WL = Maximum Water Level in ponds (for periphery dikes)
FB = Free Board
Hs = Settlement Allowance
Hw = Allowance for Wave Action
FREE BOARD (FB)

F.ree board is provided as a safety factor to prevent overtopping of dike. Free board
can be defined as the vertical distance between crest (i.e. top level of dike) after
se"ttlement and the surface of water level in the pond at its design depth. Free board
requirement in ponds varies according to the site conditions and local requirements. A
minimum free board of 0.6 meter is desired for p~phery dike whereas a minimum of 0.3
meter free board is r ulred for secondary dikes . __

SETTLEMENT ALLOWANCE (Hs)

. The amount of settlement depends upon the type of soB mated .!, moisture content
in soil at th e time of construction, amount & mOGe of compaction, type 0 oun a Ion
material and th e content of organic matter in th e soil. A settlement allowance pf 5-10 % is
provided if earth moving equipment are used. For good soils generally 15-20% of
settlement allowance is provided. For soils with exceptionally high organic matter
settlement allowance requirement may be 40% or even more.

Where, F =Fetch of the waves

2 TOP WIDTH (CREST)

The top width of a dike mainly depends upon the type of vehicular load expected on
the top of the dike . The height of dike. and its purpose are also important in deSigning th e
crest. Engineering standards require a minimum top width otz.,.4m for ~es betyeen..,L_
to 4.5m high. Dikes between 4.5 to 6m require a minimum top Width ~ However, in \
actuf'li practice most of main d'i'Kes of a .coastal aquaculturp farm are built ~ top width
between ~m. If the dike is to be used as a roadway, a minimum ofQ.1.!!)}top width
should be provraeer-n,e recommended crest for different types of vehicles are as follows

Cars, Jeeps, etc 3.00 to 4.00 meters

Tractors, Dumpers, etc. 3.50 to 4.50 meters
Trucks, Buses, etc 4.00 to 5.00 meters
4. Staking on the site is to be done clearly with lime powder to distinguish the ar~a of
excavation and the area of filling.
5. Earth should be exc~vated and then put on the area marked for development of
bund in thickness not more than 30cm. Water should be sprinkled on the top and
then it should be we'11 compacted with heavy construction equipment to minimize
the settlement.
6. After cOTTselidation and compaction of first layer is over, second layer should be put
(again depth not exceeding 30cm) and it should also be well compacted and
consolidated.
7. In this way, the procedure should be repeated till the designed height is reached .
8. While construction it self,desired slope must be given to sides of the dike.
9. Wherever necessary slope should be protected with ston,e pitching, brick bat
, pitching, concrete lining , etc.

BERM

Berm is a step like structure constructed on the slope of a dike betweer. its base
and the crest Beims..are-cons1ructed for following purposes

The ma in pu rpo ~f Berm ~'~,",-+~~.LI-IU..LW-i!.!..w:~~!!!:!:.L~li.L..ll.U;L.iIJ.l,l.j.!S<-!olL.ll.l.!

embankment.
It also provides adc;!,,itional stability.. to the embankment besides providing ease in
netting operationS:--
By disintegrating the velocity of flow, Berms act like barriers at the places where
surface runoff enters the pond . -
Berms produce hydraJjJic iH'E 8 b breaking the flow of surface runoff and thereby
spread the water on a large area and thus prevent the formation of cavity on the
bottom of pond . -

31
DIKES PROTECTION

Dikes are to be constructed in layers of not more than 30cm thick with soil with
optimum moisture content for better compaction and consolidation. Each layer should be
thoroughly compacted before the next layer is put. Mangrove trees on the dikes can
protect the slope against strong wave action. Floating wave breakers may be installed in
longer ponds Slope of the dikes should be lined with proper methods to prevent soil
erosion. Stone pitching, brick tiling, concrete slabs, lime concrete mixtures, polymer based
chemicals, etc. are some examples of commonly used lining materials.

LAYOUT OF AN QUAFARM

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DESIGN OF AN AQUAFARM

L~yout of an aquafarm mainly depends upon the topography and shape of the farm area.
A proper layout of the farm significantly reduces the cost of construction and
ensures a smooth and trouble free operation of various facilities and structures
allowing proper management of production activities. Following points are to be kept
in mind before designing the ponds.

The pond orientation should take into account the direction of the prevailing wind.
The longer s'rles of rectangular ponds should be oriented parallel to the prevailing
wind direction to increase the pond water aeration as a result of wind diffusion
through increased surface turbulence.

Water intake system should be located at a place which is well protected against
the natural calamities such as big waves, floods etc. and where, abundant gooe
quality water is available through out the year. Location of the sea water intake
system should be decided taking into consideration the sea current direction with
respect to the farm discharge outlets and other sources of pollutants.

The water distribution system should be as straight and short as possible. If bends
can not be avoided, they should be as smooth as possible.

The layout of channels and dikes should be fitted as closely as technically possible
to existing land slopes and undulations.

Farm discharge outlets should be located at down stream of the river water intake
system . Used water from the culture ponds should be drained far from the water
intake system to ensure that it is not recycled back to the ponds .

The farm layout and deSign should permit complete drainage of the ponds at any
given time during the production process and especially during the rainy season.
Deep wells for fresh water supply to the farm should be located at a reasonable
distance from the sea to avoid risk of intrusion of seawater due to pumping of large
volume of under ground freshwater.

32
 The size of the pond should be such so as to have maximum net water area for
culture without any pond management and operational difficulties.

For semi-intensive and intensive systems a flat bottom with slight slope is preferred
whereas in case of extensive systems the pond bottom may be designed either flat
or with trenches covering about 20% of the total area. Trenches are made in such
a way so that they can hold a water depth of 1 mete and other areas car: hold a
depth of 0.6 to 0.75 Mt.

By providing trenches, protection from birds, and shelter during high temperatures
are achieved.

The bed levels of trenches should be in such a way so that all the water can be
drained off to facilitate drying

The pond bottom should be preferably be above the low water mark of spring tide.

Design of the ponds is very important aspect of an aquaculture farm . Ponds

are designed oblong or square and either with uniform bed '0r with ' central flat form and
periphery trench . The main function of a pond is to retain the water to th-e required level
and to facilitate the growth of the cultured species . .
In the design, generally 75% of the total farm area will be reserved for ponds (i .e.
productive area or water spread area) and remaining 25% shall be reserved for other farm
elements like Quarters, office, buildings, laboratories and construction of support facilities
at the farm site.
Design of a pond is greatly influenced by topographical conditions, type of culture
technology, type of soil and the species to be cultured . So, it is obvious that no two
designs are same . Design of ponds for culture of aquatic animals depends upon

a. Site conditions
b. Type of soil
c. Availability of water
d. Species to be cultured
e .. Culture technology
f. Aquatic environment
g. Sh~pe and Size
h. Water exchange system
i. Method of harvesting

TYPES OF PONDS

Based on the factors like topography, Land slope, capital investment required and
level of production desired, following two types of ponds are generally designed
1) Embankm ent ponds
2) . Excavated ponds

33
(1) EMBANKMENT PONDS
Embankment ponds are also called as watershed ponds. Constructing a
dam/levee/dike around a small watercourse creates embankment ponds. Embankments
keep surface run-off from entering the ponds. This can be a crucial design factor if tleavy
floods or sanitation is a likely problem. Watershed ponds can be constructed in a wide
range of topcgraphical conditions. Low lying areas with good amount of water holding
capacity can be developed as embankment ponds. Village ponds are ideal embankment
ponds.
The pond is filled entirely by precipitation and surface run-off from surrounding
watershed. Embankent ponds are typically used for recreational fishing, fee fishing or
stock watering since they are not ideal for commercial fishing/fish production . It is very
difficult to maintain the quality of water. Regular water exchange is not possible in these
pOl1ds a: i.O designed water exchange structures are constructed . These ponds are
harvested only by total draining. Which results in lost production time .

(2) EXCAVATED PONDS

Some times excavated ponds are also referred to as levee ponds . These ponds
are most ideal for commercial fish production (including shrimp and craw fish production).
They are constructed QY di99i09 trenches in the ground and building levees around them .
Excavated ponds are simple to build if the topography is relatively flat. Cost of
construction and low maintenance requirements have made excavated ponds the choice
of many farmers. Enough impervious soil is essential to avoid excess seepage losses.

DESIGN OF PONDS

(a) SIZE

The shape, size and orientation of a pond totally depend upon topography, property
lines, construction and operating cost, available resources and management ease. The
size of individual ponds determines the overall ratio between the total area of the farm and
the area covered by water.
The farm shou ld be affordable and economical to construct and operate. Pond size
should be compatible with production goals, expected income and marketing strategies.
Sizes vary depending upon their use (i.e., either fish production, fingerling production,
brooder pond, spawning, etc). Pond size typically range as follows

Nursery pond 0.05 to 0.20 ha

Brood stock or grow-out ponds 0.25 to 10.00 ha
Spawning ponds 0.01 to 0.05 ha
Intensive culture ponds 1.00 to 5.00 ha

Small ponds are easier to manage and fish production per unit area is greater.
However in smaller ponds, embankments and drainage ditches occupy considerable
space and thereby increases the cost of construction. In aquafarms with smaller ponds
and enclosed by the periphery embankment, the total productive area of the farm will be

34
reduced (Le. The smaller the pond , the greater is the area occupied by the embankments
and drainage ditches). Generally the embankments and the drainage ditches constitute
about 20-25% of the total productive area. Therefore bigger ponds are to be designed
which will reduce the area occupied by embankments. The size of pond considered
good for management is between 1 to 2 ha.
The area of the storage pond is determined by the amQunt of culture species
expected to be stored . A good pO.nd can hold about 1 Kg/Cum with no special
arrangements and up to 15 Kg/Cum if continuous water supply and aeration is provided.

(b) SHAPE

The main factors affecting ,the desired shape of the ponds are
(1) The ratio between the length of dike and the area covered by water, this affects the
cost of construction
(2) The topographY of the area
(3) The method of harvesting

The method 'of' harvesting will effect and sometimes determine the shape of the
ponds. If harvesting is done by netting, pond width should not be greater than 100 meter.
Greater widths demand expensive changes in length and strength of nets, increased
. manpower and towing equipment. This may negate the cost saving in a wider pond .
Although there are many options (Circular, square, rectangular and oval) in designing the
shape of ponds, from practical utility and management point of view, rectangular ponds
and square ponds are'ln common use for commercial aqua farming systems.

For fish culture where the harvesting is done by nets rectangular ponds are
preferred since they can be constructed adjacent to one another making water supply and
management practices easier. For ideal rectangular ponds the ratio of length and
breadth should be 1.5 : 1 to 2 : 1 (L : B). In rectangular ponds, the longer side must be
oriented "j}2.f..aJ lel to the direction of prevailing wind for better aeration. But, at the places
where the wind velocities are very high, soil erosion of the dikes takes place. Therefore in
such places it is recommended to design the longer side perpendicular to the direction of
prevailing wind . This will help in mixing of pond waters as wind travels across the pond.
Rectangular tanks and troughs are most often used for rearing of fry and fing erlings in
hatcheries. In tanks that drain at one end, the water enters from a different end, much like
a raceway. Flow patterns often form dead areas like tank corners. Fish may become
stressed, if not die, if metabolic wastes accumulate to dangerous levels. Therefore the
corners of ponds must be made round and smooth.

Square ponds are most economical of the geometrical figures from the point view
of construction . In a square pond, the ratio of water area to the length of the embankment
is highest, hence the cost of construction is lowest. When there are no topographical
limitations and harvesting is done by total draining, square ponds are recommended. But
on steep grounds draining of square ponds is problematic and time consuming also. For
shrimps and prawn culture, it is recommend ed to construct square ponds as they provide

3S
better aeration uniformly through out the year with the wind blowing from any direction'
resulting in lesser erosion and therefore planning would be much easier.

Round tanks are commonly used for nursery. Round concrete tanks are used for
intensive culture systems. These tanks have either flat or sloping (conical) bottom. Water
circulation in the round tanks is excellent and is very efficient at removing the wastes.
Round tanks have central stand pipes that are fitted with outer pipes. Openings near the
tank bottom facilitate waste removal. Screens or grader bars that can be rotated around
the central stand pipe facilitate the removal of fish by crowding them in to a small area
where they are netted.

DEPTH

Pond depth mainly depends upon the species to be cultured, topography of the
area and the climatic conditions. Deeper ponds are difficult to manage. Shallower ponds
get too hot and support the growth of rooted aquatic plants and decrease the effective
area of the pond and also impede seining. Otherwise for fish culture 80 to 90 cm depth is
sufficient. When the water supply is seasonal, it is necessary to increase the water volume
by increasing the depth of the pond so as to accumulate enough water during the wet
period to suffice for the entire growing season . Yields in deeper ponds are high due to
better temperature regime in the ponds and dilution of metabolites excreted by the fish .
Deep ponds have some disadvantages also, for example the nets have to be deeper.

r oI'lOWing ta bl e gives th e d ep:th

requlrem ent 0 f few s [)ecles.
Sr.Nc. Species to be cultured Pond depth in meters
1 Cat fish 0.9 to 1.5
2 Major carps 1.5 to 2.0
3 Shrimps 0.75 to 0.9
4 Craw fish 0.5 to 0.6
5 Freshwater prawns 0.75 to 0.9-'_

Storage depth is the amount of storage volume. required to retain any additional
water due to storms and floods to prevent damage to dekes or complete failure of the
dam . Storage height is the difference in elevation from the crest of the mechanical
spillway to the emergency spillway.
The sizes of individual ponds determine the over all ratio between the total
area of the farm and the area covered by the water.

(d) POND BOTTOM

The pond bottom should be smooth and slope even in order to drain out the water
completely and also to concentrate fish in deeper part of the pond,. A minimum bottom
slope of 0.1 to 0.2% is sufficient. An uneven bottom provides depressions where fish can
shelter making fish catching difficult. It is important that bottoms are dried out and
renovated after each harvest. For comple~ e drainage the deepest part of the pond near the
Monk (i.e outlet gate) should be deeper than pond bottom level by as much as possible .
This deepest part of the pond(the harvesting sump) should not be greater than 0.1 ha and

36
in small ponds it can be much smaller for ease in harvesting. The most important
characteristic of harvesting sump is its size ahd depth. It should be able to contain all the
fish in pond just prior to harvesting . The position of harvesting pit is also important. It
should be protected from siltation. It should have a supply of freshwater and aeration for
the period the fish are concentrated in it.
The pond bottom slope requirement puts a practical limit on the pond size. Steep
slope even in small ponds and gentle slope even in large ponds can result in a wide range
of water depths throughout the pond . This can lead to undesirable thermal and chemical
stratification in deeper water areas and undesirable plant growth on the bottom of t~e
shallow water areas.

TYPES OF PONDS

There are mainly three types of ponds, namely Nursery ponds, rearing ponds &
stocking ponds . The ratio of water area between these pond s depends upon actual use of
the farm . For example in case of fish ?eed farm, only nursery and rearing ponds are
required with som e nominal area for stocking ponds for brooders . Where as in case of fish
production farms where fully grown fishes are produced after procuring and stocking
fingerlings, only stocking ponds are required. For an independent fish farm, the sizes of
Nursery, rearing and stocking ponds will depend upon stocking deflsity in individ~al ponds.
There is no standard recommendation for distributing the water spread area for nursery,
rearing and the stocking ponds . However, in common practice, the ratio of water spread
areas of N.R. & S. ponds varies between 1:2:4 to 1:2:8 (N :R:S). Now ada y, the multi-
purpose ponds wherein both rearing and stocking can be done are becoming more
popular

NURSERY PONDS

10 to 15% of total water spread area is kept for nursery ponds . Generally 'N ' ponds
are constructed with cement concrete or pre-stressed concrete, and all the bunds will be
completely lined with either cement concrete or stone slabs . N-Ponds are smaller in size
varying from 0.05 to 0.1 ha . Fish ponds) and up to 0 .5 ha. Shrimp ponds). Depth of
nursery pond s for fisher is shallow 0.8 to 1.0m).
Therefore better aeration and water exchange are desired in Nursery ponds. A size
of 4.5m x 9.0 to 10.0m is generally recommended for nursery ponds . Nursery ponds can
also be user as grow out ponds during off seasons Nursery ponds are used for nursing of
fry to juvenile stage clean and sufficiently oxygenated water is used for better survival of
seed . After rearing the seed for 2-3 weeks (in case of prawns) the juveniles are collected
and stocked in the grow out ponds .

STOCKING PONDS

Stocking ponds occupy the major portion of productive area/water spread area .
About 60-65% of total productive area is provided for stocking ponds . Stocking ponds are
bigger in size (about 1 to 2 ha .) and deeper than other two types of ponds. There is no
standard size for stocking ponds. however the width of stocking ponds less than 40mt in

37
most of the fish farms; it will have maximum width of 40.00m. In case of fish ponds where
harvesting is done by complete drainage (de-watering) of the ponds, then no such
restriction is imposed on the width of pond. Stocking ponds may be of either recta gular
shape or square shape. The length and breadth ratio of rectangular ponds varies from 1.5
: 1 to 2:1, depending upon the stocking density, direction of predominant winds,
managerial capacity and marketing potentials. The size of stocking ponds mainly depends
upon the stocking density. A pond can hold fishes from 1kg/m 3 to 15 kg/m 3 depending
upon the type of culture.
Depth of the ponds mainly depends the quantity or volume of water to be retained
in the ponds, type of culture (i.e. extensive, semi-intensive and intensive), mode of culture
(mono culture or poly culture) and also on the natural configuration of ground surface (i.e.
topography).
For fishes 1.2m to 1.5m depth is ideal where as for shrimps 0.8 to 1.0m is sufficient
in extensive system and 1.0 to 1.2m is desirable for semi-intensive system (as stocking
density is very high).
. Stocking ponds may be constructed uniform bed or central platform and periphery
trench. In cases where the excavation of 20-30 cm for the ponds meet the requirements
of earth for bunds and maintenance of desired water level in the ponds . It would be better
to construct the ponds with uniform bed. In any case, an excavation more than 50 em
on the ground level is uneconomical.
For stocking ponds with uniform bed, a longitudinal slope of 1:1000 is necessary
towards on outlet for quick discharge of pond water. A small harvesting pit is constructed
for collecting the fishes near by any outlet in the ponds where harvesting is done by total
de-watering of the pond. -----
Ponds with Central platform and periphery trenches would be suitable where
ground level is higher than the desired water level of the pond or if tidal levels are not
convenient to maintain at least 90-100 cm water level in the ponds. In such cases, it is
desirable to leave the central platform untouched and form the bunds with the excavated
earth ,pf periphery trenches only. For economical ponds, excavation of trench should be
1between 50 to 60 cm, and breadth can be adjusted accordingly to obtain the required
quantity of earth for formation of the bunds.
Each stocking pond should be designed with at least one inlet and one outlet
preferably placed in a zigzag fashion, for thorough mixing of the feed. In case of semi-
intensive farms two inlets and two outlets may also be provided for ponds bigger than 2
ha. In size of quick discharge of water if its quality is deteriorated .
Corners of th e ponds are made round and smooth for better circulation of water and
to prevent the soil erosion in the corners .

BERM:

A berm is step like structure constructed in between embankment base and top. Main
purpose of constructing a berm is to avoid soil erosion'. At the places where surface run
off expected in the ponds is more, then generally berms are constructed . Berms will stop
the direct flow of run off water into the rc'~d: through the slope of embankment. Berms
also help in netting operatior.~ as one can easily get into the pond and carry on netting.

38
TOTAL WATER REQUIREMENT CALCULATIONS

The annual water requirements of the fish pond s will depend upon the

Species to be cultured
Type of culture technology
Seepage factor
Rate of evaporation
Meteorological factors, etc.

Total quantity of water is calculated by using following equation

Or = (Vf + Vrf + Le + Ls + Lc Vra) m 3

Wh ere Qr == Annu al requirement of water (m 3 )

Vf == Pond volume to be filled

== A x h
== Av .C/s . Area x depth of the pond

Vrf = Pond volume to be refilled

= Vf x N i.e. Number of refillin g x Pond vol.)
Le == Water loss from evapora tion
(Le == A x E)
(Pond area x mean ann ual evaporation)

Ls =Water loss from seepage

(Ls == A x T x S)
i.e. area x operational time in days x seepage coef (m/day)
--_ Le = Transmission loss in ea rth en channels

LC = Ac x 1.2 x E
= Surface area of feeder canal x 1.2 x Annual evaporation
Vra '. =Water inflow from rain fall into the ponds
=Aeff x Ra
(Total area of pond x mean annual rainfall)

39
Problem: Calculate the total quantity of water required for a semi-intensive shrimp farm
as per the details given below
Area of each stocking pond 1 hectare
.._ No. of stocking ponds 10
Depth of the stocking ponds 1.00 meter
Pond to be re-filled once in '3 days
Mean annual evaporation 1 sq. meter per 1 cum
Seepage coef. 0.001 m per day
Culture period 90 days
Mean annual rain fall 0.5 cum per sq. meter
Surface area of feeder canal 500.00 sq. meter
Total farm area 10.00 hectare

Solution: Total quantity of water is calculated by .using following equation

Or = (Vf + Vrf + Le + Ls + Lc - Vra) m 3

1. Vf:::: Pond volume to be filled = 10 X 10,000 :::: 1,00,000 CUM

2. Vrf :::: Pond volume to be re-filled ::: once in a three days

:::: 90 / 3 =30 , therefore,

Vrf :::: 30 X 1,00,000 = 30,00,000 CUM

3. Le = A x E:::: 1,00,000 x 1 =1,00,000 CUM

4. Ls = A xt x S =1,00,000 x 90 x 0.001 :::: 9000 CUM

5. Lc:::: 1.2 x Ac x E =1.2 x 500 x 1 :::: 6DO CUM

6. Vra = Tolal farm area x Mean annual rain fall

= 1,00.000 x 0.5 = 50,000 CUM

therefor~, Qr:::: 1,00,000 + 30,00,000 + 1,00,000 + 9,000 + 600 - 50,000

: : 31,59,600 CUM

40
DESIGN OF SHRIMP PONDS

Following three types of ponds generally constructed in shrimp farms

1. Pre-grow out ponds (Nursery ponds)

2. Grow out pods (Stocking ponds)

3. Bio-ponds

Actual size and area distribution of the farm for these ponds mainly depend upon
the culture technology and the function of the farm. Shrimp ponds, especially semi-
intensive ones, require more aeration and th erefore squarish ponds with low depth (1.0m
to 1.2m) are ideal. Details of each pond are explained below.

1. PRE-GROW OUT PONDS (NURSERY PONDS)

Used for rearing fry up to PL 20 stage, after that they are transferred to the
stocking ponds.
They are smaller in size (0 .1 to 0.5 ha) and will occupy 10-15% of the total
productive area .
Shape will be either square or rectangular
Nursery ponds may be deleted if PL-20 seeds are obtained from hatcheries.

2. GROW OUT PONDS (STOCKING PONDS)

This is a large compartment in the pond system and keeps th e major portion of
the total farm area
Generally stocking ponds occupy about 65-70% of total productive area.
Used for growing the shrimps from PL 20 to marketable size (18-30 cm)at
harvesting time
Size varies from 1 - 10 hectares and in few cases up to 20 hectares also.
For management convenience, ponds beyond 5-hectare area are not preferred .
Ponds of size 1 - 2 hectare are ideal especially for semi-intensive culture
systerns.
Although the shape of the pond depends upon the topography of ~he area,
square ponds are preferred from construction and aeration point of view,
However in case of rectangu lar ponds the ratio of length and breadth will be
kept as 1.5 : 1 to 2:1 (L: 8)
. In rectangular ponds inlets and outlets should be arranged in zigzag fashion. In
ponds of size greater than 2 hectare two inlets and two outlets are provided
The pond bottom should be as far as possible smooth and free from projected
rocks, tree stumps, etc.
A gradual bottom slope of 1 in 1000 to 1 in 3000 is essential from th e inlet gate
towards drainage gate.

41
3. BIO-PONDS

In order to satisfy the pollution control authorities and to prevent environmental

degradation, drainage water from the pond should be acceptable to flow to the
creek or river system.
Bio-ponds are necessary as a part culture pond system.
Bio-ponds are large settling tanks where rich nutritional effluents are treated
naturally.
Also used for secondary culture of fish.
. Occupy about 7-10% of the total productive area.

R CIRCULATING SYSTEMS

RECYCLE 90 0;;ope r day

Biological
Filtration ~

Secondary
Clarification
r-- Aeration

MAKEUP primary
WATER - ... clarification
... WASTES

10% per d ay CULTURE 10% per day

UNIT

In re-circulating systems, fish are confined at high -densities . Normal .Q\,Jlture density
3
is 61-122 kg/m , but densities in small -scale experimental systems have exceed ed 54 5
3
kg/m .
Economic analyses of reCirculating systems indicate two key operating param eters :
(1) system operation with minimal energy input
(2) proper water purification
....
Aquaculture engineers are challenged to develop designs that optimize these
criteria . Contaminants that have negative effects on water quality are ammonia, urea, CO 2 ,
feces and other metabolic wastes . Organic wastes are further degraded to produce
additional ammonia, nitrite and nitrate . In the close confines of reCirculating systems, the
effects of these substances are acidic water, depleted dissolved oxygen and increased
turbidity, making water more inhospita'ble to the fish . In addition, many minerals and
essential trace elements are lost.

42
 The amount of wastes produced depends on the fish species cultured and
life stage, system biomass, and the typ _ and amount of feed given to the fish. The rate
and degree 'of water quality degradation can be managed with proper water treatment.
The principal treatm ent processes include screening, settling (sedimentation). granular
media filtration, biologicai filtration, aeration and disinfection. .... .

A generic recirculating system is illustrated in Primary clarification includes

screening, sedimentation, granular media filtration or a 'combination of any of the three . It
is important to remove solids prior to biological filtration . Biofiltration lowers ammonia and
nitrite ley~!~ It is the heart of any recfrculating system .

.Si/c.ondary clarification usually follows biological filtration to remove the biological

floc that 'frequently sloughs from the filter media . It is 'important that this material not be
allowed to remain suspended. Secondary clarification includes sedimentation but may
also include screening. Finally, aeration is added for basic life support system. A water
pump drives the system.

Water in recirculating systems completes the entire circuit many times daily.
Depending on culture intensity, filtration may be required from two to four times per hour.
At a minimum, the water should receive complete treatment one to two times per hour. A
daily partial water exchange is necessary to control nitrate, rembve pollutants and
replenish minerals and trace, elements. As much as 90% of the water can be recycled
daily. The other 10% is "new" water. In effect, lhe lotal volume is replaced once every 10
days . Lightly loacled systems may fair well with a 3-5% daily water exchange. Systems
employing 100% recycle are rare.

Screening

Thp. simplest and the oldest wastewater treatment process, screening is often used
as pretreatment prior to the primary treatment. Screens placed across the waste stream
can trap solids. Coarse ones are used to treat the raw effluent from the culture unit. It can
also trap the biofloc that sloughs from biofilters.

Activated carbon

Activated carbon is made by charring coal. pecan. coconut or walnut shells, wood
or animal bones. These materials are heated to about gOODC in the absence of air.
Exposing it ,to :an oxidizing gas 'at high temperature then activates the charred material.
The gas creates a highly porous structure in the char and a large internal area. Activated
carbon can remove volatile organic, color, odor and suspended solids.

Ion exchange '

Certain ions are displaced from an insoluble exchange material (resin) by ions of a
different chemical dissolved in the wastewater. Ion exchan'ge resins are manufactured in
the form of tiny porous beads about 1 mm in diameter.
Foam fractionation

This process removed dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and particulate organic
carbon (POC) by adsorbing them onto the surfaces of air bubbles rising in a closed
contact column.
The bubbles create foam at the top of the liquid column, and are discarded.

Bio-filtration

This technique utilizes living organisms to remove a substance from a liquid

solution. Algae or higher green plants are used. Biofilters can remove ammonia and
nitrite. It is generally accepted that, after oxygen, ammonia often becomes the limiting
factor in recirculating systems.

Types of biofilters includes submerged, trickling, rotating disks or drums, fluidized

beds and low-density media filters .

Submerged filters consist of a vessel filled with a media upon which nitrifying
bacteria grow. Culture water is passed through the filter by a spray bar, and gravity
pushes water downward through the unit. Completely submerged at all times, the media
is supported by a perforated bottom through which th e treated water drains and flows out
of the unit. Rock is the most common type of media used in submerged filters . Limestone
rock is popular since it provides buffering against rapid pH changes.
Trickling filters basically function the same as submerged filters 6Rc.e,ot that the
media is not submerged . Culture water trickles downward throu gh the media and keeps
the bacteria moist but not completely submerged.
Rotating media filters incorporate aspects of both fixed and suspended media
operation. Fixed media are rotated in vessels through which the culture water (suspended
media) flows.
" In fluidized bed reactors, the media is contained in a vertical vessel with a
cylindrical or square cross section. The media is kept in suspension or fluidized by the
upward flow of water. The degree of fluidization depends on the upward flux of water
through the vessel. Coarse sand is the most common media used .

TYPE OF SHRIMP CULTURE

There are mainly 4 types of culture systems (Practices).

Extensive

Modified extensive

Semi-intensive

Intensive

44
1. EXTENSIVE SYSTEM

It is an improved method of traditional shrimp farming with scientific applica.tion to

improve the quality and quantity of shrimp production. Ponds of 1-S hectare in size are
constructed to maintain at least 80 cm of water depth. The range of stocking densi,ty will
vary from few thousand to SO,OOO seeds per hectare without much supplementary feeding
& the quality of water is maintained through natural rise and fall of tidal water. Shrimps are
cultured for 3-4 months. The production under this system normally ranges from 2 to 3
Uha/yr in 2 crops. Tidal fed farms are suitable for this type of culture .
_.____
.....
2. MODIFIED EXTENSIVE SYSTEM

Ponds of 1 to 2 hectares in size are scientifically designed and constructed with

separate inlet and outlet facilities .

Stocking de )sity :: 0.5 to 1.0 lakh/ha

Water exchange :: 10-1S% daily
Feeding :: Artificial/Supplementary
Production = 3 to S Uha/yr (2 crops)
Aeration = aerators in emergency conditions

3. SEMI-INTENSIVE SYSTEM

Rectangular or square shaped ponds of uniiorm size (O .S to 1.0 hectare) and depth
(1 .2 to 1.S meters) are laid out on a well elevated ground having a source of very high
quality.
Stocking density = 1 to 4 lakh/ha
Water exchange = 2S-30% daily
Feeding = Artificial/Supplementary (high energy prepared
Production = 8-10 Uha/yr (2 crops)
Aeration . = Paddle wheel aerators or air blowers, 4 to 6
Aerators per pond
Pump-fed farms are best suited for semi-intensive systems, as it becomes very
easy to maintain the quality of water. Ponds of size 1 to ? ha . are ideal for semi-intensive
systems.

4. INTENSIVE CULTURE SYSTEM

Intensive culture system involves construction of concrete ponds of size 0.01 to 0.1
ha.

Stocking density = S to 10 lakhs seed/ha

Rate of water exchange = 300% daily
Feeding = Artificial/Supplementary
Aeration = Air blowers/agitators
Production = 20-30 Uha/yr (2 crops)

45
 These days semi-intensive farming is very popular and is making rapid strides.
Intensive farming is very risky due to diseases and other associated problems; therefore
this system is practiced only on limited scale.

CONSTRUCTION

Construction is very important step in an aquaculture project. Type of construction

mainly depends upon the availability of raw materials like bricks, stones, cement, etc.
Type of construction also depends upon the function of an individual farm element and
culture system. For example cement concrete ponds are constructed for Nursery ponds,
ordinary earthen embankments are constructed for extensive ponds and pre-stressed
reinforced cement cOl'1crete ponds are constructed for intensive and super-intensive
culture practices. The best time period to construct the ponds is in between late winter
and early summer season. Construction process requires careful supervision and skilled
workmanship as the success of entire project depends upon the efficient construction.
Following a.e the sequence of operations to be carried out in the process of construction .

1. Land clearing

The site is to be cleared off from big boulders, stones, trees, bushes etc. The land
is to be made leveled if there is steep slope or broken surface. There are 3 types of land
cle<l r;r,g :nethods ba ed on the density of vegetation and mode of removal of materials
from the site where an aqua-farm is to be constructed .

a) Manual clearing

If th ere are only small boulders and thin vegetation like small bushes or trees, then
by engaging labours the site can be cleared off. Clearing the site by engaging labours is
called as manual clearing.

b) Mechanical clearing

If the density of vegetation is thick ~nd complex in nature like big boulders, deep
rooted trees, lot of undulations and big ditches, then mechanical means like scrapers, bull
dozers and other earth moving equipment are engaged to clear the site ana- tbls type of
land clearing is called as mechanical clearing

c) ~h cm i c di I clearing

. If the soil at the site contains harmful bacteria or any other micro-organisms which
are harmful to aquatic animals, then some sort of chemicals are mixed in ' the soil to kill
these harmful bacteria, and this method of using the chemicals to kill these bacteria is
called as chemical method of land clearing . Chemicals are used to eradicate unnecessary
aquatic weeds too.

46
2. Land marking:

After the land is cleared off then the land is to be marked for the construction of
various farm elements as per the layout planning. Dry white lime powder is used to show
the positions of various farm elements like dikes, channels & ponds which are to be
constructed. It is also called as staking .

3. Excavation

4. Construction of dikes & sluices

5. Construction of ponds

6. Construction of water channels & drainage units

7. Lining of the embankment slopes:

The protection of slopes of the dikes against soil ero sion is called as lining of the
dikes. There are number of methods of slope protection
a) Stone pitching
b) Brick pitching .
c) Cement concrete lining
d) Soil -cement li!ling
e) Stone slab lining
t) Polyethyl ene paper lining
g) Growing th e grass , etc.

8. Hatcheries and other units

9. Office , lab, store room, etc.

10. Construction of residential quarters, watchman shed , etc.

PROCESS OF CONSTRUCTION

The first stag e in the constru ction process involves genera! planning . For this
purpose a topographical map of scal e 1:2000 to 1:2500 is required. General fea tures of
the farm such as division of th e area into vario us ponds and th eir types (rearing or
auxiliary ponds), the number of pond s, size of the ponds, the orientation of the pond s, the
width of the -embankments, and the drainage and water supply systems are all worked out
on this map.

The next stage involves detailed planning of ea ch pond. For this purpose a
topographic work plan of larger scale is requi red. This will show where and how much to
excavate and where the earth should be moved. For this pu rpo se a survey has to be

47
made. The pond area is divided into 20 x 20 m squares by pegging the ground at these
intervals. The peg line should be parallel to the direction of the longest emban'kment of
the pond. If the ground surface between any two pegs is not regular and changes
drastically by reason of a ditch or mound, a peg is added at the place of change. The'se
pegs form a network of coordinates in which each peg is marked by a letter and a number.
The ground level at each of the pegs and the levels of the peg heads are measured, and
the elevations are 'noted on the work plan of the pond.

Next, the amount of earth required to construct the embankments is calculated from
the general plan. This is ,done by determining the amount of earth required for 1 m of
embankment (this is equal to the volume of a 1 m trapezoidal cross-section of the
embankment having the planned dimensions) and multiplying by the total length of
embankments. The packing coefficient of the soil should be taken into account. This
coefficient depends on the type of soil and the kind of construction equipment used. The
heavier the equipment, the greater is the packing coefficient, usually 20-25% . This means
that when 1 m3 of earth is required for the packed embankment, 1.2-1 .5 m3 should be
provided .

Generally, about one-third to one-quarter of total pond depth is obtained by

excavation. The rest is obtained by dumping earth on the embankments and building
them up. The amount of earth which can be excavated is calculated and compared to the
amount required (again, takin'g into account the packing coefficient). If these amounts do
not balance, tenta ive excavation depth is changed accordingly and the amount of earth
obtained is reCalculated . According to ?ruginin and 6en-Ari (1953) 2500-4000 m3 of earth
are required per hectare for construction of a 4 ha pond .

After excavation depth is calculated, the details are transferred to the working plan .
The depth of the planned bottom from th e head of the pegs is marked. The amount of
earth dug out from each square between pegs is calculated, and the place on the
embankment where the earth should be deposited is designated . This should be as near
as possible to the place of excavation , The contours of the embankment's base are
pegged in the field and construction is started according to the working plan .

At the onset of construction vegetation and roots should be removed . These should
not be put into the embankment since organic material will rot and leave behind hollows
which become weak points in the embankments and are the first to erode. Either the
topsoil over where the embankment should be is removed to a depth of 5 cm or, instead,
this area can be well plowed in order to tie the embankment to the base soil and prevent
seepage.

fhe drainage pipeline is laid before starting construction of the embankment. The
location and length of the pipeline are designed on the working plan. The pipeline should
be covered by earth, which is then carefully and methodically compacted by hand ,tools to
preve"t leakage along th e line . Such leakage may lead to bursting of the embankment in
the area of the pipeline. An additional precaution is the construction of an anti-seep collar
made of concrete or metal in the embankment around the pipeline and perpendicular to it,

48
extending to both sides. The pipeline should be covered with enough earth to protect it
against damage from the heavy machinery passing over it.

During the work, sp'ecial attention should be given to the shape of theembankment
to ma~e sure that its width at all heights corresponds to the plan. If the embankment is
constructed too narrow, this cannot be corrected later .

49
 CHAPTER - IV

PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS OF AERATION IN AQUACULTURE

INTRODUCTIO N

Aeration is a mechanical process of bringing the water in intimate contact with air,
with an aim of adding oxygen to water. More simply, aeration is the addition of oxygen to
water.

Dissolved oxygen content (DO) is probably the single most important environmental
factor to limit production in closed or semi-closed aquaculture systems. This limitation
stems from the relatively high oxygen demand imposed by aerobic organisms within the
system, relatively low solubility of oxygen in water and deliberate reduction of two natural
sources of DO - photosynthesis and freshwater exchange.

IMPORTANCE OF AERATION

Oxygen is essential for the production of all species of fish and shellfish . Aeration
is most effective means of increasing the dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration of culture
water. One of the most critical factors that the aquaculturist must consider is th e
availability of dissolved oxygen in the water. Aeration can increase the carrying capacity
of an aquaculture system when DO is the limiting factor. Th e yrowi. tI-,_(eed efficiency,
susceptibility to diseases and ultimately the growth of fish/prawn s under an aquaculture
system largely depend upon dissolved oxygen .

If Dissolved oxygen concentration is low, the culture organisms (Fish, shrimp,

. prawn, etc.) will not eat well, they will not grow well, and they will be susceptible to
diseases. Further, in pqnds where Dissolved oxygen concentrations are very low, many
culture organisms may die from lack of oxygen . J herefore in order to have good feed
conversion efficiency, high survival and adequate profit, it is essential to maintain plenty of
dissolved oxygen in pond water. Aeration is necessary to supplement natural resources .

Although there are four major sources of oxygen (namely, Diffusion, Water
exchange, Photosynthesis and aeration ), aeration is the only dependable source of
increasing DO in the pond waters , especially when DO concentrations are low

PURPOSE OF AERATION
To enrich pond water with oxygen
To remove H2S
To nullify the activity of harmful bacteria
To remove CO 2
Decomposition of organic matter which may otherwi se lead to bad smell

50
DISSOLVED OXYGEN DYNAMI CS

Dissqlved oxygen along with temperature controls the metabolism of fish and
invertebrates . Together, these two environmental variables are dominant determinants of
every fish's environmental niche. Fish can acclimate to low DO and other physico
chemical stimuli , but these adjustments are slow, taking any where from few hours to
several weeks .

Although atmosphere contains 21 % of oxygen, its solubility in water is limited. Thus

water contains only small amount of oxygen available for fish respiration. Fish spend
more energy breathing water than air breathing animals of similar size since water is much
denser and more viscous than air. Small differences in metabolic rate of aquatic
comrTlunity can cause rapid changes in DO concentrations.

Fish oxygen consumption rates vary with water temperature, environmental DO,
fish size, level of activity, time after fe eding etc. Small fish consume more oxygen per unit
weight than large fish of the same species . Oxygen consumption increases when fish are
forced to exercise, and metabolic energy demands can cause oxygen consumption to
double from one to six huUfs after feeding .

THEORY OF AERAT ION

Although atmosphere contains 21 % oxygen (by VOlume), it is slightly soluble in

water. The rate of oxygen transfer into the pond water is an important parameter that
governs the intensity of aera tion . According to Dalton's law, total atmospheric pressure
(also known as barometric pressure) is the sum of partial pressures of the gases in the
atmosphere .

(I)

Th e parti31 pressure of each gas in a mixtur of gases is directly proportional to the

mole fraction of the gas. For example, partial pressure of oxygen in dry air is

P(02) ::: BP X X (0 2)
::: 760 X 0.20946
::: 159.2 mm Hg

The atmospheric solubility of a gas depends on both the solubility of pure gas and
the mole fraction of the gas

Solubility of gas in water ::: Solubility of pure gas + Mole fraction of the gas

Partial pressure of a gas in a mixture of gases including water vapor is

Pi ::: . Xi (BP - VP)

760

51
 where
Pi = Partial pressure of any gas
Xi = Mole fraction of the gas
BP = Barometric pressure
VP = Vapor pressure

When air is in contact with water oxygen enters the water until the pressure of
oxygen in the water equals the pressure of oxygen in the air. This stage is called as
equilibrium stage. The concentration of oxygen is normally expressed as the
concentration (expressed in mg/lit) at equilibrium for water in contact with dry air at
standard pressure (760 mm Hg) and specific temperatures and salinities. Oxygen
concentration is generally expressed as "Cs".

If water contains the amount of dissolved oxygen that it should hold theoretically at
a given temperature, pressure and salinity, then it is said to be saturated with oxygen . But
due to numerous factors, it may be under saturated 0: super saturated with oxygen.

Percentag e of saturation is calculated as follows

% Saturation = Cm x 100
Cs

Where Cm =Measured oxygen saturation

Cs = Standard (theoretical) oxygen saturation

Example :

Suppose brackishwater at 10g/1 salinity and at 10C contains 5.5 mgllit of DO and its
theoretical sa turated DO is 10.58 mg/lit.

Percentage Saturation = Cm x 100

Cs
= 5.5 x 100
10.58
= 52%

TOTAL GAS PRESSURE (TGP)

Total gas pressure is the sum of the partial pressures of all gases dissolved in
water. The difference between TGP and local barometric pressure (BP) is used as an
indicator of dissolved gas super saturation and is denoted by t-P.

i.g. t-P = TGP - BP

t-P can be measured with an instrument called as Saturometer

52
At equilibrium, TGP is equal to BP, and ~=o. If TGP is greater than BP (~P >0), the water
is said to be supersaturated .and the dissolved gases come out of solution . When TGP is
less than BP (Le. ~p<o), the water is under saturated and gases will diffuse into water
from the atmosphere. Gas super saturation is often reported as percentage of local BP as
follows.

BP + ~P
%TGP::: X 100
BP

GAS BUBBLE DISEASE (GBD)

When total gas pressure (TGP) is greater than BP (ie 6 P> 0), the water is said to
be ,n a supersaturated condition and at this stage, th e dissolved gases would come out of
water. Super saturation is an unstable condition, and the gases form bubbles when they
come out of solutio!; leading to a condition called as Gas bubble disease.

In a closed or semi-c!osed culture system th e dissolved gases of principal concern

are oxygen, carbon dioxide and Nitrogen. Dissolved C02 above critical concentrations
can interfere with kidney activity by encouraging th e precipitation of calcium phosphate in
kidney tubul es (Smart et al. 1979). High concentrations of dissolVf~d CO 2 can also reduce
the ability of blood to transport oxygen. Very high DO concentrations promote oxidation of
cellular substrates, leading to failure of respiratory system s.

Development of gas bubble in the tissu es and blockage of blood vessels are th e
signs of gas bubble disease. Bubble formed in th e blood and tissues of fish restrict
circulation and oxygen supply to tissues. Gas bubble disease can res ult in mortality or
reduced growth and feed con version .

FACTORS CAUSING GAS SUPERSATURATION

Gas supersaturation can be produced by a number of physical and biological processes .

Colt '(1987) identifi ed eight mechanisms by which gas supersaturation can occur.
Supersaturation may be caused by anyone or a combination of these mechanisms.

Water Heating
Gas solubility decreases with increasing temperature. For example, the solubility of
nitrogen is 18.14 and 16.36 mg/L at fa and '150 C, respectively (Colt 1986). Therefore, if
saturated water at 10C is heated without letting the excess gas escape, the nitrogen gas
then becomes saturated . The same can be said for other gases in water in equilibrium
with the atmosphere.

Ice Formation
As water cools, gas solubility increases, and negative ~p values will be produceo unless
gas in transferred into the water. As ice is formed, th e dissolved gases are expelled and

53
concentrated in the remaining water. As ice forms on the surface of a body of water, gas
transfer to the atmosphere is prevented. Mathias and Barcis (1985) demonstrated the
formation of lethal dissolved gas levels under the ice in shallow Canadian lakes. The
magnitude of the resulting 6P is dependent on the ice to total lake volume ratio,
temperature at the time of ice formation, final temperature, and DO concentration.

Mixing Waters of Different Temperatures

The variation of gas solubility is not linear. When water of different temperatures are
mixed, ga~ supersaturation can result, even if the waters are initially at equilibrium.
However, relatively high water temperature differences are required to produce significant
6P values.

Air Entrainment

Gas sup .. rsaturation can potentially be produced any time that air and water are in contact
at pressures greater than atmospheric. Typical examples are water flowing over a
waterfall or discharging from an open pipe and plunging into a receiving pool. The
resulting tlP of th e receiving water depends on the depth of bubble submergence, the
volume of air entrained and the degree of mixing . Values of tlP typically range from 18-44
mm Hg per meter of submergence (Colt and Westers 1982).

The same mechanism will produce gas supersaturation when aIr IS drawn into a
pressurized water system through ieaks on the suction side of the pump or through
inadequately submerged intake structures. Submerged aeration devices can also caus e
gas supersaturation under certain conditions. Seawater has a higher surface tension than
freshwater, causing a more rapid rate of dissolution of air and oxygen than in freshwater .
Thus, small air leaks in marine systems can result in higher 6P values than in similar
freshwater systems (Bouck and King 1983).

Photosynthesis

Algae and vascular aquatic plants produce oxygen during the day and consume oxygen at
night or during periods of low solar intensity. The net production is dependent on algae
density, solar radiation, and water turbidity (Romaire and 80yd 1979). Water mixing also
plays an important role . Gas supersaturation may be produced in the upper water layers
through photosynthetic production, resulting in higher 6P values. Oxygen is normally
transferred to the atmosphere during the day, but during periods of intense solar radiation
and little mixing by the wind, high levels of DO may accumulate . Various water blending
devices are commercially available that can be used to break up thermal and oxygen
stratification and distribute oxygen more evenly through the water column.

Pressure Changes

At any given TGP , a decrease in BP will increase the tlP. the passage of storm fronts can
cause changes in tlP ranging from +5 to -17 mm Hg. More significant decreases occur

54
when aquatic animals are transported by air freight. Modern jet aircraft fly at
approximately 10,000m (BP = 199 mm Hg) but pressurize the cabin and cargo storage
areas to about 3,000 mm Hg (BP - 526 mm Hg) (Colt 1986).

Physiological Changes
' ..
Gas bubbles occasionally form in the swim bladders or in the eyes of fish. The sensitivity
of a particular species to gas supersaturation depends on the partial pressures in these
organs (Colt 1987). Detailed physiological data is lacking; however, Wittenberg and
Wittenberg (1974) reported that the maximum P(02) in the retina ranges from 400 to 1,300
mm Hg . The animals would have to submerge to depths ranging from 3-10 m to
compensate for these partial pressures.

Bacterial Activity

Bacterial activity can increase or decrease the 6P. H2S and C02 production will have little
effect, O 2 and CH+2+ have intermediate effects and H2 can have tremendous impact on
the 6P. Bacteria can seriously alter gas levels as water passes through soil and in th e
bottom sediments of water bodies .

CRITICAL OXYGEN DEMAND

CritiCal oxygen demands ~or a gi'/3n spec:es are d:ffir.u lt te assess. In general
warm water species tolerate lower DO concen trations than cold water species. Warm
water fish in ponds die after short terms exposure to less th an 0.3 mg/lit. to support life for
several hours, a minimum of 1.0 mgtlit is required, and 1.5 mgtlit is necessary to support
fish for several days. Catfish feed poorly. grow slower and are more susceptible to
diseases if DO concentrations are below 5 mg/lit.

Crustaceans are also sensitive to low DO conditions. Young red swamp crawfish
will die at prolonged exposure to DO concentrations below 1.0 mg/lit. Adult Craw fi sh will
crawl out of pond s onto dikes when DO concentrations fall below 2 mgtlil. Shrimps are
probably as tolerant of low DO conditions as freshwater fish. The lethal concentration for
many peneaid species ranges from 0.7 to 1.4 mg/lit.

Generally, a minimum DO concentration of 5 mg/lit is recomm ended for warm water

fish and 6 mg/lit for cold water species and all marine species . Fish do not grow well when
DO concentrations remain below 25% of Saturated values.

FLUCTUATIONS OF DO IN PONDS

Concentrations of DO exhibit a daily cycle. The magnitude of daily changes in DO

concentration is influenced by phytoplankton density. Lowest DO concentration occurs at
dawn or sunrise, before photosynthesis becomes active. DO concentrations increase
during the daylight hours (as photosynth esis is active) and reaches to a peak in late
afternoon or ' early evening; and declines at night. This cycle is illustrated in the figure.

55
Daily cycle of DO is most pronounced in ponds with heavy phytoplankton blooms. During
the night to photosynthesis ceases and respiration by organisms decline DO
concentrations.

DISSOLVED OXYGEN DEPLETION IN PON~ WATERS

Dissolved oxygen depletion in the pond waters is due to following reasons .

(1) . LESS PHOTOSYNTHESIS DUE TO TURBIDITY

Discrete particles (which cause turbidity) and plankton blooms reduce the
penetration of light, and the heavier the bloom, less light available for photosynthesis at a
given depth. As a reslilt p~,ulosynthesis occurs most rapidly in the surface layer of water
Cilld dissolved oxygen concentrations decline with depth. In deep ponds dissolved
oxygen levels may fall down to zero mg/lit at depths of 1.5m or 2m .

(2) SUDDEN DYING AND DECOMPOSITION OF PHYTOPLANKTON

Phytoplankton in ponds may suddenly die and decompose causing DO depletion.

Sudden dyinq and decomposition of phytoplankton often is the major source of turbidity.
The dissolved oxygen concentration:; do not return to normal until a new phytoplankton is
established . Th e rate at which dissolved oxygen declines with depth, increases with
turbidity. For this reason, it is advantageous to have shallow ponds (75 cm to 150 cm
deep), especially tor shrimp as they dwell primarily on the bottom.

(3) INCREASED TEMPERATURE AND SALINITY

Increase in temperature decreases the Do concentration. This would be a critical

problem especially in summer seasons.

(4) CLOUDY WEATHER

Cloudy weather profoundly influences dissolved oxygen concentrations. The

influence of cloudy weather is more pronounced in a pond with a heavy phytoplankton
bloom than in a pond with less phytoplankton.

(5) DECOMPOSITION OF ORGANIC MATTER BY BACTERIA, ETC.

If water supply canals are polluted with organic substances, a lot of organic load
enters the culture pond and further decomposition of this organic matter by bacteria may
cause depletion of dissolved oxygen .

56
BEHAVIORAL & PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES AT LOW DO CONCENTRATIONS

When DO declines, the behavioral and physiological responses differ. At first, the
fish will seek the zones of higher DO concentrations. They will come to surface as DO
concentrations decline with depth. They will become less active in order to conserve
energy and remaining metabolic oxygen . They often will stop feeding in response to their
need to reduce their metabolism. Thus fish should not be fed when DO concentration
decreases to 3 to 4 mg/lit or less.

As DO concentrations continue to decline, a compensatory point is reached

where oxygen demand of tissues is greater than that which can be supplied by behavioral
and physiological responses. At this point, fish gape at the surface in an attempt to
. remove oxygen from thin surface film . Small fish es are more efficient at doing this th an
large fish. When fish gape at the surface, the DO concentrations are near lethal level.
They can survive short periods und er th ese conditions since their metabolic energy
demands can be partially met from glycolysis or anaerobic metabolism. However,
glycolysis produces acidic end products that lower blood pH, decreasing th e ability of the
blood hemoglobin to extract oxygen, and death is imminent.

FACTORS CAUSING OXYGEN TRANSFER INTO THE POND WATER

(Factors influencing the solubility of Oxygen in water)

(A) DIFFERENTIAL GRADIENT

When th e pressure of oxygen in water and air are equal, dissolved oxygen is said to
be saturated. If the water is low in dissolved oxygen (i.e. dissolved oxygen below
saturation) then th e rate of oxygen transfer from the ai r is greater than what it would be if
the water is near 0 2 saturation .

(8) TEMPERATURE

Dissolved oxyg en and temperature are inversely proportional to each other. The
absolute capacity of water to hold oxygen increases as the tempera ture decrea ses.
However in low dissolved oxygen waters initially rate of oxygen transfer increases as
increase in temperature .

. iMPURITIES IN WATER

Dissolved substances may affect the surface tension of water or solubility of

oxygen .

(D) EFFECT OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

' . _Photosynthesis is a process where in plants produce food and I~berate oxygen by
using sun light and C0 2. During day light, the aquatic plants growing in pond water

57
produce oxygen as a result of photosynthesis and there by increase the concentration of
dissolved oxygen. DO typically decline during night.

Lowest dissolved oxygen concentration occurs at dawn and reaches to the peak
point in the late afternoon or early evening. Dissolved oxygen concentrations are
regulated to large extent by phytoplankton abundance in pond water. As Phytoplankton
increases, daily dissolved oxygen cycle becomes more extreme.

Best growth of shrimp is obtained at a DO concentration of 5 mgllit. Dissolved

oxygen concentration less than 1 mgllit is lethal to fish life. Dissolved oxygen
concentration should not be less than 3.0 mg/lit.

(E) SURFACE AREA ACROSS WHICH DIFFUSION TAKES PLACE

. From atmosphere oxygen molecules diffuse into the water where they interface . By
increasing the area of water-oxygen interface, rate of dissolved oxygen transfer into the
water can be increased . Most of the standard aeration techniques are designed on this
principle.

PRINCIPLES OF AERATION

At equilibrium there is no transfer of between air and water. The driving force causing
oxygen transfer is the difference in oxygen tension in the air and water. The oxygen deficit
(00) and oxygerl surplus(OS) can lie expressed dS

00= Dos - Dam

as = Dam - Dos
Where DOs =Theoretical oxygen saturation under given conditions
DOm = Measured Oxygen saturation concentration
Net oxygen transfer depends upon the tension at air-water interface (i.e 00 or OS),
the area of air-water contact, the temperature c=lnd time of contact. Turbulence increases
the rate of oxygen transfer by increasing the contact area of air and water.

THEORY OF GAS TRANSFER

The dissolution of a gas in water takes place in four steps .

Step No.1 ~ Oxygen moves from bulk gaseous phase into gas-liquid interface
Step No.2&3 ~ Oxygen diffuses throu.gh laminar gas and laminar liquid films .
Sl~!J No.4 niffusion of oxygen into bulk liquid phase

Under normal conditions resistance to gas transfer occurs in step number 2 and 3. '
Transfer of highly soluble gases (like ammonia) is restricted in the gas film while transfer

58
of soluble gases like oxygen is restricted in the liquid film. The rate of oxygen transfer is
proportional to the difference between existing and saturated gas concentrations of
a ~as in solution and the same can be expressed as
Dc o .A
::: (Cs - Cm) (2)
dt t:..v
dc
where ::: Rate of gas transfer
dt

0 ::: Diffusion coef

A ::: contact area of air-water
6 ::: thickness of liquid film
V ::: vol. Of liquid int') which gas is diffusing
Cs ::: amou nt of saturated gas concentration
Crr. ::: amount of measured gas concentration

From above equation It is evident that, the rate of gas transfer is directly proportional to the
difference betwee n measured and saturated gas concen trations (i.e. Cs-Cm). If Cs-Cm is
+ve (i .e. wh en there is oxygen deficit) diffusion of oxygen from atmosphere into water
takes place. If Cs-Cm is - ve, gases from water will diffuse into atm0sphere. It is very
difficult to measure 6 and A. therefore 0/6 and AN are combined into a composite term
called as "O verall gas transfer coefficient" (KLa)
dc
::: (3)
dt

Th e overall gas transfer coefficient represents conditions in a specific gas-liquid

contact system . Th e rate of gas transfer can be increased by increasi ng contact area (A),
by decreasing thickness of liquid film-(6), and also by increasing (Cs-Cm).

Turbulence or mixing is required for rapid transfer of oxygen . Turbulence is difficult

to estimate. Integrating equa tion 3
dc
::: KLa (Cs - em)
dt
1
t2 - t, ::: x Ln(Oo), - Ln (00)2
KLa
Ln(00}1 - Ln (00)2
KLa = (4 )
t2 - t1

where KLa ::: overall oxygen transfer coef

00 1 & 00 2 ::: oxygen deficit at t1 and t2

5S
 = time

"KLa" is calculated by plotting time versus the natural logarithm of oxygen deficit.
The slope of the straight line generated is KLa
Log 02 deficit

t1 t2
Aeration time 4

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE

Temperature also affects the viscosity, which in turn affects the surface te'1sion and
diff~sion rates. Thus for oxygen transfer, the values of "KLa" can be corrected for
temperature effects by use of a "theta factor".

The temperature variation of KLa is

(KLa)r = (K La)2o X (1 T-20 (5)

= Oxygen transfer coef at "T"

= Oxygen transfer at standard conditions and temperature

T = Temperature,oC

e = Typically varies from 1.016 to 1.047

Recommended values of 0

For freshwater 1.024

For seawater slightly higher values especially at 20C

For any two specific gases, their KLa values and mol ecu lar diameters are inversely
proportional

60
 i.e.
= (6)

: . . ... .. L:.~ 1 .'

where d, and d 2 are diameters of their respective gas molecules

Note: Above equation is used to find out "KLa" values of other gases. if KLa value of
oxygen is known :

AERATOR SYSTEM REQUIREMENT

Aerator design is based on

(1) The amount of oxygen actually needed

(2) The minimum DO concentration

The average and maximum daily oxygen demand for fish is equal to

AOD _. 0.20 F
MOD = 0.29 F

Where AOD = Av. Oxygen demand (Kg/day)

MOD = Maxirr.un: 'oxygen demand (Kg/day)
F = daily feed allotment

Shrimp respiration = 0.487 x W 0.881

Where W = weight of shrimp

EVALUATION OF CAPACITY (PERFORMANCE) OF AERATORS

Commercially manufactured aerators are usually evaluated under a rigid set of standard
conditio[!s to determine their ability to transfer oxygen . These tests are called as standard
tests or clean water tests . These test result values are generally engraved on
manufacturers promotional literature.

Colt and Orwicz (1991) identified two types of testing procedures

(1) steady state
(2) un-steady state

UN-STEADY TEST PROCEDURE

Standard tests for aerators are conducted in basins of clean water at standard
temperature and pressure (760mm Hg & 20C) Basins (3000 - 6000 m 3) may be of
co.ncrE;!te Qr cinder block construction . The water is first deoxygenated with Sodium Sulfite
(Na2S03)' Cobalt chloride (COCL2) is used as catalyst. The change in DO concentration

61
is measured. Since, during the test, the amount of oxygen transferred and DO
concentration change, this procedure is known as un-steady state.

PROCEDURE

1. Chemical slurries are made first by mixing respective chemicals with tap water.
Theoretical requirement of Na2s03 for deoxygenating is 7.88 mg/lit per 1.0 mg/lit of
02 to be removed . Cobalt chloride (COCI2) @ 0.10 - 0.50 mg/lit. cobalt
concentration should never fall below 0.10 mg/lit.

2. The aerator is turned on and chemical slurries are mixed untill the DO of basin
drops to zero. Cobalt chloride should be added first and aerator must be run at
least for 30 minutes for thorough mixing. .

3. The sodium sulfite in sufficient quantity to depress the basin DO below 0.5 mg/lit is
splashed into the water and mixed with aerator.

4. DO readings are taken at regular intervals while DO concentration reaches 90%

saturation .

5. The saturation concentration is normally reached when run la sts for a period equal
to 6/K La or the sa turation concentration that remains unchanged at least for 15
=
minutes after the test time has reached t 5/K L a

6. At least on e run should be extended for each test condition to obtain DO

concentration at saturation.

COMPUTATIONS

Oxygen deficit for each interval that DO was measured

00 =OOs- DO m I I

Natural logarithms of 00 (y) are plotted against aeration time (x) and the best fit
line is computed .

Oxygen transfer coefficient is computed using the points representing 10% & 70%
saturation as follows.
Log 00 10 - Log 00 70

(ho - tlO)/60

= Overall oxygen transfer coefficient (h(1) at "T" c

Oxygen deficit at 10 and 70% saturation

62
 Time DO reaches 10 & 70% saturation

(KLa)r must be corrected to 20C by using equation

(K. La) 20 eT20

STANDARu OXYGEN TRANSFER RATE (SOTR)

SOTR= (7)

WhereSOTR = Standard oxygen transfer Rate Kg of 02/hr.

(C s )2o = DO concentration at saturation T = 20C mg/litre

V = Volume of water in test basin

10.3 = converts gm to Kg .

SOTR is the amount of oxygen that an aerator can transfer to clean water at
o mg/lit DO
and 20C .

STANDARD AERATION EFFICIENCY (SAE)

SAE is an expression of the amount of oxygen tran sferred by the ae rator per unit of
energy consumption at standard conditions (20C, 760 mmHg)
SOTR
SAE = (8)
Power input

Where, SAE = Standard aerator efficiency Kg02/Kw-hr

Power input = Expressed in KW or hp

STANDARD OXYGEN TRANSFER EFFICIENCY (SOTE)

The standard oxygen transfer efficiency is equal to oxygen transferred divided by

the mass flow rate of oxygen supplied )

SOTR
SOTE = (9)
m
where SOTE = Standard oxygen transfer efficiency
SOTR = Standard oxygen transfer rate
m = Mass tran sfer of oxygen Kg/hr.

63
STEADY-STATE TEST PROCEDURE

Clean water tests are valuable for comparing aerators under standard conditions
but they cannot be directly applied to oxygen transfer under field conditions due to
following factors.

1. Pond waters may not be always under 20C

2. The DO concentration in pond water is greater than zero
3. The rate of oxygenation of tap water is usually greater when compared with pond
waters as pond waters hold impurities, discrete particles, etc.
4. Clean water holds more oxygen at saturating than pond waters
5. Ponds that contain fish, phytoplankton, bottom sediments, etc. are referred to as
respiring systems and are quite different from test basins .
6. Pond water is turbid when compared to clean water

For testing aerators in the field two factors" "and" p " must be determined.
" "(alpha) is the ration of KLa for field conditions to KLa for clean water conditions

(K La)20 pond water

= (10)
(KLa}20 clean water

the value of " "depends on the concentration of surfactants in the water, which
can reduce surface ten sion of the water and decrease bubble size in diffused aeration.
The values of" "can be determined in the laboratory.

p (beta)
is a ratio of the oxygen saturation concentration (C's) for field conditions to Cs
for clean water.

= . C'sles (11 )

"~" factor is influenced by dissolved solids and organic and suspende.d solids .
Magnitude of "P" in waste water 0.95 to 1.00 and in fish ponds 0.92 to i .00, average 0.98.

the field oxygen transfer rate

(SOTR)2o X 8120 X P Cs - Cm
(OTR), = (12)
9.092

where (OTR), = field oxygen tran-sfer rate Kg/hr

Cs = clean water DO saturation at test temperature and pressure

64
 em = measured DO saturation in pond for test conditions mgllit

9.092 = Value of Cs at 20C and 760 mmHg .

Shelton and Boyd (1983) developed a tabl e (given below) of factors that can be
used for rapid solution of equation No.12. Knowing the water temperature and oxygen
concentration in a given pond.

(OTR)j = f x (SOTR)2o (13)

VYhere "f" is . the factor from tabl e as given below, and "SOTR" is standard oxygen
transfer rate obtained from aerator manufacturer.

FACTORS FOR RAPID SOLUTION OF THE AERATOR PERFORMANCE

DO WATER TEMPERATURE IN DEGREE CENTIGRADE

!VIg per 10 15 20 25 30 35
liter ~

0 0.71 0.71 0.72 0.74 0.76 0.79 .

1 0.64 0.(:)4 0.64 0.65 0.66 0.67
2 0.57 0.56 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55
3 0.51 0.49 0.47 0.45 0.44 0.43
4 0.44 0.41 0.38 0.36 0.33 0.30
5 0.37 0.34 0.30 0.26 . 0.22 0.18
6 0.,31 0.26 0.21 0.17 0.12 0.06
7 0.24 0.19 0.13 0.07 0.01 0.00

8 0.17 0.11 0.04 0.00

9 0.11 0.04 0.00

10 0.04 0.00

: J (OTR)f = f x (SOTR)20

..
65
AERATORS

Aerators are devices used to increase in the concentration of dissolved oxygen in the aqua
culture system.

Types of Aerators:

Aerators are classified into following groups

A. Gravity Aerators
B. Surface Aerators
C. Diffuser Aerators
D. Turbine Aerators

(A) . GRAVITY AERATORS

Gravity aerators are simple to construct and are reliable. These are the llost
common type of aerators used in small semi-intensive shrimp farms. In this method water
is allowed to raise above the pond/tank level and then to fall freely in the pond or tank
through atmosphere where water comes in contact with oxygen and thus aeration is done.
In simple. water falling and splashing into pond and aeration is done.

During the process of water raising and falling, potential energy is converted
into Kinetic energy, that serves to break apart the falling water. When water is broken into
droplets. the area over which the diffusion can take place is increased, thereby increasing
the DO of the water.

Example: 1

Perforated tray model

The water falls through a screen or perforated plate that break up the falling stream of
water and thereby aeration is done . One meter tall aemtor can usually aerate water to
70-80% saturation.(refer to th e enclosed diagram)

Example: 2

Gravity driven paddle wheel model

A gravity driven paddle wheel is also effective . The falling water turns the paddle
wheel. The paddle wheel throws more water into the air and some times traps the air
below the surface of w'ater (refer to the enclosed diagram)

6(j
Examples: 3

Plastic rings or.wheels model

A recent and somewhat popular aeration system includes the use of specially
designed plastic rings or wheel s. These rings have a fringed interior walls or spokes.
As water passes through a column or drum filled with these, the water is effectively
broken up and the aeration is done (refer to the enclosed diagram)

(8) SURFACE AERATORS

Surface aerators increase the sLirface area of culture medium by agitating it against
some sort of mechanical devico . Dissolved oxygen rises wher. th e surface water is thrown
up and mixes with the air above the water and then falls back down into the pond or tanks .
There are three commonly used surface aera tors .

(i) Nozzl es

Nozzles are generally used in round tanks .(refer to the enclosed diagram). water
from a pump is sent downward through a nozzle towards the surface water. When this
water hits the surface water, there is considerable amount of turbulence on the water
surface. This turbulence is due to transfer of energy of water leavin'g the nozzle . Besides
increasing the dissolved oxygen in pond water, nozzle aera tors also set up circular water
flow.

(ii) Spray aerators

Spray aerators are generally built as floating propellers. The propeller is beneath
the water surface and as it turns it brings sub surface water up and into the air (refer to
the enclosed diagram). The rate of oxygen transfer depends upon size and depth of
the propeller and the speed at which the prope ll er turns .

(iii ) Floating paddle wheel aerators

Floating paddle wheel aerators are very popular in semi-intensive shrimp farms .
They are considered as one of the most energy efficient devices for increasing dissolved
oxygen. They splash water into the air as the paddle wheel rotates. The splashed water
comes in contact with air and falls back into the pond and thereby increasing the dissolved
oxygen. Besid es increasing the dissolved oxygen, they also increase both horizontal and
vertical movement of pond water. The amount of oxygen that is transferred to th e water
increases with size and speed of pad dle wheel. The average oxygen transfer efficiency of
these aerators is 2.13 kg 02 per hr. (2 .13 kw/hr) .

67
( C) DIFFUSER AERATORS

Surface aerators work to disturb the water surface and thereby putting the water in
the air, but diffuser aerators work to put air in the water. Oxygen in air bubbles will diffuse
out into the water through the surface of bubbles. The longer the bubbles stay below the
water surface, the more time there is for oxygen to pass into the water. In some cases
diffuser aerators directly send oxygen (pure oxygen) in place of air. The use of oxygen
rather than air increases the efficiency of the transfer since the gradient is much greater.

There are many types of diffuser aerators and few are given below:

(i) Simple diffuser

(ii) Venturi diffuser
(iii) U - tube diffuser
(iv) Downward bubble contact aerator

(i) Simple diffuser

The aquarium air stone is an example of a simple diffuser. If an air line is dropped
into the aquarium, the result would be larger bubbles that rise quickly to the surface.
The diffuser forces th e air though small holes . This results in a greater bubble surface
area per unit volume of air, yielding a better transfer of 0 2 to the water. In addition
smaller bubbles have less slip and therefore lift some of the water to the surface with
them as they rise ; and helps in uniform distribution .

The amount of oxygen transferred depends on the number and size and relative
velocity of the ascending bubbles, dissolved oxygen deficit and water depth at which
bubbles are released (refer to the enclosed diagram)

(D) TURBINE AERATORS

Turbine aerators are also called as propeller diffuser aerators. A turbine aerator is
basically a submerged propeller. Rather than injecting air into water, it is simply a
device that increases the circulation ir. the pond or tank; that reslJlts in greater surface
aeration. A turbine aerator consists of a rotating hallow shaft attached to an electric
motor (refer to the enclosed diagram). A diffuser and a propeller (impeller) are located
at one end of the shaft and are submerged . The unit is supported at the water surface
with a float assembly so tliat a hole in the opposite end of the shaft near motor remains
above the water surface.
The motor usually operates at 3,450 RPM. Shaft along with
propeller also rotatp. when the motor is started. As the spinning propeller forces the
water at a high velocity past the submerged hole in the device shaft, there is a
pressure drop in the shaft, which results in air being sucked through the surface hole.
The air passes through the diffuse'r (hole) and enters the water as a fine bubbles .
These aerators provide water circulation in addition to aeration.

68
 In practice the float supports the motor and shaft at an angle with the .surface. An
angle of 30 is found to be the best angle for maximum water exchange.

PLACEMENT OF AERATORS IN PONDS

Proper place'ment of aerators in ponds plays an important role in efficient mixing of

water throughout ponds . Aerators should be placed in ponds so that they produce
maximum circulation of water. When only One aerator is used, the location of aerator is
not critical. However, when two or more aerators are used, they should direct water in the
same direction so that one aerator is not working against th e current produced by other
aerator.

There are three basic ways of using aerators in ponds.

a) Emergency aeration when dissolved oxygen concentration are critically low.

b) Nightly aeration to stab;Jize disso)ved oxygen concentration.
c) Continuous aeration.

In a rectangular pond, the best position is to place the aerator at the middle
of one of the long sides of the pond directing water parallel to the short side of the pond.
Placement of aerator in th e corner of the POnd to direct water diagonally across the pond
should be avoided. Depending upon the size and shape of the pond, the placement
pattern of the aerators aimed to achieve 'the best water circulation will vary. Water
circulation in the pond is important in breaking up the stratification of water parameters
such as oxygen, temperature and salinity. Positioning of the aerators in the pond should
be decided taking into consideration the prevailing wind direction so as to effectively
distribute the oxygen saturated water all over the pond and to promote water circulation in
il

69
PROBLEMS

(1) Calculate the standard oxygen transfer rate and standard aeration efficiency
of an aerator of capacity 2 HP (1 .5-KW). Following Is the data Qbtained during
a standard test conducted in a clean tap water basin of capacity 200 m 3 The
test was run suffici ently long to determine that (CS)25 of the basin water was
6.8 mgllit.

DO at 20% saturation = 1.36 mgllit in 11.2 min

DO at 80% saturation = 5.44 mgllit in 53 min
"9" factor = 1.024,
(Cs)2o = 9.08

Soln First find ou t overall oxygen gas transfer coef

LOg001 - log002

(t2 - t1 )/60

Log (6.8 - 1.36) - log (6.8 - 5.44)

==

80% and 20% DO saturation was reached in 53 minutes and 11.2 minutes respectively
Log5.44 - log 1.36

(53 -11 .2)/60

Log 5.44 - log 1.36

==
0.697
== 1.9 8 Kg 0 2/ho ur

T his shou ld be corrected to "0" factor

(KLa ) == (KLa)2o X OT.20
(KLa) == (K La)2o X 025.20
(KLa)2s :;: (KLaho X (1.024 )25.20
1.98 :;: e
(KLa)zO X T20
1.98
:;:
-----:;: 1.76 Kg 02/hr
(1.024 )25.20
.. Standard oxyge n transfer rate
SOTR :;: (K La)20 x (CS)20 x V x 10.3
:;: 1.76 x 9.08 x 200 x 10. 3
:;: 3.2 Kg 0 2/h r

70
 standard Aeration efficiency
SOTR
SAE =
Power in put
3.2
= = 2.13 kg 0 2/kw/hr
1.5

(2) A standard test conducted on a 1.5 kw ~2-hp) aerator yielded the data as given
below. The test tank contained 5000m of clean tap water. The test was run
to determine that. the (Cs)2s of the basin was 6.8 . mgllit. 20% and 80%
saturation were considered.
DO at 20% saturation = 1.36 mgflit in 11.2 m in
00 at 80% saturation = 5.44 mgllit in 53 min
c (\....1 (:..V'J ~._ tQ ((1\:':::'
Soln LogOO, - log002

Log (6 .8 - 1.36) - log (6.8 - 5.44)

= (53 - 11. 2)/60

Log5.44 -log 1.36

=
0.697

Log 5.44 - log 1.36

=
0.697

= 1.98 Kg Ihour

=
1.98
= -----= 1.76/hr
(1 .024 )25-20

SOTR = (K La )20 x (Cs)2o x V x 10-3

= 1.76 x 9.08 x 5000 x 0 .001

= 79.905 kg 0 2/kw/hr

71
(3) Calculate the' actual (field) oxygen transfer rate and field aeration efficiency of
an aerator with rated (SOTR)2o of 25 K~ 02/hr. the measured dissolved
oxygen concentration of pond water at 25 C and salinity 15ppt is 4.D0 mgllit.
The power consumption is 9.00 Kw.

Soln: Assume ex: = 0.90

9 = 1.024
P = 0.98

Cs at 25C & ppt 15 = 7.57

ex: (SOTR)2o x ST.20 x (pes - em)

(OTR), =
9.092

0.9 x 25 x 1.024 2520 x (0.98 x 7.57 - 4 )

=
9.092
25.33 x (3.42)
=
9.092
= 9.53 Kg 0 2J hr
(OTR), 9.53
(AE)( =
power 9.00

= 1.058 Kg 02/Kw-hr

(4) The field oxygen transfer rate of an aerator of power consumption capacity
8.6 Kw is 18 Kg Ozlhr. The measured DO concentration of pond water at 30 oC,
salinity 15 ppt and pressure (BP) is 4.5 mg/lit. The saturated DO
concentration at test temperature is 6.94 mg/lit. Assuming cc as .0.90, p as
0.98 and 8 =1.024, calculate the standard oxygen transfer rate (SOTR) &
standard aeration efficienty (SAE).

Soln : ex: (SOTR)2o x 0T20 X PCs - em

(OTR), =
9.092

0.90 {SOTR)20 ~ (1 .024 )30.20 x (0.98 x 6.94 - 4.5)

18 =
9.092

72
 0.90 (SOTR)2o x 1.23 x 2.30
18 =
9.092
18 x 9.092 = (SOTR)2o x 2.55
:. (SOTR)20 = 64.18 Kg 02/hr
64.18
SAE = = 7.46 kg 02/kw/hr
8.6

(5) What is the field oxygen transfer rate and aeration efficiency of a surface
aerator if the pond DO is 4.0 mg/lit at temperature 25C and power
consumption is 8.60 'K w. The (SOTRho is 19 Kg 02/hr.

Soln : Please refer to table given below

DO WATER TEMPERATURE IN DEGREE CENTIGRADE

Mg per liter 10
I 15 20 25 30 35

0 0.71 0.71 0.72 0.74 0.76 0.79

1 0.64 0.64 0.64 0.65 0.66 0.67
2 0.57 0.53 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55
3 0.51 0.49 0.47 0.45 0.44 0.43
4 0.44 0.41 0.38 0.36 0.33 0.30
5 0.37 0.34 0.30 0.26 0.22 0.18
6 0.31 0.26 0.21 0.17 0.12 0 .06
7 0.24 0.19 0.13 0.07 0.01 0.00

8 0.17 0.11 0.04 0.00

9 0.11 0.04 0.00

10 0.04 0.00

(OTR)f = f X (SOTR)2o
= 0.36 x 19
= 6.84 Kg/hr

6.84

:. (AE)f = = 0.8 Kg 02/Kw-hr

8.6

73
(6) Calculate the number of aerators required for one hectare semiintensive
shrimp culture pond as per the data given below
Pond Is stocked with 1,50,000 Nos. of shrimp
average weight of shrimp after 60 days
culture @ 70% survivelity 15 gms
Salinity of pond water at a temperature
of 30C : 15 ppt
Saturated oxygen concentration
required 4 mgflit
standard oxygen transfer rate of 1 HP
paddle wheel aerator 1.8 Kg 02/kw/hr

Ass ume pl ankton and sediment respiration as 0.134 mgllitJhr and 0.061
. mglliUhour re spectively.

Soln : Oxygen demand = Plankton resp iration + Sediment respiration

+ Shrimp respira tion
:. Shrimp respi ration (R) = 0.487 (W )0.881
= 0.487 (15)881
= 5.29 mg/hour
: . Total shrimp respiration
= 5 ~ 29 x 1,50,000 x O~7 = 5,55,450 mg/h
5,55,450
:. Total shrimp respiration =
10,000
= 3
55.55 mg/m /hr
55.55
= = 0.056 mg/litlhr
1000
:. Total oxygen demand = 0.056 + 0.134 + 0.056
= 0.251 mg/litlht
= 3
0.251 gm/m /hr
:. For one hectare pond = 0.25 1 x 10,000
= 2.51 kgfhr
=
Saturated dissolved oxygen concentration T 30C and Salinity 15 ppt
= 6.94 mg/lit
Field oxygen transfer rate = (OTR),
T
e
oc. (SOTR)zo x -20 x 0Cs - Cm
(OTR), =
9.092

0.90 x 1.8 x 1.024 30 -20 x (0 .98 x 6.94 - 4 )

=
9.092
10
1.62 x 1.024 X 2.80

74
 =
9.092
1.62 x 1.27 x 2.80
=
. 9.092
= 0.63 kg 02/kw-h

Total power requirement of aerator =

0.63
= 3.98 Kw
Capacity of one aerator =: 1 HP = 0.746 Kw
3.98
... No. of aerators required =
0.746
= 5.3

Say 6 Numbers of 1 HP each aerators are required.

75
 CHAPPTER- V

OPERATION, WORKING PRINCIPLE AND UTILITY OF PUMPS

IN AQUACULTURE

INTRODUCTION:

Pumps are the mechanical devices used for lifting the water or any fluid at higher
elevation or at higher pressure . In the projects connected with fisheries, pumps are
commonly used under the following circumstances.

1. To lift th e raw water from rivers , canals, streams, and wells

2. To lift the water from creeks during low tides

3. For dewatering of the ponds

4. For pumping the water to overhead water tanks for hatcheries

5. For backwashing of water filters and to increase their efficiency

If the source of water supply is situated at higher elevation, then water will flow
automatically under the gravitational force. If source of water is at lower elevation, then
water will have to be lifted or pumped. This operation can be done with the help of pumps .

Especially in brackishwater fish farms, during low tides, the required water level in
ponds may go down, under such circumstances it becomes essential to use pumps to lift
the water from creek. The use of pumps is highly essential in fresh water fisheries where
bore wells are the main water source .

TYPES OF PUMPS

(A) Centrifugal pumps

(8) Reciprocating pumps

(C) Submersible pumps

(A) CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

A pump which raises the water from a lower level to the higher level by the action of
centrifugal force is called as centrifugal pump. These pumps work on the principle of
centrifugal force. !f a vessel containing liquid is rotated about a point, centrifugal force will
cause the liquid to raise to a point.

76
 GRAVITY AERATORS

(1 ) PERFORATED TRAYS MODEL -1

(\~
I I
I
I
1
, I
1
1
]
T
WATER ORO PLETS~I 1
I I 1 1
I
1
t I

10- 25 eMS
t
: I I
II +II I I I I

1
I
,
1 I
\ ,
I 1
\
,I I
\
I I , I I J
I 1
, 1 1 1
RISER PIPE I
I
I I I 1
:t:
't'
I
I
I
1
\
1
I
I
I

I
t I
,
I

,
1
1
1
1
I
I
I
*EFFICIENCY OF
I I I I
I
1 1- M TALL UNIT
PERFORATE 0 I I j _l_

1 IS 70- 800/0
TRAYS

SUMP- - -_ -_ -_- =-
- - - - -
-- --_1-_,_- ,, :-_
_'
~ -:_~ - - - _ 1 1
' -

-=-- -::.- -::.-

'

-
.
1 - - - ,- - - - - - -

MODEL -2

~ ~ ~ ~ + ~ t~~

t t . ~ + ~ i ~ ~
77777/
t ~ t ~ t t t + ~ - - WAT ER
DROPLETS

WATER STORAGE - - - - - - - - -- - - - -
TANK

75 -0
 GRAVITY DRIVEN PADDLE WHEEL

MODEL-1
W.L

~ GRAVITY PADDLE

STORAGE
TANK

MODEL -2

FLUME

GRAVITY
PADDLE

DIKE.

77777777777
 NOZZLES

..._- NOZ ZLES

- _- - --
---
- --
-, - - - ..::: .,., -- - TANK
I\\\~:: ),!));'
\ ~~, -~ / / ~-CIRCULATING
'- ~.:: ~ ::- ./ WATER

OVER FLOW PIPE

SPRAY AERATORS

PROPELLER
AERATORS ARRANGED IN SP1RAL
CONFIGURATION MODEL

PADDLE WHEEL AERATOR

 DIFFUSER AERATOR

(1) A VENTURI AERATOR

GAS
t

I LIQUID _o- -- - - i -

(2) U - TUBE AERATOR

INFLOW
 SIMPLE DIFFUSERS

AIR BUBBLES ,.------ ~ AIR FROM

AIR BLOWER

= : : : =- '--~==-I--_____;==::"___--=oE~---,_
- - --

---LATERAL LINES
...... - - -
AIR DIFFUSING PIPE

~A IR BLOWER

AIR
8U8BLE~"j

SIMPLE AIR DIFFUSER IN A POND

1>-1
 TURBINE AERATOR

AIR INTAKE POINT

- - --
~ P-fWP8JR
HALLOW -~ ..
o ..,,~.
DRIVE SHAFT _ " O'__p'.
o
QIt.~.... ,tt::;:>r;;.
.-~"" 0

~AIR WAT
MIXTURE

- Motor size 0 .37 KW -11 KW

o
- 30 Best angle tor maximum oxygen exchange
- Motor usually operates at 3450 RPM
CHANGES IN DO CONCENTRATIONS WITH DEPTH
HAVING VARYING PHYTOPLANKTON DENSITIES

0 '\ I
\ I

LL
I 1
\

/
I
""./
/
/
/

Z 2 ;' _' / ( -
I "..
- - - - - - /:- - - DENSE BLOOM
,-
t-
Q_ /
./
/
W3 / ~ MODERATE BLOOM
/
0 I
/
I
I
4 I
""" SPARSE BLOOM

o 8 12 16
DO mg/tit.
 WIN) EFFECTS

Changes in 00 VIS Winds

20

CALM
WEATHER

c ----- 1--
// WIN DY '-"-..
WEATHER
OL_~ __~__~__~____~_
SAM NOON SPM MID SAM
NIGHT

EFFECTS OF PHYTOPLANKTON
20

15 DENSE BLOOM

t10
--
~

.........
"-
en
E 5 SPARSE
0 BLOOM
0

0
6AM NOON 6P MI D GAM
NIGHT
:hanges in DO concentrations vis Phytoplari<ton densities
.:1r.._;
/ 1
..

1>0 <?~ ~ fb.'t s.~"i~ (_~'ih~~

EfFC.'- OF PO
_ _ _ _ _- -
DN ~Al2ro.
_--- _
~~T~
, e _ . ..r

POND F\~H

0-0 ~O'")(AH F\'~h .ru~'f\'('e_.

.sho~t ex.poflAlr~
03>
Le+k~ .fox Lo~~ tu rQ .XFU."f-
r '0

Ft Sf-\ ~O Q\[ t"E. r 6~

~ooV0ft, \~ ~tov() fx
l.o0j t~"t"M e"po~\)._~~
4--0

So

GO - M' V\t: .-r)lA.-.s'") ~ Cot& eN "Xe..("

Sreee_~

ee.Co1\~I"II.~~ ~~
_ _
t\N- 11\.\ W\.\AW)
fJf..
-r .)
.- .~
I ~o
(r""'"~~. __.(jJ \A(eJ\. Y w.. vi) ,
~p t .. c...c: t!; ~ .
__ )0 > tv..q f t~. 'r-.... Cot~ (.,tV ~
rt>f' r /,' ~ ;:} { .
. ~
 p"("~tl \.l ~ C_V

TuRBOLANT
FlOW
-~r
r
, CJ
1 I
I
P I:.J
I I
I I I
I
, I I P, I L l~U( D Pf1A~E.
I j
(BU t K)
GtM
.pHASE
lI I
I
I
(&\)~~ : @C, ,
/A)
,, I V1~ ''3' ~,
I

l2:.J I -c- I~
l ".(,1. ,
I V I
I
 Principle:

In practical centrifugal pumps, water which enters at the center of casing (impeller),
will be rotated at high speed by means of an impeller which imparts both radial and
tangential velocity to water. In doing so, the centrifugal force is created and the
water is thrown to periphery. The water leaving the impeller is slowed by casing
and a portion of its kinetic enerQY is converted to potential energy, that is pressure.

Important part of a centrifugal pump

(a) Suction pipe:

The main function of suction pipe is .! sucUhe water from th e source and
then to pass it on to tr,e delivery pipe. The suction pipe plays an important role in
successful and smooth running 0 pump. A great care should be taken to make it water
tight. A .e.erforated foot yalve is connected at its bottom to avoid the entry of big and
foreign materials into the suction pipe. Bends in suction pipes are to be avoided to
minimize the losses. 'fr

(b) Motor

It is very important part of centrifugal pump water fl om su~ tion pipe enters the
motor (i .e., impeller) . Impeller revolves at the designed speed dependiQg upon the~Hors e
Power ~HP) of pumS' Due to rotation of an impeller surrounded by spiral casing, ihe=-
>tentfiTu 81 force will e created due to which water will be sucked and thrown to periphery
and thus water enters into the d . .

Delivery pipe

As the name itself indicates, the main function of delive is to discharge the
water that comes from motor to an outlet point. Sometimes check valv s provided to
protect the pump from hammer. The size and length of delivery pipe epends upon the
requirement and hei ht between moto t r source .

DISCHARGE OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

Discharge, Q =TT DbVf

Q =TT DbVf
Where, D = Diameter of impeller
b = width of impeller
Vf = Velocity of flow

77
 Total lift of the pump

Total head or Total lift, H =Hs + Hd + H

Where, Hs = Suction head (Lift)
Hd = Discharge lift (head)
H\_ = Head loss

----
Loss of head is due to friction, exists, enterence, etc in suction and raising.
-----__
(8) RECIPROCATING PUMPS

A sin Ie actin reci rocatin pump consists of a~iston which moves inside the
cylinder Wit e help of piston rAA a so called as conne mg rod) operated by. {Ix whee!
A suction pipe and delivery pipes are connected as shown in the figure . Ajnlet valve and
outlet valves..are connected to suction pipe and delivery pipe respectively as shown in the
figure . Piston move's inwards and outwards inside the cylinuer in accordance with
movement of fly whe el . -

Working Principle

During the first stroke (i .e.__uction stroke), the piston mov es~wards"cight (from 0 to
180) thus creating vacuum in the cylinder. This causes the suction valve to open and
thus water enters the ctinder. During s~cond stroke (pelivery stroke), the piston moves
towards left (from (!o to 360~ and thus increasing the pressure inside the cylinder.
Because of this pressure, outl~l valve !pelivery valve) opens and suction valve closes .
During this process of opening and closi ng of outlet valve and inlet valve, water that has
entered in the cylinder will be forced intQ discharge pipe .and thereby water is discharged .
In thi s way water is lifted from its source to th e point of disc;harg e.
I ' ,
This pump is also called as positive displacement pum as it discharges a definite
amount of water during the displacemen 0 pIston.

In case d uble acting reciprocating pumps, there will be two sets of suction and
delivery valves.
In case of reciprocating pumps, the flow of water is not constant but intermittent and
. __
gives vibration, s~~mssor~rgy .
~_tJ!/I:'"

Highlights

In reciprocating pumps vacuum is ' created mechanically by the movable parts of

pumps. In th e vacuum first water is withdrawn inside the pump which on the return of
mechanical part is displaced and forced out of chambe r through valve and pipe. The back
_ flow is prevented by means of suitable valves .
Discharge

LAN
Q =
60
Where, L = Length of piston
A = Cross sectional area of piston _
N = t-.!o of,evolution!per minfute
Q = Discharge

Types of Reciprocating pumps

a) Simple hand operated reciprocating pumps

b) Power operatAd dee well reciprocating pumps

c) Single acting reciproc::lting pumps

d) Double acting reciprocating pumps

(C) SUBMERSIBLE PUMPS , \

A submersible pump may be eith er fel~trifugal type or displacement type. In

submersible pumps, the motor will be situated Below the water level . In some subm'"+ersible
pumps there wjll be series of impellers at regular intervals and because of this fact, these
pumps develop high head (HYdraulic heed) .
~

(O) AIR LIFT PUMPS

en water contains suspended matter and acids or alkaiis which may damage
other types of pumps, the air lift pump can be used very successfully. These types of
pumps are suitable for lifting water from... low wells or deep wells._ These are simple in
operation and give least trouble bec;:au'se they have no remote or submerged moving
~
It consists of a vertical pipe known as "Educator pipe" waced in_a casing PlP~ . Air
inlet pipe is placed in Educator pipe and its outlet faces upward as shdWn in the figure .
Top end of the air lift pipe is connected to the air compressor.
I ~
Working Principle

The compre~sed air is released through the air diffuser connected at the lower end
of the air-inlet pip~ in the educator pipe . This air is mixed with water and form the bubbles
having low specific gravity than water. Now; because of increased pressure water starts
 123.33
= ------------
25

::: 4.9 say, 5 pumps, keeping one as stand by i.e 5+1 =6 No

Therefore a total of 6 numbers of 25 HP pumps are required

CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

VOLUTE TYPE

CASING
VANE
IMPELLER
SHAFT

DIFFUSER TYPE
DISCHARGE

ASING

SHAFT _--tA-H~_f..l!.r.: ~~~ IMPELLER

lFFUSER
VANES
 TOTAL LIFT OF A CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

AIR VALVE t
~ Hd:::Discharge lift

CHECK VALVE

/5uCTION PI?
Hs:: Suction lift
-
- -
- -
-----
---
I t-
- --
- ---
- - - ----
-
___..._-

FOOT VALVE
STRAINER

TOTAL LIFT::: Hs+ Hd +Hl

Whe re Hs ::: Suction head
Hd :: Discharge head
H~ :: HQcd toss

~ 2. -b
 Q_
L
:)
Q_
_J
LL
O(f)
(f)CL
~
:)
WW LL
- _J
et::_J et::
Ww
(f)Q_
t--
Z
<t2 W
U

W
~
<t
t--
If)
z t--
0 _J
:)
0-

0::
W
S
0
0

Q_
DEEP WELL TURBINE PUMP
(MULTI STAGE CENTRIFUGAL PUMP)

DISCHARGE
PUMP

~- WELL CASING

TURBIN~
(A SERIES OF IMPELLERS)

WELL POINT WITH

STRAINER

.... 1... -d
 A I R L 1FT P U M P

COMPRESSED AIR

AIR BUBBLES

y
\,lA TER

------1-------
 RECIPROCATIf\G PUMP

---=-=_--_ -_ -_
----~
'::~- DISCHARGE
---------+-
___ ~---J

::__--~---- DELIVERY PIPE

PISTON ROO
DELIVERY FLY WHEE~O
VALVE

180

a SUCTION VALVE
- --~- SUCJION PIPE

WATER

SUC TI ON STROKE DELIVERY S1 ROKE

OUTLET
CLOSE -_~ .!---r:I~

PISTON PLEHI
INLET VALVE PISTON DRAG (180 - 36())
OPEN _-------' ( 0-180'1
CLOSE
INLE. T
-gj( ., - i
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

VOLUTE TYPE

CASING
VANE
IMPELLER
SHAFT

DIFFUSER TYPE
DISCHARGE

ASING

SHAFT _ _ :..-~~--f../!rJ \~-\-~~ IMPELLER

IFFUSER
VANES
 CHAPTER-VI

DESIGN OF FEEDER CANAL AND OTHER WATER EXCHAN GE STRUCTURES

DESIGN OF FEEDER CHANNELS

FEEDER CHANNEL

The channels used for supplying the wate!" into ponds are .usually' in th e form of the
canal or flume . The caf!al is usually a long and mild' slo e uilt in the ground
'i5vhich may be lined Of un-lined; Lining may be one with stone 'masonry, ' concre e or
bituminous matenals .- The flume is an elevated channel constmcted with stone masonry,
~ brick mason~, ~1. Elevated flumes are most efficient ~ater conveyers man
earthen channels but {ney require high initial jnyestment. They are usually installed on t1"le
- 0 earthen dykes . i

Feeder canals should be dimensioned to allow various types of ponds to be filled

within the times mentioned. The longitudinal profile of the feeder channel should be
designed t.o ensure a channel water level at least 10 cm higher than the normal water level
at the inlets of individual ponds. <

The dikes along the water channels should have at least 2.0 m wide crests.

Depending on t~seepa9Js anticipated from the~ee;'r channel, some kind

O~iS necessary. ,...
The discharge of uniform flow in a channel may be expressed by the following
equation

Q = AV
Where Q = Discharge of uniform flow (m 3/sec)
A = Area of flow (m 2 )
V = Mean velocityTm/sec)

83
 Due to presence of a free surface and friction along the channel wall, the velocities
in a channel are not uniformly distributed in a channel section. The average or mean
velocity of flow in a open channel can be determined with the help of a pitot tube or current
meter.

Mean velocity can also be calculated by using Manning's and Chezy's equation .

MANNING'S EQUATION

V/ =

Where, v = ~ean velocitL_

S = Slope of the channel bed
= Manning's rugosity coeffici nt
= Hydraulic mean, de:>pth .
2
(= AlP) A = CIs area of flow (m )
P = Wetted perimeter

CHEZY'S EQUATION

~
v = C~RS

Where, v = Mean velocity

C = Chezy's coefficient =(1 IN .R 1/6 )
R = Rugosity constant
S = Channel bed slope

Out of above two equations Manning 's equation gives more accurate results,
therefore Manning's formula is commonly used

Discharge through open channels

Q = AV
Q = A x 1/N X R2/3 x S1/2

Q = A R2/3 S1/2
N
DESIGN OF A FEEDER CHANNEL -- Terminology

Channel Section

Is cross section of a channel taken normal to the direction of flow.

84
Depth of flow

Vertical distance between the lowest point of a channel from the free surface.

Top width (T)

Width of the channel section at the top surface of section .

Water Area (A)

Water area "A" is the cross section area of flow normal to the direction of flow.

Hydraulic mean depth (R)

Hydraulic mean depth is ratio of water area to its wetterj perimeter.

R = A = Water area
P Wetted Perimeter

Hydraulic depth (D)

o = Water Area (A)

Top width (T)

Design of side slope and bottom slope:

The steeper the channel the more will be the discharge . Natural slope of the land
will be the deciding factor in determination of channel bed slope . The slope of the channel
bed should be such that non-scouring, and non-silting uniform flow is possible. Slope less
than 0.05% may cause silting. Normally 0.1 % slope is provided for feeder channels . Very
high slope causes turbulence and erosion of channel bed .

Side slope mainly depends upon type of material used for the construction of
channels.

Material Side-slope (Z)

1. Stiff clay or earth with concrete lining 0.5 :1 to 1:1

2. Earth with stone lining )
1:1
3. Firm clay 1.5:1
4. Loose sandy earth 2:1
5. Sandy loam 3:1

Free board is calculated as

F = (Cd)'/'

85
 Where, F = Free board is feet
C = Constant varying from 1.5 to 2.5 depending upon
Discharge
D = Depth of channel in feet

CHANNEL OF MOST ECONOMICAL SECTIONS & BEST HYDRAULIC SECTIONS

A channel of most economical cross section is one, which gives maximum

discharge for a given cross sectional area and bed slope. It involves lesser excavation for
a designed amount of discharge . So, naturally it will have minimum wetted perimeter and
maximum hydraulic mean depth .

The most efficient section is usually also the most economical section but not
necessarily. For example, among all the cross sections, semi-circle has got minimum
perimeter for the same area, however it may not always be practical to have these
sections due to practical difficulties . Similarly for most efficient (Hydraulic) trapezoidal
section, the most economical side slopes are for Z = 1/.j.3 i.e. tan 30. But, for practical
difficulties, it may not be possible to adopt this side slope i.e. Z = 1/.j.3 .

In general, a channei section should be designed for best hydraulic efficiency, but
sho uld be modified for practicability.

Design of a channel section:

Lined channels and built up channels are non-erodible where as unlined channels
are erodible.

Free board shall be (15-20)% of total depth in case of lined channels & 30-35% in
case of un-lined channels .

Most economical sections:

For rectangular section:

For maximum discharge

B = 2d
And R = d/2

For trapezoidal section:

(B + 2Zd) =
2
And R = d/2

86
For circular section

d = 0.950
Where, o = diameter of circular pipe
d = depth of flow

Design procedure

By using Manning's formula

Q =
N
Calculate the required value

Compute trlt) area of flow, A =ON

Compute the wetted perim ete r "P"

Calculate th e hydraulic mean depth

R AlP

Fo r most economical section

R d/2 =
Calculate all other valu es

Bed slope
V =
(S )y, =

Best hydraulic section geometry of different cross sections

Sr. Cross Section Area Wetted Hyd rau li c Top w id th Hydraulic

No . Perimeter Mean depth depth
A P R T
l
1. Rectangular 2d 4d d/2 2d d
2. Tapezoid ..,fJdl. 2y3d ' d/2 4/3~d ~.d
3. Triangle dl. 2.J2,d .J2,/4d 2d d/2
4. Semi-circle n/2dl. nd d/2 2d nd/4
5. Parabola 4/3.J2, .d'- 8/3.J2, .d d/2 2.J2,.d 2/3d

87
Example NO.1

An earthen channel with a base 4.0m wide and side slope 1:1 is used as main
Feeder channel for a shrimp farm. The channel carries water with a depth of 1.0m
Calculate the discharge assuming value of "N" as 0.04, Bed slope is 1 in 1 000

Soln : Base width (b) = 4.0m

Side slope (Z) = 1
Manning's coef "N" = 0.04
Depth of water "d" = 1.0m

Area of flow (A) = Bd + Zd 2

= (4x1 + 1x12)
= 5m 2
Wetted perimeter (P) = 2(--/12 + 12) + 4.0
= 6.828m

A 5
Hydraulic mean depth = = 0.73m
P 6.828

By Manning's formul a = Q = N

5 X (0.73)%X ( 1 )y,

:1000
= Q ._
0.04
:; y. (0 .73)%X ( 1 f'
= Q =
0.04
= Q = 3.20 m /sec 3

Example 2: Design the section of a non-eroidable main feeder channel of most

economical section with trapez'::>idal shape for carrying a discharge of 36,000 m 3 /hr .
The channel has to be given a side slope of 1:1 and laid with a bed slope of 1 in
=
1500, assume the value of N 0.013. Also calculate the best hydraulic section of
trapezoidal shape.

Soln: Q = 36,000 m 3/Hour

= 10 m3 /sec
z = 1
N = 0.013
S = 1/1500 = 0.00066
Using Manning's formula
ARYoSY,
Q =
N
ARYo(0.00066) Y,
=
0.013
:. AR Yo = 5.035 . .. ....... (1 )

For most economical trapezoidal section

Hydraulic mean depth

R = d/2

Water area (A) = Bd + Zd 2

- Bd + d 2
= d (B + d)
Wetted perimeter
(P) = B + 2.Jj 2 + d 2
= B + 2. 83 d
A d (B + d) d
.. R = = =
P B + 2.83d 2
= 2 (B + d) = B + 2 .83d

.. B = O.83d .. ........ (2)

2
Now water area A = Bd + Zd
A = (0 .83d) (d) + (1) (d)2
A = 1.83d 2

Substituting in equation No.( 1), we have

A.RYo = 5.035
2
(1.83d ) (d/2) Yo = 5.035
1.83d 2 x d/2 Yo= 8.016
d = 1.74m

: . Bottom width B = 0 .83d .. .. ...... (From 2)

B = 0 .83 x 1.74
B = 1.44m
 For best hydraulic section of trapezoidal shape

Area "A" = .J3 d 2

Hydraulic mean depth R = d/2
Side slope Z = 1/.JJ = tan 30
Therefore from equation (1).
AR~ = 5.035
(.JJ d2~(d/2) ~ = 5.035
.J3 (d) 3 = (2) ~ (5.035)
d = 1.77m
Area A = Bd + Zd ~
(.JJ) d2 :: B (1.77) + 1/.JJ (1.77)2 ( A::.JJ d2)
.J3 (1.77)2 = B (1 .77) + 1/.JJ (1.77)2
B = 2.04m
Add 0.75m free .board
Thus total depth = 1.77 + 0 .75 = 2.52m
Top width = 1.06 + 2.04 + 1.06
= 4.16m

Water area
A = .J3 (d 2 )
= .J3 (1 .77)2
= 5.43 sqm
... Velocity V = 1IN X R2/3 x S y,
= 110.01 3 X (1.77/2)2/3 x (1/1500)1/2
= 1.83 m/sec

Example 3. Design a section of non-erodible feed er canal of most economical

section with trapezoidal shape for a semi-intensive shrimp farm as per the following
details.

Total volume of water required to be supplied to all the ponds is 15x1 07

litres.
All the ponds are to be filled up in 5 days .
A storage-cum-sedimentation tank supplies the water to the feeder
channel at the rate of 8 hours/day.
N = 0.013
S=1in1000
Z:: 1

Ass ume if any data is mis sing

90
Soln : Quantity of water required
= 15 x 107 litres
15 x 107
= = 1,50,000 m3
1000
:. Qua ntity of water to be supplied per day
15000
= = 30,000 m3
5

30,000
:. Discharge per hour = =
8
3750
:. Discharge per second = =
60 x 60
:. Q = 1.04 m 3/sec
N = 0.013
S = 1 in 1000
Z = 1:1
As per Manning's equation

Q =
N
A .R 213 .( 1/1000) 112
AR 2J3
: . 1.04 =
0 .013
= 0.423 (1 )

For th e most economical section

R = d/2
:. Now, A = 8d + Zd 2

... A = 8d + 1 x d 2
A = d (8 + d)

Wetted perimeter (P) = B + 2 .Jj 2 + d 2

2
= B + 2 .J2d
= B + 2.83d

... Hydraulic mean depth = AlP

d (8 + d) d
= = ----_._ - --_
B + 2 .83 d 2

91
 2d (8 + d) ::: d (8 + 2.83d)
28 + 2d ::: 8 + 2.83d
B ::: 0.83d
Now, water area
A = 8d + Zd 2
A ::: (0 .83d) (d) + (1) (d)2
A ::: 0.83d 2 + d2
A ::: 1.83d 2 (2)

Substitute this value of "A" in the (1 )

:. A x R 213 ::: 0.423

(1.83d 2 x (d/2)213 = 0.423
1.83d 8l3 = 0.67
(d )6/3 ::: 0.366
d ::: 0.7 m
:. 8 = 0.83 x J
8 = 0.6 m
Provide free board of 50 em
:. Total depth = 1.2 m

Check

A ::: Bd + Zd 2
::: 0.6 x 0.7 + 1 x (0 .7)2
::: 0.42 + 0.49
::: 0.9 1 m2

p ::: 0.6 + 2 -JJ .7 2 + 0.72

:: 0.6 + 2 x 0.99
:: 2.58 m
A 0.91
R ::: = = 0.35 m
P 2.58
A.R213.S "2
Q =
N
0.9 1 X (0 .35)2/3. x (1/1000)' 12
Q :::

0.013

92
 0.91 x 0.5 x 0.032
Q =
0.013

Example 4 Determine the/ dimensions of a trapezoidal channel of best hydraulic

section for carrying a discharge of 10 cum/sec for a shrimp farm. The
channel is to be built with non-erodible bed having a slope of 0.0010 &
N = 0.025.

Soln:
Q = 10 m 3/sec
S = 0.0010
N = 0.025

By Manning's equation

Q =
N
A.R2I3 (1/1000) 1/2
=
0.025
= 7.90 (1 )

For best hydraulic section

Area "AU = ...[3 .d 2

R = d/2
Z = 1/...[3

Substituting in the (1 )

We have
...[3 .d 2.(d/2)2/3 = 7.90
d = 2.10 m
A = Bd + Z.d 2
A = B (2 .10) + (1/...[3) (2 .10)2
...[3. (d 2 ) = B (2 .10) + 1/...[3 (2 .10)2
~10)2 ~ B (2.10) + 1/.,f. (2.10)2
2.42 m

Provide FB of 30 ems .

Total height =

93
 Example 5: Determine the most suitable section of a rectangular flume and its
gradient to carry 15 m 3/sec of water (rom a pumping station with a velocity of
2.25 m/sec N = 0.015.

Soln: Q = 15 m 3/sec
V = ".25 m/sec
:. Q ::: AV
A ::: QN ::: 15/2.25 ::: 6.666 m 2 ........... (1L
For mo t economical section
B ::: 2d and R~/2
:. A = bxd
::: 2d x d
A ::: 2d 2 .. " .. .... (2)
From (1) & (2)
2 :::
2d 6.666
d ::: 1.825 m
:. b ::: 2 x 1.825
b ::: 3.65 m

R ::: d/2 ::: 1.825/2 ::: 0.91 m

V = 1/N x 2/3 x (S)1/2

2.25 x 0.015 2.25 x 0.015
::: :::
(0 .91 )2/3 0.939

::: 0,035,

::: 0.00129

DRAINAGE SYSTEM

Total drainability of the ponds is highly essential for an efticient management of a

fish/shrimp farm . To ensure this the level of outlet pipe should be at Ibast 30cm above the
drainage channel. The drainage system of an aquafarm consists of a well designed
drainage channel, and outlet gates .

TYPES OF DRAINAGE SYSTEM

There are two types of drainage systems :-

1.. Open type

2. Closed type

91
OPEN TYPE DRAINAGE SYSTEM

Open type drainage system comprises of open drainage channel and outlet gates.
This type of drainage system is very common in Extensive and Semi-intensive aqua-
farms. An open drainage- channel is designed and constructed with a longitudinal slope of
1 in 500 to 1 in 1000 to discharge pond water quickly and smoothly without any soil
erosion. Design of drainage channel is similar to that of the water channels. Cross
sectional area of drainage channel mainly depends upon type of aqua-farm Le. whether
tide-fed or Pump-fed. In case of Tide-fed fish farms. generally there will be no separate
drainage channel. instead a single water intake-cum-drainage channel is constructed. In
case of Semi-intensive aqua-farms. the cross-section of drainage channel mainly depends
upon
Size of the ponds
Rate of water exchange
Type of outlet gate
Topography of the site

Open drainage channels may be either earthen structures or concrete structures.

Earthen drainage channels arc generally lined to avoid soil erosion and to facilitate smooth
discharge of pond water.

CLOSED TYPE DRAINAGE SYSTEM

This system comprises of an underground pipeline (consisting of series of

interconnected pipes) and outlet gates . In this system pond water is conveyed through a
pipeline laid below the embankments with a longitudinal slope of 0.1 to 0.2% . The pipe
line consists of inter connected RC.C . pipes/flume pipes/A.C. pipes/PVC pipes and is
placed beneath the embankment. This pipe line receives the pond water through a bent
pipe connected to the monk/outlet gate. and the same is discharged at a safe poinVcreek
after proper treatment.

The advantages of this system are

No land surface is wasted

No interference with farm activities .

But this system requires an efficient and very careful design as the pipe line once
installed cannot be rectified. It also needs more maintenance . Slope should be such that
water should have free gravity flow. In very big farms where length of pipe line is more
than 500m. at least 2 manholes are to be constructed for regular checking and
maintenance.

The diameter of drainage pipe line is usually 30-35 cm for a farm of 4-5 ha size.

95
MAIN SLUICE GATE

The main gate connects the main channel of the pond system to the source of
water. In a tide fed farm, it regulates the exchange of water. It is the biggest gate in the
pond system and is usually made of reinforced cement concrete (RCC). Depending upon
the local site conditions and on the size of farm, number of main gate may be more than
one.

Main gates may have one or more openings, size of each opening being usually 1
to 1.2 m in width for easy handling. A gate with wider opening will require a lifting
mechanism for operation of the gate. The height of the main gate depends on the
combine height of highest tide and the river flood . Generally, the height of main gate is
taken as that of the main or peripheral dike. It is located at a place where fresh seawater
can be obtained most of the tim e,

The various components of th e main gate are floor, apron, cut off walls , sidewalls,
wing walls, walking platform, fl ash boards and screens.

The gate rests on a floor, which seNes as its foundation . The elevation of the floor
should be lower than the lowest pond bottom elevation inside the pond system of the farm .
Preferably, it should be lower than lowest tide to ensure complete drainage of th e system .
The gate found ation must be rigid and stable . Often, bamboo poles or coconut timbers
are used as pile s for providing foundation for the structures. Sometimes layers of boulders
and gravel are also used along with th e piles.

The extended and clear part of the floor up stream and down stream of th e gate is
known as apron . It provides protection against scouring action of flow.

Cut off walls is necessary at both ends of the gate floor if it lies over alluvial soil, for
its safety against seepage and cons equent piping action.
Side or breast walls are used as a retaining wall for the dike fill . In the side walls,
grooves are made for fixing screens and flash boards. Most of th e main supply gates are
provided with 4 grooves, 2 at each sides. Usually the top of the wall s are made the same
height as that of the dike. Sometime s buttress supports are also built for strengthening the
side walls and to reduce seepage flow along the side walls .

Wing walls in the main gate provides transition of the flow from water source such
as tidal creek to the gate and then from gate to the channel. They also help in retaining
the earth on both sides of the gate.

Catwalks or walking platform s are provided between the two side walls . Usually,
they are made of RCC slabs or wood en planks.

Screens made of high-denSity polyethylene or nylon meshes are attached to a

wooden rectangular frame, which fits into the two outer grooves of the gate-one at channel
side and the other toward s the water source. They prevent entry of predators along with

96
incoming water and exist of cultured fish. Amount of water flowing through the gate is
controlled by the flash boards. They are generally made of wooden planks of size 5 cm
thick and 30 cm wide inserted into the remaining two grooves of the main gate. A one
meter wide opening of the main supply gate needs a channel bed of at least 3.0 m wide.

Design of a main drainage gate is similar to design of a main supply gate.

However, in case of main drainage gate usually 2 rows of grooves are made in the side
walls-one for mounting wooden shutter and the other for nylon screen shutter.

OUTLET GATES OR WATER EXCHANGE STRUCTURES

The main function of a pond outlet gate is to regulate the flow of water from the
pond into the drainage channel. Outlet gates are designed to perform the following
functions :-

1. To maintain the designed water level in the pond throughout the culture period

2. To adjust the water level in the pond as per the situation

3. Flushing out th e accumulation of reduced rotten matter etc. from the pond by
draining the water from the pond bottom

4. Reducing the concentration of algal bloom and excess phytoplankton growth in

the pond by accomplishing surface water drainage

5. Complete drainage of pond water by gravity for easy harvest and for drying of
the pond bottom

Pond outlet gates are constructed in various farms such as open sluices, monk
sluices, pipes made structures, etc.

MONK SLUICES:

Monks are the most common outlet sluices used in semi-intensive and
intensive aqua-farms. Monks are generally constructed either with rich concrete or
Reinforced cement concrete (R.C.Cp.). Monk is an independent structure built In the pond
at the foot of the embankment slope and it is attached to the drainage system (Le.
drainage channel or drainage underground pipe line).

Monks are generally cubical (column like) structures with three of its wall
are built of either concrete or R.C.C, which extend from the pond bottom to above the
designed water level. The fourth side of the monk is an open face blocked by screen

97
boards and wooden planks shutters to control the flow of water. These screen boards and
wooden planks shutters are inserted into the 3 rows of grooves or slots provided in the
inner sides of two opposite walls.
The wooden framed plastic or nylon screen shutter fits into the outer faCing of the
pond. It is usually fabricated using two different sizes of plastic or nylon nettings of 6000
or 4000 micron and 700 micron. Coarser netting prevents frequent clogging of the fine
netting from weeds and other vegetal matter, while fine netting prevents the escaping of
fish and prawn from the pond . Other two grooves facilitate installation of wooden planks
or cast iron plate shutters. The drainage of the pond water either from pond bottom or
pond drainage can be accomplished by operating the shutter in the central groove. The
height and opening of this shutter is adjusted by sliding it up or down or by increasing or
decreasing the numbers of wooden planks. The inner most groove mounts the wooden
planks which controls the hydraulic gradient and depth of the water in the pond. Its height
can be adjusted depending upon the desired depth of water column in the pond .

The sluice boards of the monk are 2.5 cm thick and 15-20 cm high. The edges of
the boards are notched into half-lap to fit each other better and to prevent the passagE' of
water between them.

The monk is attached to a concrete base plates that is at least 1.0 x 1.0 x 0.2 to
prevent it from sinking into th e sediment.

Monks are constructed in various shapes like :-

Square munk
V-shape
U-shape
T-shape
Y-shape, etc.

Advantages of monks

Since it is an independent structure not constructed in the body of

embankment, vehicular movement can be allowed on the top of dikes.

They are most efficient in draining the bottom water than open sluices.

Maintenance is easy.

P.V.C. Pipe Outlets

Model: 1

An outlet comprising of detachable P.V.C. pipes network provides simplest and

cheapest design in the drainage system. A vertical stand pipe provided in the upstream
side of the pond dike consists of detachable short pieces of P.V.C. pipes. This system

98
 OUTLET SlUlCES
,

1)1 KG

Box t'l pC!

e,...~.." t\ ~ I

bottO\N\
~- n"( c.. ~W\.,c
c..h~n~c..'

P~pe. t'tpe

- - -.
. .
 -, .. .. .
, ,_ . .. ~ " . -' ,. .,
' ,
t l
I
.,.1 ,..
"
,
- .. "'.
...
........
IC I
I
I [_ ,
.. , ' .. . ." . . .
I~ t
()
.' " , . \ I~ I
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pvc-
PIPes
enables to discharge the pond water from various depths of pond water column simply by
removing or adding the number of detachable short pieces of PVC pipes. PVC stand pipe
at the downstream side of structure maintains the desired water level in the pond and
controls the hydraulic gradient. Plastic or nylon netting cap prevents the escape of fish
from the pond. Floating materials such as weeds and other vegetal materials which
otherwise may clog the structure are also removed by this netting can be removed
manually.

Model: 2

This model consists of Asbestos cement pipes as shown in the figure. This design
facilitates easy drainage of pond water from surface level or from bottom of the pond .

Above two models are easy to install, cheaper in cost and easy to operate too. But
generally preferred only for small ponds. In very big ponds these vertical stand pipes may
not resist the water pressure.

BOX TYPE AND PIPE OUTLETS

Box type outlets are also called as furrow type outlets. Rectangular holes are
constructed in the body of embankment itself with brick masonry or concrete masonry.
Flow of water is regulated with the help of screen and wooden planks fitted in the grooves
as shown in the figure . Size of this outlet depends upon total flow and rate of water
exchange . Generally such outsets are provid ed in extensive fish farms .

Pipe type outlet is also similar to that of box type only th e change is instead of
rectangular outlet, ACe pipes are provided and screens and wooden planks fitted in th e
grooves regulate the flow of water.

99
 CHAPTER - VII

PERMEABILITY, SEEPAGE ANALYSIS AND SEEPAGE CONTROL

INTRODUCTION

Permeability is defined as the property of Porous material which permits the

passage of water through its interconnecting voids. A material having continuous voids is
called permeable, gravels are highly permeable while stiff clay is the least permeable.
Therefore clay may be termed as impermeable for all practical purposes.
Soil structure is an important factor that influences the permeability. Soil structure
is usually defined as the arrangement and state of aggregation of soil particles in a soil
mass .
The particles of coarse-giained soils are composed of primary minerals. These
particles do not possess the property of plasticity and cohesion and gravitational forces
govern their behavior. Many investigations have shown that fine-grained soils are
composed of crystalline, minerals . Clay is fine-grained soil. These crystalline minerals
have high surface activity and develop cohesion and plasticity. Crystalline minerals are
generally called as clay minerals. Most of the clay minerals have sheet or layered
structure. Clay particles behave like collides. Because of these factors, there is a high
molecular force of attraction between soil solids and soil structure is compact.

DARCY'S LAW
In 1836 Darcy ccnfirmed the applicability of p:incip!es of fluid flow in capillary tubes.
Darcy's law states that, the rate of flow or discharge per unit time is proportional to
hydraulic gradient.
v = Ki
Where,
V = Velocity of flow
K = COEF of permeability
I = Hydraulic gradient

Coefficient of permeability is defined as the average velocity of flow that will occur
through th e total cross sectional area of soil under unit hydraulic gradient. It is usually
expressed as Cm/Sec or M/day

FACTORS AFFECTING PERMEABILITY

The factors affecting permeability are -

1. Grain size
2. Properties of pore fluid
3. Voids ratio of the soil
4. Structural arrangement of soil practical
5. Entrapped air and foreign matter
6. Adsorbed water

:00
DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY

Permeability can be determined in laboratory by direct measurement with the help

of permeameters, by following the water to flow through soil sample either constant head
or falling head .

1 CONSTANT HEAD PERMEABILITY TEST

Water flows from over head tank consisting of three tubes : the inlet tube, the
overflow tube, and the outlet tube. The constant hydraulic gradient "i" causing the flow is
the head "h" divided by the length "L" the soil sample. If "a" is the total quantity of flow in a
time interval "t", then coefficient of permeability can be calculated by following equation .

K = QL
Aht

2 FALLING HEAD PERMEABILITY TEST

The constant head permeability test is used for coarse-grained soil only where a
reasonable discharge can be colle(,ted in a given time. However, the falling head test is
used for relatively less permeable soils where the discharge is small.

A stand pipe of known cross sectional area "a" is fitted over the perrneameter
and the water is allowed to run down . The water level in stand pipe constantly falls as
water flows. Observations are started after steady flow is reached. The head at any time
instant "t" is equal to the difference in the water level in the stand pipe and the bottom
tank. Let "h," and "h2" are head s at the time intervals t, and t2 . Let "h" be head at any
intermediate time interval "t", then coefficient of permeability can be given by following
equation.

K = 2.3 al 10 9 10 !l1
At h2
Where ,

K = Coefficient of permeability
L = Length of soil specimen
a = Cross sectional area of stand pipe
A = Cross sectional area of soil
h, = head corresponding to time interval "t,"
h2 = head corresponding to time interval "h"
t = Any intermediate time interval

SEEPAGE ANALYSIS

The flow of water through the body of soil (through the inter connecting voids) is
called as seepage .

101
 By the virtue of viscous friction exerted on the water flowing through the soil pores,
an energy transfer is effected between the water and soil. The force corresponding to this
energy transfer is called as seepage pressure. Thus seepage pressure is the pressure
exerted by water on the soil through which it percolates. It is this seepage pressure which
is responsible for the phenomenon known as quick sand and is of vital importance in the
stability analysis of earth structures; subjected to the action of seepage.

QUICK SAND CONDITION

When flow takes place in an upward direction, the seepage pressure also acts in
upward direction and effective pressure is reduced. If the seepage pressure becomes
equal to pressure due to submerged weight of soil, the effective pressure is reduced to
zero. In such case cohesion less soil looses its shear strength and now soil particles have
a tendency to move in the direction of flow. This phenomenon of lifting of soil particles is
called as quick sand, quick condition or boiling condition.
It should be noted that quick sand is not a type of sand but a flow condition
occurring within a cohesion less soil when its effective pressure is reduced to zero due to
upwards flow water.

SEEPAGE CONTROL

The water seeping through the body of embankment or through the foundation of
embankment may prove harmful to the stability of embankment causing softening or
sloughing of the slopes due to development of pore pressure and thus resu lting in the
failure of embankmen~.

A. SEEPAGE CONTROL THROUGH EMBANKMENTS

Drainage filters called "Drains" are generally provided in the form of (a) rock toe, (b)
horizontal blanket, (c) chimney drain, etc. in order to control the seepage water. TIle
provision of such filters reduces the pore pressure and thus increases the stability of dam .
It also checks piping by migration of particles . .
These drains consists of graded coarse material in which seepage is collected and
moved to a point where it can be safely discharged . A multilayered filter, generally called
inverted filter is provided as per the criteria suggested by Terzaghi for design of such
filters. .
Various kinds of drains which are commonly used are as follows :-

ROCK TOE OR TOE FILTER

Rock toe consists of stones of size usually varying from 15 to 20 cm . A toe filter is
provided as a transition zone between the homogeneous embankment fill and rock toe .
Toe filters generally consists of 3 layers of fine sand, coarse sand and gravel as per the
filter criteria requirement. The height of rock toe is generally kept between 25 to 35% of
reservoir head .

102
HORIZONTAL FILTER

The horizontal filter extends from toe inwards, upto a distance varying from 25 to
100% of the distance of the toe from the center line of dam. Generally a length equal to 3
times the heights of dam is sufficient.

CHIMNEY DRAIN

In case of chimney type of drains, filter is kept vertical along with horizontal filter, so
as to intercept seeping water effectively. Sometimes a horizontal filter is combined and
placed along with rock toe .

B. SEEPAGE CONTROL THROUGH FOUNDATIONS

The amount of water entering the previous foundations can be controlled by adopting
following measures .

1 IMPERVIOUS CUTOFFS

Vertical impervious cut off mad~ of concrete or sheet piles may be provided at
upstream end. These cut off should generally extend through the entire depth of the
pervious foundation so as to achieve effective control on seeping water.

2 RELIEF WELLS AND DRAIN TRENCHES

When large scale seepage takes place through previous foundation, overlaid by a thin
pervious layer, there is possibility that foundation may loose its stability . Such a possibility
can be controlled by constructing relief wells or drain trenches as shown in the figure .

C. SLOPE PROTECTION

Seepage can also be prevented by protecting the ~Iopes . The slope can be
protected in many ways as follows :-

1. Stone pitching
2. Cement concrete lining
3. Plaster lining
4. Brick or concrete tile lining
5. Asphalt concrete lining
6. Compacted earth lining . )

7. Soil cement lining

B. Polyethylene film lining, etc.

103
D. BY CONSTRUCTING ZONED EMBANKMENT

Zoned embankments are usually provided with a central impervious core

covered by comparatively pervious transition zone which is finally surrounded by
a much more pervious outer zone.

The central core checks the seepage . The transition zone prevents piping
through cracks which may develop in the outer zone gives stability to the central
impervious fill and also distributes the load over large area of foundations .

104
 SEEPAGE CONTROL MEASURES

Water seeping through the body of embankment or through the foundation of an

embankment may prove harmful to the stability of embankment. Excessive seepage often
results from improper site selection, therefore soil properties should be clearly investigated
and identified during site selection. There are several approaches to reduce the seepage.

A. COMPACTION

pond seepage can be greatly reduced by compaction provided that the bottom soil
material contains particle sizes that range from small gravel to fine sand with at least 10%
clay. For aquatic ponds with an average normal water depth of less than 1.5m, about
20cm of compacted layer is required . Procedures includes clearing of the pond area and
fill all stump holes and cracks with impervious material. Scraf the surface to a depth of 20-
25 em, remove all rocks and tree roots . Roll the soil under optimum moisture conditions to
a dense, tight layer with 4 i.) 6 passes with a sheepsfoot roller.

B. CLAY BLANKETS

If the soil material at the site contains high percentage of coarse grained particles
but do not enough clay to produce a compacted layer, one of th e alternatives is to blanket
the seepage area with a well graded material containing at least 20% of clay . For aquatic
ponds a depth of 30 cm is recommended .

Remove all vegetation and fill in all th e holes with impervious material th erefore
hauling in the blanket materials . Spread the material uniformly over the area in a
thickness of 15 to 20 cm. Compact each layer thoroughly under optimum moisture
cor.ditions with sheetsfoot roller. Protect the clay blankets against cracking caused by
drying, by spreading a cover of gravel to 30-45 cm thick over blanket below the anticipated
high water mark use riprap or a concrete inlet pad to prevent erosion by embankment
water.

C. BENTONITE

Bentonite can reduce seepage in coarse soils . Bentonite is a fine textured colloidal
clay. When wet , absorbs several times its weight of water and at complete saturation,
swells as much as 8 to 20 times its original volume. When mixed in correct proportions,
with well-graded, coarse-grained material, then saturated particles of bentonite swell until
they fill all the pores to the points that moixture becomes impervious to water.

Generally, bentonite is applied at the rate of 2 to 5 kg/m J . Exact amou nt can be

determined by laboratory tests . To apply, clear the site and thoroughly mix th e bentonite
with surface soil to a depth of at least 15 cm. Compact the area 4 to 6 passes with a
sheep's foot roller. Treated area must be prevented from drying .

lOS
D. CHEMICAL ADDITIVES

Chemical additives like sodium polyphosphate and 99 to 100% sodium cabonate

reduce the soil permeability. For effective chemical treatment soil should have 50% of fine
grained material (i.e. silt and clay) and at least 15% of clay. Sodium polyphosphates are
usually applied at a rate of 0.25 to 0.5 kg/m 2 & sodium chloride at 1.0 to 1.6 kg/m 2. Soda
ash is applied at 0.5 to 1.0 kg/m 2 . Soil and chemical mixture 15 cm thick is recommended
for aquatic ponds.

E. WATER PROOF LINING

polyethylene, vinyl, butyl-rubber, and asphalt-sealted fabric. Liners are slowly

gaining acceptance as linings for small aquatic ponds. Black polyethylene is less
expensive and has beUer aging properties than vinyl, which is more resistant to damage
and can be easily repaired with a solve net, cement. Plastic membranes must be protected
against puncture vith a layer of soil and gravel no less than 15 cm thick.
Before installing Vinyl lining, th e ground should be sterilized, cleaned, smoothed
and covered with a cushion layer of fine -textured materials to serve as a base for lining .
Butyl-rubber and vinyl linings should be laid down smoothly with some slack, polyethyl ene
lining required 10% slack.

f. OTHER LININGS

To control the seepage of water alon g the slope of an embankment, following types
of lings are used .
1. Growing the grass.....-
2. Stone pitching /'
3. Brick pitching . . . . . . .
4. Cement Concrete lining /'
5. Polyethylene lining /'
6. Cement-soil lining, etc. /-

G. CONSTRUCTION OF ZONED EMBANKMENTS

Zoned embankments are usually provided with central impervious core covered by
comparatively pervious transition filter which is finally surrounded by a much more
pervious outer zone . The centra l core checks the seepage.

H. WATER PROOFING OF CONCRETE TANKS BY POLYMER BASED WATER

PROOFING COAT

"Polyalk" is basically a polymer. It is available in the form of a viscous liquid. When

it is applied on th e cement concrete walls where seepage is noticed, it forms a thin, strong,
membrane & there by seepage can be stopped.

106
 HORI ZONrA~ FII..TE/f

ockloe

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777 7 7 7 7 7 7 77 7 77 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7

By CoNSTRue TING ZONE.!> MBANkNNT

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--r--}~-r-r~:-r--r--r~....-r--r-7"--r-::P-r~7--i-h" Ji f r .

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I"'roceaure

1. Clean the surface by wire brush to an extent of about 2 to 3mm.

2. Cleaned surface is to be washed with mild H2S0 4 and soap solution to remove all
the dirt, grease & oil and then once again the tank surface is to be washed with
clean water (plain water) to remove the traces of acid & soap .

3. Polyalk WP (1 part) should be mixed with 1.5 part with dry ope (i.e. ordinary
Portland cement). A slurry should be made by using a hand stirrer so that a
uniform slurry is attained . This slurry should be applied with a good paint brush on
the surfaces second coating is done after a gap of 4 hours .

4. Polyalk WP coat should be cured for 72 hours.

107
 CHAPTER - VIII
CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENTS

by
Abdul Razaq A. Honnutagi
Principal, M. H. Saboo Siddik Polytechnic
8, Shepherd Road, Byculla, Mumbai-400 008

(source : India Construction Equipments Author: Prem Narayan)

*****
SUMMARY

The Ind'Jstry Sector Analysis (ISA) provides a comprehensive assessment 'o f India's
construction equipment industry. It contains a market profile, a list of best sales prospects,
an evaluation of market competition, a perspective on end-users, and details about
accessing the market. It is a veritable "sourcebook" on India's construction equipment
industry. For the year 1998, the total market for nevv construction equipment and services
in India was USD 1.4 billion. The sector is growing 20 percent annually. The U.S. share of
imports in the sector is USD 81 million, and this share is expected to increase at least 27
percent in each of the next three years . Key reasons for this growth are listed below.
Economic liberalization since 1991-92 has produced a variety of new private sector
industrial projects . The demand for construction equipment and services has increased
due to these projects and newer projects that are in the planning stages. To meet the
growing ciemand for infrastructure (telecom, ports, rOCids, airports, power, bridges, railways
and refineries), the Government of India (GOI) has invited private participation in the
development of infrastructure. Due to the nature of their concomitant financial
arrangements, new concepts such as build-own-transfer (BOT), build-own- operate-
transfer (BOOT), and build-own-Iease-tra nsfer (BOLT), have made it possible to undertake
many more infrastructure projects. The construction equipment and services sector has
benefited tremendously from the five-year tax holiday that has been granted by the GOI to
companies engaged in infrastructure projects. The GOI's decision to allow duty free
imports of equipment for infrastructure projects has provided a significant boost to the
sector. Recently, the GOI permitted imports of special equipment for highway
infrastructure projects free of customs duty. According to GOI estimates, approximately
USD 200 billion will be required over the next seven to ten years for basic infrastructure
projects . Given that 20 percent of the cost of such projects is associated with the required
construction equipment, it is expected that the demand for construction equipment will
increase substantially in the coming years. The type of construction equipment currently
being manufactured in India does not meet the new projects' requirements . New projects
require machines that embody modern technology and higher payload capacity. Such
equipment is primarily available through imports. To date, most imports of construCtion
equipment and services are from the U.S., Germany, the U.K., Italy, and Japan. Several
multinational firms have entered the Indian construction equipment and services sector,
and six financial and technical collaboration between Indian and foreign construction
companies were signed between August 1991 and June 1998. Currently, construction
equipment imports account for approximately USD 211 million and reflect a growth rate of

108
27 percent. The major construction equipment suppliers to the Indian market are from the
U.S. (38 percent market share), followed by Germany (27 percent), the U.K. (12 percent);
the remaining 23 percent is accounted for jointly by Japan and several other countries. As
a long-term business strategy, most foreign companies prefer to enter into technical
collaborations or joint ventures with Indian firms to gain entry into the Indian construction
equipment and services market. Recent changes in India's investment policies and low-
cost labor have given foreign firms a high degree of interest and encouragement to
establish production bases in India to service South and Southeast Asian markets.
Favorable investment and economic conditions have produced a good climate for U.S .
firms to seriously consider entering this lucrative market.

A. MARKET HIGHLIGHTS & BEST PROSPECTS

Market profile: The demand for new construction equipment in India increased from USD
1.4 billion in 1998 to USD 1.7 billion in 1999. Demand is expected to increase to usa 2.1
billion by the end of 2000. During the following three years, the Indian construction
equipment industry is projected to grow 20 percent each year. Similarly, U.S. imports that
now stand at USD 81 million Jre expected to grow 27 percent in each of the coming three
years . Since the onset of "economic liberalization" that occurred during Indian fiscal years
(FY) 1991-92, the GOI has adopted industrial policy changes that have permitted
deregulation . Consequently, Indian companies have restructured and modernized. Excopt
for a few strategic industries, the private sector can establish joint ventures with foreign
firms . Now, the GOI allows majority foreign equity ownership for such ventures. Joint
ventures with higher level participation can also be considered if there are substantial
benefits to the Indian economy. In particular, the GOI also encourages infrastructure
ventures involving the private sector. These initiatives have opened huge market and
investment opportunities for the private sector. Many global players are developing
industrial and infrastructure projects either individually or jOintly with leading Indian firms.
Large investments by Indian and foreign investors have created opportunities for U.S.
construction equipment and project engineering firms. The GOI considers infrastructure to
be the backbone of industriai development a-nd permits private sector participation in
infrastructure projects. The new systems of construction management such as build~
operate-transfer (BOT), build-own-operate-transfer (BOOT), build-own-Iease~transfer
(BOLT). and build-operate-share-transfer (BOST) are attracting many leading international
players. Market analysts estimate that the annual market for BOT projects and their
derivatives alone will reach USD 15 billion within the next two to three years. This estimate
predicts a sizeable emerging demand for construction equipment and services in India. In
a recent study, ECC, an engineering construction diviston qf Larsen and Toubro Ltd .,
estimated the potential of India's new construction industry (see table 1 below) from 1998-
99 to 2006-07.

109
Table 1: Indian Gross Domestic Investment: 1998-99 to 2006-07 (In millions of USO)

Year All sectors New construction

1998-99 85,962 31,803

1999-00 94,779 34,835
2000-01 104,930 38,835
2001-02 114,651 42,853
2002-03 ! , 125,937 47,330
2003-04 138,111 52,327
2004-05 151,706 57,913
2005-06 64,165
2006-07 7~ ,171

Table 4: Indian Projected Demand for Construction Equipment: 1997-98 to 20151 b

(In numbers of units)

Product Group 1997-98 2000/01 2005/06 2015/16

Hydraulic excavator 2000 6225 9350 14000

Excavator loaders 2300 6960 10450 15700
Front-end loaders 1200 3225 4837 7255
Crawler tractor dozers 600 1630 2450 3675
Mobile cranes 1000 2580 3870 5805
Vibratory rollers
(soil and asphalt) 200 760 1340 2345
Road rollers (static) 700 1000 1200 ' 1400
Asphalt pavers Mechanical125 300 400 500
Hydrostatic 50 130 160 200
Motor graders 70 125 150 175
Dumper/tippers
Hot mix plants 400 600 700 800

Table 5: List of Internationally acceptable system codes and products

International Harmonized System Codes Products

842911 Bulldozers
870130 Track laying tractors
842920 Levelers and motor graders
842952-59 Excavators and crawiers
842912-19 Angle dozers

842~40 Road roliers

842951 Shovel loaders , front end
842531 Winches
842699 Ship derricks

110
 842611 Overhead cranes
842612 Mobile lifting cranes
842620 Tower cranes
842840 Escalators
842511 Hoist
842720 Forklift trucks - self propelled
842542 Hydraulic jacks
842930 Scrappers
843061 Compactors
842958 Dredging machines
847910 Pavers
901510-80 Surveying instruments

DOMESTIC PRODUCTION

The domestic production of construction equipment reached an estimated USD 1.6 billion
in 1999, from the previous year's output of USD 1.3 billion. Production is expected to reach
USD 1.9 billion in 2000. The market is expanding to incorporate the production of
technologically advanced machinery to handle large projects. Foreign firms are entering
the domestic market to meet the demand for high-tech construction equipment. This trend
will support output growth for at least the next two to three years . Currently, Indian firms
manufacture a limited range of construction equipment and only offer services related to
inst,gllation and commissioning ()f the equipme.nt. The prodlJcts manuf;tctlJred by Indian
firms include: Tractors, trucks, tippers, crawler tractors, crawler loaders, wheeled
loaders, front-end loaders, excavators, rear dumpers, scrappers, motor graders,
bottom dump haulers, hydraulic excavators, shovels, dozers, road rollers, fork lifts,
concrete bitumen mixer, portable, medium pressure air/gas compressors, mobile
cranes, hoists, road pavers, compactors, and hydraulic cranes. Note that South
Korean companies launched exports to India approximately four years ago. Based on
competitively priced products, these companies have supplied about one thou sand
excavators and forklifts . The Korean landed prices are competitive with local equipment.
There are around 200 construction equipment manufacturers (both public and private) in
India . Typically, most large and medium-sized firm s have foreign technical collaborations.
They mainly produce lower-end construction equipment. To meet the demand for higher
capacity and specialized construction equipment, these firms offer products from their
foreign collaborators . Therefore, India's access to large capacity equipment and
sophisticated technology is maintained through imports. However, many Indian and
foreign firms have sensed the growing demand for such construction equipment and have
plans for the progressive manufacture of advanced equipment in India. In the domestic
market for construction equipment, Sharat Earth Movers Limited (SEML, a public sector
unit), Jessop, Escorts, Marshall, Ingersoll-Rand, and Tata Engineering and Locomotive
Company Limited are the leaders. These firms maintain foreign collaborations and
produce a wide range of construction equipment. SEML, the largest local manufacturer of
excavation machinery, has licensing arrangements with several foreign companies,
including WASCO (Dresser Group) of the U.S., and Komatsu of Japan. Heavy Engineering
Corporation, another public sector firm, manufactures large walking draglines and has a

III
licensing arrangement with Ransome Rapier of the U.K. Also, it has a technical
collaboration agreement with Bucyrus Erie of the U.S. to manufacture electric mining
shovels. Jessop, primarily a manufacturer of rail wagons and lifting cranes, has entered
into a joint venture with a Chinese firm to manufacture long wall support systems.
Hindustan Motors (HM) produces dump trucks, dozers and loaders. This equipment is
manufactured through a technical collaboration with Caterpillar of the U.S. The Tata
Engineering and Locomotive Company produces large shovel-excavators through a
technical collaboration with P&H of the U.S., and bucketloaders/dumpers using the
designs of a Japanese company, 'H.itachi. Larsen & Toubro (L&T) Limited has a licensing
arrangement with Poclain of France to manufacture hydraulic excavators. L& T has also
formed a joint venture with Komatsurn, a Japanese company, to manufacture excavators.
The New Delhi-based Escorts Limited manufactures loaders and backhoes in technical
partnership with JCB of the U.K. Reduced import duties and a five-year tax holiday for
infrastructure ventures have contributed to the expansion of domestic . demand and
production. Used Equipment In addition to the new equipment being produced in India and
being imported, there is a large market for used construction equipment. In the last two to
three years, over 500 units of used equipment have been imported into the country.
Imported used equipment includes hydraulic mobile cranes (up to 1000 tons capacity),
excavators, motor graders, road pavers, and vibratory compactors . Recently, the GOI
issued new regulations on used equipment imports, which permits the free import of used
equipment that is less than five years of age. A special import license (SIL) is required to
import equipment that is five to 10 years of age. Equipment that is beyond 10 years of age
is difficult to procure . U.S. companies are advised to study this segment of the market for
potentjal exports . Used equipment may only be imported by end-users, not
dealers/agents. However, dealers/agents have a major role to play in advising end-users
on where to source used equipment. India's import duty structure is the same for new and
used equipment. Some of the leading multinational construction equipment manufacturers
have established operations in India to take advantage of the burgeoning market
opportunities. Companies that have entered the market include: Fiat Allis (Italy); Samsung
(South Korea); Belaz and Uralmasn (Russia); Liebher (France); Caterpillar, Terex, Unit
Rig, Ingersoll-Rand, WABCO, and Bucyrus Erie (U.S .); O&K (Germany); P&H (a U.S.-
Japanese combine); and Komatsu (Japan). Given these developments, India's
construction equipment manufacturing market will become- much more competitive. Price
and on-time delivery of products will become decisive factors determining success.

Project management companies will be able to lease expensive consiruction equipment

from the bank by paying nominal charges instead of investing in large and specialized
equipment for each project. The proposed construction equipment bank will operate on the
share-your-wares concept. The bank will finance the purchase of the equipment and lease
it to companies all around India. SREI Internationa! Finance Limited, a member of the
CDC, is expected to contribute USD 1.2 million to the bank to purchase the initial pool of
equipment. As the concept picks up, SREI plans to increase the bank's authorized capital '
to USD 12 million within a year. SREI is a finance company with mom than 75 percent of
its portfolio in financing construction equipment. Accord ing to SREI, the cost of leasing
co nstruction equipment is very high approximately 20 percent of construction project's
cost. A construction bank will enable project managers in India to reduce equipment costs

112
significantly. Lack of equipment and mechanized operations in the construction industry
has had an adverse impact on the quality, speed, efficiency, and cost of construction
projects. Construction industry sources believe that the construction equipment bank will
meet a long-standing demand for quality construction equipment by the industry. The
construction industry is one of the largest employers in India, employing directly more than
31 million people and an equal number indirectly. The CIDC plans to involve construction
companies, contractors, spare parts manufacturers, and project owners in developing the
construction equipment bank. The CIDC will not seek the GOl's help in developing the
bank and will thereby, avoid bureaucratic problems. Bank support will come strictly from
the leasing of equipment and from general industry support. The bank will provide
construction equipment on hire, and will train workmen in using the equipment. In fact,
there is a dearth of proper training in operating sophisticated construction equipment. The
proposed bank is the first effort to bring some sense of order to the construction
equipment leasing business. Construction equipment leasing is a highly fragmented .
There are virtually no rules that govern this sub sector. Equipment owners charge end
users haphazardly and, depending on the need of the customer, prices vary from five to 50
percent of the cost of thE:: machine. U.S . construction equipment manufacturing firms can
use the proposed construction equipment bank to market th eir equipment in India. U.S.
construction equipment leasing iiflTlS will find it useful to work with the new bank to make
inroads into the growing construction equipment market in India. D.

MARKET ACCESS

The GOI permits imports of construction equipmen t under th e open general license (OGL)
system. Under the GOl's new Export-Import (EXIM) Policy, th e duty on construction
equipment ranges from 35 to 50 percent. Construction project imports attract an import
duty of 37.50 per cent. The GOI has announced its intention to reduce progressively
import duty rates . "Automatic Approval" for foreign technology agreemen ts will be
accorded to ventures employing up to 51 per cent foreign equity participation. Rece ntly,
the GOI deregulated and simplified its requirements for foreigners intended to establish
and operate a business in the country. Now, repatriation of profits is permitted and the use
of a foreign brand name is allowed. In order to attract infrastructure development projects,
the GOI provides a five-year tax holiday for enterprises th at undertake infrastructure
projects. India's EXIM Policy permits imports of spares by end-users and agen ts. Also,
conSUltancy, designing, and engineering firms that take up turnkey assignments are
permitted to import construction machinery and spares. Also, foreign technicians may be
hired. The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) and the Indian Bureau of Mines are the main
authorities for issuing and maintaining the codes/standard s pertaining to sa fety and other
practices in the Indian construction industry. However, mQst of the se stand ards are similar
to worldwide standards. Although product marking and labeling requirements for Indian
imports follow international practices, these are usually agreed upon between the buyer
and the seller at the time orders are placed . However, the following markings are generally
used: Umbrella (protection from moisture); glass (fragile); and arrows (to indicate top and
bottom of the boxes). In addition, Consignor and Consignee addresses should appear
prominently on the packaging. Normally, the manufacturer purchases transit insurance
and passes the charges on to the buyer. Distribution and Bu siness Practices U.S.

113
exporters are urged to cultivate long-term and comprehensive business relationships with
their Indian customers, or deal through well-known partners who can effectively represent
their interests. Successful and extensive presence in the Indian market requires some
degree of collaboration with an Indian firm, either in the public 'or private sector. The recent
liberalized trade and investment policies of the Indian government have made it much
easier for U.S. firms to enter the market through joint ventures and technical collaborations
with suitable Indian firms. New ventures with majority percent foreign equity participation
are now permissible, and this helps to compete effectively in the Indian market. Interested
U.S. exporters seeking access to the local market are advised to select competent and
influential local agents familiar with Indian import regulations and procedures. The agents
and distributors can be useful in obtaining information on global tenders and submitting
bids on behalf of their U.S. principals, briefing them on the current status and generally
keeping them informed of potential business opportunities. Interested U.S. companies may
use the Agents/Distributor Service (ADS) offered by the U.S. Department of Commerce's
U.S. & Foreign Commercial Service (US&FCS) through its posts in India . Payment Terms
Indian importers of construction equipment normally open an irrevocable Letter of Credit
(LlC) favoring the supplier against presentation of shipping documents to the importer's
bank. However, it is important that payment terms are negotiated between the buyer and
the seller well before the date of the final agreement. Financing Usually, the procurement
of specialized and highly priced construction equipment becomes part of purchases for the
overall construction project. The leading Indian institutions that participate in financing
such projects are the Industrial Credit Investment Corporation of India (ICICI), the
Industrial Development Bank of India (lOBI), Infrastructure Leasing and Financial Services,
(ILFS) and Housing and Urban Development Corporation (HUDCO). Also, multilateral
agencies such as the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank (ADB) have financed
infrastructure projects proposed by the GOI in the past. However, funding by the World
Bank and ADB is restricted currently due to U.S. sanctions against India. (See the note on
sanctions later in this report.) Opportunities to sell construction equipment may exist for
projects previously funded (before sanctions) and still under construction. The equipment
required for such projects is often procured on the advice and consent of the institutions
that finance them . Often global tenders for capital equipment purchases in India are
backed by credit/loans from international financial institutions like the World Bank,
IDAlIFC, US-EXIM Bank and others . The U.S. firms are encouraged to bid competitively
for these major projects. Suppliers from other advanced countries also bid very
aggressively for thes e projects . Trade Promotion Opportunities The Indian Trade
Promotion Organization (ITPO) arranges an International Construction Trade Fair each
year in November in New Delhi. In addition, the Confederation of Indian Industry (CII), a
premier Indian industry association, organizes the internationally known Indian
Engineering Trade Fair (IETF) in New Delhi on a biannual basis. Thflse fairs are very
popular with the international engineering and business community. The US&FCSllndia
collaborates with ITPO and CII to create a. U.S. pavilion for the exclusive display of U.S.
products and equipment. Interested U.S. firms may contact the US&FCS at the U.S.
Embassy, New Delhi, India for further details. Besides taking part in trade fairs and catalog
exhibitions, it may sometimes be worthwhile for the U.S. firms to have more focussed one-
on-one meetings with GOI senior officials and private Indian construction firms . To
accomplish this, U.S. firms can purchase Gold or Silver Key Services from the

114
US&FCSllndia. Also, we recommend that U.S. firms use the Certified Trade Mission
mechanism offered by the Department of Commerce through US&FCS. U.S. Sanctions
Following India's detonation of five nuclear explosions on May 11 and 13, 1998, the
President invoked economic sanctions on May 13 under Section 102 of the Arms Export
Control Act of 1994, known as the Glenn Amendment. U.S. firms are permitted to conduct
business with Indian private and public organizations , subject to the provisions of these
5anctions. On December 1, 1998, President Clinton exercised his authority, granted by
Congress via the Brownback Amendment (October 1998) to waive for one year the
sanctions against the use of U.S. Export-Import Bank, the U.S. Trade and Development
Agency, and the Overseas Private Investment Corporation facilities . These facilities are
now available to support U.S. trade and investments in India until October 1999.

For details, please contact the India sanctions hotline at (202) 482-2955 and visit the
Website at http://www.mac.doc.gov/sanctions .

The U.S . GovernmE::nt has released an "entities list" that prohibits 40 Indian entities and
200 of their subsidiaries from trade and business relations with the U.S. For details on the
list, please refer to the website at: http://www.bxa.doc.gov/Licensing/lnd-Pak2.htm

For further inquiries regarding the list, please contact: Joan M. Roberts Director, Foreign
Policy Controls Division Office of Stcategic Threat and Foreign Policy Controls Bureau of
Export Administration, U.S. Department Of Commerce Tel: 202-482-0171 or t~e India
point of contact at 202-482-3772 .

LIST OF SELECTED USEFUL CONTACTS IN INDIA

Mr. D. V. Singh Director International Cooperation Cell Ministry of Mines Government of

India Sashtri Bhavan New Delhi 110001 Tel : (91-1 1) - 384593 Fax: (91-11) - 386402 Mr.
P.K . Sengupta Chairman Coal India Limited Coal Bhavan 10 Netaji Subhas Road Calcutta
700001 Tel : (91-33) - 2209980 Fax: (91-33) - 22053165 Mr.R.B. Mathur Managing
Director Central Mine Planning & Design Institute Limited (CMPDIL) Gondwana House,
Kanke Road Ranchi 834008 Bihar Tel: (91 -65 1) - 305467 Fax: (91-651) - 301851 Mr. D.B ..
Dimri Director General Geological Survey of India 27 J.L. Nehru Road Calcutta 700016
Tel: (91-33) - 2496976 Fax: (91 -33) - 2496956 Mr. O.P. Sachdeva Controller General
Indian Bureau of Mines Indira Bhavan, Civil Lines Nagpur 440001 Maharashtra Tel: (91-
712) - 534642 Fax: (91-712) - 533041 Chairman & Managing Director Kudremukh Iron Ore
Company Ltd. II-Block, Koramangala Sarjapura Road Bangalore 560034 Tel : (91-80) -
576605 Mr. M. Kumar Chairman & Managing Director Mineral Exploration Corpn . Ltd . B.R.
Ambedkar Bhavan Semina;y Hills Nagpur 440006 Mahara ~ htra Tel : (91-712) - 525313 Mr.
P.C. Gupta Chairman & Managing Director National Mineral Development Corp. 10 3
311/A Castle Hills Masab Tank Hyderabad 500028 Mr. S.P . Verman Chairman &
Managing Director Neyveli Lignite Corporation Ltd . Neyveli , South Arcot District Tamil
Nadu 607801 Tel : (91-442) - 52280 Mr. Sanjeev Goenka Vice Chairman RPG Enterprises
Group 31 Netaji Subhas Road Calcutta 700001 Tel : (91-33) - 2208515 Fax: (91-33) -
2481614 Mr. T .P. Williams Chairman & Managing Director Singareni Collieries Ltd .
Kothagudam, Andhra Pradesh 507101 Corporate Off: Redhills Kh airatabad, Hyderabad

11 5
Tel: (91-40) - 37775 Mr. M.R.R Nair Chairman Steel Authority Of India Ltd. (SAIL) Ispat
Bhawan, Lodi Road New Delhi 110003 Tel: (91-11) - 4690481 Fax: (91-11) - 4694015 Dr.
J.J. Irani Managing Director Tata Iron & Steel Co. Ltd. (TISCO) Tata Center, 43
Chowringhee Road Calcutta 700071 Tel: (91-33) - 2477051 Fax: (91-33) - 403556 Mr. D.
Afzalpurkar, Chairman Bombay Port Trust Shoorji Vallabhdas Marg Ballard Estate'
Bombay 400001 Tel: (91-22) - 2614321 Fax: (91-22) - 2611011 Dr. A.C. Ray Chairman
Calcutta Port Trust 15 Strand Road Calcutta 700001 Tel: (91-33) - 2206349 Fax: (91-33)-
2204901 Mr. K. Nalinakshan Chairman Jawaharlal Nehru Port Trust JNPT Port Office
Administration Building Nhava Sheva New Bombay 400707 Tel: (91-22) - 7242233 Fax:
(91-22) - 7242368 Mr. G.L. Bhagat Chairman Kandla Port Trust Gandhidam, Kutch
Gujarat 370201 Tel: (91-2836) - 28172 Fax: (91-2836) - 22040 Mr. Ramakrishnan
Chairman Madras Port Trust Rajaji Salai Madras 600001 Tel: (91-44) - 567754 Fax: (91-
44) - 561228 Mr. A.P. Bhatikar Chairman Mormugao Port Trust Mormugao, Goa 403803
Tel: (91-8345) - 512722 Fax: (91-8345) - 513065 Mr. A.N.M. Kishore Kishore New
Mangalore Port Trust Panambur, Mangalore Karnataka 575001 Tel : (91-824) - 407438
Fax: (91-824) - 408390 Mr. A.K. Patnaik Chairman Paradip Port Trust P.O. Paradip Port
Cuttack Orissa 754142 Tel : (91-6722) - 22168/22768 Fax: (91-6722) - 22256 Mr. M.J.
Kurian Tuticorin Port Trust Bharathi Nagar, Tuticorin Tamil Nadu 6280(J4 Tel: (91-461) -
52500 Fax: (91-461) - 52301 Mr. P.v.RK. Prasad Chairman Vishakhapatnam Port Trust
Visakhapatnam Andhra Pradesh 530035 Tel: (91-891) - 64713 Fax: (91-891) - 65023 Mr.
RN. Bakley, President Dabhol Power Company Nirmal, 17th Floor, Nariman Point
Bombay 400021 Tel: (91-22) - 2835941-44 Fax: (91-22) - 2835945-46 Mr. Shashikant
Ruia Chairman & Managing Director ESSAR Limited Prestige Court, 2nd Floor 101 Kengal
Hanumanthiah (Double) Road Bangalore 560027 Tel : (91-80) - 577538 Fax: (91 -80) -
573708 Mr. A.D . Ambzni Joint Mar.aging Director Reliance Industries Limited Maker
Chambers IV, 4th Floor 222, Nariman Point Bombay 400021 Tel : (91-22) - 2045522/5534
Fax: (91-22) - 2045577 Mr. A.C. Muthiah Chairman Southern Petrochemicals Industries
Limited (SPIC) 97 Mount Road Madras 600032 Tel: (91-44) - 2352336 Fax: (91-44) -
2352163 Mr. M. Ranga Rao Director Tata Consultancy Er.gineers 34 Sant Tukaram Road
Carnac Bunder Bombay 400004 Tel: (91-22) - 3427661 Fax: (91-22) - 3427419 Mr. A.
Ramakrishna Executive Vice President Larsen and Toubro Limited Construction Group
Mount Poonamallee ROdd P.B. No: 979 Madras 600089 T81: (91-44) - 2342747 Fax: (91-
44) - 2345810 MAJOR MANUFACTURERS OF CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT Dr.
Aparmayen Managing Director Bharat Earth Movers Ltd. BEML Soudha 23/1 IV-Main,
S.R Nagar Bangalore 560027 Tel: (91-80) - 2223065 Fax: (91-80) . 2226883 Mr. M.M.
Mohta Managing Director Bemco Hydraulics Ltd . Khanapur Road Udyambag Belgaum
590008 Karnataka Tel: (91-831) - 23270/3 Mr. 8.1. Patel Chairman & Managing Director
Eimco Elecon (India) Ltd . Anand Sojitra Road Vallabh Vidyanagar 388120 Gujarat Tel:
(91-2692) - 30502 Fax: (91-2692) - 30067 Mr. Rajan Nanda Chairman Escorts Ltd. H-2
Connaught Circus New Delhi 110001 Tel: (91-11) - 3321566 Fax: (91-11) - 3311348 Mr.
G.P . Birla Chairman Hindustan Motors Ltd. Birla Building, 9/1 R.N . Muknerjee Road
Calcutta 700001 Tel : (91-33) - 2201680 Fax: (91-33) - 2480055 Mr. A. Nagarwadia,
President IngerSOll-Rand (India) Ltd. Rhone-Poulenc House S.K. Ahire Marg Bombay
400025 Tel : (91-22) - 493 6765 Fax: (91-22) - 494 9416 Mr. A.K. Sur Managing Director
Jessop & Company Limited 63 Netaji Subhas Road Calcutta 700001 Tel: (91-33) -
2433048 Fax: (91-33) - 2431610 Mr . S.D. Kulkarni Managing Director Larsen & Toubro

116
Ltd. L&T House. Ballard Estate Bombay 400001 Tel: (91-22) - 2618181 Fax: (91-22) -
2620223 Maj. Genl. P.P. Subberwal Managing Director McNally Bharat Engineering Co.
Ltd . 44 Park Street Calcutta 700016 Tel: (91-33) - 2473479 Mr. J.E. Talulicar Managing
Director Tata Engineering & Locomotive Company (TELCO) Ltd . Jamshedpur 831010
Bihar Tel: (91-657) - 310253 Fax: (91-657) - 310229 Mr. A. Mazumdar Chairman TIL
Um~ted ~ Taratolla Road Garden Reach Calcutta 700024 Tel'. <9~-33} - 4693733 Fax'. (91-
33) - 4692143 Mr. M.K. Jhawar Chairman & Managing Director Usha Telehoist Limited 14
Prince Street Calcutta 700072 Tel: (91-33) - 276787 Fax: (91-33) - 277425 PRINCIPAL
TRADE AND PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS Associated Chambers of Commerce &
Industry of India (ASSOCHAM) Allahabad Bank Building 17 Parliament Street New Deihl
110001 Tel: (91-11) - 310704 Fax: (91-11) - 312193 Federation of Indian Chambers of
Commerce & Industry (FICCI) Federation House Tansen Marg New Delhi 110001 Tel: (91-
11) - 3319251 Fax: (91-11) - 3320714 Mining, Geological & Metallurgical Institute of India
(MGMI) 29 Chowringhee Road Calcutta 700016 Tel : (91-33) - 2491751 The Conveyor
Equipment Manufacturers' Association (India Chapter) c/o: Tata-Robins-Fraser Ltd . 11
Station Road. Burma Mines Jamshedpur 831007 Bihar Tel : (91-657) - 21380 Fax: (91-
657) - 310075 Confederation of Indian Industries (CII) 23/26 Institutional Area Lodi Road.
New Delhi 110 003 T~I: (91-11) - 4624260/4626164/4625407 Fax: (91-11) -
4626149/4633168 Overseas Cnnstruction Council of India H-118. Himalaya House (11th
Floor) 23 Kasturba Gandhi Marg New Delhi 110001 Tel : (91-11) - 3722425 Fax: (91-11)-
331-2936 Construction Industry Development Council 801 (8th Floor), Hemkurit Chambars
89 Nehru Place New Delhi 110019 Tel : (91 -11) - 648-9992 Fax: (91 -11) - 623-4770

... ****
(Source : India Con struction Equipment Autho ~ : Prem Narayan)

PHOTOGRAPHS OF CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENTS FOLLOW ED

117
 CHAPTER -IX

RACEWAY CULTURE SYSTEMS

Raceways are culture units in which water flows continuously, making a single pass
through the unit before being discharged. These systems are also referred to as flow-
through systems. The residence time of the water in a raceway is very short, usually on
the order of a few minutes instead of hours or days as in ponds. In the United States,
raceways have traditionally been used for salmonid culture, but other species (Le., catfish ,
oysters, and clams) are also cultured in raceways to a lesser degree.

Raceway culture has been traditionally practiced for hatchery production of fish for
decades, and there are several good reasons for this . Environmental parameters (i.e.
water quality, temperature, etc.) and water quantity are easier to manage in raceways than
in pond systems. .Flowing water flushes wastes from the culture units. Flowing water also
forces the fish to exercise. Studies have shown that exercised fi.sh have better survival
rates when stocked into the wild (Wheaton 1977). The shallow water in raceways allows
visual observation of the fish so that diet and/or disease problems can be promptly
corrected. Finally, feeding and harvesting are generally easier in raceway systems .
Feeding and disease treatment are more easily managed in raceway systems than in
open systems or ponds. On the negative side, fish are normally cultured in very high
densities in raceways, leading to increased risk of disease due to the stress caused by
confinement and crowding. Better management skills are required for raceway culture.

Site Selection and Layout

Site selection for earthen raceways must be done with care. Raceway culture is
water-intensive, therefore, probably the most important consideration is the water supply.
Most raceway culture is in mountainous regions where gravity flow conditions can be
taken advantage .of to supply the needed water to the raceway systems. In the trout
culture industries in the Northeast and Northwest United States, freshwater springs are the
main water sources due to their relatively low and constant water temperatures. The
water quantity and temperatures required depends upon the sPecies cultured and the size
of the operation .

The figure illustrates the most simple raceway design . In actuality, incoming water
usually requires some degree of pretreatment before it can be used. Pretreatment may
consist of nothing more than sedimentation, or it may consist of a combination of a number
of processes including aeration, heating/cooling, degassing, or filtration. Depending on
th3 effluent water quality, discharge water may also require post treatment before it can be
released into the environment.

Multiple raceway facilities are arranged either in series or in parallel. Series

raceway systems can be used in regions where there is sufficient land slope so that the
outlet for one raceway serves as the inlet for the next in the series. A 1-2% slope IS

118
considered adequate for good water flow (Pillay 1990). Waste buildup can be a serious
problem in the series systems since the wastes from the upstream unit enter the next unit
down stream, etc. Wastes tend to increase as the water traverses through the system.
For this reason there is a practical limit to the length of raceways and the number of unit in
series. These limitations will be demonstrated in example problems that follow in later
sections.
The waste problem is somewhat alleviated by arranging the raceway units in
parallel. There are no culture units downstream receiving wastes from upstream units,
therefore, waste buildup and aeration problems are minimized . However, the quantity of
water required increases in direct proportion to the number of raceways. Thus, if pumping
is required, operating costs are higher in the parallel arrangement.
Many large raceway farms use a combination of the series and parallel
configurations. The figure illustrates a re-circulation techniqu e using a large pond for
waste deposition and water recycling . Thus, this configuration relies heavily on water
conservation.
The figure shows a commercial raceway system in Southern Arkansas for
producing channel catfish. The facility consists of 108 concrete raceways, each 11 m (36
ft) long by 5m (16ft wide with a water depth of 1.2m (4ft) . The raceway sections are
arranged in three descendirlg tiers, creating three oxygen-producing waterfalls .
Supplemental oxygen is added at the inflow to each section with a liquid oxygen system.
Water flows by gravity from a header tank, and water retention tim e in each section is
about 6-7 minutes. The effluent from the raceway at the bottom of each tier discharges
into a pond and then circ'-llates through a series of about 57 ha (140Clc) of fish ponds to
settle solids, oxidize nitrogenous wastes, and re-oxygenate the water. The water is
eventually pumped back up into the header tanks at th e rate of about 1.9 m 3/s (30,000
gpm).
In the Arkansas raceway facility, catfish weighing about 113g (O .25Ib) or more are
stocked at 108 fish/m 3 (10 fish/fe) or about 15,000 fish in each raceway section . Large
fish are stocked so that two crops of fish can be reared during a 200-day growing season.
The facility produce s about 907,000kg (2 million Ib) of catfi sh annually.

Construction Materials

Although earthen raceways are sometimes used, the majority are constructed from
concrete or cement blocks, like the Arkansas raceway facility previously described.
Earthen raceways are sometimes lines with waterproof liners to reduce water loss through
leakage . Many small, experimental raceways are fabricated from wood, metal, fiberglass,
plastic, or other materials .

Water Supply

Raceways are designed to provide flow , through for cultu ring very dense
populations of fish . An abundant flow of good-quality water is essential to provide for the
health of the animals and to flush wastes from the system . Water quality in a raceway is
maintained by manipulation of the water flow rate and by adjusting other water treatment
processes, aeration for example, in response to the demands of the cultured animals.

119
Water quality tends to vary along the long axis of a raceway, and a distinct degradation of
conditions is evident between the inlet and outlet. The specific flow rate required to meet
the oxygen demands of the fish and flushing of metabolites is determined by the influent
water temperature and dissolved oxygen concentration and by the oxygen conslJmption
and ammonia excretion of the fish in the raceway.

Engineering Aspects of Raceway Design

The amount of aquatic animals that a flow through system will be capable of
supporting is dependent on water quality considerations, management skills, specific
conditions, and species biology, including the ability of a particular species to tolerate
crowded conditions. Carrying capacity may also be governed by other factors of which
researchers and producers are not yet aware (Meade 1991). Some generally valid rules-
of-thumb can be used for aquaculture planning purposes .

Definitions

The following raceway terminology is encouraged in Huguenin and colt (1989) and
Weste rs (1991) :

Mass of animals
Volumetric density = (a)
Volume of rearing unit

Moss of animals
Areal density = (b)
Area of rearing unit

Mass of animals
Loading = (c)
Flow through rearing unit

Flow through rearing unit

Exchange rate = (d)
Volume of rearing unit

Loading, density, and exchange rate are related by Equations 9-5 through 9-10 for both SI
and English units as follows:

LOADING

OX 0.06
(SI) L = (e)
R

120
Where L =
loading rate, kg/L.min: D = fish density, kg/m 3 : and R = number of water
exchanges/hr, and

D X 8.02
(English) L = (f)
R

Where L has unit of Ib/gal/min : and D has units of Ib/ftJ.

DENSITY

LXR
(SI) D = (g)
0.06

LXR
(English) o (I') )
8.02

EXCHANGE RATE

Ox 0.06
(SI) R = (i)
L

Ox 8.02
(English) R =
L

Flow-Space Relationship

According to Westers (1991) there are two aspects to fish carrying capacity in flow-
through systems. One is based on flow and the loading term is used . The other is space
related, and the density term is used . Loading capacity depends on water quality,
primarily dissolved oxygen, temperature, and pH, but also on fish species and size .
Density is generally a function of fish species and size, but it is also governed by type of
rearing container and hydraulics of the rearing container. Density is the most difficult
parameter to define and is still highly controversial.

Westers (1991) reported that salmonids are routinely maintained at densitie s

ranging from 60 to 120 kg/m 3 in Michigan hatcheries . Poston (1983) reported a density of
234 kg/m 3 . Figures are also available for catfish culture . Avault (1989) reported that
catfish were cultured at densities of 32-64 k~/m3 (2-4 Ib/ft 3 ) in raceways in Idaho. Channel
catfish were stocked at 40 kg/m 3 (2 .5 Ib/ft ) or more in concrete raceways in Southern
Arkansas (Tucker and Robinson 1990). Piper at al. (1982) recommended that the density

121
(kg/m 3) of trout should not exceed 3.16 times the length of the fish in centimeters. The
equivalent in English units is density ~lb/ft3) equals one-half of the fish length in inches.
For example, density equals 48.2 kg/m for 1S.2-cm trout or 3 Ib/ft3 for 6-in. fish.

The allowable loading based on oxygen as the limiting parameter is expressed as

DOavail
Loxy ::
2.0 x % BW

where Loxy :: loading level based on oxygen control (kg fish/Llmin-multiply by 8.33 to
convert to Ib fish/gpm); DOavail :: dissolved oxygen available to the fish (oxygen different
between inlet and outlet, mg/L); and %BW :: the daily feeding rate based on body weight
of fish in the system expressed as a whole number.

Equation 11-77 was derived based on a 16.6 - hour feeding day. If a 24-hour day
vvere used the equation would change to :

1.44 x DOavail
Loxy = (k)
2.0 x % BW

The relationship holds since 1.0 mg/L of di ssolved oxygen per 1.0 Llmin per 24
hours amount to 1,440 rng (1 x 1 x 60 mini hr x 24 hr/day) or 1.44 g .,tersus 1 x 1 x 60 x
16.7 :: 1,002 mg (= 1 g) for the 16.7 -hour day. Th e result is a more conservative, simpler
equation (Westers 1991).

The allowable loading based on un-ionized ammonia criteria is from Timmons and
Youngs (1991) :

UA aliow x 1000
= (I)
DO avaii X %UA

Where LNH3 :: allowable fish loading based on un-inoized ammonia control (kg/Llmin);
UA aliow :: allowable or upper design limit for un-ionized ammonia level (mg/L); an'd %UA ::
the percentage of the total ammonia nitrogen that is in the un-ionized form (temperature-
and pH-dependent) . Some aquaculturists use a design criteria of 0.01 mg/L NH3-N for
salmonids. Others, such as Wester (1991) use a more lenient value of 0.02 mg/L NH3-N .
If we use 0.02 mg/L for UA aliow in Equation ( r ), we are left with

20
= (m)
DOavail X %UA

122
Which is used by Westers (1991) for expressing the loading rate based on ammonia
control.

Required Flow Rate

After calculating the allowable loading based on oxygen and unionized ammonia
control, the smaller of the two values should be used to determine the water flow rate
required to support the weight of fish it is desired to hold in the system as shown in
Equation

Fish weight
Q = (n)
(Loxy) (LNH3)

where Q =required water flow rate, Llmin (multiply by 3.785 to convert to gpm).
Number of Uses

The number of tim es th at the water can be reus ed is found by th e ratio of Equation

4(J x %8W
Numb8r of uses = (p)

Hydraulic Retention Time

The hydraulic retention tim e or the time that a given volume of water is in th e raceway, is
calculated as follows :
T = V/O (q)

Where T =retention time (min); V =raceway volume (m J); and Q =flow rate (m 3/m in).

Raceways Length

The raceway, or rearing unit, length is calculated based on the water exchange rate
R and the minimum required average velocity V min for the raceway :

36 x Vmin
= ( r)
R

Where Lr = raceway length in meters (multiply by 3.28 to convert to feet) : and V min =
minimum required average velocity (cm/s) . Minimum required average velocity will be
discussed in a later section.

123
An allowable Vmin of 3 cm/s (0.1 ftls) and a low exchange rate of one per hour (R=1) will
result in an excessively long rearing unit. For example, in Equation9-17 if we use V min = 3
and R =1, a raceway length of 108 meters results, which is too long. Standard raceway
lengths are typically 19-31 m (60-100 ft) (Westers 1991).

124
 CHAPTER - X

SOIL DYNAMICS AND ITS APPLICATION IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF PONDS

Dr. Neelam Saharan

Senior Scientist, CIFE, Mumbai

Soil is a key factor in aquaculture, but much less attention is given to soil condition
than to water supply and water quality. Most ponds are built from and in soils. Pond
bottom soils are the store house for many substances that accumulate in pond
ecosystems, and chemica l and biological processes occurring in surface layers of pond
soils influence water quality and aquacultural production . Soil constitutes the solid,
surface layers of !t,e earth upon which humans conduct most of their activities and
everyone has some farTl:!iarity with features of th e land surface and the soil. The
dictionary reveals that soil is th e weath ered. unconsolidated. upper layer of the earth's
crust which may be dug or ploughed and in which plants qrow.

DEVELOPMENT OF SOILS

Soils developed over geological time through weathering of th e original rocks that
formed the earth's mantle . Weathering consists of disintegration of rocks and minerals by
mechanical means and decompOSition of minerals through chemical reactions . In soil
formation, biological activity is also involved because it affects weathering and add s
organic matter to soils.
Heating and cooling and free zing and thawing of rocks cause them to break into
small pieces . These small pieces can be transported by water. Glaciation diSintegrates
rocks and minerals 3nd glaciers also mix, transport and sort fragments . Wind transports
small fragments and causes abrasion when the air borne fragments strike rocks and
minerals on the land surface . Chemical weathering includes effects of dissolution, acidity,
hydrolysis, oxidation, hydration and other reactions . Dead plants and animals are the
major inputs of organic matter in native soils.
Major factors affecting development of soils are composition of original rocks,
climate topography biological activity and time . The composition of original rocks governs
the kinds of minerals available to form soil at a given place . High temperature and rainfall
accelerate both mechanical and chemical weathering, leaching , erosion and transport.

125
Biological activity in soil is also favoured by high temperature and rainfall. Topography
affects both erosion and transports, because water flows over steep as well as gentler
slopes with different energy to suspend soil particles. Time is an important factor,
because soil formation processes are very slow. It takes thousands of years for
development of soils seen at a particular place on the land surface.
SOIL TEXTURAL CLASSES
The texture of a soil refers to the distribution of the different sizes of soil particles.
Soil particles are separated mechanically and grouped into categories with specific particle
diameters called separates, which are identified as coarse fragments and gravel, sand, silt
and clay. Coarse fragments 2-75 mm in diameter are called gravel ; larger fragments are
usually referred to as stone . Sand grains range in size from coarse to very fine and the
term refers to particles 0.0 5-2 mm in diameter. They do not stick together and water and
air free ly move into them. Silt particles range in size from 0.05 mm to 0.002 mm. They
stick together slightly and are more resistant to air and water movement than is sand.
Clay particles are 0.002 mm and less in diameter. They adsorb water, inorganic ions,
organic matter and gases on their surface. When wet, clays are sticky and plastic but
when dry, they often form clods (Fig 1 ).
Once the distribution of particle size in soil samples is known, a soil is given a
textural class name . The simplest classification of textural class has four groups, sands (~

70% sand, ~ 15% clay), silts ( ~ 80% silt, ~ 12% clay), clays (70% clay) and loams (all
other particle size distribution) . A soil triangle may be used to name a soil textural class
from any particle size distributions (Fig .2) . For most aquacultural purposes, it is adequate
t.o classify soils as sands, silts, clays or loams and to specify th e percentage clay .
SOIL TEXTURE IN POND SOILS
Soil texture is very important in pond constructions for the soil must contain the
proper distribution of particles to permit construction of stable embankments and water
tight pond bottoms . A soil material composed of a mixture of different sized particles and
con taining at least 30% clay is ideal for pond construction. Such a soil can be compacted
to form a water tight bottom during the fallow period between aquaculture crops . Heavy
clay soils are sticky and difficult to dry and till. Under natural conditions, soil textural class
is considered to be conseNative and unchanging soil property. However, erosion and
sedimentation within a pond may cause mc:rked changes in soil texture from one place to
the other in th e bottom . These changes in texture normally donot increase seepage
losses from ponds beca use th ey affect only surface layers .

126
WATER SEEPAGE

Pond soils are saturated with water most of the time. Water can exit ponds by
seepag~ beneath levees and directly through bottom soils in some instances, water can
seep into ponds. Water that seeps through pond 'soils contains dissolved substances.
Soils have inter connected pore spaces among their constituent particles and water flows
through the pores in response to gravity. The pores do not provide a straight channel for
water movement. A molecule of water moving through soil pores exhibits a random
pattern of movement. In going from one point to another in the soil, the length of the flow
path is unknown. The area of flow is not the cross sectional area of the flow path for flow
only occurs through the pores. The porosity of soils (n) is defined as

= Pore volume

Bulk volume

The open area of cross section that conveys water is cross sectional area x 11. This
suggests that fine textured, highly porous soil should favour greater water movement than
coarse textured soils .

SOIL CLASSIFICATION

Soil classification methods area based on the notion that th e soil is comprised of
many individual and recognizable units each of which is called a soil. Many soil
classification systems have been proposed but the soil taxonomy syst~ms is the most
widely used. When a soil is classified in the soil taxonomy system it is assigned to six
categories. The most general category is order and the other categories, in order of
increaSing specificity are sub order, great group, subgroup, family and series. The most
basic characteristics used in soil taxonomy are features of the surface and subsurface
horizons and moisture and temperature regions.
The most general or highest category in soil taxonomy is order. There are 11 soil
orders (Table 2) . Names for suborders contain two syllables. For example an ultisol from
on udic moisture regime is givef1 the suborder udults (Table 3). The ud in udults is the
prefix for the udic moisture regime and ults is the formative syllable for the order ultisols.
Soils of the sub order torrents are vertisols with an aridic moisture regions. The suborders
are divided into great groups (Table 4).
The great group name consists of the suborder name plu s a prefix. To illustrate, a
Tropaquepts is an Inceptisol with an aquatic moisture regime located in a continuous

127

.":.
Biological activity in soil is also favoured by high temperature and rainfall. Topography
affects bo~h erosion and transports. because water flows . over steep as well as gentler
slopes with ' '(jiffer~nt energy to suspend soil particles. Time is an important fact0.r:
because soil for~,ation processes are very slow, It takes thousands of years}o.r'.
developm~nt of soils seen at a particular place on the land surface .
SOil TEXTURAL CLASSES
The texture of a soil refers to the distribution of the different sizes of soil particles.
Soil particles are separated mechanically and grouped into categories with specific particle
diameters called separates, which are identified as coarse fragments and gravel . sand, silt
and clay. 'Coarse fragm ents 2-75 mm in diameter are called gravel; larger fragments are
usually referred to as stone. Sand grains range in size from coarse to very fine and the
term refers to' particles 0.05-2 mm in diameter. They do not stick together and water and
air freely move into them . Silt particles range in size from 0.05 mm to 0.002 mm . They
stick togethe'r slightly and are more resistant to air and water movement than is sand.
Clay particles are 0.002 mm and less in diameter. They adsorb water, inorganic ions.
organic matter and gases on their surface . When wet, clays are sticky and plastic but
when dry. t~ey often form clods (Fig 1).
Once the distribution of particle size in so il samples is known. a soil is given a
textural class name. The simplest classification of textural class has four groups. sandi (~
70% sand. ~ 15% clay). silts (~ 80% silt, ~ 12% clay), clays (70% clay) and loams (all
other particle. size distribution). A soil tri angle may be used to name a soil textural class
from any particle size distributions (Fig .2). For most aquacultural purposes, it is adequate
to classify soils as sands , silts, clays or loams and to specify tli e percentage clay.
SOil TEXTURE IN POND SOILS
Soil texture is very important in pond constructions for the soil must contain the
proper distribution of particles to permit construction of stable embankments and water
tight pond bottoms . A soil material composed of a mixture of different sized part,icles and
containing at lea st 30% clay is ideal for pond construction. Such a soil can be compacted
to form a water tight bottom during the fallow period between aquaculture crops . Heavy
clay soils are sticky and difficult to dry and till. Under natural conditions. soil textural class
is considered to be conservative and unchanging soil property. However. erosion and
sedimentation within a pond may cause marked changes in soil texture from one place to
the other in the bottom , These changes in texture normally donot increase seepage
losses' frof!1 ponds because they affect only surface layers ,

126
warm and humid climate. The sub group follows the great group and indicates if a soH is
typical for the great group ,to which it is assigned. For example, typic hapludults are
ultisols from an udic moisture regime that have w.eakly dev~loped horizons as hapl means
minimum. horizon. The category below sub-group is family, which gives information on soil
texture, mineralogy, temperature and thickness. For example, a Typic Kandiudult is
clayey, Kaolinitic, thermic and shallow. The lowest or most specific category in soil
classification is the soil series. The soil series is delineated and detailed soil maps and
most interpretations of land use are based on it. The name of a soil series usually reflects
a geogr~phic or physio graphic feature of the locality where the series was first described.
Soil classification data are useful in planning aquaculture projects for soil maps
based on , soil taxonomy can help in the initial assessment of the suitability of soil
prope~ies at a particular pORd site. The soil profile is greatly altered in pond bottoms by
construction, erosion and deposition. No attempt has been made to develop a general
classification system of pond soils but many of the soil properties used in soil t~xonomy

are properties important to pond management operations .

POND SOllS
. Pond soils do not differ greatly from terrestrial soils in their major physical, chemical
and mineralogical features . The main difference in pond soils and agricultural soils is that
pond soils are flooded almost con tinuou sly. Pond soils are similar to wetland soils, but the
dense higher aquatic vegetation typical of wetlands normally is absent from aquaculture.
Nutrient inputs to aquaculture ponds are much greater than for wetl ands .
.The surface layer of pond soils is usually exposed to oxygenated water and
oxidizi'ng conditions exist at th e soil surface. Deeper layers of pond soils are anaerobic
and reducing conditions prevail. Some ponds are constructed in organic soil, and bottom
soils , contain high concentrations of organic matter. The majority of pond s are built on
mineral soils containing no more than 5-10% organic matter. There is tendency for
organic matter concentrations to increase gradually over time in pond soils, but organiC
soils normally do not develop in pond bottoms .
The topography of fish pond bottoms changes over time as a result of erosion and
sedimentation. In the shallow water :egions of large ponds, some areas are subjected to

128
erosion and others receive sedimentation. In deeper. central parts of ponds,
sedirrwntation prevails (Fig. 3). Organic matter tends to accumulate where sedimentation
dominates. Erosion and sedimentation patterns shown in Figure 3 are evident even in
small research ponds. The surface 10-15 crn layer of pond soils tends to have lower bulk
density than found in the surface of agricultural soils and this difference is especially
pronounced for soils from sedimentation areas of ponds.

Table 1: Classification of soil separates

. Pa rticle Fraction Narr.e USDA ISS S

Gravel >2 mm > 2 mm

Very coarse sand 1-2 mm

Coa rse sand 0.5-1 mm 0.2-2 mm

Med iu m sa nd 0.25-0.5 mm

Fine sa nd 0.1-0 .25 mm 0.02-0 .2

Very fi nd sand 0.002-0.05 mm

Silt 0.05-0.002 mm 0.002-0 .02 mm

Clay <0.00 2 <0 .002 mm

129
Table 2: Soil Orders and their description

Order Formativ Description

e syllabl e o

Histosols ist Soils with a high concentration of organic matter (histic

epipedons).

Andisols and Soils developed primarily from weathering of volcanic

materials

Spodosols od Soils with a spodic horizon Aluminium, iron, and humus

have been transported into the B horizon.

Oxisols ox Soils with an oxic horizo n. Oxisols are common in the

trop ics. They are ole, deep red and contain much iron .

Vertisols ert Soils with high concentrations of 2:1 type clays, which
swell when wetted and shri nk when dried . They develop
deep cracks when dry. Swelling and shrinking often mix
the horizons .

Aridi sols id Soils with an aridic soil moisture regime. There is not
enough moisture to cause sufficient plant growth to
provide a surface layer of organic matter. Bases are not
leached and accumulate in th e a horizon

Ultisols ult Soils with a kandic or argil lic horizon . Base saturation is
less than 35% . Ultisols usually are found in warm,
humid climates.

Alfisols alt Soils with a kandic or argillic horizon . Base satu ration is
greater than 35%.

Mollisols 011 Soils with a mollic horizon . They are usually found in
grasslands .

Inceptisols ept Soils with a cambic horizon. These are recent soils in
which the profiles have begt:m to develop.

Entisols ent Soils that cannot be fit into any of the other 10 orders .
There also are recent soils with little evidence of profile
development. Entisols are common in alluvial areas or
on steep slopes. _j
Table 3: - 01 su b or d ers
S'I WI'tl I mennmg 0 ormatlve e emen t.
Suborder Formative Element and Meaning
--
Aqualfs; Aquands, Aquents, Aqu Aquatic moisture regime
Aquepts, Aquolls, Aquox,
Aquods, Aquults
Boralfs, B.arolls Bor Northern, cool
Udalfs, Upands, Udolls, Udox, Ud Udic moisture regime
Udults, Uderts
Ustalfs, Ustands, Ustolls, Ust Ustic moisture regime
Ustox, Ustults, Usters
Xeralfs, Xerands, Xerolls, Xer Xeric moisture regime
Xerults, Xererts
Cryands Cry Cryic or cold
Torrands, Torrox, Torrerts Torr Aridic moisture regime
Vitrands : Vitr Presence of glass
Argids Arg Argillic horizon
Orthids, orthods, orthents Orth True or common
/\rents Ar Mixed by piowing
Fluvents Fluv Floodplain parent material
Psamments Psamm Sand textured
Fibrists Fibr Slightly decomposed organic matter
Folists Fol Mass of leaves
Hemists Hem Moderately decomposed organic matter
Saparists Sapr Highly decomposed organic matter
Ochrepts Ochr Ochric epipedon
Plaggepts Plagg Plaggen epipedon
--
Tropepts Trop Tropical
Umbrepts Umbr Umbric epipedon
Rendoll::; Rend High carbonate content
Perox Per Perudic motsture regime
Ferrods Ferr Presence of iron
Hurnods, humults
Albolls
Hum
Alb
Presence of organic matter
Albic horizon
- -
U I
Table
.....
4: Prefixes and meanings for great groups of soils

Prefix . Meaning I
Prefix Meaning
aer Highly weathered luv IIluvial
agr - Agrie horizor:l ~ med Temperature climates
alb Albic horizon natr Natrie horizon
and Andie properties oehr Oehrie epipedon
anthr Anthropie epipedon pale Old
arg Argillic horizon pell Low chroma
bor Northern, cool plac Thin cemented layer
calc Calcic horizon plag Plaggen horizon
camb Cambic horizon plinth Plinthite (laterite)
chrom High chroma psamm Sandy
cry Cold quartz Quartz
dur Hardpan rhod Dark red color
dystr, dys Low base saturation sal Salic horizon
en'ter, eu High base saturation sider Free iron oxides
ferr High iron content sombr Dark horizon
flub Floodplain sphagn Sphagnum moss
frag Fragipan sulf Sulfides
gibbs Gibbsite torr Aridic moisture regime
gyps Gypsic horizon ud Udic moisture regime
hal High salt content umbr Umbric epipedon
halp Minimum horizon ust Ustic moisture regime
development
hum High humus content verm Mixed by worms
hydr Presence of water vitr Glass
kand Low activity xer Xeric moisture regime

132
 CHAPTER-XI

SITE SELECTION FOR SHRIMP I PRAWN HATCHERIES

A. SELECTION OF A SUITABLE SITE FOR FRESHWATER PRAWN HATCHERY

WATER

The establishment of a freshwater prawn hatchery normally requires a coastal site,

although there are some alternatives. Abundant freshwater must also be available. The
ideal site, from the point of view of water supply, which is of paramount technical
importance , is one where, by sinking wells to different depths, both freshwater and sea
water can be obtained from below ground .

Several well-known freshwater prawn hatcheries draw their sea water from wells
sunk in the natural under laying coral of their site, which seems to provide pollution free
supplies . If this type oi site is not available, one which has direct access to a sandy beach
with mixed sand particle size should be chosen . On th is type of site a shallow beach
'wells" can be utilized .

Ideally, freshwater should also be obtained from underground sources for hatchery
use. City tap water is also normally suitable, provided it is vigorously aerated, say, for 24-
48 hours before use, to remove resiuual l,;hlurine . Well water should also be aerated by
cascading for exa mple , to bring its dissolved oxygen level up to saturation or near.

Many freshwater prawn hatcheries utilize surface supplies for both freshwater and
sea water, a practice which cannot be recommend ed . These hatcheries draw sea water
from a rigid pier offtake in the sea or a fl exible buoyed system . Crude screening is
necessary to prevent ingress of the larger flora and fauna . Freshwater is also often
supplied by gravity or pumped from surface supplies such as rivers or irriga tion ditches'.
This practice exposes the hatchery to severe vari ations in water quality and particularly to
water contamination from agricultural chemicals . Estuarine water varie s in salinity both
diurnally and seasonally.

If sea water or freshwater is drawn from surface supplies, some form of filtration is
necessary. Normally this involves some form of gravel/sand bed filter. Two forms of filters
are described in subsequent chapters . Because of the extra problems and dangers
involved , it is not recommend the siting of freshwater prawn hatcheries in areas where
only surface water supplies are available . Experience shows, however, that this will not
prevent the development of such hatcheries . The minimum requirement during site
evaluation should be to carry out watershed surveys and water analyses, especially for
pesticides .

Both freshwater and sea water used for hatchery purposes should have a pH in the
0
range' 7.0-8 .5 pH and a temperature as close as possible to the optimum range (28 _
31C). Hydrogen sulphide should be absent. If tap water is used, chlo rine must be
removed by aeration. Small post-larvae are more susceptible than several species of

13:
marine shrimp to nitrite and nitrate (Wickins. 1976). both in terms of acute and chronic
toxicity (the latter resulting in poorer growth and survival). Armstrong, Stephenson and
Knight (197.6) also report sublethal effects of nitrite at levels as low as 1.8 ppm (N02-N)
with larvae of M. rosenber~}ii. Tentatively we suggest that hatchery intake water should
not have levels of nitrite and nitrate higher than 0.1 ppm (N02-N) and 20 ppm (N03-N).
Sea water should have as little diurnal or seasonal variation as possible. Apart
from indications that results are beUer in freshwater. hatcheries using freshwater having
total hardness of less than 100 ppm CaC03. almost nothing is known about the
characteristics of the 'ideal' water supply. Typical analyses of freshwater at two successful
hatchery sites are explained in subsequent chapters. These show very low levels of iron.
Manganese should also be low. Clearly a hatchery should not be sited, especially where
surface water is used, where its water supplies are endangered by pollution from tanker
discharge. oil refinerie s, tanning, agricultural pesticides and herbicides, or chemical plants,
for example. .
Although high iron levels seem detrimental. Ferdinando and Manawadu (1982)
have reported successful larval prawn rearing using well water with an original soluble iron
content of 15-20 ppm . . Atmospheric oxidation and the activity of iron bacteria after 48
hours storage in open tanks was sufficient to precipitate the iron. After pumping through a
pressure sand filter the soluble iron content was down to less than 2 ppm. A simple
method of cascading to reduce the iron content of water is described in Cansdale (1979).
The quantity of freshwater and sea water required for a freshwater prawn hatchery
depends not only on the proposed scale of operation but also on the salinity of the sea
water, which controls the prop()riions of sea water and freshwater necessary to produce
12% 0 brackish water for larval rearing. The consumption of 12 u/00 water for each 10-m 3
tank averages 4-6 m 3 (4000-6 000 liters) per day. Pumping capacity must be sufficient to
fill the tank with brackish water within one hour in order to make the daily water exchange
as rapid as possible. Thus, though each tank will consume an average of less than 4
liters/min, pumping and pipe work capacity must be sufficient to supply the peak demand
of approximately 170 liter/min per 10m 3 tank (in case of emergencies in which all water
has to be changed, see Manual section 5.2.4). Put another way, up to 180 m3 of 12 % 0
water are consumed for every 100 000 post-larvae produced without problems. In'
addition , sufficient additional freshwater to maintain holding tanks for post-larvae should
be allowed for. For a hatchery operating five 10-m lorval tanks, an additional
consumption of up to 42 m3/day of freshwater should be provided for the supply to post-
larval holding .tanks. On average the consumption of brackish water by a hatchery of this
size (five 10-m 3 larval tanks) would be 20-30 m 3/day. .

OTHER REQUIREMENTS

A good h~tchery site\,hould also have the following characteristics ':

a) A secured power supply which is 'not subject to lengthy power outages. An on-site
emergency generator is essential for any hatchery where the scale of investment
warrants it.

b) ~ood all-weather road access for incoming materials and outgoing post-larvae .

1 3~
.'
 c) Not r:nore than 16 hours transport tinw from the furthest farm it js to supply by land
transP9rt. .

d) Access to professional biological assistance from government or other sources .

e) Land, of an area appropriate to the scale of the hatchery, with good access to
seawater and freshwater supplies. The cost of pumping water -S\)~plies to a site
elevated high above sea level is an important factor in the economics of the project.

f) A climate which will maintain water in the optimum range of 2So-30oC without costly
environmental manipulation .

g) -. Access to food supplies for larvae.

h) A high level of technical and managerial skills .

B. SHRIMP HATCHERY

The first major break through in shrimp hatchery technology was made in 1942 by
the successful work of Dr.Fujinaga on reproduction and larval rearing of P.japoflic!.Js .

SELECTION OF A SUITABLE SITE FOR SHRIMP HATCHERY

Depending upon th e importance and nature of' work involved in selecting a site for
shrimp hatchery, the factors to be con sidered are grouped as follows

1. Main factors
Topography
Type of soil and its compo sition
Good quality sea water
Freshwater
2. Environmental factors
3. Geographical location and other factors

(A) MAIN FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED

(a) TOPOGRAPHY

(1) The site of hatchery must be elevated , flat and easily drainable
(2) The sea bed should have steep gradient for in stallation of low cost seawater
intake system .
(3) The site should ' be fre e from possibl e impact of inland water discharge
containing agricultural and industrial wastes.
(4) The site should not be close to river mouth to avoid dilution of seawater and
turbidity probl ems

!35
 (5) The sea bottom near the site should be sandy or rocky, but not muddy.
(6) The area should be free from soil and sea erosion.
(7) The site should not be located near sources of pollution like thermal, sewage
and industrial pollution
(8) The area should be easily accessible by road

(b) TYPE OF SOIL AND ITS COMPOSITION

Type of soil and its composition have a great role in designing the hatchery
components. Load bearing capacity must be analyzed for design of foundation for
buildings.

GOOD QUALITY SEA WATER

Good quality seawater having water quality parameters as_@commended

below should .be available throughout the year --.
Salinity 28-34 ppt
Temperature 28-31 C
PH 7.7-8.2

Sea water should be free from pollutants

Sea water should have low suspended solids
Sea water with pathogenic micro-organisms should be avoided

(d) FRESHWATER

Potable freshwater in sufficient quantity should be available near the site for daily
hatchery operations. Ground water is preferred because of its better quality

(B) ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED

a) Temperature: The area should have relatively small temperature

fluctuations to ensure operation all round the year

b) Humidity: These are important for various hatchery operations li~e drying
of tanks, culture area and heating of water during low temperature period

c) Wind: Wind direction and speed is important as it creates swells in the

sea which in turn increases turbidity. Wind direction is also important for
design and construction of buildings.

d) Rainfall: IntenSity of rainfall plays an important role in management of

quality of sea water and also-in other hatchery operations

136
~ GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION AND OTHER FACTORS

e) Availability of electricity in the vicinity of hatchery site

f) Brood stock should be regularly available throughout the year
g) Hatchery site must be close to potential market
h) Labour should be available locally for day to day hatchery operations
i) Th'e site should be easily accessible
j) The area should be free from cyclones and floods
k) Pr'oximity to fishing harbour is desirable from the point view of procurement
of brood stock
I) Should not be located near the source of pollution

..... *** ******."*.,,

137
 Chapter - XII

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF HATCHERY FACILITIES

Chandrakant M.H. and A. K. Reddy

Centra/Institute Df Fisheries Education, Mumbai.

A. DESIGN OF HATCHERY FACILITIES FOR SHRIMP HATCHERY

Construction of a well designed shrimp hatchery is required for production of seed

on a large scale to meet farmers demand for commercial scale farming of major species of
marine shrimps in the Indo-Pacific region (Peneaus monodon, P.ihdicus, P.japonicus, etc).
Based on the shrimp larval rearing system, there are two basic hatchery systems.

I. Large Tank Hatchery System (Japanese system)

ii . Small Tank System (American system/Galveston system)

1. LARGE TANK HATCHERY SYSTEM

This system was developed in Japan and uses large tanks of 40-2000 tonne or
more. In this system, a large tank is used for both larval and post-larval rearing as well as
live food culture of diatoms and rotifers . These tanks can be kept open or under partially
transparent roofing.

Disadvantages:

1) Difficult to control algal bloom

2) improper disease management and large scale mass mortality
3) Requires large number of spawners

2. SMALL TANK SYSTEM

This method was developed at Galveston, Texas, USA. This system uses much
smaller tanks with separate tanks for algal culture, Artemia hatyhing, etc. The larval and
post-larval are separated . Spawning is done in separate spaw~ing tonks and live feed is
transferred to larval tank on daily basis . In this system entire' hatchery in indoor. The
majority of hatcheries in India follow this technique.

HATCHERY TYPES

Based on the level of operation, production and finanial investments, hatchery

practice can be broadly c:lassified into

i) Small Scale (Backyard hatchery)

ii) Medium Scale
iii) Large Scale

138
HATCHERY FACILITIES

The size of the hatchery depends upon the production target and number of days
available for hatchery operation. The dimensions of various tanks and water delivery and
intake systems are designed tal<ing into consideration the production targets . Following
are the basic facilities to be provided in a shrimp hatchery.

1. Holding tanks
i) Maturation tanks
ii) Spawning tanks
iii) Larval rearing tanks
iv) Nursery tanks (Post Larval rearing tan ks)
v) Algal culture tanks
2. Seawater storage and filtration tanks
3. Seawater and freshwater supply system
4. Aeratiun system
5. Power supply system
6. Laboratory equipment
7. Hatchery building

1. HOLDING TANKS

i. Maturation Tank
Maturation tank is constructed to sto re th e brooders . Before stock ing, the tank
should be set up and flow through of sea water shou ld commence prior to stocking, to
make sure any residue of cleaning compound has been removed. Animals are stocked at
a density of 6-7 anima ls per sq.meter at 1: 1 ratio mal e to femal e. Ocean quality sea water
must be provid ed at all tim es to achieve best production res ults. Fo llowing water quality
parameters mu st be maintain ed.

Salinity 26 to 32 ppt
Temperature 28 to 32C
PH 7.8 to 8.5

Maturation tanks are constructed in various shapes with concrete/Ferro-

ceme:nVFRP. Concrete/Ferro-cement tanks are generally rectangular in shape while FRP
tanks are circular . The capacity of tank mainly depend s upon the number of ani mals to be
stocked and generally 10-15' tonnes capacity. Inside of th e tank is black in colour. The
water level in the maturation tank is kept at the level of 60 cm with a cons tant flow @ 10
liUper minute which provides 200% water exchange per day.
For maturation tanks , filtered and disinfected sea water is used . The water should
be aerated continuously . Noise in the maturation section be kept to a minimum.

ii. Spawning Tank

These are cylindroconical or flat bottomed fibre glass tan ks of 200 to 500 litre
capacity. The inner surface of these tanks are bla ck in colour. The tanks are provided

139
 ith three fibre glass coated iron legs. The conical bottom has a central drain fitted with a
,Jolyprophylene ball valve.

Iii) Larval Rearing Tank

Shrimp nauplii received from maturation section are reared in larval rearing tanks
for 13-15 days till they reach PL-3 or PL-5 stage. Shrimp larval are being reared in tanks
of different types of shapes and capacities in different hatcheries. Some larval tanks are
cylindrical with conical bottoms 1.8 meter in diameter, 1.2 meter irl depth and with a
central stand pipe drainage system. The capacity of the tank varies from 2 to 10 tonne.
Larval tanks are constructed with FRP/Ferro-cementlRCC/brick masonry in different
shapes and sizes based on the requirement.
The parabolic shaped tanks with set aeration line are yielding best results owing to
its ability to provide uniform 8e:-:::tic,II, unltorm distribution of food material, giving least
scope jor ~ellit:lnent of organiC detritus on the tank surface and minim"izing the growth of
microbe's in the tank. '
Larval rearing tank along with other associated facilities like dis-infection tanks, a
small laboratory equipped with scientific instruments, chemicals and drugs are housed in
larval rearing room; which is one of th e must sensitive areas of the hatchery, needs
complete isolation from other sections to avoid cross contamination.
The recommended stocking density in larval tank is 1,00,000 nauplii per ton.
Before stocking the tanks should be disinfected with chlorine and detergent and
subsequently thoroughly washed with freshwater and dried for at least 24 hours. Larval
rearing from N6 to PL-3 takes 13 days .

iv) Nursery Tank/Post-Larval Tank

Nursery tanks are constructed with RCC/Ferro-cementlFRP material. The capacity

of the tank varies from 10-40 tonnes . These may be constructed as indoor units or
outdoor units . Inner surface of tanks should be coated with food grade epoxy paints .

Post-larval rearing tanks are used to rear 3 day old post-larvae till 20 day old post
larvae . The larvae at PL-3 are harvested and stocked in th6se tanks @ 25-50/1it and
reared till harvest. The main feeding during this rearing is Arternia and Egg custard.
Post-larvae of 20 days old (i .e . 13mm in size) are harvested and marketed.

Rearing of post-larvae of shrimp in hatchery requires basic facilities like -

1) Seawater Important water parameters are

i) Salinity 31.5 1.5 ppt

ii) Temperature 28C
iii) pH .. 8.2
iv) Water shou~d be free from turbidity and other
pollutants

140
2) Aeration Since stocking density is high. efficient aeration system is
highly essential. Water must be kept in circulation for
making feed available to the post larvae.
3) Potable Water: For cleaning and washing of the tanks.
4) Artemia culture tanks
5) Well equipped laboratory for checking of water quality parameters.

Constant observation and management of water quality parameter are two

important factors in rearing of post larvae . The viability of the hatchery mainly depends
upon cost of production of post larvae. During the rearing period the post larvae are
continuously monitored for their health . Water management. feed management and
disease management are very important in successful production of post larvae .

v) Algal Culture Tanks

Alga e serves as food for larvae. It is predominant component of first trophic level in
aquatic food chain . Commonly used algal species in shrimp hatchery are diatoms like
ehaetoeeros, ske/etonema and eye/otella and flagellates like Isoehriysis and
Tetraselmis .

For culture of algal in high densities following enviro~HTlental conditions are required

a) Light For good and fast growth of algae 1000-8000 lux is

recomm ended . which in turn enhances photosynthetic
activity and multiplication of algal cells .

b) Temperature : Recommended temperature range for good and fast

growth is 24-26 oC

c) Aeration Aeration is to be provided in order to keep the algae

in suspension. to supply CO 2 needed for growth and
to stabilize pH . Air should be free from dust and oil

Faci.lities for algal growth

Seawater should be of good quality to get the best results . It should be clean and
free from pollutants and other living organisms.

Algal culture vessels must be transparent to allow light and easy to wash . Conical
flasks of 50ml. 100ml. 2 Itrs. capacity and carboys of 20 Itr. Capacity are best suited for
algal culture.

The culture room (Lab) should be isolated from other hatchery facilities to avoid
across contamination . The room should have shelves of different heights to accommodate
vessels of different sizes. The room should have a provision for air supply. The
temperatu re inside can be controlled by Air Conditioner with timer facility.

14 1
 Algae is cultured in test tube, small flasks, Big flasks (2 Itr and 5 Itr) and in carboy
(20 Itr capacity) for small scale production. For commercial scale production of algae,
rectangular concrete tanks or oval fiber glass tanks are constructed capacity these
tanks vary between 100 liters to 1 tonne capacity. The tanks should be white in colour on
inner surface to reflect light for enhancing photosynthetic activity.

2. Seawater storage & filtration tank

. .
Seawater cannot be used directly for hatchery purpose. The water shQl.Jld be free
from suspended particles, ba<.tena and virus before its use in hatchery. Water should be
stored properly and following treatments are given -
a) Settlement of suspended impurities
b) Chl,orinatiori @ 5 ppm for 6 hours
c) Filtration
d) Dechlorination
e) Filtration to remove suspended impurities up to 1 micron

3. Seawater and freshwater supply system

A well designed network of PVC pipe line is necessary for supply of seawater and
freshwater separately.

4, Aeration

Aeration grid consists of PVC pipes with bend, elbow, valves, polythene aeration
tubes, and other fittings . This grid is connected to air blower. Roots type twin lobe air
blowers which supply large volumes of oil-free air at low pressure is preferred .

5. Power Supply

Total power requirement of the hatchery can be estimated and a generator 50 KVA
will be provided as stand by unit. A high tension power connection will be required to meet
the demand .

6. Laboratory equipment

Various equipment required for regular operation of the hatchery are -

a. Microscope
b. Refractometer
c. Spectrophotometer
d. pH meter
e. Refrigerator
f. Freezer
g. Thermometer
h. Hacmocytometer

142
 i. Chemical balance
j. Top pan balance
k. Hot air oven
I. Glassware
m. Plastic ware

7. Hatchery Building

The main section of the hatchery complex comprises of the fiber glass sheet roofed
shed. Concrete flooring should be provided with proper slope and drainage network. The
sides of the hatchery building are provided with brick walls with proper ventilation . This
part of the hatchery will house the spawning tanks, larval rearing tanks, algallanks, etc.
The other section of the hatchery without the transparent roofing will house the
laboratory, store room , feed preparation room, and maturation pools etc. Power house,
water treatment facilities, air blowers etc. should be located away from th e maturation and
spawning sections.
In the conceptual design, various sections such as maturation, spawning, larval
rearing, post-laNaI rearing, a\g~1 culture and anemia hatching, shipment room, generator
room, etc., are positioned considering the operational sequence . Maturation room which
needs calm and quiet atmosphere is provided on a corner away from all disturbances.
Algal culture room is close to larval rearing room for convenience of algal tran sfer for
feeding .
SLarter cultures of algae are maintained in the air-conditioned labora tory . Shipment
area is adjacent to post-larval culture room for convenience of shipment. Artemia hatch ing
room and feed preparation room are positioned in an isolated mFlnn er to avoid bacterial
and other contamination.
Seawater reservoirs can be kept close to the hatchery to reduce the length of
distribution line th ereby redu ci ng th e chance for contami nation and enabling effi cien t
disinfections of th e lin e.

MODEL DESIGN FOR 50 MILLION POST LARVAE PER YEAR

NURSERY TANKJPOST-LARVAL TANK

1. Per run production of PL20 = 4.0 million

2. Expected requirement of PL5/run = 8.0 million
(@ sUNival rate of 50%)
3. Recommended stocking density of Pl_5 in nursery = 25 PLs/ltrs .
4. Requirement of water volume = 320 Ions
5. Individual nursery tank vo!urT}e = 10 ton
6. No . of tank required = 32 Nos.

LARVAL REARING TANK

1. Per run production of PL5/run = 8.0 million

2. Expected requirement of nauplii/run = 16.0 million
(@ survival rate of 50%)

1<l3
3. Recommended stocking density of nauplii = 100 nauplii/ltrs.
4. Requirement of water volume = 160 tons
5. Requirement of tanks of 10 tons capacity = 16 ton

SPAWNING TANK (FOR 16 CYCLES/RUN)

1. rOlal requirement of riClupHj/run = 16 million

2. Minimum requirement of nauplii/cycle = 1 million
for a larval rearing tank of 10 ton
3. Expected nauplii production/spawner (ablated) = 0.1 million
4. No. of spawner required to = 10 Nos.
produce 1 million nauplii per cycle
5. No. (If spa'N:ling tank (500 Itr. Capacity) = 10Nos.
required @ 1 tank per spawner
6. Considering 100% allowance for extra = 20 Nos.
spawners, requirement of tanks
7. Total volume of spawning tank = 10 cum

HATCHING TANK

1. No . of spawners per cycle = 10 Nos .

2. No. of hatching tank required = 10 Nos .
3. No . of sets required in a hatching room = 4
4. Total hatching tanks of 500 Itrs. capacity required = 40 Nos .

MATURATION TANK

1. Per run production of PL20 = 4.0 million

2. Expected survival from nauplii to PL20 = 25%
3. Expected requirement of nauplii/run = 16.0 million
4. Expected nauplii production/female = 0.1 million
spawner (ablated)
5. Requirement of female spwners = 160 Nos.
6. Considering response to ablation = 230 Nos .
(70%) requirement of spawners
7. Male : Female ratio in maturation tank = 1:1
8. Requirement of male shrimps = 230 Nos .
9. Total requirement of brood stock/run = 460 f-.Jos.
10 Recommended stocking density = 5-7 animals/sqm
11 . Maturation lanK area = 65 to 92 sqm
12. Approx . area per tank = 15 sqm
13. No . of tanks required = 6 Nos .

ALAGAL CULTURE TANKS

1. Cell density required in LRT = 10 5 cells/ml.

2. Maximum algal requirement/day = 1.6 x 10 13 cells

144
 for 160 tonnes of LRT volume
3. Cell density in algal culture tank = 10 6 cells/ml
4. Volume of algal water required = (1.6 x 10 13 )/10 6
= 1.6 X 107 ml
= 16000 litres
5. Requirement of algae considering = 9600litres
continuous larval culture where all
the tanks do not require algae at
the same level on a given day
(@ 60% of maximum requirement)
6. No. of days required for - 3
developing algal culture
7. : Considering '6' above required = 28,800ltrs
tank volume (say: 30 tons)
8. Out of 30 tons, 50% may be
Produced from indoor cultures
And 50% from outdoor cultures
a) Indoor Culture
i) total capacity = 15 tons
ii) capacity of one FRP = 100ltrs
,
...
III,
translucent tank
nUr.1b3r of algal tanks required = 150 Nos .
b) Outdoor Culture
i) total capacity required = 15 tons
ii) capacity of each FRP algal tank = 1 ton
iii) No. of tanks required = 15 Nos.
iv) No. of tanks required considering = 22 Nos .
50% additional facilties for clearing
and disinfection

145
(8) LAY OUT PLAN AND DESIGN OF GIANT FRESHWATER PRAWN HATCHERY

Among the cultivable commercially. important aquatic organisms giant

freshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii is gaining immense popularity in the recent
years. In order to have commercial aquaculture ventures of giant freshwater prawn in
different parts of India, seed is one of the major constraints. Therefore, it is essential to
establish r:;ommercial and back-yard hatcheries in different parts of India.

The giant freshwater prawn hatchery technology has been developed and perfected
in different parts of the world. The technology developed by various workers varies from
place to place, depending on the environm~ntn! conc!itions. In India , during the last three
decades, variou3 gnvArn!11enl and semi-government organizations, ICAR institutes and
Agncultural Univt;?rsities have been working on different aspects of larval rearing of giant
freshwater prawn and developed package of hatchery technologies. The Central Institute
of Fisheries Education, Mumbai has also developed technology for larval rearing of giant
freshwater prawn both in natural sea water as well as in artificial sea water. The
technology of larval rearing in artificial sea water facilitate to establish the giant freshwater
prawn hatcheries in the inland states/areas located far away from the sea coasts .

The layout plan, design and infrastructure facilities required for production of 10.0
million post-larvae, per annum in 4 cycles in a coastal site are given below.

ESSENTIALS OF GIANT FRESHWATER PRAWN HATCHERY

For the establishment of a giant freshwater prawn hatchery the following things to
be essentially considered for its successful operation.

SITE SELECTION:

Selection of a suitable site is one of the most important factors for the .
establishment of a prawn hatchery. Large scale commercial prawn hatcheries require
coastal sites having adequate supply of sea water and freshwater free from polluta'nts.
The site should be amenable for provision of infrastructure facilities such as
availability of electricity, accessibility etc. Backyard hatcheries can be established at any
place where good quality of freshwater is available along with either concentrated brine
'Solution or artificial sea water.

INFR A,STRUCTURAL FACILITIES

The infrastructure facilities include earthen brood-stock ponds to maintain adequate

supply of brooders, water supply system, aeration system, main hatchery shed for housing
brood-stock holding tanks, hatching tanks, larval rearing tanks, post-larvae holding tanks,
power house, pump house, etc.

146
BROOD-STOCK PONDS

Continuous supply of good quality brooders is one of the pre-requisites for the
successful op~ration of a commercial hatchery. Therefore, it is essential to have brood-
stock ponds located in the proximity of the hatchery complex so as to avoid rough handling
and long distance transportation of brooders. The texture of the soil suitable for brood-
stock ponds is sandy-loam or sandy-clay loam wh ich should have pH between 6.5 to B.D .
The site should have perennial source of freshwater free from pollutants.__

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

The water supply system consists of seawater intake, filtration units, storage tanks
for seawater, freshwater ar.d brackishwater (mixed water) and th eir distribution to various
sections of the hatchery.

SEAWATER

Seawater should be drawn through a sub-soil filter arranged 5 to 6 feet below the
sand in th e inter tidal zone in order to make the water free trom suspended particles and
turbidity. If seawater is to be drawn from surface, the water shou ld be passed through a
shore sand filter before storing into th e reservoir.

FRESHWATER

The source of fre shwater may be from a tube well or from a perennial canal. If
water contains any suspended particles or turbidity, 'it should be passed through a sand
filter before storing into the reservoir. The hardness of the freshwater should be below 50
ppm .

BRACKISHWATE R (MIXED WATER)

Sup erna tc:nt water from the freshwater and seawater storage tanks are pumped
into th e mixing tanks so as to get the desired salinity (14 2 ppt) with thorough aeration or
with an agitator. The mixed water is treated with bleaching powder to get 10 to 15 ppm
chlorine to kill the microflora and fauna . After 10 to 12 hours of C~lorination (contact
period), th e water should be de-chlorinated with sodium thiosulphate (1 ppm re sidual
chlorine need s 7 ppm of sodium thiosulphate). The de-chlorinated water is treated with 10
ppm of EDTA to eliminate the dissolved hea vy metal s, if any.

MAIN HATCHERY COMPLEX

The main hatchery complex is a shed covered with asbestos cement sheets . The
main hatchery complex consists of brood stock unit, larval rearing unit, Artemia hatching
unit, post-larval rearing unit:

147
BROOD STOCK UNIT
This unit has provision to hold Berried females and hatching the eggs of Berried
females. The unit is provided with freshwater, brackishwater and air supply grids of PVC
all along the walls inside the shed.

BERRIED FEMALES HOLDING TANKS --_

The brood stock unit consists of various size (2.0 to 10.0 ton capacity) cement
tanks/plastic pools / FRP tanks to hold the Berried females collected from the brood stock
ponds. These tanks are housed under an asbestos roofed shed. The Berried females
havin~ different stages of eq(:l development are stocked in separate tanks. Depending on
the-colour of eggs, the Berried fem21es are grouped into three categories i.e. (1) the
prawns with orange colour eggs, (2) the prawns with brown colour eggs and (3) the
prawns with Grey colour eggs.

HATCHING TANKS

The size of hatching tanks varies from 0.5 to 1.0 ton capacity in commercial hatcheries.
Normally FRP tanks are used for hatching.

LARVAL REARING UNIT

The larval rearing unit plays a major role in the successful operation of prawn
hatchery. The larval rearing shed shouid be bituat8d with a North-Soulh ori8ntatioil
having large windows on eastern and western sides for proper ventilation . The roof
of the shed is covered with asbestos cement sheets interspersed with one translucent fiber
glass sheet after every three sheets. The hatchery should have concrete flooring with
proper slope and drainage facility. The unit is provided with freshwater, brackishwater and
air supply grids of PVC all along the walls inside the shed .

LARVAL REARING TANKS

Prawn laryae are reared in different types and sizes of tanks made up of cement,
FRP, Ferro-cement, etc. Smaller hatcheries use 0.25 to 1.0 ton a'nd commercial
. hatcheries use 1.0 to 5.0 ton capacity parabolic shaped or circular tanks with disc shaped
bottom . . The' tanks are provided with aeration.

ARTEMIA HATCHING UNIT

Artemia hatching unit consists of 50 I to 500 I capacity FRP cylindro-conical jars.

The conical part of the jar is translucent and the inner surface of the jar is white in colour.
The jar has a lid. . Aeration is provided at the center of the cone . An outlet valve is
provided at the center of the cone to hqrvest the Artemia nauplii after hatching. Above the
each jar two florescent tube lights are fixed to get 1000 Lux light.

148
POST-LARVAL REARING UNIT

In the hatcheries the post-larvae are generally reared in 10 to 20 ton capacity

cement tanks/plastic pools/FRP tanks. These tanks are roofed under asbestos side open
sheds. Aeration is provided in the tanks. In the field, post-larvae are reared in hapas fixed
in the earthen ponds.

EQUIPMENT

The essential equipment are pumps, oil free air-blowers generator; salinity
Refractometer, chloroscope, pH meter, thermometer, oxygenmeter, analytical balance,
mixer, cooker, refrigerator. oven . hot plate. sieves. etc.

OTHER FACILITIES

In addition to the above facilities the hatchery complex consists of pump houses,
power house, filter units , over head tanks. small laboratory, stores, office, staff quarters,
etc.

ASSUMPTIONS :

Production target =10.0 million PLlannum

No. of cycles =4
Production per cycle =2.5 million
Survival from stage - I to PL =25%

Stage - I larvae required per cycle =10.0 million

No. of Berried females required (Assuming a 50 g female gives 20,000 stage - I larvae) =
500 nos .

Additional stock of 25% =125 nos .

Total Berried females required = 625 Nos. /cycle

=625 x 4 =2500 nos .

No. of Berried fem ales required for 4 cycles

No. of males required (@ 1:4 male & female ratio) =625 nos.

Total No. of prawns required i.e. male & females =3125 nos .

1.:9
BROODSTOCK RAISING UNIT

1st phase - for raising juveniles to sub-adults

Water spread area required for raising 10,000 nos. of juveniles @ 4 nos.lm
2
= 2500 m 2

lind phase - for raising sub-adults to brood stock

Water spread area required for raising 3125 Nos . of sub-adults @ 2 nos I m
2
= 1562.5m 2

BROODSTOCK UNIT:

i. BERRIED FEMALES HOLDING-CUM-HATCHING TANKS:

=
Cement tanks of 5.0 x 2.0 x 1.0 m 10 nos .

LARVAL REARING UNIT

=
Proposed system. 2 phase

1st Phase

Stocking density of stage - I larvae =400 nos/l

Volume of water required =25,000 I

Volume of each tank =1000 I

Dimensions of tank =1.2 m x 1.0 m h

Total No., of tanks required = 25 nos.

Survival in the 1st phase =80%
st
No. of larvae recovered after completion of 1 phase of
=
rearing Le. 10 to 12 days B.O million

lind Phase

Stocking density =BO-1 00 larvae I I

Total volume of water required = 1,00,000 I

150
Volume of each tank:: 4000 - 5000 I

Dimensions of tank =2.5 m x 1.0 m h

ARTEMIA HATCHING TANKS

FRP cylindroconical jars of 1.0 x 0.6 m h :: 6 nos .

POST LARVAE REARING TANKS

Cement tanks of 5.0 x 2.0 x 1.0 m :: 10 nos.

CONSTRUCTION OF SHEDS

No. of sheds required:: 2 nos .

One for brood stock tanks, PL tanks, laboratory, feed preparation, etc. and the other
shed for larval rearing tanks , Arit:mia hatching tanks .

=
Size of Shed - I :: 49 .0 x 13.5 m 661 .5 m2
(for brood stock tanks , PL tank s, laboratory & pacldng)

Size of shed - II :: 60 .0 x 11 .5 m :: 690 .0m2

(for larval rearing tanks, Anemia hatching tanks, etc.)

WATER REQURIEMENT AND STORAGE TANKS

1. Brackishwater

Initial requirement
Small tanks= 25 x 1000 I = 25,000 I
Big tanks :: 25 x 4000 I = 1,00,000 I
Total = 1,25,000 I (125 m 3 )

Daily requirement @ 50% exchange:: 62,500 I (62 .5 m 3 )

=
Size of tank 10 x 5 x 2 =100m3
No. tanks =2 nos .

2. Sea water

Requirement :: 20,000 I (20m 3 )

Size of tanks:: 10 x 2 x 2 m
=
No. of tanks 1 No.

151
3. Freshwater

=
Requirement 100 m
3

=
Size of tank 10 x 5 x 2 =100 m3
No. of tanks::: 2 nos.

OVERHEAD TANKS

=
Brackishwater 50m
3
=
1 no .
Sea water = 20m 3 = 1 no.
Fresh',,' /nter =
:: 50m 3 1 no.
2
Total area required for tanks = 220 m

OTHER FACILITIES

Pump house (4 x 4 m) = 2 nos. ::: 32m 2

Generator room (10 x 5 m)= 1 no. = 50m 2
Air-blower room (10 x 5m) =
1 no . = 100m2
Store(10x10m) = 1 no . = 50m 2
Office (10 x 5m) =
1 no . = 50m 2
Staff quarters (10 x 5m) = 10nos. ::: 500m 2

Total

Note : The above calculations have been made on the basis of the existing technology
with an average survival of 25% from stage - I larvae to r:;ost larvae (PL 5-10).
With the same infrastructure facilities the production may increase by 50% (Le . 15
million per annum) .

..._ XXX __

152
Volume of each tank:::: 4000 - 5000 I' .

Dimensions of tank:::: 2.5 m x 1.0 m h

ARTEMIA HATCHING TANKS

FRP cylindroconical jars of 1.0 x 0.6 m h :::: 6 nos.

POST LARVAE REARING TANKS

Cement tanks of 5.0 x 2.0 x 1.0 m :: 10 nos .

CONSTRUCTION OF SHEDS

No. of sheds required:::: 2 nos .

One for brood stock tanks, PL tanks, laboratory, feed preparation, etc. and the other
shed for larval rearing tanks, Arimia hatching tanks.

=
Size of Shed - I 49 .0 x 13.5 m:::: 661 .5 m2
(for brood stock tanks. PL tanks, lahoratorj & pecking)

=
Size of shed - II 60 .0 x 11 .5 m :: 690.0m2
(for larval rearing tanks , Artemia hatching tanks, etc.)

WATER REQURIEMENT AND STORAGE TANKS

1. Brackishwater

Initial requirement
Small tanks:: 25 x 1000 I =
25,000 I
Big tanks = 25 x 4000 I =
1,00,000 I
Total :: 1,25,000 I (125 m3 )

Daily requirement @ 50% exchange:::: 62,500 I (62 .5 m 3 )

Size of tank:::: 10 x 5 x 2:::: 100m 3

No. tanks:::: 2 nos .

2. Sea water

Requirement:: 20,000 I (20m 3 )

Size of tanks:: 10 x 2 x 2 m
No. of tanks:::: 1 No.

151
3. Freshwater

Requirement 100 m = 3

=
Size of tank 10 x 5 x 2 :: 100 m
3

No. of tanks = 2 nos.

OVERHEAD TANKS

Brackishwater =50m 33 =1 no.

Sea water =20m 3 :: 1 no .
Freshwater =50m =1 no.
Tot.al drca rt::quired for tanks:: 220 m 2

OTHER FACILITIES

Pump house (4 x 4 m) = 2 nos . = 32m 22

Generator room (10 x 5 m) = 1 no . '= 50m
Air-blower room (10 x 5m) = 1 no . =100m22
Store (10 x 10m) = 1 no . = 50m 2
Office (10 x 5m) = 1 no . = 50m2
Staff quarters (10 )\. 5m) =10nos. =500m
I " \,' .. , .. .
'

Total

Note : The above calculations have been made on th e basis of the existing technology
with an average survival of 25% from stage - I larvae to post larvae (PL 5-10).
With the same infrastructure faciliti es the production may increase by 50% (i.e . 15
million per annum).

-- XXX --

152
 CHAPTER - XIII

DESIGN OF WATER TREATMENT AND FILTRATION SYSTEMS FOR SHRIMP I

PRAWN HATCHERIES

SEA WATER TREATMENT

A continuous supply of good quality sea water is essential for shrimp hatcheries.
The success of the hatchery depends on the quality of the sea water. The ~ea water
should be :

1. clean and clear

2. free from all suspended materials
3. free from pathogens
4. free from other competitive organisms, and
5. free from pollution

In order to ensure good quality of sea water the following steps have to be adopted.

a) Filtration in intake system: The sea water intake system should be designed in
such a way th at the water passes through a filter bed before it is collected and pumped
into the reservoir. In the process most of the particulate matter will be filtered in the intake
system itself.

b) Chlorination : While pumping, sea water should be chlorinated (5-10 ppm) before
it reaches the reservoir. In th e reservoir the chlorir.~ should be allowed to react for a
period of 1-2 hrs. This Chlorination kills all pathogenic microbes, and also chemically
removes iron by forming a red precipitate with it.

c) Filtration: The sea water shou ld be re-circulated through a rapid sand filter (50ji)
till all the particulate matter and other precipitates are completely filtered.

d) De-Chlorination: the residual chlorine available in the sea water should be

estimated with chlorine test kits by using O-tolidine. The residual chlorine can be
chemically neutralized by adding sodium thiosulphate pentahydrate . This chemical
reaction is as follows :-

It is observed that sodium thiosulphate (hypo) required to neutralize 1 ppm of

residual chlorine gas will vary between 0.5-2 ppm due to the influence of various factors
specific to site and chemicals.

e) Treatment witll EDTA: EDTA (Ethylene diamine tetra acetate) is a chelating

agent which can remove chemical pollutants like trace metals and other fine debris. It is

l ... .J
( ~
 safe to add 10 ppm EDTA for ensuring clear sea water. Allow at least one hour settlement
time before using the sea water in order to ensure completion of EDTA action.

FILTRATION

Screening and sedimentation removes a large percentage of suspended solids and

organic matter present in the water. But, however fine colloidal matter and bacteria
present in water cannot be removed. To remove or reduce such impurities the water is
filtered through the bed of granular material such as sand. The process of passing the
water through the beds of granular material(filter beds) is known as filtration.

Theory of filtration

It is the physical separation of concentration of suspended particulate matter from

circulating water. It is accomplished by passing the water through suitable substrate that
trap the particles. The trapped material is then removed by various methods depending
upon the type and design of the filter. Gravel reduces turbidity in water by trapping
particulate matter and removing it from suspension. This is accomplished in two ways,
First, suspended matter is physically trapped in the interstices among gravel grains .
Second, the electrostatically charged surfaces' of the gravel grains attract oppositely
charged particles or colloids and remove them from solution. Rough and angular gravels
are best for mechanical filtration . Their numerous surfaces increase the electrostatic .
potential of the filter bed . The mechanical filtering efficiency of gravel increases with
:,. decreasfng grain . s'ize of the ' individual. gran~le, .' .Srn.Cl.l.l~r granules haye mbr.e surfa~es..
exposed to the water for' electros.latic attraction of ' particulate; ' maHer.. " 'The " srriEille'r .
interstices facilitate removal of finer particles. This results in a greater percentage of
suspended matter removed per volume of filtered water.

Even distribution of each grade of gravel is very important when initially filling a
sand filter. This assures well distributed circulation through the gravel column . No gravel
bed should be less than 2 inch, no matter how small the culture system. Systems less
than 10,000 gallons ra(ely need gravel more than 48 inch deep if they are well designed
and managed .

When any of the following conditions appear the filter should the clea'Qed -

1. Formation of heavy surface mats (Schmutzdecke), the slimy gelatinous filter

skin.
. Heavy concentr atlons of detrilu ir, the corners and along the walls of the filter.
3. Reduced flow rate .
4. Dissolved oxygen below saturation in the filtered water.
The complete removal of accumulated detritus is never the purpose in cleaning a
filter; some detritus must be left t6 aid in biological and mechanical filtration.
Schmutzdeckes are undesirable and must be periodically removed. A schmutzdecke
increase the B.O.D . in a system and reduces its carrying capacity.

154
Types of mechanical filters

Two types of mechanical filters commonly used in hatchery systems are as follows

1. Slow sand filter

2. Rapid sand filter

A. SLOW SAND FILTER

Slow sand filters are best suited for smaller plants and for waters with low
turbidities, low colours, and low bacterial cou.nt. The rate of filtration usually ranges
between 100 to 200 liters per sq. meter of filter area. Slow sand filters are highly efficient
in removing bacteria (98-99%) and other suspended solids from water. They are less
effk,ient in removing turbidities (up to 50 mg/lit).

Construction

Important components of slow sand filter unit are -

1. Enclosure tank:
It consists of an open rectangular tank made of rnasonry or concrete with
bed slope 1 in 100 towards central drain . Plan area ranges from 100 to 2000 sq .
meter with depth ranging from 2.5 to 3.5 meter.

2. Filter media ':

Filtering media consists of sand layers about 90 to 110 em in depth and
placed over a gravel support top 15 em layer is of finer variety than that of the rest.
Coarsest layer should be placed near the bottom.

3. Base material:
The base material is gravel and it supports the sand. It consists of 30 to 75
cm thick gravels of different sizes, placed in layers. Generally 3-4 layer~ each 15-
20 cm depth are used.

4. Under-drainage system:
Under drainage system consists of a central drain and lateral drains as shown in
the figure. The laterals collect the filtered water and discharge it to the main drain,
which in turn leads the water to the filtered water well.

5. Inlet and Outlet arrangements

An inlet chamber is constructed for admitting the effluent from plain
sedimentation tank to distribute it uniformly over the filter bed. A "filtered wate r
well" is constructed on the outlet site in order to collect the filtered water coming out

155
 from the main under drain. Inlets and outlets are generally governed by automatic
valves.

B. RAPID SAND FILTER

Rapid sand filters are the best and most economical. The rate of filtration is
generally of the order of 3000-6000 liters/hrlsq. meter of filter area. This high rate
of filtration leads to considerable saving of space as well as filter material. These
filters employ coarser sand with effective size of 0.5mm or so.

Construction of rapid sand filters

i. Enclosure tank

It consists of an open air tight rectangular tank, made of masonry or

concrete. The depth of the tank may vary from 2.5-3.5m. Area of filter bed
is about 10-80 m2 for each unit. '
ii. Filter media

The filtering media consists of sand layers about 60-90 cm in depth and
placed over a gravel support. The effective size varies from 0.35mm to
0.55mm. The sand must be laid in layers. The finer should be used towards
the top and coarser towards the bottom.

iii. , .Base material

, . ,' ;Like :in ~ ~as' ~ " of :~I~~" s~~d filt~~s:' he~~" al;~ gr~vel s~~~s a~ ~ b~~~ ' ~at~~'i~I. : '
It :.!::. cistributes the wash water. It consists of 60-90 cm thick gravel of
different sizes placed in layers, generally 5-6 layers, each of 10-1.5 em in
depth ., The di?tribution of wash water is the critical function of gravel in rapid
sand filters.

iv. Under drainage system

" Under draina,ge syst,em 'serves two fun'ctions (I) to receive and collect the
filtered water and (ii) to allow the back washing for cleaning of filter. There are
various forms of under drainage system, such as (I) Mani fold and . lateral system,
(ii) the wheeler bottom and (iii) the porous plate bottom.

v. Other appurtenances

The important among them are -

a) Wash water troughs
h) .A.ir ~"Orr.pieS,;)C;-
c) Rate controller
d) Misc. accessories

156
C. PRESSURE FILTER

Pressure filters a're just like small gravity mters placed in closed 'vessels and
through which water to . be treated is passed under pressure. Since water is forced
through such filters at a pressure greater than atmospheric pressure, it is necessary that
these filters are located in air tight vessels. The pressure developed may normally vary
between 30 to 70 meter head of water i.e. 300 to 700 KN/m 2 . The pressure filters can
yield filtered water at rates much higher (i.e. 2 to 5 times) than rapid sand filters . Their
rate of filtration normally ranges between 6000 to 15,000 liters per hour per sq. meter of
filter area.

Construction

The filter vessel may be installed either in a horizontal or in a vertical position.

Steel cylinders are used as pressure vessel and may be riveted or welded . Their diameter
generally varies between 1.5 to 3.0 meter, and their lengths or heights from 3.5 to 8.0
meter. Inspection windows are provided at top for inspection purposes. The position of
various valves are clearly shown in the figure .

D. AIR LIFT FILTRATION

It is the most trouble free means of filtering wate~ t.hrough synthetic spong3 layer
by pumping the water with air lift. In culture applications lift pipe extend s below water level
and filter chamber rests above the top water surface . When the air is supplied in the
vertical pipe of the filter, the air mixed culture water comes up and gets filtered through the
foam container. The suspended impurities up to the size of 0.002 mm cem be filtered out
throu gh this system. By pumping 5 cm 3 air/sec., 2 liters of water per minute can be filtered
when the diameter of the lift pipe is 1 cm .

E. BIOLOGICAL FILTRATION

It comprises the mineralisation of organic nitrogenous compounds, nitrification and

de-nitrification by bacteria suspended in the water and attached to the-gii:wel in th e filter
bed . Bio-filter should be kept away from sunlight to avoid algal growth, which may affect
the process . Types of bio-filters used in aquaculture are trickling, submerged, updraft and
rotatina disc filters .

157
 Organic matter
(Proteins, Nucleic acids, Carbohydrates and fats etc.)

~
Assimilation of
. t
Nitrogen Ammonification
Nitrate by plants fixation NH2-co-nh2+H20=C02+2NH3
and bacteria

NH, (olamination)
. t i
Nitrobacter
N0 3

t
N02~N20

Nitrification
j
Nitrosomonas

. ,, ' .
\.
. . .. ' '.. ' :,
~
I
.
',:'
---------------
. ' .. . , . .,.. . ....

F. . CHEMICAL FILTRATION

It is the removal of substances (primarily dissolved organic, but also nitrogen and
phosphorus compounds) from solution on a molecular level by adsorption on a porous
substrate, or by direct chemical fractionation or oxidation. The removal of dissolved
organic by adsorption is done by activated carbon or charcoal which is a porous substance
and its degree of efficiency or adsorptive capacity is measured by the total surface within
the pores ~hat are available to
.chemically attrC!l~t ..o.rg~nic molecules. In aquatic. animal
culture it is usually the granular type that is used,. One ponds of a high-grade powdered
.variety may contain several million square feet of surface area. But. granular types are
both chemically efficient and easy to handle. After the removal of colloi.d,gLand suspended
solids, the soluble refractory organic may be efficiently removed by contact with activated
carbon granules . Such carbon adsorbs up to 20-30 percent of its own weight in mixed
organic from waste water. It is better to pl3ce g!a:s wool on top of the carbon to reduce
c011f)!d al c.:urface c ating of the granules . GAC is best kept in a separate container or
~ontractor. Scattering it on the surface of a filter bed is impractical because. once the
material is saturated it must then be separated from the gravel grains and removed .

158
O'esign formula for filter

Darcy's formula gives :

KHA
Q = --.. ---- M3/Sec.
L
Q = Discharge of the filter, M3/Sec.
K = Permeability coefficient M/Sec.
H = Head,M
L = Thickness of the filter medium, M.
A = Surface area of the filter, M2

Permeability coefficient " K' for different filter media types

Sr. Soil Type Average Grain Range of 'K'

No. Size (m .m) (m/Sec)
1~ Medium gravel 4~7 (2 .5-4.0) x 10"
2 Fine gravel 2-4 (1.0-2 .5) x 10'"
3 Coarse sand 0.5-2 10-"-10.2
4 Medium sonu 0.3-0.5 5.0 x 10':>- 10.4
5 Fine sand 0.1-0.3 _{1.0-5 .0Jx 10:J

--xxx--
 CHAPTER - XIV

WATER INTAKE SYSTEMS IN HATCHRIES-_

A.K.Reddyand Chandrakant M.H.

Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Mumbai.

FLOW DIAGRAM
Water Source

1. Directly from . Settlement

Sea (unfiltered) tank (14-16 hrs) Clear water

2. Sand filter in
inter-tidal zone

3. Bore well on Chlorir ation tank

Sea - shore . (5 PPM for 6 hrs)

Rapid sand
Filter (501')
...
De-chlorination
@ 0.7 gtn 'of
: .
Na 2S203 '.'5H 20
11 PPM Chlorine

10 PPM EDTA I
overheId Tank I-
t
U V Sterilizer ' " " I ' .
...
Cartridge filter
101'

For use in spa wnint,

J.
Hatching, larva11 Cartridge filter
Rearing Nurse ry& 11'
Algalculture
.L
Cartrid~ filter For use in
0.3 I' Phycolaboratory

160
DESIGN OF WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

A . pe~~ei~ hatc~ery r~q\Jire.s 3 continuous supply 'o f high quality seawater and

freshwater. A poorly sited hatchery or inadequately designed water supply system

can easily doom a hatchery to economic failure .

SEAWATER WELLS

Seawater wells can be drilled or jetted through beach sand, below the static water
level. With small tidal ranges, pumps can be installed at beach or pier level. If the tidal
range is large, costly submersible pumps or an open ocean intake will be needed. Water
from even shallow seawater wells does not normally require additional filtration and has a
small yearly temperature variation (Cansdale 1975). With the exception of iron and
manganese, heavy metal concentrations from seawater wells are generally lower than the
open ocean (Chen et a! 1985; Scholes 1980). In a reducing environment such as often
exists in groundwater, hi~h concentrations of reduced manganese and iron may be
present. Exposure of these compounds to oxygen in the hatchery results in their oxidation
and formation of particulate solids that can block the gills of shrimp larvae . When high
If-wels of dissolved manganese and iron are present in well water, it may be necessary to
aerate the water and settle out the particulate solids prior to hatchery use . Salinity and pH
from seawater well s are typically lower than the open ocean .
Wells may not produce seawater of the proper salinity, or they may have undesirable
water quality properties such as low dissolved oxygen and high hydrogen sulfide, iron, and
manganese concentrations (Cansdale 1981 ).Where geology permits, shallow seawater
wells are very attractive, however, the permeability of many coastal bea~hes is insufficient
to provide anything but modest flows .

OCEAN INTAKES

Direct ocean intake is the most common seawater source . If designed properly, an
ocean intake can provide a reliable source of quality seawater. A poorly designed ocean
intake may result in operational problems, high operating costs. and marginal (or
unacceptable) water quality.

PUMPING SCHEDULE

Continuous pumping capability is the most desirable b t requires an intake below the
extreme low tide level. Since ~he pumps are or can be operated continuously, operations
are simplified . At locations with high tidal ranges, it may not be practical to pump
continuously. The intake for a system using a discontinuous pumping schedule can be
placed above the low tide level, but requires larger pumps, type of system can also be
designed to pump the required daily water requirement during a single high tide. This
allows starting and stopping of pumps during daylight hours and has a large safety factor it
additional water is needed.

161
 Depth and location of intake

Intake depth depends on pumping schedule, wave characteristics, sediment type,

and pipe velocity (Huguenin and Colt 1989). Typically, ocean intake systems are des ned
for the 99 % low tide (i.e., only 1% of the low tides will be lower than this tide). Reduced
water flow during extreme tidal events can be provided for by reserve storage. At some
sites, intakes may have to be located 100-500 m offshore since nearshore water quality
may at times be unacceptable due to freshwater runoff, turbidity, or sediment
concentration.

Location and height of pump house

The pump house must be located far enough from the ocean to reduce
flooding or wave erosiol1 risks . In exposed locations, rip-rap may be needed. Pump house
height, or more correctly the pump impeller centerline height is probably the single most
critical parameter in the design of seawater systems. There is a strong tendency to build
the pump house at grade or at higher elevations to reduce flooding potential and
construction costs. Two important parameters limiting pump impeller height above the
design tide are (1) net positive suction head available (NPSHJ. and (2) repriming suction
lift.
Net positive suction head required (NPSH- O is published by manufacturers for
each specific pump and represents the point where pump efficiency has already started- to
decrease due to caviation . NPSHg must. be greater thaI') NPSH, . to pre'(ent . impeller
ca~iation .damage and reduce~ ef!'.i~i~O~Y: .Ttw . t;-JPSHg depends on the .. (1) .difference' :
between the ' .centerl,ine of the pump im'peller ' and the minimum design tidal elevation
(suction lift), (2) head losses in the suction piping and Fittings, (3) barometric pressure,
and (4) water vapor pressure. Of these four parameters, only the suction lift and suction
side head losses can be controlled. Suction lift can be reduced by either increasing the
minimum operating tidal level or lowering the pump station height. Head losses on the
suction side can be r~duced by increasing the pipe size and providing regular
maintenance .
Self-priming pumps are useful for both typ'es of pUlJ1ping schedules. Self-priming . ',
pumps may be able to self-prime over only part of the tidal cycle"A small vacuum pump ' . .....
~an be used ~o prime pumps 'When the w'eiter' level is . .. . . .
too low for self-priJning .

PUMP SELECTION

Self-priming , centrifugal pumps with water lubricated . mechanical seals are

preferred for primary seawater pumps. Cast-iron or fiberglass pumps are most common .
. rash" pumps that allow impeiler access without disconnecting the piping may be
preferred at some sites . Pumps should have a thermal overload sensor for motor
shutdown if the pump runs dry. Typically, two complete intake, pump, and motor systems
will be required. Electrical service and discharge piping should be 'sized to accommodate
simultaneous operation of both systems.

162
 Pump flow rate should be computed hourly .over the entire pumping cycle.
MiQimLi:m and maximUfJ1 flow.s myst lie witMif,.the.'normal oper.aHng envelope for the pump;
Motor sizes 'must be large ehough to handle the current load required during extreme high
water. Pumps and piping systems are highly interrelated; changes to one may have major
effects on the other.

PIPI NG

High density polyethylene pipe is the preferred material for suction piping; but, PVC
is commonly used due to its availability. Bio-fouling is one of most serious problems
associated with open ocean intakes. Mussels, barnacles, and sea squirts can turn a 20 cm
pipe into a 10 cm pipe within months. Intake screens are particu~arly vulnerable to bio-
fouling . As noted above, most hatcheries are built with two cor'nplete intake systems
(Huguenin and Colt 1989). Typically, one system supplies the water req'uired, and the
other' system acts as a backup. Alternate use at 2-3 week 'intervals will result In anaerobic
conditions in the unused system that can kill but not remove attached organisms.

FRESHWATER SUPPLY

Freshwater is needed for cleaning and salinity adjustment. At some sites, freshwater
must be imported or produced on:ite by reverse osmosis.

DESIGN OF SEAWATER PROCESSING EQUIPMENT

There are many s~awa ter conditioning processes. most of which have been used
at some' time or other in shrimp culture (Hugu enin an.d Colt 1989). The most commonly
used seawater processing in shrimp hatcheries is
discussed below but many variations exist.

CHEMICAL ADDITION

EDTA (Ethylenediamine tetra acetate) and chlorine are two chemicals commonly
added to hatchery water. Residual chlorine decays in the storage tanks or is chemically
removed . EDTA is a chelating agent that improves larval shrimp survival and growth,
although its specific modes of action are not completely understood (Castille and
Lawrence 1981; Lawrence et al. 1981; Licop 1988). EOTA is commonly added at I to
IOmgtL to the source water after the main pump . A flow sensor, controller, and
proportional pump are needed when the flow varies significantly over the pumping cycle.
Chlorine is often added as a disinfectant to influent water in a batch proces,s at 0.5 to 1.0 ,
mgtl. Reactions between EOTA and chlorine may potentially produce toxic compounds .

STORAGE

Commonly, water storage for 0.5 to 3.0 days usage is provided. This sto:-age may
be needed for those rare tidal conditions when the pu mps can not supply enough water or

1{)3
in the event of mechanical failure . This storage may also function as a head tanks or for
seawater "aging". Ideally, several tanks each of about one day"s supply each are used.
This arrangement allows water to be drawn from an "aged" tank, while another
tank is being filled. Tanks are often constructed from reinforced concrete, although pro-
fabricated coated steel tanks may be economic under some conditions.

FILTRATION

A number of different filtration systems have been used in shrimp hatcheries, each
with individual performance and operating characteristics. D!fferent filtration systems may
be ( se rl at various places in a shrimp hatchery (sea Huguenin and Colt 1989).

Coarse screening with 1.5-4 cm hole dimensions may be placed around the main
intake to remove large objects that could clog or damage the pump impellers. Fine saran
or nylon netting can be fabricated into a "sock" and placed over the discharge into the
storage reservoir to filter out finer materi8ls. These "socks" are designed on a loading rate
of about 80 liters/m 2 and can be cleaned by simply inverting and flushing . Sock filters can
remove debris, fish eggs, and larvae down to a size of approximately 0.5 mm.

Water settling for 24 hours removes most of the large suspended solids; but, sand
filtration may be necessary to remove fine suspended solids below 20 n. Sand filters may
be located between the storage reservoir and the hatchery or between the storage-
reservoir and the constant head tank (if present).

C~nv~ntional sand :filters ~~,s.t:.,be, bSlCk ,washe,~ ~h~n 'the filter' C;logs. 'If 'the 'filter run
times. are ,less' 'than I to '2 'days (quite common), then it may 'be necessary to have
per's~:>nnel available on a 24 hour basis or to increase the number of ' filters . While
automatic back flushing filters are available, their control circuits and valves are complex,
prone to failure in a hot salty environment, and close to impossible to repair by hatchery or
local personnel. '

Continuous backwash sand filters (Weinschrott and Tchobanoglous 1986),have a

higher, initial cost than conventional sand filters under some conditions ; but, they offer
In
improved operational reliability,: 19wer. head losses, and !pwe'r,oper:ating costs,' aqdition,:
the cOlit,inu9us bacKwash 'filters have' ~ con'stant low head los's of about 0.6 o
m; this greatly
simplifies their design, operation, and control. In contrast, the head [osses through
conventional filters may vaiy from 4 to over 9 m, and may continually change over the filter
run .
Water for algal and brine shrimp rearing typically requires filtration down to 1 ).lm
using diatomaceous earth (DE) or cartridge filtration . The diatomaceous filter requires
more labor; but, it has much tower operating costs than the cartridge filters, ,especially at
higher flow rates. In addition, diatomaceous earth is readily available from local swimming
pooling suppliers. If cartridge filters are imported a 6-18 month inventory must be
I

maintained to prevenl normal problems (currency restrictions, shipping strikes, general /

strikes, ~tc. J trom disrupting production.

164
CON~TANTHEADTANK

Depending,.on site topography, storage reservoirs may also serve as' a constant
head tank (header tank). In other cases, water is pumped from the reservoir into the
constant head tank by separate re-circulation pumps. A standpipe overflow drain returns
excess water to the storage reservoirs. The purpose of the constant he d tank is to
maintain a constant water pressure and flow rate into the hatchery, In addition, the
constant head tank supplies water to the hatchery during pump or power failure. Piping
between the constant head tank and individual valves in the hatchery must be over-sized
to minimize head losses. Without a constant head tank, water pressure wjll vary
significantly during the day in response to reservoir level, filter losses, and water demand.
Water pressure changes will result in water flow changes during the day; this can calise
many problems. In order to maintain constant flow at the use point, it may be necessary to
constantly adjust the individual valves, or to size the re-circulation pumps and filters to
provide the required flow when the reservoir is' n~arly empty and/or head losses in the
filters are clos'e to the backwash values. When head Iqsses 'in, the re-circulation loop are
less than the maximum value, water 'flow will be greater than required. Therefore, the
water requirement may have to be increased by 20-30% to cover these flow variations .
This will require larger intakes, pumps, and motors. More importantly, the ultraviolet
radiation (UV), boiler(s), heat exchanger, and any other on-line water processing
equipment must be sized for maximum flow; this may considerably increase their size and
cost.

J65
 CHAPTER - XV

LAY OUT PLAN AND DESIGN OF

CARP HATCHERY

A. K. Reddy
IFE, Versova, Mumbai - 400 061

Carp culture is an age old practice in India. Quality seed is the basic requirement to
under take the carp culture . Till the development of induced breeding in the sixties, the
carp seed requirement was met from the reverine spawn collection. Till the early
seventies, reverine spawn accounted for over 92% of total seed production . However, the
mixed quality, low availability and production uncertainty, carp seed production through
induced breeding and bundh breeding in hatcheries through hypophysation has gained
tremendous momentum, especially in the last two decades, reducing the collection of
spawn from rivers .
Having developed the hypophysation technique, several hC'ltcheries have been
. "

, d~s!gned fo~, hatching of fertilized 'eggs : Tradrti~nally the "eggs used ' to ' hatch in, earthen '
hatching pits and double walled hapas , In these methods', the eggs hatch in the natura:
environmental conditions. Due to vagaries of the environmental conditions, particularly at
high water temperature heavy mortalities of fertilized eggs, hatchlings and spawn were
encountered. Having noticed heavy mortalit_ies in the traditional methods, various modern
techniques like vertical jar hatcheries and circular ,hatcheries have been deVeloped for
, better:~atchfng of car.p egg~ unde~ co,nt~olled con'diti~'ns~ Some of th~se h~tcheries, 'even ::
facilitate breeding of carps under conlrolled conditions. Till late eighties 1arge number of
f3;'mero used to produ!";e carp spaWl1 in their cwn hatrheries by using hapas for breeding
and jar hatcheries for hatching of eggs. The year round maintenance of broodstock,
development of circular hatcheries and low cost of spawn, most of the small farmers
stopped the induced breeding operation . Since late eighties the spawn production has '
been restricted to only few big farmers . These farmers are producing spawn at mass
scale through circular hatcheries under controlled conditions, irrespective of monsoon
rains and supplying to th e smail farmers and even to the neighbouring states . Thereby the

166
circular hatchery has become more familiar for production of carp spawn in th e recent
years ..
Layout plan' and design of a circular hatch~ry for p~oduction of 100 miilion carp
spawn per annum are given below.

CIRCULAR HATCHERY

The circular hatchery system consists of an overhead tank, spawning pool,

incubation cum hatching pools and egg collection-cum-spawn collection tank.

OVERHEAD TANK

The overhead tank is made of R.C.C. and has a capacity of about 10,000 to 20,000 litres
with regular pumping facility from water source . The water from overhead tank is supplied
to spawning pool, incubation pools and spawn collection tank.

SPAWNING POOL

It is 'a circular cement tan~ of 8 to 9 meters in diameter and 1.2 to 1.5 meters .in depth,
with 50 cubic meters of water holding capacity. The bottom of the pool slopes at the
centre where there is an outlet pipe leading to the incubation pool or egg collection
chamber. The wall of the tank is provided with diagonally fitted pipes for circular water
flow due to which reverine conditions are simulated and the carps breed. About 70 kg of
males and 70 kg of females can be used at a time which will yield about 8-10 million eggs
in one operation . After spawning, the fertilized eggs are automatically led to the centre
and pass through the outlet pipe into the incubation chambers. This way it is difficult to
estimate the eggs getting loaded in each incubation pool. Thereby, ill the recent days, the
eggs are collected in a separate ' chamber and distributed equally in both the incubation
pools. In order to increase the dissolved oxygen content in the tank, a perforated PVC
pipe is fitted above the breeding pool in such a manner that the fine showers fall inside the
breeding pool.

167
INCUBATIONCUMHATCHING POOLS
The incubation-cum-hatching pools are circular in shape and constructed 0 brick
and cement. Generally, two incubation pools are connected to one spawning pool. The
incubation pool consists of two chambers. Inner diameter of the outer chamber is 3 to 4
meters and a depth of about 0.8 to 1.0 meter with water holding capacity of 9 to 12 cubic
meters. The inner chamber is about 0.6 to 1.0 meter in diameter which is separated from
the outer chamber by a fine nylon screen. The incubation pool holds about 0.7 to 1.0
million eggs per cubic meter of water.
Water circul~tion is very important for proper hatching of fertilized eggs . For this
purpose, several diaqonally fitted pipes lead to the bottom and sides of the outer chamber.
The water inletS at the bottom and sides of the incubating pool are so arranged as to
create circular movement of water by which the eggs are kept in a constant circular
movement. The inner chambers of the incubation pools are separated by a fine nylon
screen. This nylon screen is stretched and fitted on an iron frame . A rubber belt is
fastened very tightly to seal the compartment. In the centre of the inner chamber an
overflow pipe is arranged at a particular height through which the incoming water is led out
after a particular hE)ight. 'The water speed is controlled by mean~ of a ga~~ value .
. .... .....

B~EEDING TECHNIQUE

First of all, the breeding pool is filled with water. All the diagonally fitted inlet pipes
are kept open to maintain a constant circular motion inside the breeding pool. After
injecting, the females (spawners) anq males (milters) are released in the breeding pool.
Due to the constant circular movement of water, riverin.e c;;onditions are sim(llat~d.. ThE{' ,
brood fish get stim'~lation' ~~d ~r~ed. ':T'h'~ fe'rtili;ed eg'9S '~3re ~oll~'~ted in the 'egg collectio~ '
chamber through a central outlet pipe which controlled with a gate valve. The eggs are
measured and distributed uniformly in both the incubation pools. The flow of water in the
incubation chamber is controlled to keep the eggs constantly in circular motion due to
diagonally arranged pipes. This arrangem6nt helps in proper hatching of fertilized eggs.
The excess water is led out th roug h a central outlet pipe fitted in the centre of the inner
chamber. The spawn is retained for three days in this, till the yolk is absorbed.

168
Total volume of outer and inner chambers = 7.0 m3

Dimensions of outer hatching chamber

V= n ~h
7.0 =3.142 x ~ x 0.8
71 . 2
~=----- = 28 .326 m
3.142 x 0.8
r= 1.67 m
Diameter of outer chamber =3.35 m
Height of outer chamber =1.00 m

EGG-CUM-SPAWN COLLECTION TANK

Cement tank of 2.0 x 1.0 x 0.75 m :: 1 no.

171
 CHAPTER - XVI

STATUS OF CAGE AND PEN AQUACULTURE IN FRESHWATERS OF INDIA

P. KUMARAIAH
Peninsular Aquaculture Division of CIFA ----
Hessarghatta Lake, Bangalore 560 089, Karnat(lka, India

1 INTRODUCTION

Raising of fish in water based confinements is a specialised aquaculture technique

which is gaining importance the world over for intensive exploitation of existing, especially
large, fresh or brackish-water and marine resources . The confined aquaculture system
consists of growing of young fry of fin -fish or shell-fish to a large size, within a netting or
screening, which allows free circulation of water. They are in the form of cages, pens or
enclosures. Enclosure is a confined bay, where the shoreline is typically closed-off by a
net or screen barrier on all but one side. The rearing facility in pen is almost entirely man-
made, the sides being covered by bamboo matting, netting or screening. The bottom in
both enclosures and pens however, is bound by the lake bed . Cage on the other ha.nd
enclosed at the bottom as well as the sides by screening. However, the terms 'enclosure',
'pen' and 'cage' are virtually synonymous (Beveridge, 1987) and therefore often together
referred to as enclosures.

2 . ~istory' ,',

Rearing of fish in cages was first described by Lafont and Saveun in 1951 (cited by
Hickling, 1962). Cage culture possibly first originated nearly 200 years ago in Cambodia
where fishermen used to keep Clarias sp . and some other fishes in bamboo cages in the
basements of floating dwellings, primarily for holding and marketing. This gradually
became a system of culture, since the fish could withstand crowded conditions in the ,
cages and grew with kitchen scraps, left-over rice and other similar waste .materials and '.
gained popularity throughout the lower Mekong basin 'of the couhtry (Ling, 1977). Cag~'"
-culture ' is traditional in parts of Indonesia also, where cages are anchored in streams,
which are practically open sewers. Common carp culture in bamboo cages is practiced in
west Java, sin~e the early 1940. This type of traditional fish culture, distinguished by its
reliance on natural construction materials and waste feeds, is still practiced in many parts
of Indonesia and Indo-China. However, although moderately successful, these methods
of rearing fish have been largely localised and not directly given rise to the current cage
fish farming industry. Modern cages utilise synthetiC rnpc:.h or netting and have collars,
largely fabricated fro.m synt~etic polymers and metals, although wood is still widely used in
many designs.

Standing water cage culture probably, originated in Japan in the early 1950s which
has been adopted for commercial culture of fishes in most countries including India.
However, it was only during the past 20 years that aquaculture in enclosures has spread

172
.(now practjced in over 35 countries) anq has become a high-tech t?usiness in the
developed countries such as floating qnd/or submerged cage culture of salmoniqs in
Canada, Norway and Scotland, tuna in Japan and Gatfish in Southern USA. The same
trend may be expected in the tropics also,' as large business houses began to take interest
in this system of aquaculture .

In India, cage culture was attempted for the first time in the case of air breathing
fishes in swamps which are marked by low dissolved oxygen in water (Dehadrai et al.,
1975) and for major carps in running water in Yamuna and Ganga during 1972-76 at
Allahabad (Natarajan et al., 1979) and common carp, catla, silver carp, murrels and tilapia
in a still water body in Bangalore (Govind et a/., 1983 and 1988, Kumaraiah et al., 1986
Sukumaran, et al., 1986). The cages also have been used for replacing ground nurseries
for rearing fry.

Compared to cage culture, pen culture has a more recent history. It possibly
started in the Inland sea area in Japan in the early 1920s and later spread to China in the
early 1950s for rearing carps in freshwater lakes (Alferez, 1977). Pen culture was taken
up on a commercial scale in Laguna de Bay and the San Pablo lakes in the Pnilippines
from 1968 for rearing milkfish, Chanos chanos (PCARD,1981).

Presently, commercial pen culture of fish is in vogue in the Philippines, Indonesia

and China. The main species cultured in pens in these countries are mUkfish, grass,
bighead c3R0 silver calps, and tilapia. In India, in situ L:arp seed ,.earing was attempted in
. Bhavanisagar and Tungabhadra reservoirs .in pens since 1878 for rearing fingerlings .

. , Pens are still constructed m'uch' the same ' way ~s they qlways were, .except that
'nylon or polyt~ene-mesh nets haver replaced the.t"raditional split bamboo fences.. The nets '.
are attached to fixed .posts set every few meters and the bottom of, the net' is buried in the
substrate with long wooden pegs .

3 Scope of cage and pen culture

India has vast habitat resources for freshwater aquaculture by way of ponds and
tanks with an estimated area of 1 million ha and with a potential area of 1.5 million ha. In
addition, water spread area under reservoirs and canals is estimated at 3 million ha, which
have been hitherto under exploited and need to be harnessed for augmenting fish
production by various aquaculture practices, including cage and pen culture of suitable
fishes, The culturable fish fauna in India is rich in var:iety. Cyprinids, perches, murrels and
catfishes form the major groups which can be cultivated in cages and pens.

Pen and cage culture can be practiced at various management levels such as
extensive, semi-intensive and intensive methods. In extensive culture, no supplementary
feed is given and cultured species solely depend on naturally available food in the water
body such as plankton, detritus, periphytic community and benthos. In semi-intensive
culture, low protein (less than 20 %) feed is given to supplement the natural food.

17J
 Extensive and semi-intensive culture can be practiced in pens and cages. In intensive
culture, the cultured species are reared almost exclusively on high quality supplementary
feed (more than 30 % protejn). This type of culture can be more conveniently practiced in
cages rather than in pens! . ' . ..

4 ADVANTAGES AND SOME CONSIDERATIONS

The major advantages of enclosure aquaculture are of two types, viz . resource
ranching and technology benefit. In resource ranching (i) there is a possibility of making
maximum use of all available water bodies, (ii) helps reducing pressure on land use and
(iii) permits more intensive use of existing inland waters. The technology point of view the
advantages are (i) a rapid. easy, sure and complete harvest of the fish with very little
effort. (ii) the scope to raise different species of fishes inside the enclosures and in the
open w~ter and (iii) direct and easy observation of the feeding activity and general health
of fish and elimination of fish losses due to predatory animals which are involved in the
open ecosystems . Considerable indirect employment also will be generated .

However, enclosures have their limitations. strong water current, turbuience,

wind and wave actions are not congenial, as they may damage or dislocate the enclosure
structures. Therefore, their location is restricted to sheltered areas. Backup fe ed store,
hatchery and marketing places are called for and therefore strategic location is necessary.
An adequate water exchange through the enclosure walls is needed to remove
metabolites and maintain high DO levels. Rapid fouling of screen requires frequent
cleaning. There is absolute depfmdence or. ariificia: feeding, unless highly eutrophic water
bodies ,are utilised, especially with regard, to cage 'c'ultwre. High' qu,ality balanced rations
are essential for the fish stock and feed losses are possible through thE!" . . . . 31Is u.nless
, dispensed 'approprjately, Sometimes interference from the natural ,populations, I.e" small '
'f\sh :enfering ', into enclosures and competing for food can o(;cLir . . Security at times be 'a '
problem, since the fish in enclosures may be easily poached or the structures damaged by
vandals.

5. SITE FOR LOCATION OF ENCLOSURES

, ,;Site :;>election ,is extr~mely important for 'the success of cage and pen culture .
,Factors that must be taken into account include the following: ' ' .

Water quality (enclosures should not be sited in down stream of industry or

in polluted water,
Availability of fish seed
Market accessibility (transport availability) and
The site should have adequate circulation of water; however, tne wind and
wave action should be moderate, excess turbulence of water will cause
energy wastage by fish for stabilizing ,themselves and also strain the
structures.

174
6. FISH SPECIES FOR 'ENCLOSURE AQUACULTURE

About .70 sp~cies be,longing to diverse fish commu:nities have been so far
experimented for culture in cages in more than 35 countries. The choice of species
depends to a large extent on market demand and the availability of seed . However, the
main desirable characteristics of the candidates for enclosure aquaculture are their
potential for fast growth in fingerling and growout phases, high survival, capacity to
withstand overcrowding. rapid adaptation to artificial feeds, high feed conversion rate,
quality flesh and resistance to diseases and bacterial infections. The Indian and Chinese
carps (Catla cat/a, Labeo rohita, Labeo calbasu, Cirrhinus mrigala, Cyprinus carpio,
Hypophthalmichthys mo/iirix and Ctenopharyngodon idella), air breathing catfishes
(Clarias batrachus and Heteropneustes rossi/is), tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) ,
murrels (Channa striatus and Channa maru/ius) and freshwater prawns (Macrobrachium
rosenberg;i and Macrobrach;um ma/comsonil) have been so far cultured in freshwat~rs in
India.

7. FOOD AND FEED REQUIREMENTS

The feed should contain a full complement of proteins (including essential

aminoacids), lots and carbohydrates as energy source and as well as nonenergy sources
like vitamins, minerals, etc. The energy available from 1 g of protein is 4. 65 kcal g-1 and
on complete cumbustion only 4.0 kcal g-1 is available for the fish. Similarly the estimated
()v:;ilable energy from 1 g carbohydrate is 4.1 kcal and about 50 - 70 % of this would be
available if the source is cooked starch and nearly 4 kcal if it is digestible sugars. The
combustible value for fat is 9.45 kcal g.1 and fish can utilise up to 8 kcal g-1. Compounded
diets may be prepared by balancing the feed ingredients so that ttiey would yield desired
level of 'p'rotein, carbohydrate and fat. About 70 % of the energy is used for metabolism
and 30 % is converted to fish flesh .

Protein is the most costly factor in feed formulations . The requirement of protein
may vary from 24-50 % of diet according to species and the stage of its life cycle .
Exce5sive amount of protein supplied to fish is used more as energy source than growth.
Adequate supply of digestible carbohydrates and liquid fats (with long chain fatty acid-
PUFA) would reduce the cost of the feed and at the same time carbohydrates would
supply up to 20 % of the available calories in the ration and fat up to 30 %. This will spare
protein since less protein would be used for energy and would be converted into fish flesh .
Fats may be added @ 8 - 15 % and carbohydrates @ 15 - 25 % to the diet.

Fish in open water areas meet their food requirements through all available sources
in various ecological niches. The feed requirements of a fi sh, as mentioned earlier varies
during its life cycle . In its early life cycle fish is in general a carnivorous as most of the
species thrive on zooplankters and turn into herbivores as they reach advanced fry and
fingerling stages . Fish in the lower food chain (e.g., phytoplankters and
macrophytophagous fishes) utilise more carbohydrates than fish in higher food chain (e.g.,
macroplankton feeders and carnivores). In the former case artificial feed may include up
to 50' % aquatic leafy vegetables (e.g., Otte/ia sp . water hyacinth, nymphoides, etc.) as

175
, they supply up to 22 % protein and thus reduce the addition of costly feeds like groundnut
on cake. The plant protein is readily converted into fish fle~h .

, , Feed is ' sup~lied to gr~wout fishes ' @ 5 % body weight at wnich highest ~owth
rates have been observed for manY 'of the cultured species. Feeding more than twice a
day and supplying food in excess of 5 % body weight results in wastage of feed and
proves uneconomical. Feed is best supplied ad libitum based on the quantity of feed
consumed by fish within 10 minutes of its supply.

Feed formulations are fortified with adequate quantities (0.1 %) of vitamins ,

minerals and growth promoting substances , Brood stock may be provided with vitamin E
(200 mg 1<:0. 1 feed) and vitamin C (50 mg kg" feed) and fed @ 3 % body weight for a
period of 'about 5 - 6 months commencing from February or earlier depending or. the
.commencement of the breeding season, , Veterinary br'ands of preservatives, drugs,
antibiotics; etc." may 'be ' added ' to prevent/' cure fish disease and as' a prophylactic ' .
measure .

8. ENCLOSURE STRUCTURES

8.1 The cage

There are several types of fish rearing cages including surface cages resting 011 the
bottom, submerged cages and cages floating at the water surface, Th a -fIQ?ting cage has
been accepted 'as the most appropriate type for Indian condi(ions, and ,research ,on r~aring "
of seed, growout, nutritional and ' stocking requirements have also been corid'u'd ed using
them, Ideally;' .th~ cages used fQf aquaculture shoulO be i,nexpensive, durable ari'p easy to
handle, ' Various Shape's and siz~s have' bee,ii ,'successfully' used, The appro~imate cag'e
size depends upon the particular culture operation for rearing seed or for growout, and
availability of support infrastructure . In most cases they have collapsible frame structures
(to hold the cage bag in shape) and the screen is of nylon or other synthetic webbing of
various mesh sizes , The material used for the frame-work are aluminium , galvanised iron
or conduit iron tube or rigid PVC or HDPP pipes . The iron tube is sprayed with water-proof
paint for protection from rusting . Empty barrels and, materials such as HDPP jerry cans
or air~tight PVC pipes, fibreglass or styrofoam floats are used as buoys to keep the cages
, afloat. A bamboo framework (catwalk), floated by empty oil barrels; is built around . ~ : :
battery of cages or they are freely floated with the help of plastic cans in mid-wafer with
some mooring device .

8.2 The pen

Pens arp. fenced enclosures created along margins of water sheets . Pen culture
has considerable potential in Situations where large, suitable watersheds exist. Flat or
mildly sloping bottom with muddy clay loam soil substratum with not less than 0.5 m and
not exceeding 1.2 m water depth during th e growing pe~iod of 4 to 6 months, without sharp
draw-downs, are most suitable sites for installation of pens. The method of erection of
pens can be of two types viz., on wet ground ,where already water exists and on dry

176
. ground where subr,nersion up to 1.2 m is expected. The individual pen s.egments may.be .
of any shape and of varying sizes, as dictated by are?' and contour of water b~dy. The.
suPPor:ti!1g structure is constructed by drivi,ng stakes (length: 2.5 m; dia: 30 to 40 mm) into
the bottom, fixed 1.5 m apart, and braced with long, straight, split bamboo horizontally at
every 30 cm height from the ground level. In a dry pen, a trench of 30 cm deep may be
dug, having 50 cm pits at every 1.5 m distance, for firmly driving poles into the bottom soil,
well before the onset of monsoons, Whereas, in wet pens the water area has to be
demarcated with the help of guide ropes and corner posts. The structural frame -work is
prepared using 2.5 m long bamboo poles (fixed in bottom mud vertically along the guide
rope at 1.5 m intervals) with upper and middle bamboo bracing. The pen screen (12 mesh
cm- 1 ) is lined inside the pen structure . The screen of desired width (say 1.8 m) is made by
joining running length of material by stitching . In case of wet pen the bottom portion of the
screen (30 cm) kept folded inside and pushed down with the help of the brick layering all
along, whereas in dry pens the 30 cm portion is buried in the trench and filled with soil.
The top screen is raised and tied to the upper horizontal bracing with ties (at the bracing
points on top, middle and bottom) at each vertical post. Net cover for the pens may have
to be provided to ward -off any possible bird menace. Provision may have to be made for
ladders or other perches for attending feeding and for harvesting fish .

Materials

The materials employed for constructing enclosures should be ~trong and durdbl~
enough to hold the collective weight of the fish stock and yet allow relatively unrestricted
exchange of water. Ideally th e materials used .fo ~ the screen and other . accessories shouid
be (i) strong, (ii) ligtlt, (iii) rot, corrosion and weather resistant, (iv) fouling resistant, (v)
.easily worked and repairable, (vi) smooth ~ex't~red ' and thus non-abra'slve to the fish , (vii)
inexpensive and (viii) easily available.

Collar and flotation system for cages

Cage frame (collar) is to provide support to the cage bag in the water column .
Many cage collars also serve as work platforms with flotation system. The simplest is
constructed almost entirely from wood or bamboo which serves as a rigid frame-work for
maintaining the shape of the bag and also supports the weight of the structure. Other
examples include empty and expanded polyurethanel polystyrene foam filled plastic and
synthetic rubber pipes which form the basic frame-work of the collar. The alternative is to
select dense materials such as galvanised steel and aluminium alloy pipes for strength,
and to add supplementary flotation such as steel drums or blocks of expanded synthetic
poly:ners. Such materials are, of course, considerably more expensive, but have a life of
10 to 12 years . Rigid PE pipe, which is ligh t, strong and highly resistant to rotting and
weathering, filled with high density expanded polyurethene is least. problematic and is
commonly used for circular collars in Western Europe .

Bamboo, balsa and light wood logs, plastic (PVC) containers, steel and PVC drums,
used oil drums (painted or coated with fibreglass), aluminium floats and styrofoam,

177
fibreglass and ferrocement blocks are commonly used for flotation purpose. In selecting
the type of flotation system it will be necessary to consider the cost, availability, durability,
ease of replacement, effectiveness in a particular situation and efficiency in relation to the
investment in the enclosure and value of the fish contained.

Materials for pens

The materials required for pen construction are (i) fencing screen of suitable
material, (ii) bamboo or wooden poles to support and hold the pen screen in position
against water current, wind and wave action, (iii) 3 to 5 mm dia foot and head ropes of
durable quality and (iv) tying or lacing twine of about 1 mm thickness.

The screen materials used for making pens should be :

with th e size of mesh sma ll enough to retain fish fry 'o r fingerlings;
resistan.t to lon g exposure to sun ' and water;
sturdy enough to withstand the stretching tension and curr'ent, .wind and wave
action;
resistant to cuts by crabs and other animals;
relatively cheap and easily availab le and
easy to handle and transport.

HOPE monofilament webbing material is commonly used, being cheaper, lighter

and resistant to cuts by crabs. The materi81 is also quite resistant to sunligbt, salin~ watcr .
and ' stretching tension. However, in. an environment where filamentous algae grow in '.
abundance, the netting material tends to get clogged. Weekly brushing of the pen wall .
reduces this problem . The material usually comes in rolls of 0.75 to 1.20 m in width,
varying from closely woven (40' mesh cm' l) to 10 - 20 mesh cm ,l , 40 mesh cm,1 fabric is
ideal for rearing spawn to fry and 12 - 15 mesh cm,l webbing , from fry to fingerlings.
Knotted nylon webbing (stretched mesh of 20 to 40 mm) may be used for making a top
cover, whenever necessary.

Matured and well-seasoned bamboo or casurina poles (50 to 70 mm dia) are the
best material for supporting stake structures, particularly in re!atively shallow water areas.
Pressurised treatment with preservative chemic'als and tar can prQlong the life of the
.posts. Side bracing is done with the help of either thin round or split bamboo. .. .

CAGE DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

Shapes and sizes

Round, octagonal, square or rectangular shapes do not make signIficant

differences in fish production . Some fish farmers in USA believe that well-defined corners
encourage harmful crowding of the fish stock and prefer cylindrical cages. However,
commercial catfish cages in USA are rectangular in shape. It is important that the cage

178
volume remains relatively resistant to deformation by external forces which could cause
crowding, stress and mortality of the valuable stock. Static force is vertical which includes
the weight of bag and fouling . ~tatic .loadscan be estimated from the area and density of .
netting ~r rigid. mesh materials used, the extent of fouling, fish biomass and the quantities
af ropes 'alld weight of the frame cbmponents .used to strengthen and stiffen the strudure .
Ii,is important to quantify static Ioads for design of the flotation and mooring systems,
which are less critical in determining the design of the cage. Dynamic force caused by
currents act horizontally, although wind induced surface waves acting on the collar will
induce some degree of vertical dynamic loading. Quantification of currents and the
response of the materials can help in predicting how a particular de'sign will perform in
terms of water exchange and deformation of the cage and can aid in the design of frame
for rigid mesh materials and in rigging system for netting.

The size of th e fish cages depends on the scale of operation, species and stage of
fish reared and infrastructure, financial and managerial resources . The underwater
voluille (size of cages varies from 150 m3 in Indonesia to 60 to 180 m3 and 40 to 625 m 3 ,
respectively in Cambodia and Vietnam (Pantulu, 1979), whil e 30 m3 cages are used for
trout culture in Holland . .

Some of the large circular cages operated in Germany have a diameter of 42 m and
depth of 12 m (underwater volume: 16,500 m3 ) and are provided with au tomatic or water
jet pump (pressure ) feeding and special handling and harvesting accessories. In
Scotiand, the traditional 300 to 400 m3 Atlantic salmon cages are being replaced by those
at ieast twice this volume . However, large cages require more sophisticated material s,
technology and management: I.n USA, for inland ponds, the cage sizes for growing
catfishes, tilapias and carps e:-e in the range of 2.9 X 1.2 X 0.9 m to 3.6 X 2.4 X 1.2 m
only. The cages employed in India are also small, in the range of 1 to 36 .m3 , . both
cylindrical a.nd rectangular ones being suitable for manual operation .

Cage (bag) depths between 0.9 a'nd 1.6 m are generally considered ideal for most
freshwater fishes and give the stocks sufficient shelter from surface effects, whilst
providing adequate water volume for exercises and feeding . From the fi sh farmer's pOint
of view, the principal advantage of increasing the size of the cage is that the costs per unit
volume pro.gressively declines .

Synthetic fibre net bags are usually designed with an area of freeboard to prevent
the fish from jumping out and also to help the physiological requirements of air-breathing
fishes for surfacing . The height of the freeboard is determined on the basis of the species
cultured, some such as th e silver carp, being tremendous leapers (Beveridge, 1987)
require high freeboard . However, the influence of wind forces in exposed netting should
be borne in mind . A compromise is to use a top net which deters entry of predators as
well .

Mesh size is critical and depends on the initial size of the stock. For rearing fry it is
desirable to have knotless mesh of 4 to 6 mm 2 size. 16 to 20 mm mesh webbing is most

179
 commonly used tor growout stages of fishes. Unless pre-fabricated bags are ordered trom
a commercial company, netting must be cut and assembled into cage bags in the farm.

The shape of the floats requires some consideration. The dynamic forces acting on
a floating ,framework are principally horizontal, produced by wind, current aIkI waves,,'
.,although the latter does have a vertical component as well. Wind forces act on freeboard '
. n~tting and other parts of the structural trame.which are above the water line. Based on
the meteorological data ot the region, the wind forces are to be assessed and the
superstructures designed.

The circular floating cages developed by CIFA at Ba'ngalore (Kumaraiah and

Parameswaran, 1985) for the growout of carps and snakeheads are constructed from
water-proof paint coated electric iron conduit pipes. Rigid PVC pipe, which is light, strong
and highly resistant to degradation and weathering, either filled with high density
expanded polyurethane or air tight empty frame-work is now more commonly used by the I

CIFA at Bangalore. It is better to have a walkway for the cage complex from the
managemenf point of view. The types of cages with frame or collar and flotation system
are described below:

Type 1: Bamboo cages

The size of this cage is 5 X 4 X 2 m (length, width and depth), with a water volume I
of 30 m3 and 0.5 m free board . The ready~made cage bag is fixed to a floating bamboo I
frame, each side with 3 or 4 long bamboo pieces (6 and 5 m long, length and width-w.ise,
respectively) fastened toge.ther with rope (nylon or coir). The. frame is tied to 4 sealed <31
. floats (custom built; ,size: 80 X 40.x 40 cm) or suitable HDPP barrels, from below,' in \he' ' I
corners (6 floats for a' 2' cage complex) and floated. The bamboo framework (ra'ft) also
acts as a catwalk and can be anchored to the substratum with the help of heavy stol1es,
preferably in the four corners .. The top of the cage net may be fastened ~o the inner
bamboo frame inside, and the bottom left hanging in water. The bottom corners of the
cage bag may be provided with adequate sinkers (approximately 1 kg in weight) to
maintain the shape . Loops may be provided at the bottom corners of the cage through
which a long sliding (free) rope is passed and a stone sinker tied and dropped into water.
The other end of the sliding rope is tied to the catwalk.

Type 2: PVC floating cages

" "'.,
"\," .
A rectangular cage (4 X 2 X 2 m size) with knotted netting bag is tied to a
HDPP/PVC pipe autofloating frame-work. The frame is constructed from 70 or 90 mm dia
(6 kg) rigid PVC pipe with appropriate right angle elbow at each corner. The pipe and
elbow are glued with PVC cerflent and joined air tight. The top of the cage bag is attached
to the frame, which also serves as a flotation device. Twelve, 100 g lead weights may be
attached equidistantly to the netting at ihe bottom edges of the cage bag to help retain its
rectangular shape. The top of the. cage net is raised above the water level to have a
freeboard (about 0.3 m), by a light, additional supporting PVC frame or any other device.

180
Type 3: Metallic cages

Metallic. cages can be of circ.ular or square type . . The circular cage consists of the
round frame, the bag anq the susp'ension system 'consisting of floats and anchors . The
frame IS ma9.e of iron conduit pipe- (diameter:' 20.{T1m; gauge: 16)-";(1 arched preces' w~ich . .
can be assembled. The net" material is stitched' like a cylindrical "'bag with a circular
bottom, hung and fastened to the frame. The net cage is closed at the top, providing a slit
for handling the stocked fish . Three sealed, empty HDPP jerry cans (capacity: 25 I each
2
for a 10m cage) buoy up the cage . These cages are of size 1 m 2 (radius: 0.56 ml
perimeter: 3.55 m), 5 m 2 (1.26 ml 7.92 m) and 10 m 2 (1 .78 ml 11.21 m), with an
underwater depth of 1 to 1.5 m and a freeboard of 0.5 m.

Square cage is constructed using the same type of conduit pipe as above, a
square bqx type frame (3 .35 X 3.35 X 2) is fabricated to which the net bag is attached and
floated with the help of floating bamboo catwalk (Govind et al., 1983). The frame can be
assembled by clamps and nut and bolt arrangement. The catwalk is buoyed up with the
help of 4 .sealed oil drums (200 I capacity). The area of the cage is 10m2 with a
submersible depth of 1.5 m, the water volume inside being 15 m 3 .

Type 4: Basket cage

A small basket or shuttlecock shaped floating net cage (underwater volume: 0.2 m 3 )
for rearing fishes has be~n designed by Kumaraiah and Parameswaran (unpublished).
The large surfacing area of the cage enables, particularly the air breathing fishes, for aerial
:espiration witholJt hitting e-?ch other. A. perforated plastic basin serves s bottom ,
supported by GI rod (10 mm dia) frame (upper ring dia: 75 cm) with radiating ribs . It is
buoyed up with the help of 4 to 6 rexin floats (15 mm dia). Several such cages may b
held together in an anchored HE?PPI PVC pipe frame-work.

The cage is ideal for culture of magur (C. batrachus) and singhi (H. fossilis) in any
type of protected water body, including open wells. It is also comes handy for conducting
replicated experiments for screening of feeds, studying th e influence of density on fi sh
growth, rearing fish seed, fish nutrition and bioassay of water, using fish as a test animal.

Cage linkages and groupings

Th'e number and arrangement of cages should depend on (i) the size of the farm,
(ii) the area and nature of the site, (iii) the shape and design of the cage and linking
system, (iv) mooring constraints and (v) environmental considerations (Beveridge, 1987).
Square and rectangular cages can be assembled in a variety of configurations. It is
recommended that for most sites, although cage grougings may be 8 to 10 cages long,
they shodld be no more than two wide . Their grouping together markedly reduces the
forces acting on individual cages . Linkages between cages should be so designed that th e
pitching motion is only moderately damped, while rolling, surge and sway are kept to a
minimum. The more rigid the linkages , the greater the forces that are concentrat d at
these points. It is best to construct either smaller cages with linkages which permit som e

IXI
degree of pitching and bearing or large cages with flexible collars. The simplest type of
linkages use rope or chain which is secured sufficiently tight to reduce all motion, except in
the vertical plane, to a minimum. Rubber lyres are often lashed or bolted between cages
to act as fenders.

Anchoring and access

The lines and anchors together form mooring system to secure the cages in a
desired position. The moorings also influence the stress acting on individual cages and
their behaviour in rough weather and can affect fish production. The mooring system can
be (i) multiple or (ii) single point. The former is more common and involves securing the
cages in one particular orientation. whilst the latter allows the cages to move in a complete
circle. Cages moored from a single poir.t distribute wastes over a considerably larger area
than those secured at multiple points.

Most methods of mooring involve the use of rope and chain to .connect the cage or
group of cages to anchors or pegs. However. an alternate method is to drive Io.ng pqsts
into the substrate and to attach the cage raft directly. either with ropes or tyre strips. which
permit tidal and wave induced vertical movements of the cages.

Mooring lines must both withstand and transform forces . The tidal length of
mooring line to bear anchors should be at least three times the maximum depth of wat~r at
the site . Block anchors are more efficient as they tend to bed down into the substrate. for
most inland waters .
. . ... '

A(jcess tocages is normally by boat. Daily feedin'g and other routl~e management
ac~ivitie~ ~re don'e by boat. rigidly fixed pier walkways or solid bank a.tt~chment.

Feeding rings, troughs or feeders

In the design and construction of cages. consideration should be given to the type
of feeding arrangement inside the cages for sinking or floating pellets. as the case may be .
Part of the surface area of the cage or entire perimeter is enclosed in the feeding ring with
1 to 3 mm close mesh net for feeding floating pellets. The sides of the feeding ring should
extend 10 em into the water. A trough is submerged below the water surface for sinking
pellets and the feed is I.ed into it. with some suitable device. The feededor sinking pellets
'comprises of '~ln intake' funnel on top, a delivery pipe in t.he middle and feed-drop trough
(receptacle) at the base. The rigid HDPPI PVC funnel serves as the mouth for introducing
the feed. dovetailing into the delivery pipe . The lower end of the delivery pipe opens
above the receptacle of 60 cm height, made of monofilament HDPP cloth (16 mesh cm-\
This is modified for handling the floating pellets with the lower and of the delivery pipe
opening into the feeding ring. instead of the receptacle in the former design. The feeder
(both designs) is fixed on to the cage frame. Both methods reduce feed losses, especially
if the water is rough and a strong current passes through the cage.

182
PEN DESIGN AND ERECTION

. .As in the 'case of cages, the strertgth and stiffness criteria must be considered in th~
design of the composite pen structure, the components of which react to 'the given load .
Fish pen designing and construction is easy and simple when compared',to that of cages.
No amount of structural analysis is satisfactory in designing unless the forces which act on
them are not properly determined, such as the effects of winds, waves and drifting weeds
or other objects.

The fish pens of lake Laguna are of various shapes (circular, square and
rectangular). The pen should best be of square or rectangular shape for convenience of
harvesting, using a drag net or seine net.

The size of net pens depends on a number of parameters such as location, de th of

water and the species of fish reared. However, for effective control, it is recommended not
to increase the individual area to more than 500 m2 . For commercial operations the sizes,
however, may be larger, ranging from 1 to 5 ha in area .

Height of a pen wall depends on the maximum water level during the culture period .
There shou ld be a reasonable freeboard (50 cm or more, depending on the wave action,
jumping behaviour of the cultured species and the predator fish species out side the pen)
over th e maximum water level. A portion (about 30 cm) of the wall should also go into the
bottom mud to keep the pen wall secure .

Construction of pen walls

The design of the pens, their configuration, duration of culture, ' etc:, may vary ..
according to the water body. The water bodies for pen construction .may be divided .into
two categories viz., category 1 will .include narrow rive'rs, (rrig'alion canals: oxbow lakes,
etc. and category 2 will be shallow reservoir margins or tanks. A part of the former can be .
d'vided into a number of convenient sections by erecting partition fences across the
narrow water bodies. Thus there can be one to several pens in a series. Each pen will
have two walls but two contiguous pens will have a common partition . The other two sides
of the pen will be the rivei or canal banks. In some creeks and oxbow lakes there may be
a fence at least on three sides, the shore being the fourth side. In the latter type of water
bndy, depending on the draw-down situations, the pens are four walled, constructed away
from the shore, taking into account the depth contours. This category of water can be
used for installing pens for rearing fish fry, as culture operation cannot be continued for a
long period due to wide fluctuation in water level.

a) Bamboo screen fence

The simplest pen is that made of bamboo screens which are interspersed through
the vertical poles alternately and secured by coir rope or nylon twine. A trench is
excavated and the lower part of the screen is partially buried inside and filled, to prevent
entry or escape of fishes from the bottom. In recent years a nylon netting or velon screen

183
 of suitable mesh size is provided inside the bamboo screen for additional safety of the
stock. Bamboo screen fencing is suitable in narrow and shallow rivers. road sid canals.
flooded fields and other similar water bodies. The fence is best installed when there is
little or no water in the impoundment.

1: . Monofilament cloth pens

~hfee n.Jnn;f'~.JeRg~n~: of'n:'on'Ofifanren(faQrr~

'. . . . .:, T\:Vp 'Or. ~tt~c~e'd: :Iength'::~i~~"t~ '~et': .
are..
' .. fhe "required ' Widt~ : . Selvedge meshes ni.ay be attac,hed on ~ither side of the' screen. A 5 .
. mm dia rope maY. be inter woven into selvedge meshes along the head-and foot-line. The
screen wall is prepared just like a fry net. Vertical attachment (width-wise) with nylon
strips may be required as additional reinforcement of the screen at 1.5 m inteNals .

Pen erection in waterlogged conditions:

Demarcation of the exact position of the pen must be first indicated to facilitate
construction of th e structural frame-wor':, The following procedure may be followed :

locate th e scree ns of the pen and lightly stake bamboo marker in each corner,
verify the distance between the corners;
drive the corner posts deeper (about 1 m) into th e mud after they are correctly
located ;
on a 5 mm dia PE rope (5m more in length than the distance between the corner
posts) mark at 1.5 m intervals by tying pieces of coloured cloth;
tie the ends of the marked fope to posts at opposite corners a little above the
water-line and stake posts at 1.5 m intervals: following the markings in the guide
rope;
'. . 'repe at the procedure on the other three sides; .
fix horizontal bamboo 'struts on braces, about a meter above the average depth
of water during the dry season and another row about a meter above the highest
water level during monsoon season;
fix diagonal support post or bracing to protect from water current, wave action
and the pushing effect caused by drifting masses of aquatic weeds; two obliquely
staked bamboo, 0;')0 on each side of the pen at 5 m inteNals. would provide
adequate strength to the frame-work .
..... ,

Installation of net enclosure includes hanging of prefabricated pen screen on the

upper row of horizontal bracing, weighing down the bottom rope and insertion of lower
portion of the net into the mud, as follows:

hang the upper portion by tying its head rope with the upper horizontal bracing;
weigh down a part of the bottom net which is folded inside by about 30 em width.
preferably by laying bricks in a r{)w along the entire length of the bottom rope into
the mud to a depth of 30 to 50 cm; appropriate alignment and insertion of the
bricks into the bottom mud should be ensured; vertically the screen is tied
securely to the vertical posts in 1 or 2 points.

184
 Pen erection on dry bed

, The s'u'pporting s~ruc~ure of the pen.: j~ co~tructeq on ' even, .exposed sites d.uring :
sumii)er by: dtlvi~g 2 ,~Q ' ~ ' m .lon~ wooden: stakes, approxrr:nately of 70 mm dia"into ' the '
bottom', fixed about 1.5 m apart, and braced with long: straight split bamboos, horizontally
at every 30 cm height, from the ground level. To start with, a trench of about 30 cm depth
has to be excavated between 50 cm deep pits for firmly driving the wooden posts into the
soil. HOPE monofilament fabric (12 mesh cm1 ) of the desired width is used as screen .
The top and bottom edges of the assembled screen are reinforced with nylon rope (3 .5
mm dia). The bottom of the screen (30 cm) with foot rope is embedded in the trench and
filled up. Installation of this type of pen is easy and simple compared to the previously
described one.

Care may be taken to provide net cover for ' the pens to ward-off predating birds
from attacking the captive stock, wherever necessary. It would be economical to install
pens in clusters with common partition walls. Ladders ma~' be provided in . the pens to
facilitpte fe~ding and sampling . , '.

STOCKING AND MANAGEMENT

SEED REARING IN ENCLOSLOURS

Production of carp seed in enclosures through appropriate tech nology reduces the
pressure on land for fish nurseries . .Considerable savings . in Pi3cki3ging aod transport of
seed, as' also reduction of ha'ndling mortality are possible if the seed is reared ~n pens and
cages for in situ stocking in a large inipoundment. Moreove~, .construction .af earthen .
. ponds is about 15 times "more expensi~e . per, unit area 'whoen the cost of exeavation, annual
maintenance, regular water management, etc., are .taken into account. Also, diverse
sources of water, such as swamps, reservoirs, lakes and canals can be utilised for rearing
fish seed and post larvae (PL) of prawns in enclosures without prejudice to their other
usages.' The seed ' production capacity of hatchery units can be better exploited when
additional water based rearing space is available.

The country's requirement of fish seed is very high and there is an urgent need to
diversify the fry rearing sys~ems from the traditional farm pond practice, in 'order to
overcome the present seed supply crisis deterring aquaculture expansion. No large scale
attempts to use the enclosures for seed rearing have been made so far, despite their great
potential and cost effectiveness (Tripathi, 1989).

The season for rearing the seed of Indian carps such as catla (C . .cat/a), rohu
(L. rohita), mrigal (C. mriga/a), calbasu ( L. ca/basu), fimbriatus ( L. fimbriatus) and
Chinese carps such as silver and grass carp in cages and pens is from June to
September. However, rearing of common carp and the freshwater prawn seeds could be
planned for the rest of the year, excepting for the cooler winter months (December and
January).

185
 Rearing in cages

The purpose of the nursery phase of cage culture is to rear spawn and fry to .
fingerling size within a period of 2 to 3 months (like in nursery ponds) for .stocking in grow
C?ut cages or other sys~ems for fatteQillg. The biomC!lSs being less, because of e small
individual.s~ze of the young:(ish stock, high density rearing 'is resorted to in thispha'se., with
. intensive high protein feeding. Lighting the area 'at night to enable the ~tock to feed on ..
zooplankton is 'practised in .J.apan and Poland ,(Fujiya, . 1979; .~urol)uma 8':ld. ' F!1ku~ho, .' ,
.. 1 .984). ~ . . .. .. .... ~ ... ;::.:.:: ~.: . ....:' . .. ~,:. ..:.:~ ~ ::. ~ .. ... " ::' : '.:. ' .: . . ...
.:". ' ..... ...G.rass 'and silver carp spawn! fry are stocked at densities of 15,000 to 62,000 m_ 3 in
fihe synthetic fibre mesh net cages in Japan. They are fed with egg yolk, soy bean cake,
soy milk and soy-flour in the ratio 52: 14: 29: 5 and high survival of fingerlings is obtained,
Similar stocking densities are followed in Germany for common carp. The range in
stocking densitr of the species is up to 150 m_ 3 in Cambodia, 80 to 360 m_ 3 in Vietnam and
133 to 417 m' in Indonesia. The feed given generally is agricultural by-products and
wastes at 15 to 50 % body weight of the slock. Pangasius sutchi, Pangasius larnaudi and
Pangasius micronemus fry are stocked in Thailand and Cambodia at densities of .150 to
300 m_3 in cages of size 1 to 10 m3 .area with a depth of 1.5 m. Thes'e cages are made
. with bamboo' or wood en frames and mosquito net lining. Boiled .rice' and bran are given as
feed to the fish ..

In Scotland, salmon elvers. when they are 0.2 to 0.5 g in size, are stocked directly
f:'om hatchery to cages, with considerable success. The cages are equipped with bags of
size 20 to 30 m ,fabricated from 4 mm bar mesh netting and haye 1 m depth : Between .
40,000 to 50,000 fish are stocked in each cage. Fouling of SLich smail mesh n~t bag s is, '
however, a problem, and they ~ave to. be cle~n~d v~ry f.requently (~.everidge " 1 ~87) : . : . '.

.~ilapi~' seed' is'P;Od0C~d :'P~iliPPines ~i~e~ ha'~~

in in 'Iik'e' ~age's '
(size: 3 'X 3. .1 m') ~
'. fabricated fror:n fin e mesh (1 to a mm) 'nylon netting attached to: b?mboo. poles ,' dr:vEm into '
the bottom of pond's so thal they .remairi 10 to 20 cm clear of the ponds bottom . They are
stocked with broodfish at densities of 4 to 7 m2 at ratios of 3, 5 and 7 females to each
male . Fry are collected once every fortnight and are transferred to nursery cages or
ponds. Several commercial, lake-based fry and fingerTing rearing units are in operation,
particularly in the San Pablo lake and in Laguna de Bay in southern Luzon, Philippi:1es.

In India, in Getalsud reservoir, Banerjee and Govind (1979) reared carps in 2.4 X, .
1,5 X 1.5 m cages, stocked .at th~ rate of 30Q to 700 fry 2
m
'(10 to 31 mm
size). The '
rowth rate Was 1'7, 25 and 20 mm in mrigal, catla and i'Ohu respectively per month. The
spawn were fed with powdered mustard and groundnut cake and rice bran in the ratio
3:1:1 at 30 % body weight (bw) day1 for 4 days, which was reduced thereafter to 20 % bw
day"1 for rest of the period . . .'

Natarajan et. al. (1979) used bamboo frame cages with nylon cloth bags of size 2.2
X 1.6 X 1.45 m (submerged depth: 1.1 to 1.2 m) for carp spawn rearing. The frames were
kept buoyant with PVC floats. The cages were stocked with 30,000 hatchlings (8,500 m2 )
of 6.5 to 7,8 mm size . In 21 to 28 days they grew to 30 .2 to 45 .6 mm with a survival of

186
about .26 %. If! fry reariFlg,. the mesh size of th~ cage bag ~as 3 mm. The stocking. rat~.
was 700". to '2,500 fry' m~2 in each cage a.nd within 90 days they attained a size between
103.6 to 121.8mm. In these experiments, the feed I:Js~d was soybean powder, groundnut
cake'arid rice bran in equal proportions. Menon (1983) also used floating cages and raised
10 day old fry (10 mm) to 50 to 60 mm size in 40 days at a stocking density of 500 m-2,
with a survival ranging from 45 to 85 %.

In an impoundment in Bangalore (area: 12 hal, cage grown common carp (2

males and 2 females of equal size) were bred in close mesh net cages using Hydrilla as
egg substrate. A total of 30,000 spawn was obtained from females weighing together 850
g. The spawn was reared in 4.5 m3 . auto-floating (PVC frame) monofilament cloth (mesh:
15 cm-1) cage. In 35 days the fry attained a x size of 25.4 mm with 38 % survival. The
spawn were daily fed with powdered mixture of rice bran, ~roundnut cake and silkworm
pupae at 50 % biomass. The fry were restocked in 3.5 m , 8 mm iTlesh knotless nylon
netting cage's at a density .of 475 m 3 . On feeding with dough of r.ice bran and groundnut .
cake' in 1 : 1 ratiO ::It 10 % bw' day"1 they grew to a x size of 54.8 mml 4.9 g in 75 days witl:!
a (x) survival of 88.5 %. Thus, it is possible to develop floating seed production units for
carps, starting from bree::ding to fingerling and broodfish raising .

The Department of Fisheries in Tamil Nadu is regularly undertaking rearing of

spawn and fry of major carps in floating cages during July to September every year
installed in confined impoundment such as fort moats and tanks of productive and
perennial nature . The seed produced during tile breeding season 'are reared ~n available
nursery space and in' cages' installed in perennial waters and the fingerlings are made
available for stocking by Octoberl December when ponqs and other impoundment get
filled up with the north-east .monsoon. At Vellor'e Fort Moat, the Fisheries DepartmeQt. has
m
raised fingerlings in 10 X 4 velon .cages in a 4-5 ni deep water, stocked at 20 million ha-
1 with 10 day old fry. Over a period of 40 days the fry have grown from 10 mm to 50-60
mm. The fry was fed on supplemental feed regularly.

Plan for commercial scale rearing

The size of the cages for rearing fry and fingerlings may be 5 X 4 m with a
depth of 1.5 m, which includes 25 em freeboard allowance . The volume of water in the
cages will be 25 m3 . Knotless or knotted netting is recommended because they do not
cause injury to fish and also less prone to clogging. The mesh size of the cage will
depend on the size of the fish to be reared. The type of material and mesh size
recommended for rearing the three sizes of fingerlings in large impoundment, is as follows:

Size of fingerlings Cage type Type of Mesh (mm)/ Code No.

to be raised (mm) for water webbing
from to body
50 70 A Knotless 8 to 10
70 90 B Knotted 10 to 12/21-2-3
90 120 C Knotted 16 to 181 21-3-3

187
 The net cages can be installed within a frame of bamboo. The fabrication
and construction of the floating cage is as described earlier, One or two feeding oughs
may be provided in each cage. ' Care should be taken to install cages in a water body
protected from wind and wave action, having a minimum water depth of 3 m.

. The suggested .stC?Gkin~ ra~es_.for a. ~~a~i(lg . p~ri~~ .Q.~ ~:~.~ .~ ~~nt~s in.:~ag~~ .i$~giY~n'. :.:
.:.:'.~~.19~~ ? '.:. .t" ' : ;' <.: :'<-'.<'...'..:.. . . >. ~ . ' ~. :." :-:. ~" ':.:. '..;' ..... '" ' :' . . . : :.
I~take ' tit fingerlings : Survival Production of fingerlings (crop'i)
m-3 cage ,1 (%) cage,1 m- 3
AlSO 1,200 30,000 70 21,000 840
9/70 640 16,000 80 12,8.00 512
C/90 400 10,000 90 9,000 360

Note: Water b9dy: A: 21 to 60 ha; ~: 61. to 309 ha; C: 301 to . 1~~00 ha

, .

For harvesting the fingerlings, the steps listed below may be

followed:

- keep containers or a hapa ready for holding the harvested fingerlin~s;

two persons may take position 0:1 the shorter side of the cage ano
gradually lift one side of the cage, 'keeping 'the otrer in water and ..
th~ net . should not be . lifted . above ' the water with large number ol a'
a
fingerlings, .the stock may. be rem0vea wilh rectangular or Circular .hand
'..., .: '.. of
. net froni . t~e. corner the. cage. which is in water . . .

Seed production 'in pens

Production of seed in pens is easier than in cages, as the former are installed in the
peripheral , littoral habitats with natural productivity, Water based captive rearing systems
appear to have great potential in situations where land for construction of ponds is .
expensive or not available and large, suitable watersheds are .not tieing. fully utilised . ..
Rearing of the young stages of tin~ and shell~fish in pens erected in tanks and reservoirs
-. represent' a new and 'relativeIY 'simple approach with a potential to become an important
seed raiSing system in India in the near future, for profitable resource utilisation. Species
with potential for rearing in pens are the Indian and Chinese carps, eels, catfishes,
milkfish, mullets, tilapia and both fresh- and brackish-water prawns.

Pens for spawning

Spawning pens are erected in earthen impoundment in USA for catfishes.

Pens are installed with four sides (located inside the lake) or near the shore with the bank

188
 forming ~ne side. They are generally very small in size (1.5 X 3.0 m). The mesh size can
be as large as possible for bettet water circulation, ensuring .the broodfish. do not escape .
. Tna pottorn-.of the pen'walls a~e buried at least 30 cm in the' substrate. The depth of water
. in- channel' catfish pens 'is usuailY' maintained ' between 60 and 90 em ' and a ' spawning '
container is placed in each pen. Only one pair of fish (a male and a female) is placed in a
pen at a time, and the female is removed soon after the egg mass has been laid. Care is
taken to remove all the eggs to a hatchery or hatching is undertaken in a separate pen
with close mesh screen. Undertaking spawning of the fish in pens allows selection of
pairing, protects the brood pair from intruders and facilitates the removal of spent fish to a
separate pond and the use of hormones to manipulate spawning.

There are reports of spawning of tilapia in pens in Sampaloc. Sunot and

Palakpakin lakes and in Laguna de Say in the Philippines. The fry are collected from pens
after about 15 days of introduction of broodfish. By providing necessary materials for nest
building or attachment of eggs. it is possible to breed fishes like common carp, gourami.
pearlspot and some of catfishes under controlled conditions in pens .

Rearing of spawn

Preparation of pens for rearing of spawn would involve the application of cattle
dung (up to lOt ha'\ lime (200 kg ha") and superphosphate and urea (each at 100 kg
ha"). Manures can be placed directly on the bottom of the dry pen bed or in water in
smnll. scattered heaps or in loose mesh bags. It must be applied repeatedly in small
quantities. never ,in large amounts.. 80th of these precautions are necessary to avoid the
d~ngers of deoxygenation and high ammonia concentration. Spawn/fry would be stocked
IOta 15 days after fl'Godil')9 .tq allow the cattle dung' to compost and b~ consumed by
micro-organisms whi.~h would provide fee'd for the stock. 5 to 20 mm spawn or fry cciuld be
stocked at'the density of 1.0 or 0.5 milfion ha" (s.ay .1.0'00' Or 500 m;2) .. They 'IT\ay be
supplementarily fed on a mixture of rice bran. groundnut cake and soy flour from roasted
beans in 1:1 :1 ratio, feeding at 20 to 50 % body weight day" . 30 to 50 % survival is
expected in rearing spawn to fry in 15 to 20 days and over 50 % from fry to fingerlings in
30 days.

A split bamboo enclosure of 247.5 m2 lined with nylon netting was stocked
with C. mrigala (size: 7 mm) and L. fimbriatus (5 mm) sr,awn (ratio: 13:10) in Pungar
swamp, Shavanisagar at the rate of 4.6 million ha" (460 m' ) to raise fry (Abraham, 1980).
The pen was manured with fresh cow dung and superphosphate at the rate of 10 t and
400 kg ha" respectively . The spawn was fed with a powdered mixture of proundnut cake
and rice bran (1:1) at the rate of 1 kg day" for the first 5 days. 2 kg day' during the 6th
day to 10lh day and 3 kg day" during 11!h to 15 th day. From 16 1h to 20 lh day the feed
th
was supplied at the rate of 3.5 kg day" and thereafter at the rate of 4 kg till 30 day. The
th
feed was broadcast over the water surface during the first 15 days and from 16 day it
was supplied in feeding plates. fixed at 3 m intervals along the perimeter of the pen. On
the 6th day of stocking. the pen was manured for the second time at the rate of 5 t ha'.
Although the survival of fry was not assessed, after 30 days rearing the size attained by C.
mriga/a was 38 mm and L. fimbriatus, 28 mm .

189
/
The spawn of carps are reared every year, since 1982 in peos in
2
Tungabhadra dam. The total area under pen rearing ranged from 4,900 m in 1982 to
2 2
33,000 m in 1989 with a stocking rate of 320 to 815 spawn m- and the survival was 10.7
to 63.1 % . .The ~pecies. reared ar~ rohu and mrigal. The enclosure screen is made of 12
mesh cm-' monofilament cloth. On receipt of water, the pens will be manured with raw
cowdung at ~bout' 10 t ha-' and a mild d9~e of urea,. super'pho~p~ate . ~o,d~9r~uD~n~t .c,a;k~;.,
: {or.e~cq~ia.ging. tr~ grQmh-6f~,,,.af~~1 foqd. '~.!(l : addi~iO~/tbe. spa.w~ was:fed daily at. th~ ' ra~e : ' .
',:'of5 kgpe.n ;jmilfion spaw~: with powdered groundnut cake a~d rice bran in 1:1 ratio. The
. water retentivity in pens varied from 30 to 45 days and the fry will be harvested when the
water level start receding . The growth of fry is 25 to 50' mm and they will be stocking into
the Tungabhadra reservoir.

Rearing of fry

. Rearing of ' fry of carps can be attempted in water bodies without sharp
drawdowns and .whiCh hav~ conditions favourable for erectio(l of' pens, when stocking
material is available.

In a collaborative technical support programme with MIs. Karnataka Fish

Farms Ltd., Bangalore, in the shallow Kadaba tank (FSA: 400 ha) choked with submerged
weeds Hydrilla sp, and Potamogeton spp., their biological control employing grass carp
was attempted by CIFA. The tank was infested with murrels, because of which large
fingerlings were required for stocking. 0.1 million fry (size: x 35 mm; 500 fry m'2) were
held in the pen (area : 0.2 h:: ) made of HOPE monofilament screen (15 mesh cm") .
installed, in situ, in a shalJow bay of th~ tank. Th.~y were. fed with .finely chopped Hydrilla
.' collected frO'm the tank . . The ' stock grew to .'a 'size ranging .~rof!1. 6~ to 7f; m.m i[1', 21 :dG!Ys
with 61.3 ,%.survival arid ~as released into the tank. .. . ' . .' . . . . :.... '
. : ::: ~ . '. . . . .. . . .' .
.., '. Fo': ' rearing 'of fry, 25 X 20 m2 size pens are adeq~ate, being easy to
transport and erect in backwaters of lakes, The installed pens in protected, shallow bays
may be fertilized with cattle manure at the rate of 10 t ha-.1 when the water levels rises in
them to about 30 cm , A dose of inorganic fertilizers (superphosphate and urea, each at
100 kg ha-' ) may be applied 5 days prior to stocking. The fry (about 20 mm size) may be
stocked at 100 to 500 m',2 and fed at the rate of 20 to 50 % of ow 'Clay" Fertilization with
half the initial dose may be repeated
.
at intervals
. '. _",'
of .10 to . 20 days .jf.necessary.
.
' .. :'" ." ..... of'

The fingerlings may be harvested with the help of a fry seine net of 30 m
wide, as is done in a pond system. A maximum of two hauls only may be taken at a time,
with an interval of at least 2 days from the subsequent haul. Care should be taken to keep
containers or holding hapas ready. The harvested fingerlings may be a~sessed for growth
and survival to draw definite conclusions, with reference to density and species.

190
 GROWOUT CULTURE FOR PRODUCTION OF FISH

Fish seed for stocking

Although, it is possible to produce fry of mouth brooding tilapia in net cage

and pens, juv~niles of ot~er cultured species have to be mainly produced in land based
hatcheries or captured from the .wild _at th ~ .appropriate time .. and. .t~~nsJe~red . to )l1e
: ~ncIQsut:e~.; . ..The~ ?te :a::r)cA":'befof. farni~ jn . bo~h: pi:Jblic_: a~ .. priYate :secttlr to.: Sup.Pf
: various' 's tages:of fTlost'o(tlie cultivable speCies' of fishes. Thou'gh on a lim.i tetj scale, pens ...
have been used in India to rear fish spawn 'or fry, whereas cages have been employed to,..
rear induced bred spawn to fry to fingerlings and fingerlings to table fish. The seed of
carps for stocking is generally transported in oxygenated, water filled plastic bags . ~
.
The fry and fingerlings must be disease-free. Their inspection by a fish disease I,
specialist before stocking is desirable . In lieu of inspection, some key indicators of good ~
healt~' are uniformity of skin colour among the group and absence of sores, blotches, ~
spo.ts and frayed ~ins. on ind ,\,icuals. Alilhe fish should be moving actively. .

The ihitial size of th e fish to be stocked ill enclosures will depend primarily on the
rearing phase, length of the growing season and the desired size at harvest. Carp
fingerlings for stocking in 16 mm mesh cages should have a minimum size of about 15 g
for growing to table size. However, starting from 30 to 60 mm size seed have been used '
for table fish rearing in cages of 8 to 20 mm mesh . In pens, generally where HOPE
monofilament cloth (15 to 20 mesh cm,1 or 4 to 6 mm mesh screens are used, it is ~
possible to stock fish of any size for rearing . It is desirable to stock uniform size fry/
fi~gerlings to avoid competition for food . ~

The number of fish that can be stocked in cage or pen is variable and
depends on the carrying capacity of water (water-spread area, depth and water quality),
water exchange, species of fish and the quantity and quality of supplemental feed input.

In order to get optimum fish production from cages and pens, the stock
needs to be provided conditions whicn rninimise losses and promote growth, which in turn,
involves (i) stocking at densities appropriate to the site/ size of the fish and methods of
rearing, (ii) feeding the fish in the most cost-effective manner, (iii) ensuring the best
possible water quality within the cages, (iv) maintaining cages, anchors and auxiliary gear
in proper condition and (v) regular checking of stock for disease, removal of dead fish and
treatment of infected fishes.

Samples of fish should be taken at regular intervals and weighed so that the
growth of stocks can be monitored. This information together with records of mortalities is
necessary for form'Jlating the policies of feeding and timing of harvesting.

191
 Fish for sampling may be collected from the cages ~sing ~ dip net and from
the pens emp'loying a d~ag-net. . They may be segregated specie,s-wise whereve~
necessary, 'co,unted and weigh~d fo~ determining ,the average weight. '. As th~ .fish grow, .
the bio'mass in the enclosures increases. Feeding rates are usually computed based on
percent body weight of fish per day a'S shown by fortnightly sampling. It is desirable to
have all the fish in a cage to be of approximately the same size. Some farmers in USA
consider that grading should be carried out fairly frequently, particularly when the fishes
are small, since the larger fish of some species in the cage are able to secure more feed
and grow faster, thereby causing size variation among the stock.

There are several methods for grading fish. The most basic method is by eye
estimation which is practised at less intensive operations. However, at most intensive
cage fish farms, ,much of the routine grading is carried out by grading machines.

Regular monitoring of fish stocks from disease point of view is also essential. A
clqse inspection of the fish during feeding is recomnlended as changes in feeding
behaviour are often a good indication of poor health. If something wrong is suspected,
few fish should be removed from the cage and examined. Changes in general
appearance (deformed spine), skin (colour, presence of lesion s, rashes, spots or lumps,
excessive mucus), eyes (bulging eyes and cloudy lens) and fins and tail (erosion) indicate
that something.js wrong .

Maintenance of cages

. Irrespective of the damage that can 'be caused by storms" pred ator,s, drifting
. objects, .boating" poachers and vandals, @II fTlaterials ,used ir'l th e construction of 'c3ges and
, pens have a fi0~t~ life-span, and will ~ven tl,J~,lly weaf out. New e,nclosures and', moorings
therefore must be checked at intervals for ~igns of damage and wear and tear and
repaired or replaced, if necessary. While cleaning, the enclosure net may be checked for
damages, if any. Although, small tears may be repaired by lifting th e damaged side of the
net, for extensive damages, particularly to cages, the net bags will have to be changed
and repaired on the shore. In any case, net bags of cages of one particular mesh size are
often exchanged with ones of a larger size, as the fish grow. Cleaning the fouled net can
be done by chemical or mechanical methods.

Harvesting

Harvesting of fish is either done continuously or in batches, depending on how the

production cycle is geared. Prior to harvesting of a batch, it is desirable to starve the fish
for a day, in order to firm the flesh and to give the gut time to evacuate, since a gut full of
food and bacteria can accelerate deterioration and increase the risk of carcass
contamination during the gutting process (Beveridge, 1987). Fish can be harvested in situ
or the cages can be towed to the shore and harvested with the help of mechanical lifting
gear. In some parts of the world like Indo-China, the cages may actually be towed to
market through waterways ( Pantulu, 1979). The process of harvesting fish from cages is
Simple. In most cage designs the net is lifted up until the fishes are concentrated in a

192
 small volume of w~~er a.nd scooped out U!~ing qip-nets. f:?0wer a~.sjsted. h~st~ ;:~ruc!). c~n
"be trar.lsported to .cages and operated from ' a floating platform or boat, are som.etimes
. ~sed tq op~rate large . dip~nels. Harvesting' may hecom~ laoorious if the cages do not
,. have walkways arid the fish must be Cons~quently netted out by hand from a boat.

In a number of Southeast Asian Countries, species of grouper, snapper, sea bream,

snakeheads and even tilapia, are cultured for the live fish market, where they fetch higher
prices. In USA, fishes are often collected from the cage farm by the restaurant owners
and transported live to their restaurants (Kumaraiah, 1990). However, at most of the
farms, the fishes are killed prior to dispatch . Dumping fish into containers and leaving
them to asphyxiate may appear distasteful to some; it also increases the lactic acid
content of the muscles causing an increase in the degenerative process.

The harvesting of fish in pens is done using seines. Seining is to be done

repeatedly to collect most of the fishes . Seining in large pen.s is laborious .and costly.
. ' ,

Fish production assessment in cages

Depending on the type of management input, the production from grow out cages
varies greatly. With the high-tech system of saturated stocking and feeding on enriched,
formulated feeds, the production recorded in common carp was 35 .0, 37.5 and 25.0 kg m'
, month-' in Japan, Germany and Netherlands. The channel catfish I. punctatus in USA
has yielded a production of 20 to 35 kg m-3 month-'; and in Afrtca, the tilapia (0, niloticus)
17 kg and trout (Sa/mno gairdneri ) 15 kg m-:l month" . The food quotient" obtained in all
these operations varied from 1.3 to 2.1 (dry f:sed) , . .. . '

Semr-inte~siv~ ,and less co'st technblogy ,onl)i-is .adopted ih th e developing c,ountries

in Asia : because of economic considerations . Even with such a technology, a production
of 1 to 4 kg m-2 month-' of common carp has been reported from Indonesia and 9.4 kg m,2
month-' with snakeheads in Vietnam .

In India employing a stocking density of 30 to 38 fingerlings ml , Govind et a/.

(1983) obtained a gross production' of 1.5 to 2.2 kg m,l month" of common carp in a grow
out period of 6 months. The fish attained a size of 325 to 350 g. The feed comprised of a
mixture of powdered silkworm pupae (defatted), ground nut cake and rice bran (in 8:9:3
ratio) and was fed daily at 10 to 20 % of the body weight of th e stock. The feed was given
in the form of dough balls in trays suspended in the cages. The food quotient ranged from
8.3 to 10.4. The survival of the stock was 100 %.

Catla stocked at a density of 13 m2 and fed with rice bran and groundnut cake (1: 1
ratio) at 5 to 10 % body weight attained a size of 772 g in 6 months, yielding a production
of 1.41 kg m_-2 month" and a food quotient of 6.6 (Govind et a/., 1988). Sukllmaran et a/. ,
(1986) reared catla at a higher density of 49 fingerlings m2 . The average size attained by
the fish was 544 g in 8 months. The feed given was again the conventional ground nut
l
cake and rice bran mixture ( 1:1 ratio). The production obtained was 2.7 kg m,2 month
l l
(1.8 kg m month- ) and the food quotient, 5.6.

193
 By stocking silver carp at 15 fish m-3 , Kumaraiah et al., (1990) obtained a net
production of 0.7 kg m-3 month- 1 with a food quotient of 3.1. The initial body weight of the
stock was 61 g and the final weight, 472 g in 257 days growout period.

Experiments were conducted on the culture of tilapia (0. mossambicus) at densities

ranging from 100 to 200 m-3 for periods extending from 2 to 5 months by Kumaraiah et al.
(1986). The supplemental feed used was a mixture of rice bran, groundnut cake and
commercial cattle feed pellets (1:1:1 ratio), at 3 to 5 % body weight of the stock. The net
production obtained was 0.9 to 1.6 kg m- 3 month- 1. For the given feed input, a stocki!1g
density of 150 fish m-3 was found to be optimum. The food quotient ranged from 1.8 to
2.3.

Among carnivorous fishes, the giant murrel, C. maru/ius cultured by Kumaraiah and
Paranieswaran (unpublished) at a density of 40 fish m- 3 in cages with trash fish as feed.
grew to a size of 200 g in 6 months, . giving a net production of 0.8. kg m-3 month- 1 . A
production of 0.3, 0.7, 1..0, 1.7, 1.5 and 1.3 kg m- 3. mon~hq . has been reported .,in Anabas
testudineus, H. rossi/is, 'C. b.atrachus, C. stria(us and C. pun cta'lus , respectively (Oehadrai,
1972 and Murugesari an'd Kumaraiah, 1978). '. .

The fish production levels obtained in cage culture of fishes is given as in Table 1

Economics of cage fish production

Success and p;-of:tat~ility of cage culture depends primarily on (i) selec;tion of

suitable body of water, (iij obt~ining work_ing facilities at reasonable cost, (iii) stocking \\'ith ':
quality fingerlings, (iv) purchasing inputs economically, (v) achieving good feed conversIon
and (vi) maintaining high water quality. .

Initial capital ~osts

Capital requirements are difficult to estimate sinGe the situation of each farmer is
different. Equipment and facilities are also capital items to be charged against the fish
farming operations . Cages, .whether built or purchased ready-made, should have frames
with a life of at least three years. The producer. should have a small boat or coracle for
checking, feeding and harvesting fish. Nets, .feE?d buckets, tubs, a small ..stock of
chemicals and instruments to monitor \v'ater quality are also necessary.

Production costs

The two major components of costs in cage culture are the fingerlings and feed.
Other costs include labour, interest on operating funds and repairs . Cost benefit analysis
of the culture of catla (Catla cat/a) in 10m3 floating cages for six months growout period
has been worked out (Kumaraiah et al:, 1998).

194
Investment cost
. .
.C~g~ c.on:;tru~tiC?n ..
. .. ..
.;: . " , .* .
'. '

" "

.. .
,
' ". " ' ''' . ' ',., o

Net material (3 kg) Rs. 750

Conduit pipe (14 nos,
each of 3.5 m long) Rs . 600
Welding arid fabrication Rs . 250
HDPP cans (4 nos) RS . 200
Twine, rope, feed traY,etc. Rs. 600
Total Rs .2,400

Annual depreciation on cage cost

(useful life of4 years) Rs . 600

Fingerlings (50 g each

@ Re .1 per fingerling Rs . 400

Feed (@ Rs .8 per kg for

840 kg) Rs . 6,700

Total Rs. 7,700

Returns
':"', .. ~ ', ' ..
Fish productiqn 2?0 kg
( sa le price .@ R ~ : 3;> per kg : R s . 9;~00
. . '.
Net profit Rs.2 ,100

Simple rate of return

(without interest on investm ent) 27 %

Culture in pens

Pen culture is exten sively practiced in Japan , Peru and Philippines . Fish farmers in
Laguna de Bay in Philippines stock milkfish fingerlings at 30,000 ha" in pens where they
are grown to marketable size (200 g and more). ' Very few experiments have been
conducted on pen culture of fishes in our country and the available data is meagre. In
pens, continuous incursion of other fishes and shrimps is inevitable and some of the
former group may be predators. It is therefore, important to stock larger fingerling s (over
30 g ) to ensure better survival. It will be desirabl e to have a nursery facility near a pen
complex when the culture is taken up on a large scale .

195
 Very few experiments have been conducted on the culture of fishes in pens in India
and the available data are meagre. A pen (size: 120 m 2 ) culture experiment for raising
table fish in Kanti lake in Bihar yielded a computed production of 25 t ha 1 in 6 months,
indicating the high potential of this type of captive fish culture. The enclosure was stocked
at a density of 4 m 2 with fingerlings of catla, rohu and mrigal in the ratio of 7:12;6 and fed
with a mixture of rice bran and mustard cake (2:1 ratio) at 5 to 10 % body weight. Catla,
rohu and mrigal attained an average size of 1.1, 0.8 and 0.75 kg from the initial size of
166, 75 and 120 g respectively within 6 months.
Species selection, composition and stocking rates in pens will depend largely on
the natural food supply, supplemental feeding strategy, water de~th and duration of water
availability in any particular site. However, 5 to 10 fingerlings m' may be a good start for
carps with limited supplemental feeding. There is a possibility of composite fish culture in
pens as the system is more akin to ponds with natural botto!11 and with different littoral
. trophic niches . The fishes are harvest~d with the help of a seine net as done in pond
systems. . ..

9. " .. 'R!sk and . ~ncertainty

Risk in enclosure aquculture is moderate to high. A small change in prices or

survival rate of fish can alter profits significantly. Risk can be divided into several
categories, viz., risk associated with variation in water quality, disease and parasites, poor
quality fingerlings, vandalism and theft are perhaps the most serious. Production risk can
be partially offset through the use of approved management practices and good
husbandry'. Nellerthele::,s, pmbiems sOfTietimes occur that are not easily controlled .

.. 10. " So'c io-e'conomic aspects

The e'nclosure aquaculture is already a reality, not Withstanding some of the tricky
problems . In fact, it is being looked ' upon in many developing countries as a possible
vehicle for uplifting the welfare of the lake fishermen through their active participation as
owner-operator and not as lowly-paid caretakers or resentful bystanders. The Asi8n
Development Bank and OPEC countries have together approved a loan of $ 13.5 m to
finance the participation of these lake fishermen in the Laguna de Bay fish pen business .

A family unit net-cage proposal was made by . Chu~ and T~8g '(19.77) with the
ObJeCtives of extending the 'cage culture technology to the coastal fishermen 'of Malaysia
whose economy is badly affected by the dwindling catch of the inshore water, as well as to
train future generations of fish farmers through participation in the culture practices by the
family members . For such units, a total of four unit rafts, each with eight-unit net cages
were employed. In addition to the unit - cages and the floating units, a floating house is
built to accommodate the family living or working at the farm . The area of floating house is
twice that of floating unit, i.e. , 9.6 x 15.6 m, floated on used plastic barrels . The house will
accommodate at least a family of four a'nd would have a working platform for cleaning,
drying and mending of nets as well as space for preparation of feeds . The house is
provided with working facilities and a small room for accommodation. A family unit
therefore consists of four floating cage units of size 5.4 x 8.4 m each and a floating

196
 houses. Both the house and floating unit cage units are anchored by wooden pegs . The
'_' Whole family,. unit could be:,:rpoved , and , towe~ away. at will .~~e~ the environ~en~ t~rfl~..
'unfavourable. Similar units 'could be 'helpful to the nomad fishermen in' India who gO' from
reservoir to' reservoir for fishing. . .
Some. times socio-economic problems are caused by the local people who involve
themselves in poaching and also in vandalism . For example, conflict of interests over the
utilisation of a resource can occur. In Laguna de Bay in the Philippines, the virtually
unchecked expansion of the fish pen and cage industry during the late 1970s and early
1980s disrupted the traditional livelihoods such as fishing, duck rearing and even transport
of the local people . Many of the fish pen owners being .outsiders employed squads from
Manila to protect their investments leading to a great deal of friction and even violence
between the local communities and the people associated with fish pens. At other lakes in
the Philippines , development was controlled and the villagers were encouraged to set up
their farm units, aided by government loan schemes .
In some parts of the world, the penalties for poaching have been increased . In
Alabama, USA for example, a bill was introduced in the early 1980:; to stiffen penalties for
anyone connected with catfish rustling . First offenders could be fined up to $ 1,000, and
sentenced up to one year in jail, whilst second-time offenders can be fined twice that
amount and must serve a mandatory 30 days jail.

11. General remarks

Considerable technological advances have been made in Western Countries, USA

and Japan in aspects such as n1aterials ::;eiection and designing and fabrication of cages,
feed formulation arid administration (Parameswaran, ' 1987). The primary aim of
aquaculture in developing countries should be to produce the maximum quantity qf fish for
, the available feed 'input: There is thus a need ' for a 'c;omparative study ' of th e food
,conversion 'effit;::'iency' of the various potential .candidates and the most' efficrent species
with hardiness, should be selected for cage culture .

It may be desirable to develop two streams of technology for transfer in India, a low
cost one for easy adaptation by villagers residing near large water bodies, with minimum
capital investment under National Rural Employment and Integrated Rural Development
Programmes, somewhat like a small scale industry and another high-tech one that can be
taken up by the Government agencies and large private sector companies for meeting th e
demands of fish in urban areas (Parameswaran, 1987). In the case of the low input
system for adoption by economically backward, unemployed or underemployed people
with subsidy for procurement of cages , the technology should be developed for such
species of fishes of which the seed could be made available by the Government agencies
and which could efficiently utilise cheaply available agri~ultural by products and wastes
and bio-gas slurry as feeds .

Cage and pen culture of fishes holds a great promise as a future potential system
for large scale fish pr'oduction and employment generation .

197
 A LECTURE ON
. . .

EARTH MOVING EQUIPMENTS

'. ': . .,.. AND .
.SOIL':C OMPACTION TECHNIQUES

by
. Abdul Rn:zaq A. Honnutagi
~rincip~I, :MHSS Polytechnic, 'Mumbai . ."

J ' .' ' .

., : .

198
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Wh'lt is soil?

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TllI'I" art ' fllill I VI'(" IIf "111111);-1, ' 1 i," 1 1'11 01'1 I>1I ..,.jllll pilJlir!" " III ,",1111)11 ;,lIIllf1()\III.L! Ih"111 ('j1lo.,jI"Il,L!, 'II'''1
a~pJ wit : IIII' .IIP Itlglll '" ", ' 11,;1\' f .""Ihl" 11,,0.,('< lOll' h,.
Villl;al ill II 111<1'1'1 jal, I"' illg " '1111';" "., I. >1I '('I';cill "'"1)11111 (If I"" I '

Ii IlI1p,lI I I II I '" " ,,0.,(" II ... 1\ ('('< "II U' rill' ""III',' " (' 11,11 (II " III
Pill'li, iliaI' 1);,,"riP,
K III ,."Ii II;":
l'fI '~" In'

199
 RESULTS OF POOR COMPACTION , "

~. ::

SlabCta.ckl

Foundation Erosion Erosion Gullies Utility Trcn:t1

Undor A1Mman1s ScrtIIln"

.. ,'
Th o?$~ il~.I ~,tr~lkons ~,h(o"'! the r~sull$' of impi OIAr comp. (tio)!' ~lIld' ' :1 propo;.r CCOOlp..... ?lbn cal! 9I'!'lIr~ o)"'OI~r ~,ln,lc Mc , Iff::l,
" ",'i lllin-:1'in~, ftllllfO;! kolind,1 lion probl-?III S. ' . ', '

',So.it TYP'es and Condit~on.s '~.' ~.:.,l~~

, 1:\'('1)' SIIilIY)l" h,:ltav,, <IilT('r"1II Iy willi I 0 "1" '( '1II) :-1 n IC.lUl (' 111.11 h'IJd, il !>,'If.\\'(lIl o l'1I111l'ilt'1iOll. ,\ )'(111 ,
, ,.il\;ixilllilill dlIlSli~'}\n(rr,p.t illll,li~ '. I) l'Ai~h 1I;t',} 'I1< ~~I~ ' . ' .. , " I(,ltI,k~'(!IHIC'(~'flllilll " Ih~' 1'1<. s~.' ' :IH'15arl nlll" " ',' lind '.',,
('Ire, ('adl :-lIillvpl'.ha~ ii' ')IVII't,llIiqli('II'II"il(!IIII :I1I!'o IIv', " . " " '
,tll( ~ r lllll~lIl, 1,("1.11 ill til" lit' I" alldli)1 11"lillg PUI',
t'l1I 'f(! ar(lIl1l'( h"),I~ !.oil grollp" :
I'()!'o(':-, Silil ' ypI'),;1l I' ("'IIIIIIIHllr cl .. "jfj(I II)\ gJrtill
!.il.C', oIl'lf'rtl1ill"d II\' J1a"ill~ IltfO ... .,ililltl)ffglt" " 'Ii," (:,,", ,:-; .... ('
(lr'it'\,(~ ") "'''''('('11111 "'lJar:llc'lllI' rliITI'II'III ,l \liiill (; 1'1111111;11
... ii",' IS, ,(' Fi,~ffn : \1 ()rgallic' (lllis ",oil ;\,,111 ,"iliihh'(OI I <IIIIP"('ljllll
"lid \\'illllllllx' di,rWN'r! ""n';
SI ,i I ,'I .. ,:.ilk;1I iOIl i.. I ;11, :.\"riz( ~ 111110 ,,-, gl (JI'I ", ,I
~y~l<~111 "'I lip by :\ '\SI IT<) {:\1I11'rk;lI( :\"'"1 ;:'Iillllill
Slill(' Ili~lt\\'iI\ ' ;,"r1 'lfilll",'onal ioll ( )II;' ;ilhJ , S,,;1\
r'lllllli ill I l<Il lIl'l' arc' ,,111111 .. 1 ah\,I V' " ('l)llIhillalj(l1l ,,("
"Il'
~' ) ill ,\'pl''' ' i\ 1I'I[f',~I " dl'(i ... .,i! I'( III ... i ... a \\'idl' l iHlg,'
I II' panici<' ... i/.l... \\'illlllt" ""10111<:1 panid,... l1l1illg
\'(lid, h("w(~' lllar,L:"r l'i lll; ( I(" 1'I".,,',"1c i'rldcflo,(

200
SIEVE TEST . Coil slve soil~

t'1)l!",I,'c'snil,llll\'c' IIaC-'ll\lIlh" pas1i , t(~~ 'la,\' lIa,,"

".111 il II' ,i/~' ncog" (if .1)(111(1, " 10 ,(lOt-. Sill l'llll~l"" I'll III
(loot III ,1}(l:C (,hl\' i, I c.. ,.. 1 ill "llIh.l1Ikl 1('111 nil .. uud
11'1 a" till).: 1'1111 11)j ,,, ..
ChMJC lcristlcs

C"lll'~i\ (' ~(lil~ .tro' ""11'" .IlId li.~IIII. ' 1>011111 1 HJ).;l'lltl"
10\ 111,,1(,( '111.11 ,lIllilllillll nil'\" :tIl'pl.",iI' \\'It" 11 'H"
.11 HI , ' all ,", Wlilt I(~ I. hi II h, ~ " 'III(' "('1 \'
hard \\'1t( '111 II \ ',
1'1111 " '1 " ,11"1 nlllh 'lIl , "\"III\' "I, ,,il;,II,'I1. h" lillt-.II '
,r I ,,,, l ,ml ll 'l 1 ~ ! l!lllItI'.it" " I "1" " ,\,,, ~lIlh 1I,,,ull,'
I, "''1"il' ' ;' Itll'" ' lid I ;" ill 'I II" I Ill' 1" ' " Itl"" :-Ilt 1111,.1
r- .. , 111111(1 ,.11,/1' 111\ \ "' 1'" 11"'11111,11",, t 1;". II"\~ I'\ " ' I . 'ill j..
" ill ),..;,\ ilv I ,,1t.'I" ",I II ali " tlllll'll' I~I 'I' h g ill" 'II
. '~' r .";.j . ..
t~
~~
~~: l ",II, I',HI).:"III
.'(: , (, I . ,lIlIlill parlid,' .. i/II"III1 .()O:J" I,) l)1l "

- ,, ~"' "111 \ ;lIul OS" 101.1)'

(, loIIIII{;II'" ,il ... II,'I"
lIilh ' l" 11I. ,t)11I11I ).:1.1\',1 )
III\\III"1 IIH'il Wah'l dlaillilt,~
I
':,.
)I;
--1 I'" I) )t ' I II""

! Ch ,lr actcri stics

.-, . . .,
"- ., f1It :-'alld iII ld ,~I;j\ I' 1 "I,I,dlllllil:-;illlI l lIl
11111\' ,11 \' III ,;,1111<,11 "I .. I"'"
01"'1'011\ 1111 ,,1111"
Ii '.., iug , II \' ' .. . 11 1' 1'(,101 ,
a

livl'l\' 11", ~(I II"II"IV ail h,' (,hlaittl 'l l :";'::11"1<,,.., IIf
\\ ';d ,'(' I ","l "1)1

1'II"'ilhlp, (,"IIt,'lolJ"will;': l'it~I';' ;.:h',:., h.. , i.

lJlolWi llif)) ,)' ... "ih l),>, 't! JJllMllil "h'f 1'1))1 '>'1'1)1'1111)1
"I'I,lil 011 ill'" I~"" Fi.t.:III'" ,; , Ci ", 71

. ,,

,;- . . :: . ::.~. . :.:... ,

.....

GUIDE TO SOIL TYPES .

What to look for Appearance/teel Water movement When moist... When dry...

Granular soils, fil1 C0<1rS9 grJins C<1n b'i Whqn \'r.\W ,lIld soil IJ ry litt~ or n., UtlI9 ()( no 1',,(II19Slv9
~"Inds <1 nd silts, ~q9n . F9&ls grilty "r9 sh. ko?I) in p<'llm of pln!.licily, Sir n9U, wh911 dry,
\,(1)",1) rllbl>"KI b",h"oitl?l) MIY: , Ih&y mix. WllQO Soil $.mpl will
fing9rs, shaking is sl'Jt:'r)&d, c.rllmbl ",.~ily.
II)QY 5e(XIr<lt ,
Cohesive soils, IIli~!. Gmills cunnot ~ ~l 'Nh'.!n w<,I~r ilml soil Plastic <1Ild SIj,:;ky. Hns hk 11 Slrqnglh
and c1,'ys. by nO~.Q d '.lye , F~')1s a(~ shokliil) in palm of Con t09 (oI~ , \'111911 dl y, Crllrnbl9s
smooth Dnd <]n~.)$y tk,,'Id, !hi?Ywill not mix. whh dlmcully, SIr.....'
\'ii,,,,,,
rubbad b'.lt'.'lqqn <It 1I.:lIjc,n in \'Iot"r.
fingo1l'$.

201
RELAJIVE DESIRABILITY OF SOILS AS COMPACTEb FILL
j i: Rtlative Desirability for Various Uses
(I-tlest ,.-INsI dIehbIt)
'g'.wty Rolled E.lr1h Fill Oi\nlS Can~1 S.C1ion, Foundations

u
., &IO$Ioncrlllcai
... I,I)jllllEicllangecll~nI
- 001 aPPl('Pf~ ~ II~' typo olllllol
- ~l!
"L--
!
Ii if j!:e !~ I?'
Group
Symbol

G'"
, ~,
Soli Type
\'\'.;ll-<)I<l'j.?d oJl()\tois, iJ "",,,, ,
:I:w
\!!
6 ~
CI) wQ:u.'tJ II !-.;
.....
:i:;;
~~ ~
sand mixlurto$. ~lIIio 01' n(, fll.....~ - .. 1 1 - .. 1 1 1 3
GP F\)Jr~i-9r<t1.;.:I grJ',.;!s, gra\';?l:
sand mixIUrio$, iUt;. (of no f""'$ - .. 2 2 - - "
3 ,l ..
GM Si')' ".,.,'",f" p';.:;4i 1~~r,)oj.;.1
gr.w.:-l ~ll)oj's.i~ mixtur",s ~ ~ .. 4 4 I 4 4 ~ "

GG ClJy.liI;.;- 9' .,,"'~ , ~,X't(tf o;1.,j.;.:l

9rav;?l.f,.1r,J_:,;kl), nlx l lJo?~ 1 1 .. 3 1 2 C. $ , 1

SW \.":"'I-9rJ,j.:.j ~lIl(l$, ~r,l.'~ I)'

&I n,j~, kUt.:- .;,r 1)0) f~~ - .. ~' t, - .. ," 2 2 ~

SP Ftorl"9r,)oj""j &,mh, gr.:.....:-Ily

V>
o ~.lil(ls, iU"" ,;o r no f:101~ - .. 4' 7'
- .. 5 Eo ~ ..
z
.~ Sf;! Sil~ ~,.... j$, fJoNfI)'~Jra,~j s....ld'
sllllli:<lu r,,~ 4 5 " g' 5" ~
"
7 Eo lj "

, ,

SO::: CIJi'.lik" < In,:!!., ~oQo:or~!~;r.1il.;.j

~" n,j:.: ~li l11ixlllr';'$
')
oJ 2 .. $ 2 4 ~, 7 i. 'I.

ML I n,)f9<-on~ &i t~ ,In+1 w:f:' fin.,.

sands, n;.:k flour. sity or ck'l)'-l ik ~ 6 6 .. .. 6" () I~ II) 11 ..
fffi !',ll)jS \':~h &I~1"i r.~:1SI~:il)'

~ CL I n(of9<Yl~; ,: I;,yS cA ~)','I (,j l1l""jilJll

w pk)SI~~I:,. 9I'a,,,I:, ck'l'!~. sand),
....I 5 2- .. 3 5 I':' ~ ~ 7
ck1)'$, sity clJY$, leiln .:I.rjs '"
' Or9c1n~: ~!ts:n~d vl9<'Yl~~' dl~l<l'!s :' :" 8
cA kiN ~'k'lS I~::i IY
\".
-"
'0
, .. .. 7"
'. 7 11 '" -"'11 .' 12 , .. ;
.. "

Or~ln~: silts, m~a.:...)u~.. OI'

"

"

diill';'n1<Jo;'?o)US f...... !kI1)o1~ 01' slly ~ 9 - .. .. t 12 12 n ..

SQis, .. 1;,5I~ sils

~ CH ~1(9,ll~~ d..oy~ cA h~Jh rklS1fjl)"

.. ..
f;,1 ck'l}~ 7 7 II) e'" 9 1~ 1) 8

OH ('f'Jc1 n ~: ,;I;r!~ C( m.;dium h~Jh _.

pI.1sld:< 1(' 1(1 .. .. - If) 14 14 14

202
 Vlbrattng Scraper
Slatlc Sheepstoot . Plat, Compactor , Rubl'tr..clrtd RoIltr
Vlhratlng Shetpsloot Grid Rolltr Vlbrat\no Ro\ler Loadtr
Rammer Scraper Vibrating Sheepsfoot GrId Roller
Lift
IMPACT PRESSURE \~BRATI N KNEADING
Thickness wih ~n\,,),jf)~ wlhp!' ~.

GRAVEL 12+ Poor No Good r/Good

SAND 10+': - Poor No Exc .lIent Good

SILT 6 t ,: _ Gocj Go.j POOt Exc lIenl

CLAY 6+:_ E)I,~II'nl Wry Gv~.j No Good

Effect or moisturE'
l'Iu... ,.. '''I' II~,' .. I " oilll! 1II,>i:-IIIII ' (, \ " '1 \ ' i lllfl"rI,' IIi . n, III' '\" ' 1), .... 1'''' II, )1It, '1 III iW It il'\ " tlt' ll II \ ', 'Ii ,(I I II lid I
11\1' 'llilll\,,';'I ' al'l\' II H' III,I\I \ ', ' ;" - 1\11111<1 \ ~,\il\ , \Il\ "11'1'1\11 I' " ,; \\ P'" \\'; \11 ' I IiIh'd \ IIi>" , II III ,"b'-4 '( 1"1'111 " ,
('X 'tllll 011'. 111;1\' II,'" ,I, 'I "I " ,i I i III ( , .. ! )1",1 i, , I,ll,, 01 \\4'.,1-;(,,, ... 11 11' III 'II! "I' ;~I ill;.! ;,hifj,,' !'I!" 111,1,:11<'.1 ""11'11\'
('\ '( ' 11 illill" li,!ltid III IlIi ...... I,II ... :-.(li l 1\,1' \'('I\' IiIII "1I 1 1111 111",1 ..."il' i.... 11 a, ('lIaill wit h 'l ,Olllt'III'IOI .1 gi\ "11
11(' (,>;,,( b, :a) ill).: .,! ~ ilil\ ' , '111111 ~.:! j ill I ~:rr" ' rl. Til, dd.' I lit" ).uj I. II I" Ill' )1'"
', ... hlalll il i" Ille ") IIl\ );II' Ij,," III a ,,,,,1"1 - , .. 111111,,,,1
Moisture vs ,soil c1 (m~i t y
. ... 1Ill., "I' : \ IIi 01 , 11I'1\\" "' III I1 t1l lt 11 ",11'" 'l "tlll,illy lill.,01
i\ Il)j,,, I ... ' ('0111"111 1)1' lit. 'oil i\ \'il ;,1 III pl' 'I )1'1' i'lIltl \\ illl \\'a 1('1. I' 'it 1i ,,).: 0111 "1>1>.1 .. 'Ill ('1)1" ... jllil 111011 I Ii lid,
1';11'1 ill II , ~ loi'lill'" ;..-1" .1'" ;, 1111,1 i, .1111 \\ i Illi II '''iI . 1II"IIII11g,'II" '1 I hh (III II 'stOll ill.... ...... ... " ... IIII' 1,.IIIt. II '
.., li,lillgtll" I'illli.-l", 1('g,llte1. J;..,lilll, ltlui '"Il , "'I/,,b";,,,;-, t..... illll,,\ I Vp" '"il' ) , I"" ~' I-IglIlI,)oI1
11I1'itll ~ 1Il<"J,'qltilh ' "'1111,.111;"11 Iltt l.oIlll,It " 'ilIIIII,1

FILL MATERIALS ,"

.. .. :
, ,
, .
1 '

Foundalfon
..
"
'"

Pavement CompacUon
" , .. Penn'eablUty Support, Subgrade Expansive Difficulty

GRAVEL Ver~I High Excallanl ExcellP.llt No Vf:1)1 Ea~y

SAND f.iE'dium Good Good No E<Y>~'

SILT t.1~iumLow F\:l~ Poor Some Sorr...,

CLAY Non") + t,1ooefale Poor Ditrk:ull V~ Dilflcull

ORGANIC Low Vert Poor NOl ACCpI~e Some \' r1 Diffcult

203
Soil density tests MOISTURE VS SOIL DENS lTV
'Ii) d(,INlllil1l' l f PI'IlP"f ~,)iI
f(lllip" I illll i, ;... hh\'"d fill
all\' ~1)t,'( ' il1r ('( 111,,11'11("1 i'lIl
applit ;lIillil. ~,I'v('ralllll'lltt)oI,
d<,\'c'l. 'I'l '( I. TI,, ' III< "I
\\'('1\'
pntlllill 'Ill hy 1';11 i, 'oil :s
(1f'II,il Y.

Why test
tI 115,1----4--4---4-1-10 - _ - P -_ _-4--AI6___- !

.IS.
S()illl'~lill:-',;"'('f)llIpli,II\" III"
rl,!lO\\ iII,!.!"
t\ t""'IIi'l" (,t' ,oil
tI ( '1 I'ilY
1'111 ('\ 11111 "IIill:-: If,.. ,I 'gr, '"
111'1'1 "111';".1 illl : I ' 'I ",, "

i\ 10 ';1'>111,,, II ... "(I,,, I "I

IIll)i"(II'" 1111 " ',il (I"II'UI I~I~------~-------L----__~--__----~~,~~=-~
I" '1"" , o 5 10 15 20
MoiIiIiI" .,.,... tI Dy~
l'n'l iol,',,, 1110 1,1111"
d(,II,III' 1'111 \ ', . iol<'llIiI\'jli!,':
"(llilllllllllll l l i,IIII"
Typc~ or l st
Ii "I , 1" <11'1' '1IIIill" , 'I ,Ii 11111111 II" Ii ,1111 , , , '1110 'III 111'1' ( It" It'
i II I) II' 1.11M,I aI, 'I \' Ill, 111",1 1'111111111111 i, 111I , PI<IC"l1l1 'I. "I,
"I' '10"11111'(( t'rorlnr II'~I. , \ p"I'1II'1II;" ~()IlIIl'I'd,.I"
h," \' t il t irl, 'jl HOI: "1'1111111111) ,1111' ,"111 (If IIl1li'III!,1' II)
,I('IIi,.\" 'II"I:.illllllll 1II'II,il\', TIli, i... 11111)111101111 fllli nlll~'
I,,, (It II allilil \', ht II 1\ ill 'iI\' ( ' IIIOIII "\' 1)(~ '; III "' I,',,, C'II1
Aq..ri.;k nlo:'U):d of ,j;?to?flllill19 nlOist...... OOosity if. ~OOI':n ",1('1 il ,", ,I 1'( III 1'"1'1',1",11" ;11"1111 ,\ C' I hI' Ch"11. '( I I <"I lit ,
il!. Ih.;. ' H,lnd T.;.$I:
Proctor Test (ASTM D1557 .9 1)
P.;k up a I.ndful,)f So)i, $q\lt'o;Z" I in y.:our h.."xld, Opeon
),Olf hJ()j_ 'III(' 1'111' II II: III i\ I", li(It', 11'1111 11'1 'lco'l , CII' h'll IIi III " I It ..
III00Xi 11111111 oi, 'Il,ii\' III' ",11 III" " " ,I( 1111 .1 'I '1'I'ilk i"l,
,ill' II", 10,,1 1i1,1 d"I( 'IIIIIIII' Illc' IIl""illl'"11 d( 'I1'''\'
,l('llj( vablt'lul II ... Illril lon,lh alld 11'0'" Illi .. li,l..:llI" "'oil
"'h'll'll' " S('( 'III101I\', II 1( .. 1, III" "II,'ch ,,1111111,11111' 111\
" ,il d( 'Il .. i, \,_' :11 ... ,,,ill' 11 'I C'I WI' \';,!t II' I" 'x l' o,,-<'( I A' ;0,
1'('1'1 "l1lag" (lr dr",jl\ III 'S., \'"hll" lin' rll'l<'rlllhIC'(1
lo!'t"WilIlY 11111'1"" II(IIllak,, 1,1,1("'10 <lc" '"Ii'pllll'
l 'ollll':I(,lj,)lI'Il4'firkall'lIl' Mc,dln"" Pro" 1.. 1 \',.lIh"
If Ih.;. SQ! is ~()\,,'(j"'Y J,d wil nc~ r;;.tain th. !.hJr~ iliad .. I:r{ .11" lIiglll'1 1'(,(,01",,' III '~ ",k,' illl(, , l l't llltlll higll('1
)'Olf hiln,j_ it i!.tCoj cty, If j $hJUer:. wl100 dr'~opiod, is bo d colI,iric" 1H'Idc'( II, If' C'C'II,1i1i 1\'1"" "I ~" 'fI'"lI f lltl"
dry,
1'1''') ~ ' I' , ti"IIIII'III(~I' ; II",illlij;III()1 11" 11,11' .... I " 'I'
If U"IEo SQi i$ motIat~.:, ll()j t".",,~s into ,)nl), a cOllr~" d l 'i:":IIII' 101 )
~~",;,r., '(Ih"" drVj:'iMl, ~ hil~ thoi ri9ht amount 01 moislll9
be roropi( l:Ojrnr',}o~tioJO , FI Id tests
If Ih.;. y',1 f. ~.(.."I!,b; In you: hand, 1.. "\'' '$
smalilrilCID d " i.. IIIII'",.I<l1I1 10 (.:"0\\' all I I'<lIlfrcol III<' ",II dC'II';I\'
nlOistur.. on j'\)Ur fl))"1'$ .,I)oj WIts in OIl'" pi<;o;~ who?o chll illg ('IIIlIIM' li,," Followill:": ;"', , ., '111111 'II ntleI
droroped, it h.'t5io:IO n~h rooisIur.. br oonlp,):t~n , II'~" f(, d(II',.1I lill" III. I t II' 'I" II if I~ 11111';" 'I iOl1 011'11,11 if"
,"'.. hdllg I <';l('lu,d

204
 PROCTOR TEST

.....'AIIt
"'''..,...1IIIIn
.............,.
11*""'10"
... ..
A
bI III)cb11t. f'IIDCIIIlr_"
~~~., %SbIIU
"-";';=:--...J PI' __ ~ __ "'1I1
A~-.QtItil

.. dlhl......,1a
. . . . . . . 10

,....
...".a "....1rIr
~
~ Ind hn CMIII-
Ci1IId.12 tun In ctdIt
.~""""1'I
..." nllllrlUb
to _ _ I11.... ....n.q~
oon!Jrtt.

FIELD DENSllV TESTING METHODS '~ ~':':'~~:. ~ ~

Sand Cone Balloon Den solTlGt.r Shelby Tub& Nuclear Gauge

.
" .

Advantages " Lilr,],; s.."lIll~' 1.; , L,'r,},; ~l~,k- F.:'6I ' Fast
Ac~lJilt~ , Oireo:t reo1in'} vt~il i1 ('<j , O"""samr~" ,Ensr b rOOo
, O~.. n gf,l,x-j m.'lI00j , Urm ,-A,.... h.luncM~ 'M"~I<?54
tlol~1sIlcaI rellablltf)

, M"ny &E-fo$ , SIo.v ' Sm..il S<I11p!.; ,No ~ m~~ ~

, LafoJ ~ ...~ re-luiro?d ' Saloon tofE...... "'l,; I'.>gr.uel RMi<ltion
Disadvantages SkK: ":vk.~.Yd $a~ no! ;J(:~$ Moistur' susrt
Hcllllqtirofll~1l1 r.tiood EnoourOlg<;s
T~f)oJ 10 ~cl?f!l flI~s OITlil I~U($

\/rAj UMH p~lIi, Su~ I)~ 1o?/' 1 Oi&rdm- Misc.1lbf.j~

$af)j bulkrq SrJiI~4J~ Rocks i1 p..1b Roob in path
Errors $.lf)j oom~..);t?j I,tid UlCF.r pl.l l~ Plilw: $011 Surl.lC9 ~E{I requir;'j
Sci PUf1llr.~ 8.lck$C.."C10f

Cost Low f.i(...E~E< L0I1 H~Jh

F!f.:'rli :i
----_
:>.05
 SAND CONE TEST S nd Cone T \ (ASTM 01 SS6-90)
,\ ,",,1111101(,(1;" :d;" "I'I'P hdugilllh.. r IlIlltlrU'f1
1I1,III'ri011111 h ""1('(1. Till" ,ill, 1'<'1lI1l\'f\CI<lllcl
\\"igll<'<I. Ih"11 (Ilk 1.111<1 '\dgll '(I ilglIlIl It , tll'I <'r-
,"ill" i" lIIC1hllll" '('IIIIII'''I .\ ...ojl', IIll1h'"J(' i, I1gllll'(l
" ... a IH'I\"n';'g" nit, 'I'M'. ilk \'Ulllll...- 1,1 Ih. hilI, I...
,1""'11111111 '\ I 11\ n"i"~ II 1\'1' h rH IIl " al('(J rll \' ... 1111 I
1111111 it i;u' alld 11I",,<I,,\j<,.. 1'11" cln- \\"'I,~III urdu'
'oil ,,'11111\"'11 j, eli' i<l,d IIv t hi' ,,"11 III It of ,a lid
11 ,,01 " 1'1) lill ,1", 111 11" I hi-. gin" " ' ,hI' "!''''''Y III
,110,, '1)'"1'<1('1,'(1 ~Clil illlh, IH" .. IIhk loul . I'hl.. dI'I"il"
1" 011\11'01' 'CI 1(1 11\1' ,".,~illIl 1111 1'11)( '\(1\ ,\I'",II\' Ill!

SANDMUSf 1,lill,', I" .1I1i1'1. "hi, h :.:h ' " I"~ IIII' nIH,hl' 11I'1I,I'y ul
BE OR\'! Ill" ,nil ' Ital \\ .1' j' hI , "llI pa' lI'd. 1:--.'(' FlglII (' III

Nucl ear Density (AS fM UZ!l22.91)

\; 111'11',111)"1"11\ IIII'III';III'oqlll,I\.lIllf;lIrh a' {,11
1;"1' \\iI\ 0,1 d\'l"nllillitl,L: rl,''''U,' :tllcl'"Ili\IIIII'
'"111 ( ' 11' 1'111'1111'10'1 "" ')0 a I'.IclioH('thI j,,,lol'" "'IllI '"
( ",ililil 1:!7);I' ,11, " ,11 ,,"f;II(' (halk" '""I'')''' hOIl'
II 1',011 )(, 11"1(', 01 ;'111) "" . ~(lil (rl h'(I 'Ir:III~II 'h ... i(l") I'll"

I "' 01'(' '0111, (' ,L:i\ 'l " (Iff pltlll' 111\ ""Ila lIy ( ,:,lIl1lla
1<,\') \\ IIkh 1,,,li,IIIlllt('k III lilt, 1111'11 .. '"<1, ,,,'('1111' 0111
II " ,"""1"" 1)( Ill" IlIlh 1)"11"" 'l)il .. I",)r1" 1111111'
1<1( Ii .. , i' 'II ,11,11' lUll... ,uil :1I,d I hI' n.HIIJI.~" 1111,, ,

1II"I.dlol"II,i'\ \\;U"I nll ll <'111 ( !\ST~'II>:UI17) f ;111 .d,"

h, I'(ad . all \\'i, II i" it ft\'.. '"illlll<~.. \ Il'lall\'I"I'H'{'IIIi'
1It'II ~i'\' j, 111)1 ,Ii 1),.<1 .11'1'1' '"lIlp:lrillg JII<lXIIlIJlIII
, 1"II,il \' \\ ill I "". , , '1111';1('1 illil '1'\1 II" II ('III 111(' I, ,,'
IS", H,t.:lllf Lli

NUCLEAR TST -, _. ',. .:

Soil Modulus (soil stiffness)

llih lit'kl -'I'~I 1111'1",)" 1,.1 \ '<'f\' 1'('('('111 <It'I ' I{'I'III'111 li,"' .... Tit;.. h 1I , " 'j , (;..... . ~ar( '11('11101" 'lf "',lllIg "Ill
111iI1 ,,,,1;11 ,.~ ,nil ",,",il\' I(' ,lill:-t. S"iI ~Ijlrlll'" h II,. ,Iilll ll ... ' Soihlill,lI ... , h 1111' d",ilt'(l "lIgllw('tillg
fa' if, "f 1', 01 ('C' - ' 11 - d i'pi;,n 'II It 'III. 'Ii .,' i 1l.L: j., dc,", ' hr ;, 1""llI'l" ,\ ' 111I'.i 11\1 dr\' clCII" I." ""d \\ ,U "1' n 111<'111
111;1('11;"" ,11;0' "'11ft... \'ill'iI'i"II" ill"" Ift( "oil illld Iltc'll II", IIII'll ,od j., , 1111 ('11, 1,\' lX'i IIg 1""';'1'<'1 1('" ;11111 ,("",,1
1I11';" "I'C ... 'li, " ('O(,,'liOllllf Iltc 'lIiI frolllll ... \'Ib", I, \, 1IIf'I'<~ll'J'allli,L: II\\ ' .I\, :\"llIill;"'I';lII('II.

206
 Compaction Equipment ..
R,'\ l'-ibll' p/.lll'Sat I MIlOOII, dnllJl \ ;I".;lIUIY 1'0111'1
Hr!'. ppmprialc for prodllrlloll \\'ork. <:nllll llal'
Applications ~,il ,,""Iirll" ff"P"lld 10 !l11T1'lt'II1 fll'q"("lC'k~
rh , dL'., in 'd It'n ,I "I, 111111 );1("1 jllil b 111''''1 ;.r 111('\'('(11,'.-
i\ih... ljeII L\) <I('I)('l1dill~ ClI1llOlI'lidl' ,I:f(' I'h(',
).111<1111" II .. , pallilil'. Ill<' hl;.:II' 1 tI .. itPqU('"(Y
IlI ald,ill.~ 11I"~l)iII YI)( ' will . il~ prop'" (1111lpaCliolt
III('Illod . Utllt!' fa('II)!,~ 1I111~' hI' ' (lIl'.id(rc'(l <I~ \\'(,11. II<'<'I'!-\iIlY In 11\.)\'1'" A, VillI '"ll1p".'1 ,oil, \\'llh
I;"~\"r 1 anidl..... IIIC'\Illp IIlI:lIgl't "lJtliptllt'ttlll'
~III 1I ; I' CI111111"CI;' 11I '1)(''''' :tlld joh ,il('("lIldilillll'
I)illiilll k,\\'"t' In'(i"\'l ... il~ mllllllgill' l '"tllPllt'llulI
C(l ll('~i\' (' ).I ,i" eli.,,;., ,nlll,j\,; iI, "al I 10'1<" ,Itt k ('1))'1'1" IS.,!, Flgl"" 1:;1
11I).!(lh,I. Th'II'I"I". it III,II-hilll' willi" high
iIIlP""1 filII ,. i, 1' 'I' ,ir," I,) '''"11111' 'llil alld 1011 t' GRANULAR SOILS . r ". ~{,:.,. : ' ':

IIII' -til'""I. .tll all~illg Ih'I".rlid .. , . i\ 1.lillII ~1 ,.,

111(' h(,1 d1l,i ... . ( 'I a iJ.:,j-/iItJI \ 'il,{.:/'JlY iflih I'
hl:...(II('1 1"'Oc(lI!'lillll j.., 1lC'('(IotI. IS.", Fi~lIn' ' 11
' '1'111' ".,tlid, ... '"11,1 I_ ,10";11"" I.. , " "lp.U1.
1:1';'11111; 11 '",i" \11111';":1;111111,11 ",iI',II"11I11
,'nll, l>h, illIclll". I 'ilil id,. . I (''1t! ill' " ,lIaki ".~ "I
\ 'ihral<'lya,I;"'llfI 1I11 ,\ ,III,'lIl.l i"i.flfl;\ flf.II, ' MVC.~)H
(lOf'\\,;II',j 11.1""' .1 ;11" 111<"'1"1 dlllj. I' Vbralt)r), Pki9

MVH2\XGA
fW,'~rsililt? PI.1I~

207
 ur
Normilllv, soils ~rl' lIlix" 11'('" rill." i1lld gnmllil-lf
un HEIGHT .
maleriah, maklllg Ihc' \!'I(!I'lioll of rlJlllp,,"linll
NllliplllNll IIllln~ dimrllh , II I, ,I got'} I idl'll 10 choo\l'
111(' lIlilrilim' appropriHh ,1')1' 1hr' '''I';,,:''r p' ITt'lIllfg(' or
Ill,' IlIi)(IIII'C'. Fqllip"lI'lIllf'''lillg 11101" 1I"I('(llIil'('(1111
111:,1 rJ I 111(, Ill',1 ll1;u:hilH\ 11I11H'Joh,

,\!>phait I~ c"OlI,lcl"I'l'd gralllli:II' dll" 10 il~ I a'\c' (lr

IIlixcd a:.:greg"l!' sil.'' (nll\lwd :-1011('. gl'tlVL'1. \;UHI
Wid n" ..,)
lllixc',J \\'ill, hill II IIf'll hili""" ("'plla"
nmlf'IlI) , CIlIIW'I' IC'III 1,\ , ;"pllall IlItI"I,., f""lIlpat'lf,t!
will 1 (11'("'"1'1' (\1,., k) I II' \';1 IP.litll I.

Compaction machine characteristics

I,\'U ".I('IIJI~ itll' illll,,,I'I;1I1I ill fr.'I"lllIillillg 11i('I\'jl" "I'
111,"1' ,I "OIIlP,IC 'litlll IlIal'llill' 1'1""1111"" (;11/11"1:' \ ,ill.!
,,;ti/,Ii: Ii' I<
! ,'/I "/11t'11n h Iltt, :-01""'1 I al I\'lIil'll :1111" "" '1111 k ~I 1<.11
"''''11 .... ,,1' IIt"lIlill'llill('jIlIIlP" Earll nlllll',lI'lltlll Propel lift Improptf Lift
,I1;I('''ill'' j .. <I(,'i;,.(II('(I"'IlP,''';'III, ;,1 ;11' "plillllllll
11('(1' II 'Ill'_\'
I,. '"I'ply lit" II I:IXili II III' 1'1111" . FII"I'II'I1I'\'
;., tI~\I;dl .\' g"" '11 ill 1,'1'111" (lr\'illlalillll~ I"~I' IIlillill"
(\'1'"1) .

.'\III!,iilll(/C ('II """lill;~1 ""lplilll.!I 'i i~ II" , 1)):1)(;11111111 ,Soi I, ;,11 ;. hI) 1M'1I\'I'I ,, 'olllpal It '( I if 1111' ('01111),1, ' 1111' Illak",
1111 '\' ('111"111 , )1' a "illf',Hitlg hllily 1'1'f111i il'- axh ill 1111" It ," III, III Y I ""W" iA p; '" " IIt, 1"'11'11 It II ' g' lit Ig a, I'll" ,I
dill'l I;"II. 1)\111111<, ;1I.l1pliIPol" i" 1111 1ll;lxillllllll di, lill '"I II... diH'(' ljOIl) , ()\I(\,..rOIl'l paCI if ,1110..Ilkt, ( III "
1,1111'1' , 1 \'il)l';lIill:': IH,dy 1I1;)," I'~il 'l hnlh din'('lioll' frllill ~t;lIlrl\' It It I II l).t ('IIIlr.n'l '\\'1111" sl('( I~ 'llal II II "'I: Cr""('''-,
il~ ilxi,. I'll" ;)111,,11"111 ;IIIII,lilllll,' ",I !'iI'" 1'01' .(';1('11 wi 1I1'\'l'lIlI lall), Hpi )('tII', rl'dlldll~ "1'1I'il y, 'l'lth i:o. a
III"dlilll' IIlIcI('1 oIifl'c'IC'III,i'II, ~it"'I,"dili()II~ . IIII' \\,1I,lt"'!llIilll ltoi II~ ;Hld ;Ield, 1111111 ~ ' ',,"al'\' ",,,ar If' II h'
,lppal'l'llI aillplilllci( ' iltrlC';"(" iI~ IIt"III"ll'l'i,,1 h,', 111.1 Ilill('.
(" )1111':-0 111(,(,(, d('II~(' awl f'Olllp"rll'rl.
Compact' on specificafion s
lift height and m,~chino J?~rformance . \ \\,11<1 ahllll( II 1I,(I(illgjc,1 , ~j'(~p"' IIi<',lIjllll' . 1:,',11''''
al " ', ('1 II II pil I I il)lI 1"'l'rlJl'IlIH 111' (, 1lal'allll'l('llo "I'(' gl\'( 'II
l.ift Itl-i.t..:ltl (depth (,I' IIIl' ~llillil\ '!'I') i~ <III illlptil'lanl
1111 a C()II'"I" ' lilllll'nti(~ ' 1 1111)111,,,1 I WI) \viI\', .
1,1\'1,)1' IIHI' (lm,('!., IIl,wllilll' p"rl",nwlllfP and ," >111
11<1"1 i"l1 1'1,:-.1. \"illl',11111 y and 1'''111111' '1 1"(>" "'I' lipll ll'lll "I"llllld slwdn";,1i1l1l clC'1aill,<I ;1I,1111('lillll'
"'IIIIP,1I'1 ~(Jil ill 1111' '''"11' ((ill"'lion : 1111111 (f,i' II) 'l'I'('jfy IlIi'lC :ltjll( ' IYI',,,lirt 111'1'111\. 111111111('1 Itt
(,01111111 <tlld hollllllll0 I'il' . : \ , till' Ill, " hi Ill' Itll~ lilt' jlH"'I" , 1I1:1I"1Iill" 'p",'d :-IIUllllllhlllrl" 'Olilelll. ;\
'f"1. 1111' '1IIP; WI 1r;I\'c'I ... ,n Ill(' hard ' 111'1",,1" 111'1,1\\' alld "1'<'I'i, )(," h gi\'1'1l <IS pan (lr IIIC'jnh !>J>" .. 10
tllI'lI 1''-'1111'11)0 IIP\\',IIo1 . Tlti'~(\I" "II PHllic1(', ill 111(,1 ill II ,1("1 ' I'llIpli~1t tllf' ,01111'.11'1 iOIl ",."rI..
l. Tit" II 1<'1 !tlld
illtd "III1II'''Cli''lllilkl')o pia, C' . i, 'Hlldi1I1'r1, iI' iliad 1;1"" IC' cII IIl1log ' Ita, lar
;\s 111l' :-o,.il 11""'lIll\" ("I)IIIP;II'll'd,IIl'1 ilIlIHII " ha .. a
oll'pal'c'(l ('UIIIIIl('II I1H',IIod 'p('('lIk;u j()I" ('lIj'I'-
1II"III~ .
~ltllrlc'l eliS"fll' (' 111 Irn\ ('1. ,\ 10(1' 10rc'('I'<'IIII'II\ 10111('
It''IdlillO, Illakill~ il Iii I lilT tI", groulld Iti.t..:II\'1 ill il" Elld l~ c\Mlh Spf'fll1rali()11 ('lIgill(,'Cr~ illdkal<'
~Irrlk,~ ('yci('. II' 1II(,Iili b 11)0 <1('('p. Ih, ' III", IIilll' will fill,,1 ....llIlparl iOIl 1"\1(1111 ('IIH'IlI~. IIIII~ givil Ig 111('
,,,",'I')lIg rio IIIIIP(lC'llhl'!>l)iI "'lid" (;IYI'I' Williill ('lIlIlril"lol 11111('11 lIIorc' Il,'xihjlil\' ill d(" '1'IItillill~
lit., lil'l \\'illllol h,' C')I ItP;fI'l.( J. lit ... h('~I,III("1 C'C 'OIl"IIIII';,IIllf'lh"rI of 1ll('('lill,~ IIII'
ISc'" Figll),(' Hi! "''Illill'd l'> IK!(-.... FlIrll 11t;\lI'I~', I hi:o.. j, I h., 1I1'lId ,
;tll!)\\'i 1I).t II,, ('111111 a "II III I.,kl' .. d\"1I1I age' of IIII'
tAI('\1 lI'cllllolugr <I";tilal,I(

- - ----.,__.... _.- .........,.----... -- 208

 EQUIPMENT TYPES .
Ramrncrs
l~a' "IlI,' r' oI,'li,'( I' a hi;.:I, il"Il<I<"
1"11( ,(high illlll"ilw'l') MT-7~D
111:0 killg 1111'111 all ('x("('1I1'1I1 d Inh'l' It II nl h.'~ " , a ile! :0.1'111 ; C;~I-PQ'.,' roo R.'1lllllW(
,~ ,ht',h,,' ,oi"'" Fn 'lJI U'IlC\' ri uIgl' b 51)11111 7!iO hlo\\"~ 11<'1'
fnlll pal'l I, 'II r..rn' j I< 'Ill ,"II .all
III iI III I,., I ~a 1111111 'I'''' ).:1'1
g,l:>flli 11( ' or clio'\( ,I (,II,~il l" plI\\'('rl IIg a lar;':l' Ili"OIl ""
\\ ' iil, 1\\" 1 '("" Ihl'ri 1I.r. : .... nil' ri1ll1l1l1'l' jo,. illt' lill< '( I i ll it
'(I
1'''1'\\'''''' I il lI.r..:I. ,111,,\\' 10, \\',11 d I rw. ~ 'I i t' II ... II ',1d ,i III '
i'"llp~ , I ~a 111111(,' ,, '( ,,'1'1' Illl l '(' I "PI ':0. III', III "l H(' I illll :
;1111';'1'1 . "i!lml;')lIii'HI klll ';ulin,t.: 1",'" Joi~ ''''('171

Vibratory p lates
Vil,ril'o, \. J>la,,~ it ro ,I, ,\\' "11 'pli"" 10, a Iltll'i.!.!I, In "1 " ,'11(" ,
d(" , gll, 'rll')I'I)"l p;IIIl-~nllll";1I ,>(lil' Hlld"'p" .. 1t
(:lI\oli'I'" r,lil',,'I, II;.:i '11", 11'11'('(,""'I) ' \'""""", 11"
\\'I i;.:l11\ ,II ;. I li.t.: 1I.'JI' ., ~ 110 111'1'1'101" 1111'1 M'" i"" In. , ,.
a'
n ". ".,.", ill).! "ill, 11'""';11 ,,,, 1'01 \\;., 1111111' ill I I. 'li lt ,
(',,:-:ill(' ; lIlt I Ita ,"11,' a," "il-r,lI il)lI h, 11"'1'(111'1 lIlll II. ,
\'i"nll i!l.r..: I 01,11" III!' '''';1\ ;"1 li lt' pli1h ', I h, ' III' In ' f "III
l'iI'" i'lIl 1',,1< " i' ;':"11" 1" " ':0. h ,. 1"""1'" '"flg(' j, It,.
1.llI y
6{1(I, P'III1 )(;( 1('(1 " 11I1l 1'1" ,(" II w d ItI' ,,,,pllal l 11,1\'" ..
\\,a ', ', 'a II ki liid ~ I'I ;'lkl"1 ,\ ' I( '1111, , I'"" " '111 oI'pl ntll
"""1 ~ 'i"k ill,~ "I" It' ' ''JIII 1I (1,011111 ' " ;I'<'pl;II ('. \ 'i"r,1I 1111I
j\ IIIC ' (I I 1( ' 1,ril lci l, .. 1'0' 11 P;tI'l iOH dr. ', ' I. 1",',' Figl II (' J TI

Rev(!rsibl~ vibriltory plates

III ,If I. Iii i, III I" ~III, W "I' IIll' ~t;" It 1.11',1 "il1 ltll' II'} pl,.1 1'
MVH402[)S
1",1"1'0.... ' l" 'I'I':o.illl. "I'III'~ I'<I\'(' I\\'I) "o' ('(" llI i, \\ 'o'i.~ III ' R~'~sit~ PlJt~
I II", .. II.)\\, ~'"' ! I)III 11';11 '''il ill II rur rllr\\'a' <I II'
1('\ 1', ".
Iran'l. phl' ;1l.-ro'a~I.1 '"1paC-l iIH I Inl'(,o'''' Ih,' 1"',1111
"I' tllm l \V('ighl, 1)II('lft Illl'ir \\' (' i~llI alltlltlft I' ,
r"""I'!'o ihk' plal( ', <11'1' i. 10 ';111,,1' :-('1111. (,'I( .... i\j "oi l ...
!\ rc" " ~ I~j hle b pos\ihl\' " '(' h(':-I nlll'jHC( 'i ' H,11I 1\' dl,ll;"
fm 011111,11: I 'III ikl'" ,,"<1<1' d pl" ,P", 11,1 ' " " ',,, ... ilth : ,
1', II \\,i ll d " , 1\' ,,1," "Y II" , ', IPP'" I ililol ii", II "., I,i ,I<' \\ ill '":0 1I1' , '1i1 i" 1,," I ' 1', I' ..... 1"" .. I '0111 11111 Ii, 'I I.
1:X'" Fi,t,:, 'I'<' IiI

.. I ~ tI ..
EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS . '; . ' :,'
Asphalt
Rammers
Granular Soils
Not recommendao:1
Sand and Clay
T"'~ting recommended
. Cohesive Clay
Besl applicalion Not recommended

Vibratory Plates Besl awlication Testing recommended Not recocl1l1lended e.ast cw1icatlon
Reversble Plates Te~ting lecommen,j~ 1?'t?SI ~)plicalbn Best <'Wication N t recomnmd

Vibratory Rollers Not recoolO'lended E?<SI ~r'lication T~ting recoml(,eooe<l BaSI (fiPlication
Rammax Rollers Tesling recommende<J Best cr~,'ical~:m Best <4~Fcalion No! I col11n~d
.... ,-
-- ~

209
 ROLLER TVPES

V30-3E
Vit(ll"lf)' RoIlEc

T-26
R~jb-OO VlbralVr)' RoIlo;r

Rollers
1~(lII I'1 ). .\1'(' a \ 'ili I"bll' ill ~L'\'I'I "I I <l11'glll i .. :-: \\ .. 1k l)\ lIi III I <tlld rid( 1111 . ",II klll1f1' ;".,lila hi, iI" ""1111 1111 III 11111 .
padrll'" IIrulIl alld rllhlx:r-II ... el l1l1 lt("I,. atlel ;, .... fllltlll'l dl\lr(ld 111111 :.1,111(' alI(I "Ihl ;11111 \' ,1111., .1I1guti .. .
IS,\, 1'lguft' IXI

WJlk-behind
.'-II/i()fl: / I

:\ (lu(1I1Ii11 d~I .~lI for 111<-111\' ~'(i1I" . ~llIl.IIII dnllll
IIHWhilll" '11(' iril':.llor hllih !'(Iill1lld '''1'11<111. Dual
:-1".. 1 dnllll~ ;111'1111111111 '111111 a rigid 11i1l1l1 ' ,lIld
(I(Iwl~n'oI hy ;':;1","1111(' 01 oIil ..(1 ('lIgilll" SIt"'1 jtl.~ I,
dOIl(' hy 111.11111;.111.\' Illmillg Ill<.' l1Ii1dlilll' 11<111<11 ...
l'r"'IIII'III'V h ;lI'OIII Id 11>(111 ''Pili "lid ,lIl1plilllol .... I;III!~('
rrlll1l .Olk 10 JIj!Il. \ ihl:tljllll i"IJlm'ld('(1 II\' "I ('('l urk
:-11:.11:. pl;I('I'1i ill till' dfl II "" ('1 111111111111( (1111111' fllll"(' .

210
nlCidcd
Padc)t'(II1lU('l's cUl' abo kllnwlI <IS Inmrh .'011<'1 . dll(,
(I) I Itt'il' (n<'(:llvt' II~I~ ill I n'lId If"" allel (x('.. \';ul()Il~. ,
Th(~! "I<lel tin's f('illlIl'e II 't!rilllli, or hvdl'osllIli
1(,l'rillg .. lid o(l('1lIlillll. 1\ "V('II,r! It I di;'~c1 cmgillH .
1r<'III:h 1I,IINanIHlill III \\'ilh,tallclllH' I'igut'),'"
('(lllnl"'" fllllll'''tlillll . ' Ii'l'IlC'h rnll.I'~ HI'l'l'illll'l' ,kid
~I('I'I orl'tI'Iiplx' d with ani""lall'tl :-'II'I'rillg. 0p"la
1;'111 I'alllll' hr IIHII1W111l1' 1('lIIot(' (')IlIl'nl.l.;u.,.~1'
l'Crl'lIlrj(- 1I1l1l~ prl)vidl' hi.t.:h hup,"'1 for ... ' wId high
;ullplillldl' (for 1'011,1") Ihal <lfl' ilppropriah' fur
('oll,... i\(' '(lib. Till' elf! 1111 pa(b 1>1'<'\'id,'" kll('adillg
il('linllllll ~Il;1. U,(, till'''' I,,;.,.l1illl' for leig h pilldllf' -
tidlY.
/~i(it (1/l
ClIlll'igltf(:-< 1 " .. 'Iali, , 11'1' 1- \\,11('1,1 roller" lith', O!l'" aI'"
""',1 prll"arily IIII' ;(,(>11<1" ,"rr,III' ";tlill,t.: <t ilt!
nlli,ltill;4 1\'lIrk ill IIl1' l;u ,t.:,,. iii 10 I'; 1<'11; r;III.L:" SII'ill l
rid.'-Illlllllil.' iii'" I""d lor 1"'Irlljl)l" wilh IIIill Iill'.
TIl(' lfl" ld i,IC,\la,.,1 \il>l'{,'ol'\ '"II,, .... Im ld('1lI
\ 'ihr<tl "r.\' n"
1<'1 ~ an' tI:.tli-lII ,. Ic" Ilid wil It druill widl 11,
Safety and General Guic:felinbs-
:h wit " a II "011 ... 1111('1 i'lll \''1' aiI'I I HIII. 111\'11' ;11 i.~ 11I.ill\
~"f('IV pr<lcIi," " Illal ~1")lIld Ix lull(,\\,d whil,' lI~il'.~
('(J lllP;H: lic'll ('( 1";1'"11'111 . \ Vllil, Ihi'> laall,(IIII( ,1\ h 111 11
rll'sigll<',( I" ('()V,,. ;,11 " '1>('1'1:- or
jill) ~ill' ~af('1 \'. Wc
\\'i,1 Itlllll'lllic"1 ~(Jllh' ,)1' Ihf' IllJ)I'I' (lh"iIJII~ lI"II" ill
I\'gilrrl lo " l '"lp;Wlillll ('(llIipII"III . Irlpa II \'. ,'qllipllH'1I1
npl'l';lInr~ ).11"Id<l I'~mili ; lfi /., 111('11\,"'1\',, \\'ilh ;,11 of
111(; r n )1111',111\" :-. ,af':1 \. r"gl d;ll illll.' . ii' \\,(11 ;1:. illlY
OSIIA. ,1'11(' ag"III'Y (II' Ic... al ag,olll)' I "glllali"I"
IJI'naillillg I.,jllh :-.,,11',, I:a:-.il' 1'('1" '"'ll pl'l'I '" 1;"11.
l'1I11,jsl illg of dflntllll' \\c 'rk glll\,I" . , .\'" prol" cl i(lll.
,ar 1'1'111 (,1;1'11. <11'(>",\ '(' <111",,1( hOi' ;11111 \\'c)lk dlf,llc,.
Slh)lIlc1 hi' st;lIlrl"rd b"ll' ')11 anyjl)l> and m"II"l>ll
ror ;1I111l1~ Ii a '" 1"('.
III II It' r a:o-<' III' \\';t1k-hl'hillcl , 111111 ~II' I ;11 11 "qlli 111111"".
,,"d;,iolltal,,)i' Ilfflll'nioll d('\'i('c" :-ollllllid h,' a\ ;,il"I>I..
df'I"C~llcli 11;': 'III al'l)1 kahil- 1"';':111 .. Ii, 11 .... ,\111'('1''' 111111'1
np' '1',11 iug 1")\\'('1' 'd ''D III pari il)n l'rl',ip'll('1I1 ,h. ,,,Id
n~1(1 allllp"r;u;IIg allcl,,;,r('tv ill~lnll Iill", IIII' ,'ad l
I,i('('(' "I' ('111111'"11'111 . I\ddili(lilally. I I'll illi II;': ~1t"Iaid I,..
prc" 'ir!('(I:-o" 11"'11111' 1'(l"raIOI' i:-, ilwan ' ol all :':-'1'('( '1'"
of ('1'<'1'111;011 .
N(llllill('I~ ... 1, ,1<1 1)( ,,110\\,(<1 1(111)('1'11(' (~'""'IH 111111
("'II Ii(>III(II( .
It
--_._-
N ('I"'nllor ~It IlIleI 1'1111 ("on"'1 (I<'I illn
.... , ~
(lno tip 10 111l~ with Iht' lllo!'1 ('1111111 lUll Il(i Il).t 4S'.
SuitHItI(' for l.oil. Mlh-h;I\{'Ulld ""phllh c:olllp:trlkm.
laudl'llI 1'011,'1'1' 1I~'111f' d~'"alllk fOI('(' nl ~'1'-('''lrlc
vihfRh I' n. S('mhl 's fll(' hl~h )'I'tKllICliul\ wf)rk.
Sillgh.drllllllllildlilll ... rl"h,rl' " sltlJ.:I( \'ibrlltln~
"nltn \\ilil PIWIIlW,Iir <111\1(' \\'11('('''' Til, (11'11111 is
;j\,lilahlc iI~ !'1II1)1) IIt li ll ,""IM~ III II )('k flll. (11
JlacllNI for !'>(liI comp#I(' lhm Acltlhl')JIl1l1y. iI rld\ ' I I
\ '('('\1, JII of I hr' pilei fllnl II I'll II lllllC'f .... u\'lIi1;'lhl,' for
wly hi,t:h produclivlty ill ('''''!llllll'd ;an',I\, \\'illt ('illl("
IIlil'llIal or 1'('11101<, rnlll!'! lopl"<tti(Jn .
lll, ..., 1'011<,.. \ "1(' ('(I"il'l )('" \\'i 111 7 I" 111111('IIIlHIIic'
,II('!-o \\'ill1 111(' 1nil" all 11'1'111 lin", 1\"'1"1"1'1,11 Ig, :\
",llk 1,,11, ,1' hy 11:'"11"'. ,ullll'mtlllll 1'111.'" I... all(II" I ,,~.
lit, .. dditio" 'II' 1'( ' 11\'1\',,1,,1 \\'\'iglll mid," 11 ... 1".11"" ill
111I)tlllllll!"wallllIr"'"lId. vVl'lghi nlllg'"\',lI V II Ii III
HI I,) :1.1 11)11\. 1111 ' '1IIlIP;I"I)c," 1'111111 h P"""""lIIltl
kll';lI lillg. pfilllal il\' wit" 11,,,111111 I II I;'" I! n 111 111).: nil'
1'1'(,:""1'("" (Ill "'"II' Illal 1,111(" (':Ill hi ' c1(,(T(''''''d \\,ltllt
f(, lIillg 1(1 arB""" !-!rt II IIld ("1111111('1 1"'(''''''111',' 11'1' dlllc'I
1'111 j' 01, , Ilildi I 1111"
"'I"ipl11l'1I1 \\'11<'11 1II1 ,11'1" ,It, illl1\1I'1II"" (,I III('( lio'alioll .
ill. .~i11 ell' ,, ~, III "it-ollol. SI'I illll'> Illj III \' 1'1 d" ;11 I, , "" 1<1
11"0'," ", ;11'l .... 1110(illll'l'Ol )II "''''(11' III'g l(" 'I III ,ill 'IY
I'I;wli," " .. nd ;,";1 11,10,:-,. Tllj..",pplil, III hUIl1 dll ' 111'\\'
\\,orkl'l a~ \~ (11 ;" I I l{' ~"iI"""II(,( I 1>1,,1'...... 11)11:1 I.
Shoring
1"'111 It \\'lIk III ;Il~ .. ;a 111'\\ .... 1 "I' '011"'1 ), 1" ;l('lk,'~ Hild
" ).:lIlali"I1' 1'(11 IIll' (" )I'lPill'I io III "'IIdplllt, II 0P"I,,'''I
Tilh ,,, ' lillll clot .... "!)1 ;1)11'1101 I,) I '1\'1'1 IIu' I'l'glllmillll'
W'J'laillillg III 11"'11(' " ~ar('I\' (USII ,\ (';.1'1 W21i. Stlhl'm I
1'1 . nl<' (fI X'nlhll ~ lIl)lIkllw ,,' kIlCl\vl,dg, (,I wlllli I..
n'qllil (d Idun' ('Ollll'iln illg III a 11'('111'11 (II' I ""fill"d
artii . II,' (,(,,.Iail);) "("JIIIIK'I"111 P"I)Ollll - (a~(,,nll,d ltv
(IS( 1.\ illl~1I1 ItW;.I;:.(I f'(,\j..,,d.lllly I . 1~l!lK) Ill)'
ill'l "(,,,d I( II ' )J'\'II' II alld 1'., 11 II\\" Ih,' OSI (A gllid,
c"
Ii Ill'~ 1'111' il)\I" '.'1illll dllrillg 111(\ I nil inll (,f IIll' illl,
1I(',id", III' flll" i, ,1\ d;IlI~'" 01';,11'1'11('11 (';1\'1'- ;11. ,IH'
\\'011\1 r 111"'1 ill", hI ' 1,,..11 ( '( '1,'(1 frlllll (allil1g (llij,r .... .
t i ll .. lalll'td ((II ~hll"l'd i Ir("dll ... nll l 1., 111111');11 11'(1
wi I 11 I II!' 11'>" nr I' '111'11 c "11111 I (II 1'01111,; ,('1 i'm (, jlait>
111('111. TIl;'" 11110\\" lit' "1/('1'.11111' I., .. tH\ 0111 .. 1(11 tllf '
11('''1'11 ",fa ih fli "'1';11 i II).: Ill\' (''111 ipllll'I II .
s.tl<,\-f'irM '
211
 Glossary
AASHO AIIINk<llI /\"!!o(1 'I ali(ll~ OrSlnl(' IlighmlY
Orndj,I~ ,
Adlll!sion JlIIII"rlv (,f'lIil \Vltirlt 1 ';III~"" Ih,
it
lidl'~ II, ~Ii .. k 1" ,~"IIIl'r,
Agg/('gMe ~IIIIII'I)I'gl'avl'l 11 ..11 \\',,~ ('I'""h('(1 lIlId
~rrl'II,d II) \"IIillll:-' ~i/.(:-o fill' """ ill "11111'1'1'11', il"plmh
1'1 I I 'ill I :-01 wfa, ('.. ,
Ampllcude 1111'101:11 ",rtind cihlall('II!t( \'ihr;lIing
I It 11111 III pia Ie ' h di:-oplal'l '( I frl 'III II 1'1,1 illg III 11('lIl l'al
I'"Silillll frolll IIII' '"I '(lIlri .. 11111111('111.
B." k r; /I lila II 'I i"t.. 1I'o1r! iII I ""i II illg a 1'111 Ill' 1'1 I11'1'
(,:\, '''';lIi'"I. III' IIII' .11'1 IIr"If(llllofillilig.
Ball,l,< t 111'<1'" 111;01," i;,1. 'Iwll a .. " ,all 'I', :-'; 11111 01
1111'(;" ",It,d I Ila ... 1111 rlllll'lioll ill a IlJadlill<'I'.'(I'I'PI II'
ill' I'l'a'ol' il:-. \\"'i,t:11I
[la n k ;, 111<1:-' .. ,)1 ..."il I'hill;": ;,11,,\,,' all i!\'('1 ;,g( I('\,(, 1.
<"IIoI';,lIv. IIII~' ,oil "llidl i, III 1'I ellI.t: 1'1'''"1 il'"
11.1: III ;d I" ,~I II"II
Simi< G,.<1I" 1 a 11<,llIrallilixlliro " 01 1'111'01111-"" ..~I ;1\'1'1.
:-.;owl iIIld rill"",
S.mk Yar(l) ,,,iI"l Ilwl, IIfI'iI'III,'d ill il:-OOl'igill,oI
I", .. ililllllll,rlif'(' di ,~~ill:-: ,
Ei.1~O! IIII' ( ' I)( II W 1'1' I;IH'I' 0)[ 111;,1('I'ia bill a n ';1( ""'1\
s"cliull 011 w!ti r h 1111' a (' lllal l'a""III('1I1 i, pla('(~d . II
ilia" 11('01 dilr'I'IIIIVIII:-"f IIIiHI'l'i;iI""allgilig !'I'OIiI
:-,,I,, 'Ie'rI ..oil"IIIIIII:-.llI'd :-.10111"11 g lil\I1.
Bum i ll I ilrlili,
i.d I icigl ' lIf(';'I'I11 , g"III'l'illly .. irll
:-10 1"" 01 a 1'1);0,1 h"d.
Bindel I illl ... ",!tidl nil , 'oid, "I' !told gnl\"'IIt'g" 1I11'1
\\'111'11 fin '.
Borrow Pit .111 "X(';I\';,li"1I f'''''"1 wllir' II (iIlIWIII'1 i;d i,
Iii k('11
Capi llary pla"IIIIII1I' "1111 nj'.,oil ",IIich ;rll(l\\" \\,all'l'
<I
II) h, "b:-."rhl'(l ('ill"'1 IIj ,will'd or l"'lel'ally.
f.erHtifligal Fo rce 1I1( ll)f'('( .~'lllfilled I'Will 111('
IlIlha!;lIlcl'd, "lIclilillllllf(,("'l'lllri<' ~II(1f1 1'1 'Iillil)lI ;&1 i'
gi"PIl "1"'('(1.
CI:JY llutlf'l'lnlllllllllllM.'d lind nt'rlvt'o rrom lil<'
""('1,1111111:-.11 itlllof 101'1\ ",hid I ( 'IlIl,i'J~ of III ic'1'C N ' l(llr
panidl'~ '
JlIII"
Cleafl I,,, tlf 1lIII'igll IIlah'rlal . III wfl'II'II( III :-';IlId
111 .~nt\,('1. litck (If a hllld,r.
Co lle Ion iI prop"n," IIf ,,111 ",Ilidl h(llcl:-.
111I llill'lil'l, ... I<'gllhl1'1I ,Iickill;':, ,\1", . 1111' ,,,I!',
:thilil" IOI I ~i'l ,11l a rl ... cI,I('1'lllhll,<1 h il,df'gn'('of
r'(11 1{,j\1'1 It"',
CO/ICS IVr. M.lten,,1 ",,,1111.0\'111;': plllp"n k',,,1
",,11,,1,," ,
Comp.lc ted Y. ' rd~ 1IH';""I'I'111<'111 ,If , oil 01 nwk <tft ,1'
II i... plal'l'( l <11101 "11:111'.11 '1, 11 1II IIIili.
Compl ess lbllily "I""I"'IIV "f"'il wllio II I'I 'f'IIlil,
oIl'li '1111,,1 iltll wh"11 ... ,,1 !j('('I' '( II" " 1,,:111
Cll/~ .1 C'v lillriri, II I),"'I 'C' III' all IIIIIII'I .t :II'IIlId 1'111'111-'1 ,
lilill. ' III allti noi ..... d I,\, ,, 1111 ;11 \' drill willi i' llol1,)\\'
1111 Th, ' 111111('1'\""'" "I'IIIC'I'I,r':III" ,Irthllll elilllI ,
CrllWfl iiII' 1'I"" ::III" i (11':,1'11<01 ,,"'1::,'(, lit i... 1''':.'.(':0 ,
11I1'11I',,"a;I .~' ,1& ;Iillagl.
D,1 tlll ~1 ;111." 1(,'(1 ' "1'1'"(,,. Ii,k," ,I' ;" pialit' ,,11'1') ('1
"111 '(' fl<JIII w i lid I to, 111"""'1111' 11,\ i,l i( .", .
OeI1~i t Y 11a, 1';11 in ,,1'1111' \\'(jghl ,)1' it <;11",,1;1111 " 10 II,
V"hff'\('
E I11/)"Il kit 11m t "fill wil lt ;0 lOp ltlgltl'l I h,," IIII'
,,<lj!)illi IIg 1Ii1ll1ral :-'111'1 '111 , ' ,
EI.1S ( IC ,ty ;0 I ltaf';I'IC'I'i:-'II('l)r,"il whklt ali"\\,,
,1"1'1" Illal ill II dlll'ill:': it :-'lIltil" Il'd II '.-lei. ht II 1('1111 "'
"I "II,!'> I I" il!'> UI iglllal, ' " 1111-:111 ill i"ll i1rl ('1 1('111(1\ ,11,.1'
"I" r,mI.
Fines Ilav Ill' .. ih pallid( '!'> ill !'ooil.
Finis" Gr.~(/e Ilt"lillal .t.:1 ad( I'c'll"in'd 11,' 'I)( '('II';'-a-
I ittll'.
FlIot hi lilillpillg I'Illlpn. (IIH'Oralll lllllll 'I'Or
I'r(ljl" 'lillll' fl Uffl a "ylillclrka lllllllll ,
Frequency 1'1'1 (:rri,,:.: IOlolalilllntl '1)('1'1( "llll.'
1I,,,ally ral"d i,, - Vilmlliol" 1'1'1'
, , (, ,ntrj('~lliIfI
~\'Iilllll(' " w ltkll i, ('"lIallt) Ill<' I~I'~I (Or lit" ,!tall.
Frost Llfl 111(' g1'1'H11':o.1 del"" 1(, wllidl grotilld I,
('''I 'l'tl .(j III [1'1 '('/0'111;1 giVl'lI 1(1('a 110 11 I.
--~----,------ ----- 212
Gradr 11:>.11,,11 , lhe l>UrfIlCl'l'lcv.. lioll uf lilt ~flllllld ;,1 PrOC'tN'; ModifIed H moislIlrt' rh'milY I(~I of llllll't!
IK.hlls wlwm II Itll'('1 ~ " ~tI'II"11It t'. Abll. :'lIrr"n' :,lopl. rigid sp('('II1c"II(ltlthall 1'",("1 I'.n 1( ' hlf'iic dIITtorl'II('('

Grain Size Curve "~.)i1 gn1pll iltlill~,'sb. lIlJwitlg (II .

h lilt' II~" or
ltN tvi('f ",.. Ighl drc'PPI'CIIII)III a gn:'all'l
dl~tal (' itl lahul'lIlury Ir..I~ .
IK'I'Cclllagc slz(~ vllriali'JII' hy '\l'i~hl.
Qu;cks.'fnd 1111'''"1101 ~Ih Ihal i'IIII" '('II(('" nllll
Gr.1nultlr M.ltCflo1I to ~" " I), I")l"nr ,"iI \\"il h
..... Itlillg III lilly 1(lgIIII11 by IIjlw,"d 111' )\ " '1111'111 "I'
parlirll':> Lhal ilr.:- (I)ar:.~'r II III II I (li1(',h'" III;, "'l'i.1I Hlld
1I1101 1 1 ').~nllllld W;thr.
do lIot ~Ick 10 t'lI h utll\1.
. JlJd H ('(lIt( ... h \'I,~, ,tggl'C'gril" (11fOUlld ,1I1d 'U lglllllf
GrSVfJ.t 'I C'Olllsi(lIII,:, ... "Kt.:1't 'g;II,' (lr I lI('k II"'gll I< ,1 ....
l,.a;':III<'III, .. r 1'1)( k with it ".Ilti"'( ,i11' 1,(I\\l'l'lIl .(I
\\'1111 vi,ryillg dill I. 'lI ... ioll' of :1.0111 .OS i'lt h(~. Hild .(1:'111111

Gum/)() II "'I('ri;" ill 111<' pl;I\li. ""," iol"lItil'i. " 10, " S/,C.lflllg RI!Slst.'"r~ ., ..."il'~ ;,hilil) III 11,,1'1 ,Iidill.t.:
" Jap" I' \\' ax~ ' "1111,';''''"1(\'. II 'igllhlll'il1:": ...Ilil :":"<lill'" wl"'1\ 10\'1 ,. "
":":;1111'01
Humlls IIl'g;lIlie' 111;11, 'rial J .'I'II11 ~ I hv 11 11' d, ~ ') lIlpo,i . "I'loIhl 11I1t'rllill l',iclj'lIl ;oIIlI'I,III ,jllll"I'II'IllIilll
Ih'll (Ir,,gcI:'li l l ll. ,ltl'ar 1'.. . . .1<11 1( ' .
Impen'ious ('0 ':.i,I;' III I,) IIle,,"'I'II"II "I \\"",'1' .'>/"i,,/<.1[}" ..011 ''1)''"111' "'h'rll l' ('('(hi' ,.,' WIt"11

In 5ifll lIalllr;,lllllllhlllrh" ,j ... ,)1111 1 pl;w,'

",I>i<'('lpclllJ IIIObulI, . "'1",11,
O('f III' ill I i Ill' :-:1', tllI
",i"
Lifr a I"Y" I III' fill a ... 'I 11'1 'ad 01 , " lIlp<l' 1,,01 SiI, 'oillilill('l'ial ('I)IlIIXI:>I'(1 01 p,,"ld," 1'('1\\',"'11 .1111;'
Llqllld Lim;: IIII' \\,i,I"1 ('11111"111 : ,1 \\'lti, I I ,.011 ,';" . . ' .... alld .(1:'11 1111 III <li;o II \('1<'I'.
1'1'(1111;' pla"li!' Ie, i,liq"id ,lill, .

LO.1:1' ;1 ~ )n . (... ,ih' "(I, 1\,'( 1'oil C'l1I 11 .lillill.t.: ',11 101 . 'ilt . Sr.,/)i /Il.(' III IIlilk, ,oil iii III "lid 1" 1" '1'111 il 11 11111
d,l), "lid .11 ' ilv'~ I V"g"I;,1 i"11 II 10\'11 Ig
OptlffHlf1f {l.Ill)ist(/re COfll~flr Illill 1"'11" 111 III' 11I, 'i~I"'" SU/, II..I!'C 11,(, 1;0\,(', (If ,";011 '11,,1,,1<1('1'" III 1'"l1 hl,
itt "'1Iie'1t II,,' gl'{';oI(',1 d'II ... il \ "r., 'l,iI ('all I", ... 11I1I.t.:t1 ,lu IIt(I);,'I (lJ " III;HI.
1,1>1;1i1l1c1lll1'1lll.t.: 1t (,')IIIPi,,lillll .
. ClL~/r.1(Jr.tll( ':' IIII'", , ' l 'nKhll l',I I I\'glil"il'.~ 1I"li,1'
P.1S S iI WOl'killg Iri jl '" I 1, 1"".t.:,. ,)1,II I ('X' ,1, , 'III'.t:. 1', 11 til . or I h' '.,1' ill II )! II II ~ I
111<11"1 iill ... wi IiI'! I ..... n ' iI' it
:-:1 <loIillg "I' ('(lllll'''('lillll ,1I0l(' I,il ll' frClllll hoilll .\ III 1''''''101 1111)1" (X I'(II!o.i\" I'iI'illg.
I '(Ii III I:. i( }1I1' dir<'('1iOIl 11111 \,,)
Permc..1IJility "elm ..." Il'I'hli, "(''otlil ",Iiii'll ,llIn\\...
11,)", II I1'<1 IIglt il IHt iI"'" (II g , iI\ il\,.
\I a ll,,.III

Pktstic lilt' "!'ilil\' (If., ~( ,ill () IH "tl lI('<! illin " Iillt
Illfl ',1( 1 ill it CC'I'I; oillllll.i'III ... "" 111"111

Plil:;!IC LirTIII 111tlu\\, .... '"01,1 ,"", (,"1"111 ,11 \\'I,id,

;, :-'<Iil ('illI hI' rolll',J illl" a IiI<" di;IIIII'I('1 tllI , "r!
Willl""1 hn,.,killg.

Proctor ;, 1I11,tll. ,,1 d" \ 'l'lopl'd ", IU ~ . Pit" 10' 101

clC'I"fllIi lIill.~ " I.' d('II,il\'/ lIloi 'IIII'< 'l'la I i"" ... 1oil' i I(
:'''ik II i, .. 111(0'1 1I11i\'I ' r'il lI~' II ... "" 10 d"I( 'llIIille' lit,
II I<I.\;ill II III I df'II:.i1 y r,IIIY ~()il ~I IIH'I ~ I )I~ ' il k,lIi')II'
111<1\' 11<' PI'IIIY'rly 1'1'<'1'''1'('(1 I{ ,I' ('i('ltI ' III1'.ti"Wlioll
n" I" i,... III(III ....
,\. k""\\ 'I " ' .L~I1I(,ttl ~ : IIl1dil,w,. I(, , \ '... ,,1." ..... r. ~ ....dll,ltltl h'
1...lill., /,,1 FlIgilll'I!oo. ro,.clwira~'i"'I1I' " \\ili. ""I1'IIIl1I'II,11.

213
 Anjuman-I-Islam's
MOHAMED HAJI SABOO SIDDIK POL I ,
8, Saboo Siddik Polytechnic Road, Byculla,
MUMBAI-400 008

LECTURE ON
AIR BLOWERS AND
DESIGN OF AERATION GRIDS

CONTENT

SECI10N I : AIR (OR CENTRIFUGAL) BL W "I\

4P SECTION II: DES IGN OF AERATION RID

DELIVERED BY

Mr. IBRAHIM D. K.
(L ecturer in Marine Engineering Departme nt)

******k'i:****
 SECTION I: AIR (OR ENTRIFUG AL) BLOWER

CENTRIFUGAL BLOWERS:
. .. " ... '" .. : " ,\' .
. ' '. : . .~: .. : . . :::.. :'. . . '. . . ..' '. . .' : 't .. " : -. . .. ... .: .. , .

A large number of fans and blowers for high pressure applications are 'of the
centrifugaltypc. Figures 15.1 and 15.2 show an arrang ment employed in centrifugal"
machi ncs. It consis!s of an impell er which has blaaes fixed between the inner and
outer diameters. The impeller can be mounted either directly on the shaft exten i 11 of
the prime mover or separately on a shaft supported b twe Jl two additional bearings . .
The latter arrangcment is adopted for large bl \Vers in which case the impeller is
driven is driven through flexible coupl im~s.

Air 0:- gas enters the impeller :lxially through the inlet IOzzlc which provides slight
accelcfCllioll to the 'Iir before it entry to th e impdlcr. Th~ action of the impeller
swings the gas frorn a smaller to a larger radius and deli ers the gas at a high pressure
and velocity to the casing. Thus unlike th e axia l type, here the centrifugai energy also
cO! ltributes to the stage pressure rise. The now from the impeller blades is collected
l'), a spirally shaped casing known as scro ll or voilitc. II dclivers the air to the exit of
the blower. The scroll casing can fUlther increase the static pressure of air. The outlet
PJssage after the scroll can also take the [01111 of a conical difE.l ser.

. The centri fugal fan impeller cari be fabricated by weldin g curve-d "Or almost straight
mctal blades to the two side walls (shrouds) of the rotor or it can be obtaincd in one
pieee by casting. Such an imp;lIer is o.f the enclosed type. The open lypes of impeller
have only Oll~ shroud and are open on one side . .A. large numb~r or low preszi..lre
centri;ug,!1 fans arc made out of thin sheet metals. The ca:;ings arc invariably f11:.ldc of
sheet metal of di ffcrent thicknesses and steel reinforcing ribs on the outside. In some
application, if it necessary to prc;:vent leakage of the gas, suitable ceiling devices are
use~ between shaft and th~ c~sing. . .
_' ", " ,', ..... '.' ..... ,.' l ": . ', 4 : . ", Jo . ' . ': " :.... .".,:; . . .., .! ...... ... ._ \,

L;;rge capacity centrifugal blowers: sot'llctimes empl'.)y OOlibte cntry ' fOi the gas ~s
shewn in figureI5.3.

Vari~us ;lpplic~l\io!1$ have also been dcsGribed . The principal dep:nture in design,
::maiysis and constnlct:on is tjuc to til.'? marked di ffercncc in magnitude pressuri ze in
the iwo t:"pcs of mil chines.

fYPES OF CElVrR IF{jt~J1L FANS:

The pres~uri zect and flow r~\e in centrililgal f3.n~ depends on the peliphcral spe,~d ':if
the jmpeli~r (l.nG h.bc'.~ [Jpglr.s. 'Cho;, staGe los~cs and performance also very with 1; Il!oC'
geometry. The blades C8JI bc ~itb~r of sheet mClal of Uliifcl111 ~hickness or of aerofoil
s~ct lon . Foll::)\ving (j!:"C '-he main lypes ')~' ~cnl.(:tijgi!.i falis .
1. BACKWARD SEWPT BLADES:

Figure 15.4 shows an impeller which has backward swept blades i.e. the blades are
inclined away from the direction of motion. Various velocity vectors and angles are
shown velocity triangles at the entry and the exit. In contrast to the axial fan, here the
tangential direction is taken as the reference direction . Under the ideal condition the
direction of the rclntive velocity vectors w I and w2 arc the same as blade angles at the
entry and the exit.

The static pressure rise in the rotor results from the centrifugal energy and the
diffusion the relative now. The stage work and stagnation pressure rise for a given
impeller depends on the whirl or swirl components (CO I and C02) of the absolute
velocity vectors C I :tIld C2 respectively.

Backward swept blades impellers are employed for lower pressure and lo .ver flow
rates. The width to the diameter ratio of such impeller is small (b/O=O.05-0.2) and the
number of blades employed is between 6 and 17.

2. RADIAL BLADES:

The figure 15.5 shows to aITallg 'ml,;nts for radial tipped blade impeller. The inlet
velocity triangle for the blade shape that is used in practice is shown on the right. This
is a sort of a forward -swept radial blade and the velocity triangle is based on the
absolute velocity vector C 1 which is radial. Therefore, the swirl at th~ entry is zero.
Such a shape is simple for construction where generally only slightly bent sh~et metal
blades are used.

The other possibility is to employ backward swept radial blades. The ~!J:-v(;d part
(dashed) of such a blade and the inlet velocity triangle are shown on the left. Such a
fan (if designed and built) would develop a very low pressure on account of a .large
positive whirl components. Besides this disability, such an arrangement will require
prewhirl vanes adding to the cost of the fan.

The outlct velocity triangle for bOth the arrangements IS Ih ~ s?Jr.c. The relative
velocity w2 is in the radial direction .

For cheap construction, the impeller blades can be kept purely rad:al ns ia the paddie
type impellers. Such an impeller is u!lshrouded and struighi moial \'aIieS ar.: bo!ted or
\velded on a disc \vhich is mounted 0n the driving shan. Such i:i'p~ilei"s a!'e ideai for
'bandling dust-laden ail or gas because they are less prone to bicc~: age. uust erosion
and failure.

216
 3. FORWARD SWEPT BLADES:

When the blades are inclined in . the direction of motion. they are referred to as
forward-swept blades. The 'velocity triangles at the entry and exit of such a fan are
sho\vn in Fig:15.6. This shows the backward-swept blades of fig 15.4 in forward-
swept position. As a result, the inlet velocity triangle again has a positive whirl
component CO 1.

The configuration of forward-swept blades that is widely used in practice is shown in

Fig.15.7. (3Iauc tips, both at the entry and exit, point in the direction of motion.
Therefor-e, it is possible to achieve zero whirl or swirl at the entry as shown in
fig. I 5.4. On account of forward swept blade tips at the exit, the whirl compcnent C02
is large, leading to the higher stage pressure rise. Such blades have a larger hub-to-tip
dial11~tcr ratio ~vhicll allows large arca ~ r the now entering the stage. Ho:vever, on
account of thc shoncr length of the blades passages, the number of blade required is
co nsiderably large to be effective.

(
-----7 ! !

VtMo,
c...,g

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A j
_ ;/ .~
~
I
irMI
rio. 15.1 ;.. con~ifIlgvol r.~ or blOw"
,,' .
'. '.'
..-~
/ ..:.' . ....... ".," ..

, ttl: I
.
FIQ 1S.2 ~Uln (X)Ill;lCI\,:lIS 01 a cewdUOai tlow9r
I~ IU C4~Ir~"ln\j)l}l~J: Y.:!Il CO\I')C en:tf

217
 r
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:Ig . '~ .6 v.lOCityli""'g\oi: fofebward ...'llI~~''''1Ch

po:IStIW wI1ir1

1 18
 RECOMM ENDED DESIGN CRITERIA FOR WA TEWATER
STABILI ZATION AND POLLUTION CONTROL P NO

. A. S Uppl l'll\C1lt to Eilgi n c'l' r \ Re p ort, I'lall s an d ' p crifica t ioH .

i

B, B:ls is of POlid ' Design

C. Pond Loc ati o n .
1>,- . f' i; ncI. Coil stl ,'l' thIl1 D:cl':li l." .......
E. '1'0 11'11 Holl ul11 , , , ".
F. In il II t' ll t l .ill l'S
G. Co n tro l S t r ll t'tllrt''S and 1II Il'rCllll IIt'l't ill!! P iping
II.

A, upp le ll1 ctlt tt) Engincer's R 'port , Plan and Spccfficatiolls

The cngi nccr'$ report sha II cOlltai n pertinent inIOlll1all(;n on the lo\:uti )1),
geo lo gy, soi l co nditions, area for ex pansion and other fnclors that \ ill aCfe t
th e feasibility and acceptability of tile propo_ed treatm ent faciliti s.

The following information must be submitted in additio:1 to that required by

Chapter 10, Recommended Stand:.trds for Sewage Works, ! 978 or the !atcst
edi tion :

I , The location und directioll of all residences, comm er ial or business

development , and water supplies within one-half mile :.Jnt! inlormation
regarding locati on, construction featun.:s :md stati c waler level s in all well
\\'ithi~l one-fourth n.1iie of the proposed PO~l? S.

Soi I bori Ilgs to eleterm inc s llrf~ r:: e and sul)" urfnce soi I ,characteri st ics 0 f the
immediatc area and their effecl on the construction anel op ration or (! pond
located on the site, Thc 'depth of soil bOlings shall be at least six feel below the
proposed pond botlom elevation, except one shall be a minimum of 25 feet in
depth or into bedrock, whichever is shallower. A minimum of one soil boring
p ~r'ac re shou ld be completed.

: 3. . D:ita 'demons'trating ant!cipated , perco!~t'ion , , J"ate~ 'at the elevation of " L'~
piOposed pond bo'ltoms. " ,

4, A description, including maps showing '!h!vations and contours of the sile and
adjacent are2 suitable for expansion .

5, Sulfate CO!l~ent or the domestic water supply. Where bkes or s~rcaJl1 $ ;:.re
:n\,o;vetl, th e ex isting leve!s or phosphot1!S and nitrogen sh, :.lId be con:;idr~red
and ti'!e proba~le effect of nu~:-~c nt addition 10 the rr..:ei"mg :;o u;c ~ shoi.11d lit;
~ons id ered,

0, Me~eorological data on evaporation and pre:::pilalion in the area ,

! . Area and Loadil/gs

19
a. The maximum design loading on the primary cell(s) shall be 30
pounds ofB005 per acre per day.

b. Multiple cells designed for series operation shall be provided in

order to meet effluent standards and achieve better nutrient
reduction . The design may include facilities for parallel
operation for additional Oexibility.

c. The area of the primary cell( ) should be approxi mately 50-

60% of the total surfacc area of the entire pond sy!>tem. The
Iota I sur(;\ce area requin:d shall be computed based upon bOlh
organic and hydr~lUlic loading, and that which results in th e
larger surface area sha ll be utili zed.

d. The lotal organic loading for the total surface area shall not
exceed 20 pounds of [3005 p(!r acre per cay.

e. The design average now rate shall be used to determinc th e

volume required 10 provide a minimum storage capacily of 180
days. The ISO-day storage of the entire facility shall !:>e
provided above the two (2) fOol level. The maximum nonl1ul
liquid depth shou ld not exceed five (5) feet in the primary cell
or six (6) fcet in the secondary cell. All subsequent cells may
have an allowable liquid depth of up to eight (8) feet and sh::lll
provid r; atlea~t 20 days of s torjg~ auovc the two '(2) fOOl level.

r. The net water loss considered in the desi:;n resulting f,01n

evaporation and SCCj)3ge shJli include ~he average annu<..i
prec ipitation. Evaporation shall not be considered in the desigll
for those systems primarily operating on ly during the winter
months. Evaporation and precipitation and seep<!ge should be
considered when cells are designed for tolal containment.

g. The seepage rate for th e primary celJ(s).hali 110t exceed 1/16

inch per day. An allowable seepage rale o( 1/8 inch per day for
cells in series following the primary cell(s) may be considered
on a case-by-case basis dependent upon uriderlyin3 soii
Jormations and pro>:imity of water sources in the area.
h. When determining 31i estimate of the surface area require\:! 10:-
non-discharge or controlled-discharge ystems. dIe foiinwi il,
for;mtlas may be used:

For tot.a! relcilt:on:

p.::. l/\NL

For summer months or yC'ar-round:

A = IJH+OVv' L
Fo:- winter l11ont!1s:

220
 A = l/H+S-P

Whcre

A= Estimated surface area in acres

~ ' .' .' .. 1,= Vulume of in-flow.. in acrc-feet for,lhe design period.
::::'::" ~"' ';~ .... ~ ;~... .'~. "", ':::, .. .~.. :::.: '\::- " ~~:".':' ',: :.:~ ... : "~. : ".~' ';" :"~. :' ~.. ::" ' ,. -. ', ' "..
., ' "

WL== Net. water lo'ss .{Cyaporation + seepage - prccip.itation) 'tn feet for "the
~csign period ' . . .

S= Seepage in feet for the design pcriod

. .
, .,...: H= Operating 'del~th ill feet above th . 2-foot level

'r = Precipitation

I. 11C' ~ r1y balallc~d vOlumctrically in I'd r

1\11 cells shotl'ld be vcry
~h;jt th e 2-foot minimum level alld rctention timc may he
maintained. Due to the vurious configurations and slopes, tht.:
average area and depth method is not accurate for \Vat r
bala:lces. Therefore, to determine the storage 'volumes of cells
for the estimated surface areas at various operating depths the
following formula is provid ed.

V = 1/6H (B.l +4M+B2)/ 43,560

Wher,,:

\1= Volume in acre-fcet (total or op erating storage)

!-{ = Depth in feet (total or opcrating) from B I to 132

B 1= Bottom area in square feet of pond level ~e l ected

. M = Area of mid-section in square feet betw.een lev.els B 1- and B2 .

~' : :'~;'-:"'. '. \'~I' . . . ... 1 '.' ." . ': . ".
: '" '.:"
'. ' ,' ,": " .' ' 4 ," ......... .
':" f,

82= Top area in squ.~r6 feet of pond Icvel select.ed. .

f.rom these calculatiom., adjustmer.ts could be made in the design lor s:.Jcli
variab les as slopes. operating depths and surface areas to obtiiin :1 !:lorc
accurate volume balance. Allowances fo!" rounded comers should be i:lcluckd
ill are:!S (';" B 1, M, B2.

J. Due Gonsicicration shall be given to possiuic future exp:Ul~:io~l

on ~uit(!b l e land when tr.e vriginalland acquisition is made.

fliC:lstrial Wast.es

CC!13idcrai.ioll s;lall be given to the type and efTccts of industli,tl waSles on :hc
eltmel1i pr('~ess.
~i

1. M!! /lir:/e UI1 :l.)

 Flcxibility is dcsirablc if one or more cells must bc taken out of use for repair,
enlargement or for somc othcr rcason. This flexibility allows maximum
operational capability.

2. Prc- or Pos!- Trea!men!

Whcn ponds are used to providc additional treatment for emucnts from
existing or new primary or secondary wastewater treatment works. the
Department will, upon request. rcvicw and recommend BODS loading limits
for the pond aftcr due consideration of the efficiencies of preceding treatment
units.

3. POlld Shope

The shape of the cells shall be such that there arc no narrow, L-shapcd or
elongated portions. Round or square ponds arc considered most desirable.
Rectanguiar ponds shal l gcncra ll y have (I length not exceeding tlnce timcs the
width . No island s, peninsulas or coves are peI111i .lcd. Dikes shall bc rounded at
corners to minimize accumulation of floating material.

C. Pond Location

1. Separatioll Distallces

A poncl site should be as far as practicable from habitation or any area which
may be platted and developed wi thin a reasonable future period. A distance of
al least one-half mile from the community and onc-fourth mile from a farm
home or residence is r(.;collll11cnOcd whencver possible.

A pond shall nOI be located within 1,000 fect of a well L!sed to supply pOlO.bk
watei.

The high -\.vater line of the pond shall be at least 50 feet from the property line
of the adjacent owner. Where an existing pondJacility has been established on
a sitc with fixed boundaries. thcn only the additions and modifications will be
subjt:ct to the 50 foot separation. .

2. Prevailing Willds

if practicable, ponds should be located so that locally prevailing winds wiil be

toward uninhabited areas . Preference should be given sites which will permit
ail unobstructed wind sweep across the ponds, especially in the direction oCtile
loealiy prevailing winds. This nced nN app ly to the third ccII for pO:1ds
operated in series.

3. Surface Runoff

Location of ponds in \vatershcds rcceiving signi :;C:li',( amounts of runoff \",',Her

is discouraged L!niC!ss adequate provisions ?re Iilode to divert 5~orm water
around the ponds and othe("\.vise protect {Jone! cmtankme'1ts. Pond
ellbankmenls must be above the I OO-ycar floori!_,l ain .

4. G r OIlI1{/\lIuier PoI/lilian

222
 Proximity of ponds to water supplies and other facilities subject to
contamination and location in areas of porous soils and fissured rock
fonnations should be,cntically.evaluated.to a,,{oid creation of health hazards or
other undesirable conditionS, Th'e possib'illty of chemical pollution may merit
appropna'te considerations. The pond boltom should be at least four (4~ feel
above the high groundwater table and len (10) feet above rock or impcrvious
, soil ~trala exc,ept ,if synthetic' liners are used. The maximum contaminant levels
.' ,for )itO~i))~~~~~er. a~~~ted!~~~t>~~ld,{~~,~'l~tl jl~lp'I!~li9" J,~l~~~q~~~ :~~l~l,l , ~,<?~.'b~'"
, eX,cceded, ,In cert:ll~l areas, monltonl~ ! weIrs '.vllI be ,requlred; " th~y shall' ~~"
located and constructed in aC,cordance with the recommendations of th ' ,
Department. Refer to Chapter XIII for monitoring requirements,

D. Pond Construction Details

I , Emballkments alld Dikes

a, Embankments and dikcs slla ll bc constructed of relatively

imperviolls and stable material, and compacted to at least yO
pcrcellt of Standard Proctor Dcnslty (ASTM D698 or AA 'lITO
T99); however, 95 percent of Standard Proctor Density with a
moisture content \1Car to 3% wet of optimum is recommended,
The compaction and moisture conditions shall bc sufficient to
limit the seepage throu gh thc dike to 1116 inch per day for all
primary cells and shall not exceed 1/8 inch per day for all other
cel ls.

b: . All vegetation, roots, and topsoil shall , be, n;moved from the
:lrea upon ' which the embankment is' to 'be r)laced. .The
embankment mater!al must flot contalii any organic material"
dCDris, frozen material , large clods or stones larger th~n 6
inches in diameter, Topsoil shall only be used in the outcr
portions of the embankment and blended with the other soi ls.
Pond' bottom and embankment seals consisting of soi ls,
synthetic liners nlay be considered provided the permeability,
,', ',,' :" dunibiliiy, and integ~(Y ,' 9f the proposed ,material 'can Qe
satisfactorily demonstrated ' for th'e 'anticipated coildltions. ~' '

c. The minimum embankment top width shall be eight (8) feet to

pem1it access of maintenance vehicles. Lesser lOp widths could
be considered for very small installations, one acre or !ess.

d, Interior embankment slopes should oi be sleeper than thrc.e

horizontal to one vertical (3: 1) and not be Oaller thar. six
horizontal to one vertical (6: I) on the insidc. fo'lalter s jop~~ <!re
sometimes specified for largt;f installations because of wave
::;etioll but have the disadvantage of added shallow areas
conducive to emergent vegetation and mosquito breeding. The
exterior slopes should be three or more horiz.onl:!! t(l on~
vertical for prevention oi erosion.
 e. Minimum freeboard shall be three (3) feet except for very small
installations, one acre or less, where two (2) feet will be
pemlitted.
f. The noollal minimum liquid depth in any cell shall not be less
than two (2) feet.
g. The embankment exterior shall be covered with at least 4
inches of fertile topsoil.
h. Embankments shall be seeded from the olltside toe to the high
water li!le on the interior slope i,vherevcr riprup, soil sterilant,
ilnd bank stabilization is not utilized. Low growing and
spreading perennial grasses tha~ withstand erosion are most
satisfactory. In general, alfalfa, clover and other long-rooted
vegetation should not be used, &ince the roots of this type of
plant an..: apt to impair the watel holding efficiency of the dikes.
For sediment and erosion control, refer to the Department
Guide, BMPs "Best Management Practices". The County
Agricultural Extension Agent or local COll~ervation District C:ln
usually advise as to hardy, 10c~lly suited pem~anent grasses
which would be satisfactory for embankment seeding. Prior to
filling or prefilling, the newly seeded vegetation shall be well
estab lished if submcigence and wave action will occur.

1. A method shall be specified \vhich will prevent vegetation

growth over the bottom of the ponds and up te the high water
line on the interior C!llbankment slopes. If prefilling is specified
before \veed growth is established, then soil sterilants may not
be necessary up to the prefilled water level.

J. Provisions sha!l be made for ripr~pping or bank stabilization of

the interior slopes of any cell of five acres or more. Protection
for outer embankments (riprap) may be necessary wilcre the
dikes are subject to erosion dlJe to severe floodin g of an
adjacent watercourse. Riprapping or bank stabilization is highly .
reyommended f0r all cells.
' . k. Riprap and bank srahiiization reqlJirements
I. The riprap or bank stabilization shall be provided on the
interior slopes from the toe to the top uftbe freeboard. It
s~all be hard and durable Md be stable (I.fter placement.

2. The ripriip sho~tid be 2.pproximately 6 to 18 inches in

di~\metcr .

:.. The riprap sila!! be placed in depths of 8-18 inches

depending upon size, location and configuration of
cells .

.1.. Since.- riprap is usualiy placed against fine material, a

filter of sanG \vith gravel or spalls shall bl: placed on the

224
 embankment slopes prior to riprapping: The depth of
the filter material should be at least four (4) inch!!S.
An'odier alternativ~ available is synthetic fi'lter blankets
which sl~an. be securely anchored and shal~ ha c been
satisfactorily demonstrated by prior use to b suitable
ar~ dura?~e f<?r sU,ch purposes.

""I:. ' '~'~~q~~~'~'6;'J~'t1~c~fi~;~~'i~' ie~' ~irc~ ~~:~~t 'fdi:lb'\;::in~" :

the foregoing criteria. '.

E. Pond Bottom

! 1: : The p.qnd ' bottom ' shou ld be ,as level as. possibly ' at a'll ' p iuts. rih'i~hed
, elevations should not vary more than three inches from the a I!rage elcvati n
of the bottom . '

' 2. Prior to scarifying, 1111 topsoil shall be removed. b cut area s, the b ttOI11 shall
then be scari fi ed to a depth of 12 inches .Uld c.Icared of ve Jc..;l~tiol1 ; ~ Ild 0 bris.
Organic matl;rial thus removed shall not be used in the dike core construct ion.
However, sui table topsoi l relatively free of debri s may be uso , s r.ovcr
materi al on th e outer slopes of the embankment. If prelil11ill::lry tests have
determined that the soi ls exposed on the pond bottom are capable of meeting
the allowabl e secpage limits, a minimum of six (6) inches of the sc<!rifieci soil
shall be removed, the remaining scarified soil shail be brou ght to thc proper
moi sture content and compacted to the speci (ied density, ano ,then tile rClliovl;d
soi I shall be uni fom11 y spread, and compacted, at the prQp.e.r 'J1)oi slL!rc cot1tent,
,~S specified , ' '
.
,

3. Soil borii1g infonl1ation and 'results of p'ercoliti<?l1, porosity or pc:rli1can:!i ty.

tests to determine th e characteris~ics of sorface soil and sub:;o; 1 shall bl':: made
a part of preliminary surveys to select pond si tes and design prepara tion of
plans , Gravel, gypsu m and lim,e:stonc areas must be avoided ,

4. The ability to l11 a:int~ in a s<l:tisfactory water 'level il? the pond s is one ,o f the
:',,' ,' juost important ' aspects' of design. , Rem<ival , of ,p'orous :.topsoil: :md' proper
compaction of $ubsoil impro'ves the water holding charactcri::;til:$ or
the
bottom. Porotls areas within 2 feet of the finished pond floor, :;~c.h (I~ gr~v(;j 0:-
sand pockets, shall be removed and replaced with wellcorr:pact ~d c~~)' ,)1'
other suitable material. Where excessive percolation :s arl:icipatcd. scai in g of
the bottom with a clay blanket, bentonite, s)11thetic liners or .)~il~r S~O!!!1g
material may be required to achieve a perc.ol:l4.ion rate net to i;~,;eCc. ; / l (j inch
per day for all primary cells and shall not er.r.ccd 1/8 incil ~'I,:r day i"~r ;ill e ther
cell . The proposed seal should be substantiated uy Cl so:!s (;:~g ill ec rii~g i'~~;' -~ l"t .

5. Clay for li ners shali ~c placed ,a~d compacted :!1 ~.i. :e~:;~ tWO (2) !'fts. lh~ d~pth
of!l ny lin shall not exceed 8 inches.

6, The sllitability of sea ling the pond with ben!.(!I1!tc ..... i~l (jI,:;)cnG on the t)'p~ of
$Oi l and condi ti ons encou ntered in the field. Allplicatio:l r:){~s for i.tr. e[fe~ tivc
~;e~1 can be determined by the usc of a particle :i!z.e cUlalys; s <lnd the _"'.ttcrh;irg
iimi t:-; tests, The c:pplicatio!', rate ::;haiJ be sp<:\~;(It.:d :11 t~i11'S ) ( pound::; pel
!>quare foot. The blanket app!ication method is pre ~. !;" ~d to the soil , b ~ ntonilc

125
 mix application because it provides a complete sea] using approximately one-
half of the amount for a mix application.

a. Bentonite should be applied only on well packed and smooth

surfaces.

b. Aller bentonite has been applied, at least two (2) inches of soil
should be placed on top of the bentonite and moderately packed
to insure that bentonite material will remain in place until the
pond is put into operation.

7. Prior to pulling the ponds into operation, percolation tests shall be

conducted and submitted to OWNR. Suggested methods for
conducting percolation tests arc double ring infiltrometer, laboratory
permeability tests on thin wall tube samp les, with the neutron method
supplement weighing lysimeters or seepage tests on the entire pond in
which the pond is fillcd and the water level and pan evaporation rate
arc monitored daily. If tests indicate seepage limits are exceeded, the
seal shall be modified and retested until it meets those limits as
re'lu ired.
8. Prefilling the pond should be considered in order to protect the
liner, to prevent weed growth, to reduce odor, and to mair.tain moisture
cOlltent of the seal.

1" llaOucnt Lines

1. Any generally accepte;;d pipe material for underground sewer cO;ls:ruction will
be given consideration ror the inOuent line to the pond . The pipe material
selected should be adapted to local condi tions. Special considl!ration must be
given to the character of the wastes, possibility of septieity, corrosion,
exceptional!y heavy external loadings, abrasion, the necessity of reducing the
number of joints, soll foundations and similar problems. Sur:;harging of
gravity Oow sewers upstream from the inlet manhole js not pemlitted.

2. . A ma:lhole shall be installed at the temlit:tus of the gravity line or fo;-ee main
. to the p'rimary cell and located as clo'se to .the dike as topcgraphy pennits. The .
invert of this manhole shouid be at least 'Six (6) inches ah'Jve the nlaximun-:.
operating level of the primary cell to provide s!.Jfficient hydraulic head witho~ll
surcharging the manhole. Flow distribution structures shall l>e designed to
effectively split hydraulic and organic loads equally to mllitiple primary cells.

3. Illnuent lines shall be located along the bottom of the primary cell and shall b~
s...curely anchored to the bottom of the pond so that the invelt elevation is near
the bottom of the pond. This liile can be placed zt zero f,'Y'ade. The use 'Jr an
exposed dike to carry the influent line to the discharge point is prohibited, as
sll~h a stn..lctllre will impede circulation and cause localized depositiofl of
s:udge. Influent lines shall not be located within or below the seal.

4. rntluent piping should be locat~d to minimize short-circuiting '.\'ithin the ceil.

Each primary ccl! of a multiple-celled pond operated in parallel shall hltve :!
separate inlet but lh:::: does not apply to those cells following th(! primary cell
when series operation alone is l.sl.d. InOuent iip.es or interconnecting piping to

:216
 secondary cells of multiple-celled ponds operatl..:d in series may consist of
pipes through the separating dikes. Influent lines to rectangular ponds should
temlinate at approximately one-third of the length fr m th upstream end of
.:.: " th~ 'C~I~ C\nd .its . <?,utl~~ ,stru!ltur~. e~ccpt tha.t . it .sha l~ b~" a~ appro~imately. ttIe. .
' .. ' . mid:.poinCfor c~lIs without'an'6titlcl: . ' . . . ".: . ' . ,,: " . . . ': . ., ... .. :
.,' . ,

. 5, .The end of the influent fine shall be provided with a concrete ,headwall and
.,'
shall rest on a witable concrete apron that is at leasl four 4) eet by four (4)
fecl. Thc; i,nfl.lIel}!. iil)e ~hall di.~cllarge horizo'nl;tlly in,to a sli.allmv. snuc.er-
'I . shaped.depression, : :.;' ': ' . .'. : ...... '."" .,' '.:".: .'; ,"'. ": ',' " :- .'" : . ' . ... '
'. .
C. Control Structurcs and Intc,:collllcctiu g Piping ,

I, Interconnecting piping and overflow piping should b of cast !ron, cOl11Jgated

11191al, or other suitable materials of at I ast eight (8) inches in diameter,
, 'Piping shall have capacity to pcrmit tn.msfei' of \ atcr at H minimum rate of six
(6) il~ches of pond water dCI.lth per day at theavai lable head,
.. 2. Control structures .shal.l .be provided for each cell, No discharge structur will
i)c pel1nitted for a single ccII installation. The control structure should provide
a positive visual means of directing and controlling the flow and be accessible
for maintenance and adjustment of controls. The control structure should
consist of a manhole or box equipped with l1lultiple-valvl,.;d pond drawoff lines
or an adjustable overflow device so Lh:.l.t the liquid levl.!l of the pond can be
adjusted to permit operation between the.: minimum :lnd maximum operating
levels, At least one drawoff line shall be located ~H the two (2) foot level. The
lowest of the drawoff lines to such trucLUre shoLild be 12 inches off the
, bottom' ,to control erodir.g velocities and avoid pic~up of POtlOll1 deposits,
Erosion , protoction should be proviuc.:d at the irilet .u;9 discharge .end of the
pi'pin'g. ' Th~" overf1~\':v .fi:oin (h'c 'ponel during, ice - fi'~0 periods" sho9J,~ ', be' tukcl'):
ncar, ' b,ut belo\;;'," tl1<:< water surface to reicase ' the nest eft1ucnt and i'lsu're
retentiol; of flo ating solids. A locking device should be provided to prevent
unauthorized access to and usc of the l:::vcl control facilities, The outle~
structure should be located to minimize short-circuiting within the cell, if
possible, on the windward side. COl1sjdl~ratioJj must bc given in the design of
. ':' . all structures .to protect , against fre,ezing or ice ,q:un?g~ under \Vinter"
co-~ditlo'1s, ' ': . .. '. ' , , .. .., ' . ".' , . ,: ,.' .'.", " :

3, . Interconnecting piping for multiple unit installations operated in 'series should

be nlved or provided with other arrangement:> LO rC3ulate Dow between
structures and pemlit flexibl e depth control. In~ercl)nnecting piping to
seCl)ndary cells sbouid discharge boril'Jntaily near the pond bottom to
[ninimize the need for erosioll cOII!roi rt1r.;:!slI,e!i and s:lOulc b0 locah,:d ~s near
~he dividing dikt, as cOllstruct ;on pc!"rr.ilS , Congid.!ration tn\l5t be given in the
design of all piping to vvtect agains~ freezing or ice damage, under winter
conditions, Interconnecting piping shali be provided wilh splash pads, Ant:-
seep collars may be necessary on pipe: penetrating the dikes, to discouj'agc
seepage and scouring.

4, The outlet end of the disc:1urgc pipe should be screened to prevent the
~ntrance of wildlife,

27.7
H. Miscellaneous

1. Access Roads
An all-weather access road to the pond site shall be provided to carry out the
routine inspections and maintenance which are required year-round on ev
the smallest illstallations.

A minimum 30 fOOl easemcnt is recommended and not less than 20 fcet

should bc provided. This minimum casement will pennil light shaping and
gravel surfaci ng for a ten foot roadway. Such minimums may only be
satisfactory where the drainage is good and the distance from a maintained
roadway is less than one-half mile. Minimum acccss fulfilling these
requirements should be provided in all cases.

2. Fcncil/g

The entire pond arca shall l:,c cnclosed with a sui table fence to provide for
public safety, to exc lude livestock, and to discourage trespassing. The pond
an.!a should be fcnced with at least 4 (oot woven wire alld two strands of
barbed wire at the top. Where pond s are located ncar schools, parr:s, tra iler
courts, etc., the pond area shall be entirely enclosed with 6 foot hi gh non-
climbable chain-link fence . A vehicle access gate of minimum 12 foot width
to accommodatc mo\ving cquipment should be provided unkss the installation
is small; th en 8 foot will be sati sfactory . All access gates shall be provided
with locks. Fences shal! be locat~d away from th e out side toe of the dike to
facilitate dike mowing and main icila11cc operalions.

3. Wal'llillg Siglls

Appropriate signs should be provided along the fell ce <!J'o llnd the pond to
infonn the public of the facility and adv ise against treSp <iS~ illg . /"\ minimum
size of 20 inches by 12 in::.hes with a minimum size letter or t\,'o inches is
recommended. There shall be at least one such sign on each side of the pond
and every 500 feet along the fence.

" 4 . . Flow Measurement

. .
Provisions fer Ilow measuri!m~nt device!: shall ce provided a~ ~hl! iflkt and
outlet of controlled-discharge systems . . Flow II1caSltremCl1t devices s1al! be
capable ef measuring the maximum anticipated Oow ~. Record:!1g equipment
shall be protected from the \\'~ather and tlow con,i.i~i!ll1S .

5. Depth Mea~u ;-e/ll e/l(

Pond depth indicators shall b~ provided. Due to icc C011.jitio:~~, <1 l:aJibrated,
inclined concrete sectiun anchored inco lrh~ oi;':::: ~Io p t; i!; the tnCl~t desirable.
The outlet structure of each celi mr,y also be u!!!izcd if prop(;rly :lI1d
pelmanent;y calibrated . The depi.h indicator shall ai:ow easy ('b~:::rvatio n and
sha ll be pemwnent. It IS recommended that the cie!: Hl indicators be
permanently etched in the concrete.

6. SYllfhcli._' Lillers

228
 a. The mInimum lining thickness shall be 30 mils. Th liner
material shall be resistant to sunlight and organic materials
. . . : typical
. .. of waslewater .

~. " W~erc the bottpm of pQlld,.is bel~w thc seas<?nal high

groundwater, thc.liner shail be ' stabilized to pr vent It from
rising. An air-release system may be required. ,
c. ': Lincr~' shall ': b"::i'llstair~ti':'a'nd ': ~ecureiy an~h.brcd to ' reSist ' .
movement fr.om \~avc ;Illd icc conditions.

7. Lahoratory Equiplllent alld Sen'ice iJllilding

Equipment for waste,water analyses should be provided as 'outlined in Chapter

40, Recommellded .. tandat'ds for Sc\vage Works, 1978 or thc latest 'dition.

A minilllu'ill amount of equipment lway, be provided if the 0\ ner utilize the '
wastcwater analyses provided by the Municipal EfOuel1t Sampling Program,
(MESP) of th e. ou tll Dakuta Departmcllt of Water and Natural Resources or
allY otller acceptablc publi c or private wastewater laboratory.

Consideration in design should be given to a selvice building to house

laboratory and maintcnance cquip mcnt.

8. Del ir:tiOlls/rolll Design Criteria

The Dcpanl11Cnl may consider and allow deviations ~vhcre aucquatc
." documentation is provid ed to prove th,c need for sllch de~i':lti~n.
 ClIAPTER If

R~COMMENf)ED DI', IGN CRITERIA I'OR AERATED PONDS

,\ . SlIpnklll('llt to Ellgiflt'('r' s ({('porI. PlallS :llld Sp('rificaliorls

B. Ba :iis of P(lnd lksigfl
C. POlld Localioll
n. POlld ollstrllctioll !)('tails
E. POlld Boltol11
F. _~~~.:__o.:~::.:.:

G.
II.
I.
'.I
I":. IV! isc(' II::Il(,ou ,,

A. Supplement to Engineer's Report, Plans <Iud Spccifk,ltiolls

Rcfer to Chapter I, Section A for applicablc rC<luirCr.1Cl1lS ,

B. Basis of Pond Design

). Detentioll Time

The aerated stabilization pond(s) shall be designed to ' meet the emnent
requirem ents as described in the discharge penni!.. The minimum detcnti ~Jn
time for the pond(s) is detem1ined by the following [onl1ula:

t ~ E/2.3 K-r (I (JO i:l

where :

t= deter.tion time, days

E= percent of 5-day BOD to be removed in ~eratcd pond

Kr: reaction coefficient per day (base ) 0) in aerated j)ond ;:!ssu;ning 3
complete mix ed system . For comp lete treatment of nonnal domestic 5e'.... agc::,
the K-r value may be aSStl:l1ed io bc O.20/day at 20('C 1)1' 0J)8/day at Qlle.

DC
 The rate of biological oxidation in an aerated pond as represented by the value
~fthe reaction coefficient KT is affected by temperatures other Ulan 20C shall
be ac~ordi~g to the fol.lowipg fOI;mula:
:. 0 " ' '.' ~ " ; ~ _ . . -

~:.=' K2~ i04 7no '

where:

K,= reaction coefficient

" .
~
at.temper~ture t~C in nerated pond

K20= reaction coefficient at tempcrature 20uC

Tr= temperature in aerated pond , llC

'Rol" .wastewater with a 5.-day 130 tc? the pond of 159 to 10Q.mg/l, . t1~ c K20
' . value wilt be assumed 'to be 0.20 per day: For wastewater with a 5-da'y BOD to
the .pond .greater than 301 mgtl, the reaction rate c cfficit.;nt must be
detennincd by a pil"Ot plimt stlidy for variolls conditions which might be
encO'untered in the aerated ponds.

The detention tim e shou ld be based on the rate of mctabolism during the
coldest period of th e year, whcn thc oxygen C;cmand rate is at its lowest.
Aeration eq uipment ' should bc sized according to the oxygen and mixing
requirement s based on peak 24-hour summer loadings. The configuration of
the aera'ted ponds should be such that the detention time is maintained between
approxim~tely 5 and 10 days in Wal111 weather anci between approximately 8
and 20 days in cold weathcL

Due consideration .sharI b~ gi'vep to possible future expansion and/or

a.dditional sources of wastes 'when ' the original larid ' -acqliis'iti QI1 is m~lde.
Slj'itablG 'land ~hould be avail:lble at the site for. increa'sing the size o f .the
original construction.

2. Industrial Wastes

. Consideration shall be gi "en to the type and. possible effects of i.ndustrial .

..... )v~~~eson. ~h~ tfe.at'!l~n~ P~'?~~~'~" .' , . .... .' .. ' " .' r, .. .... .

3. Multiple Ullits

There should be a minimum of two aerated ponds fvr a tC~:ll ~erated system. it
is recommended that they be designed to penl1il both series and parallel
operation. This allows maximum operational capability to achi eve the desired
effluent quality.

4. Pre or Post Treatmell!

Where aerated ponds ar'! to be usoo 111 COrlju\iction with cOlwc.r.t.io!lal

treatment works, the Department wiI!, upon request, revi ew and recommend
BOD loading limits for the pond after du::: consideration vf the efficiency oi
other treatment units.

5. Shape
Refer to Chapter IV, Section B-5, for applicable requirements.
C. Pond Location
Refer to Chapter IV, Section C for applicable requirements other than:
I. Dis/alice from Habitatioll

An aerated pond system should be at least 750 feet and if used with a
conventional pond system should be at least one-quarter mile or as far as
practicable from habitation or any area which is likely to be developed within
a reasonable future period .

D. Pond Construction Details

I . 1~'lI/b(1l1klllellts lind Dikes

Refer to hapter IV, Section 0 for applicable requirements other than :

a. Embankment slopes shall be provided with bank stabilization and liner.
Embankment slopes may be ae; steep as two horizontal to one vertical (2 : I) .

b. Embankment slopes shou Id not be Oatter than four horizontal to one vertical
(4 : 1) on the inside.

c. The maximum liquid pond depth shall not exceed 20 feet. The n111l11TIUm
nomlal liquid depth will depend upon the aeration equipment to be used with
the pond depth but generally should not be less than 10 fcct. Nonnally, the
belter mixing action will occur. in depths of "1'2-15 feet. For economical
rcasons, diffuser systems should be used on thc 'bottoln "0 ( p'onds with 15-20
foot depths .

E. Pond Bottom
Reler to Chapter IV, Section E for applicable requirements other than :
I . Adequate concrete pads :lhall be provided under mechanical surface aerators to
prevent bottom ~COUL ,
.. .
2. Consideration should b!! gi "ei) to proViding !:('i.l1e aciditional dete':!tion 'time
and storage capacity for sludge acc:mlUlatiorj over 'i !Jenoe of 10 to 20 years.
The maximum sludge storage depth should not be greater than 6 feet. This
sludoe storage capacity could be held to a ;r.ini:n~lm if the bottom was
concrete lined with a hopper type sump fo .. c1r.a:1ing PL!!1)oses. It may be
assumed that the sludge \vill compact to about 6 p"'~n:t!al ir:i !>olids.

F. rnfluent Lines
Refer to Chapter IV, Section F for applicable require;n~r.t!; otni:r 1. Il~n :
1. A comminutor or manually ckuned bal' screen 5hould oe piovided upstream
from the influent line conveyirlg raw sewage vr '. :<:~: te intc) an c.erilted pond
system. Screening 0 .. comminution will be !'c~l,;irl.!d to i.ireV~;.i~ damage to
mechanical surface aelators.

232
 2. Influent lines should discharge under water and provIsIonS prOvl(leo 101
adequate distribution to the pond of the incoming flow. Nonnally, the influent
should be discharged under mechanical aerators near the aeration grid or other
, diffusers where air ,diffusion systems are used . When difTused air tubing is
used in the pond.s, they must be installed at 90 degrees to the direction of the
plug flow of the influent. . . ,

3. Recirculation should be considered when wastewater has a high sulfate

content or contains waste of high BOD.

4, The inlet pipe may go directly through the dike and cnd at the toe of the inncr
slope with concrete or riprap placed in front of and arot:nd the pipe to prcvent
erosion of pO.nd bOltom and dike slope,

~'.,: Con~troj'.Str,uc~urcs..and lntcr~~llncc~it~g Piping

'Refer to <;:haptc~ IV, '~qction G for applicable requ~rl;;l11c;lls othei' t1~3n: .
. .
L In a nlultiple cciI facililY wi!'h a diffused air (lcnllion system and submerge.d air
he~lders. considerati'on must be given to ar~anging the overOow structun.; and
piping to allow for indepcndel1t!y d'rainil~g cach cclI down to or bclQw' the
level of the air hcadc~,

2. Eflluent from the first cell should be withdrawn from an undert10w baffle.
EfOucnts from interconnecting cells may be discharged at or ncar the surface
without bafOing to reduce the potential for algal growth,

H. Aeration Equipment
. . '

" I. Dissolved'Oxygeii R.ecilliremcil/s

Oxygcn requ'iren~ClitS gc'nerally will dCI?Cnd o,n thc'HOD Icadir~g the degree :of
trcai.ment and tl1c concentration of suspended solids to be' maintained,
Aeration equipment shall be capable of maintaining a minimum dissolved
oxygen level of 2 mgll in the ponds at all times. Suitable protection from the
weather and elements shall be provided for electrical controls .

." 2, Required Capacity .of Acrat!oIl'Equipn;e,IIL" "

r~ designin~' acrati~n ' equi~~~nt', ' th~ a' f~ct~I:. h~ ' lh~' f6Hb~~it~g' bq'u:ltior{slloukl
be at least 1.5 and possibly 2, to provide sufficient aeration .~ljJacity during
critical periods of the year:

R=a'L

Whr.Te:
R= po:mcs of oxygen required per day

L= pounds of 5-day BOD removed pet' day

a'= ratio between oxygen l!tiliz~d and ROD remov-:d

J . Emergell'::Y Operaliull

23.1
 Spare aeration units shall be provided to allow the system to be fully
operational in event a unit is out of service. Aeration units should be provided
with an emergency power supply.

4. Mixing
A bottom velocity of at least 0.3 {l/sec. should be created by the aeration
equipment throughout the pond.

5. Diffused Aeratioll

a. If tine bubble diffusers (ncxib le tubing diffused aeration equipment) are used,
allow a transfer rate of 0.75 pounds of oxygen per horsepower-hour.

b. If a large bubble diffusers (horizontal type) are used, allow a transfer rate of
1.2 pounds of oxygen per horsepower-hour.

If large bubble diffusers (vertical tubular- type) are used, allow a transfer rate
01'0.7 pounds of oxygen per horsepower-hour.

c. The specified capacity of blowers or air compressors, pal1icularly centrifugal

blowers, shou ld take into account the possibility that the air intake temperature
may reach 104 degrees F (40 degrees C) or higher and also that the pressure
may be less than nom1al.

d. The specified capacity of the motor drive should take into account that the
.' . intake air temperature may be as low as -22 degrees r (-30 degrees C) or
Jower, which mzy require over-sizing of the nlotor or a.inean~ of. red.w.e.ing the
rate of air delivery:so zs to prevent overheating and damage to the motor.

e. The blowers shall be provided in multiple units, so arranged and ill such
capacities as to meet the maximum air demand with the single largest unit Ollt
of service. The design should 2.lso pr('vide for varying the volume of air
delivered in proportion to the demand resuliing from the variable loadings in
the ponds.

f. Air intakes and blowers shall be designed to n~iryimize noise.

g. The piping and air diffuser syslem shall be capable of delivering 200 percent
of the design average oxygen demano . The spaeinp, of the diffusers should be
in accordance with oxygci1ation requir~ mellt~ throughout the length of each
pond.

h. Individual assemblies cr Ull!tS of difftt.~cr:; shaH be equipped with control

valves, prefe~ably \'lith indic:a[c\i' markings Tor thrortling, or for complete shut
off The air diffusion piping a:tC difiuscr $ys~rm shall be designed to deliver
:101mal air reql:iremenls ' wi t.n m;nimai :J:1ifo1TI1 pressure losses. The air
diffusion system should be ofnol1-c:JI1'ol:=i'v'c materia!.

I. Air piping systems should be designeci 1;uch that the total head Joss from
blower or silencer Gutlet to th e diffuser i ~l!C! clc.es not e:=cced 0.5 psi at average
operating eonditio::s.

234
 J. Air filters shall be provided in numbers, arrangements, and capacltlcs to
furnish a1 all times an air supply sufficiently free from dust to prevent
clogging of the diffuscr system. ...

'.
In diffused . air 'systems, 't he greates.t percenta~e o( air should be
provi?ed ill the firstpond.

Connections for gassing facilities (0 control sealing should be provided

at frequent intervals along the air header pipes.

1. Mechanical Aerarioll

a. If surface aerators are used, allow a transfer rate of 1.5 pounds of oxygell per
horsepower-hour.

b . . The mechanism and drive unit shall be llesigned for the expect\;d onditiollS in
. the aeration ~)onds in terms of th~ prov?n perfonnanee of the equipment.

: . . .j;,': .The. rai.v 'sewage should be drscharged immedia.tely .beloy..' the aerators in the
: " '. '. .:, first .celi so',as to mill'imi ze frcezi,
" . ,
ng dllrl'ng
. .
WiI1tCr. ', , . ' . .'

d. Consideration shall be given to protecting tlie mechanisms from freezin g.

Floating surface aerators arc not acceptable except for installations in
operation from April to November.

e. Installations of multiple individual aerators shall be so desiglled as to meet the

maxim~m cxy,;en denu',nd with !hc largest unit in each pond out of service.

f. The design should' also provide for v~ying tIle amount of 9xygen trans!.errcd
in proportion to the dcm~nd represent~d by the .load, on the pond.

g. Fix-mo'unted aerator units Sl,lOUld have . adj~istable basep lates or othe~ Ilictho'ds
for varying the submergence of the rotor. Where pra~ti ca l, bridge-moun'ted
platfomls with handrails should be provided for maintenance.

.. {.': : Settling Pond ' . . ... .....

',:. . ' ,
. ... ','
;
.. : ... I ; ,' 0

A 5 to 7 day detention time settling pond shall be constructed following the

second or last aerated pond. Other methods of trealmer~,t may Ul' considered by
the Department where adequale documentation is provided,

The settling pona must r.1ec~ the requircmems for slot'c. bank c!ozicn
protection and water tightness lor tl:c :lcrat~d pond,

The outlet structure should be barned , . .ith all overfiow rate i10~ to exceed ~OO
gpd/sq .n.

J. Disinfection

Equipment for disinfecticn of the effluent when !'cquired hall be providcd as

outlined in Chapter 90 of the RCCOIi);'i1e:1(\exi St3:1aarGS fer Sewage Wo"ks,
1978 or the latest edition.

235
 K. Miscellaneous '

Refer to Chapter I, Section tI for ~ppliqab.le requirements othet: th~tl;... .

... ' . .' .' ' . .' .' .,. .. .. ~ . . '. . . ' ..
. 1." Flow Measurement .

A flow recorder and totalizer shall be provided on the influent line at the pond.
A weir should be provided at the out-fall of the pond system to allow periodic
measurement of the flow of emuent. Flow measurement equipment shall be
protected from the weather and flo w conditions.

2. !Iousing

The design shoul d provide a service building to house labora to ry, mechanical,
contro l, and maintenancc eq uipmcnt with chem ica l storage facilities.

236
 AQUACULTURE ENGINEERING

S.D.Tripathi ,
, 701, Ankita, SVP Nagar,
, Four Bungalows, Versoya, .
. Andheri (West), Mumbai 400 053
(~ '.
1 , INtRODUCTION

Aquaculture Engineering is a multi-disciplinary subject and is a branch of

engineering that builds strongly on biology as a scientific base. In the present
age ' of biology and biotechnology, engineers have to be working side by side
with life scientists !O ,bring laboratory , d~veloprnents '. into commeq;ial
production, Industries ' in' fi sh production, tissue culture',' bioprocessin'g,
bibtechnoiogy, food process!ng" aquaculture, 'all need engineers with strong
" ttainlng in biology. Concern for, our environment is opening new engineering
to
QPportunltles as the society strlves, maintClin' Cl balance .Within ,the biQsphere"
" .and 'n'ev./disCiplines.'of environmen,tal ,arid ecplogicat.'eng\heering 'have alre'ady
'. made their mark , ' , '. ' , .': . . ' '

Aquaculture Engineering is mainly co ncerned with the design and

development of effective aquacultural systems for marine and freshwater
facilities and aims at developing a bioengineering interface for aquaculture. In
short, it covers a study of aquaculture systems, engineering and design
processes; . equipment and materials; energy and resource s~ site,
configuration, survey and selection; sojls, ,qter ~upply , and , 'basic
infrastructure; 'pond systems, . tanks and 'raceways 'and spec!alist units; ,
' ~nclosures, cages and mollusc c\.Jlture systems; purnps; ' aeratio~ and
oxygenation; feeding systems; heating and cooling; , and, pollution; bio; '
filtration, water quality control and water reuse systems.

2 GRADUATE STUDIES AND DOCTORAL PROGRAMM ES

A pos,t-gra.duate course (M,Te,ch) 0r:t f'.qua,clll,tur~ . Engjne~ring . is of!er.ed, PY "

'the' Iridian Institute 0f 'Tec'hnology, Kharagpur; Vve'st. BengaL' The:-e ~re, .
however, no programmes for graduate educ::ltion. Candidat.es with civil ,
engineering degree are admitted. The progr2mm~s, i:1 ge:1E:fal, hac a focus
on brackishwater aquaculture !3ys~l3ms which v.'ere fast developing when
these courses were started .

in USA, there an" a ~uml>er cf lmiversitie3 t :at offar under-graduate,

graduate and doctoral p rogr:1rnmes. Promin~r.t amcn2 these aje the
Universities of Hawaii, Cornell and Louisiana. In yenF:::-al, aquacL!lture
engineering is a part of ths A,:'icu!tural an:;'. ?.iGiogicai ~:ng:r.ge:ing (ABEN)
Department which includes ~hree programmes viz., i.~biogic2; Engineering
and Environmental Enginei3ring besiciGs Food 5nd Fibre Production
Engineering. There are some variatiorls b thif, patte;;! 1:1 the different
universities but broadly speaking aquaculture 0.n!~iBlGO rj ng ;5 in l1!ost C3S~3 a
part of the first two programmes, The 8blogic:.l1 r:i:ginGE-ring programme
intagrates engineering practlc:s and quantiiatil/tl biolrj~f v~ i r,h a focus on

237
agriculture, life sciences, medicine, and the environment. It covers microbial
a.r:'d ~n~ym~.tic ,p(oces;sing of biomass, .fo.od, feep ~nd wastes; int~ractions
between . plants: microorganisms, arid'" the' ~mlironn'l~mf:: bio'sensor
development and use and ecosystem dynamics, biological treatment of
hazardous wastes, microbial ecology, composting, food processing, feed
preservation, digital image analysis, bio-instrumentation, sensing
technologies, nutrition and reproduction.

The focus of the Environmental Engineering program is to combine

engineering and environmental sciences in a coordinated manner so as to
include a balance of basic, developmental and applied investigative efforts.
It does not concern itself only with on-farm issues, such as soil and water
conservation and manure management, but addresses a wide range of
environmental engineering issues affecting agriculture, other industries, and
the public sector to provide a safe and healthy environment. Some of these
issues include pathogen transport in walersheds; migration of heavy metals
from the surface disposal of munici~al sludge; pesticide and nutrient
contamination of ground and surfical waters .

The degrees offered are Master of Science in Biological and Agricultural

Engineering, Master of Science in Engineering Science, and an
interdisciplinary Ph .D. in Engineerin g Science .

3 . AQUACU~URE EN~INEERING SOCIETIESI BOOKS AND

JOURNALS

The Aquaculture Eng;neering Society (AES) in the US is known all over the
world . The journal' Aquaculture Engineering' published by Elsevier. brings
out the latest work in the field and has a very high standard and should be
available to any aquaculture engineer for ' consultation . Some of the widely
read books are Recirculated Water Systems in Aquaculture by J.F. Muir,
Fundamentals of Aquaculture Engineering by Th0mas B. Lawson; Animal
Production and Aquacultural Engineering (Vol. II) Edited by E.H. Bartali,'
F.VV. 'Nhealon and S. Singh.

4 STATUS OF AQUACULTURE ENGINEERING IN INDIA

Traditional aquacultural systems have existed in India which have

undergone some modification as a result of researches while new ones have
also (Jeer, adopted . The environmental requirements for these have been
studied together with materials . and design of facilities. However, little
prog:-ess aj)paars to have been made so far in tha development of
equipment and controls and waste-handling sysle:ns.

2.38
 4.1 Construction of fresh- and brackish-water farms

.With .the growth of aquaeulture and the establi~hr:n~nt of Fi~h Farmers'

Development Agencies, th'e first requirement for 'aquaculture engineers was
feit for pond construction. Civil engineers from the Public Works
Departments were deputed to the Departments of Fisheries in various
states. Some recruited such 'e~gineers directly. A post of Assistant
Commissioner (Fishery Engineering) was created in the Fisheries Division
u~d,er, the D~p~r:tment of Animal Husbandry in the Ministry of Agriculture.

However ' the development of brackishwater aquaculture generated a great

demand for aquaculture engineers and created a market for aquaculture
equipment. The demand wa,s partly met by the graduates trained and
produced by the liT. Kharagpur. A few had an exposure to some foreign
countries too: T.he engineers also !ooked after pumps. generators and
ae r~tors.. A few feed. (T!iUs wer~ ' eSla.blisl1e~ ~nd 'feed produqt.ion. far earp~, '..
prawns and . shrimps);.aw the' JigN of :t.heday., H~)wevec; rio feec;! dispenstng . '
'units were installed -anywhere nor the computerised m'onitoring units 'f or .'
water quality and alarm signals for disease.

4.2 Construction of carp, prawn and shrimp hatcheries

Carp seed demand was growing at a very fast rate with increasing adoption
of carp polyculture on semi-intensIve scale ,that soon .led .to the construction
of eco-hatcheries, especially in W.est Bengal .and Andhra Prade?h, in the
p;'ivate sector and. in .'.the public. 'sector .in other states ..' There . ~a s a
mijstir.o~m . grO\vth of carp ha~cheries with ,some _resulting in utter f~ilures.
freshwater prawn hatchGries h3ve ' been sadly few and far b,etween.
Unfortunately. it were the nquaculturists who were deputed by th e
governments for such training in China and Hungary except in a rare cases
when an engineer was also included in the team . Two Aquaculture
Engineers visited India under the W.orld Ban.k project ,on setting up' carp
, hatcheries in fiye . stat.e~ . in ' India .. A' Chinese ' expe.rt established a c~rp
. hatc~ery n~'ar rfycf~rabad: . .. .... . :'. . . . ' . . . -.. .

Considerable expertise wa's a prime lequisite for the establishment of shrimp

hatcheries . Foreign collaboration was sought and consultants from France
and USA undertook construction of large hatcheries. To a lesser degree,
Thai, Malaysian and l"dCJI10sis:-, experts also helped some private
)

entrepreneurs.

4.3 TrOut and mahsaf:r f~r'ns/hat.ch0riu~ and feed mills

NOlvvegian expert!se was ta!<.a:l 'j'o;" ~h0 establishment of a trout farm and
hatchery in Himacha; P,ccJl;'3f: as also Tor a 'feed milL No expertise is
available in the country far estab!i(lmeilt of hatcherIes for sport fi shes anci
coldwater .speciGs of fish . A ;n-:lhSeei hatchery was established with
indigenous expertise at Lanavai? in Mnhal a~h(ra wr,i~e 30me others are i"
the ()ffing in Madhya Prad (~$ h, Hi~3(:hc;i Pradesh , Uttar Pradesh anc

239
Jammu and Kashmir .

.4.4 ~qu~c,:,l~ure equipment and infrastructure development

A major breakthrough in the supply of portable plastic pools and tanks was
made by Plasticrafts Corporation, Bombay, which has served the research
stations and prawn/shrimp hatcheries very well over these many years.
There are quite a few production units now who are supplying fibre-glass
tanks of assorted shapes and sizes for meeting the hatchery requirement.
No good aerators are manufactured in the country yet and Non-rong and
other aerators have been imported on a large scale. No silt pumps, feed
dispensers. computerized monitoring systems, mass-scale live fish or seed
transportation units, quality aerators, etc. have been produced in India so
far.

C!FA was th~ first institution in the country to use experimental poly-houses
for fish culture and install a biological reef for in situ filtration. Again, it was
the first to introduce (he use of ferro~cement pools/tanKs for various
purposes in different laboratories and the field. Being very cheap and easy
to construct, a large number were constructed in the institute and thei r
durability and economics demonstrated . They offer a great potential in terms
of cheap substitutes for fibre-glass tanks. CIFA has also put up the first Silo
tvo. Use of playhouses has been made by the Rohlak centre of the CIFE to
attain advance maturity in carps . CIFA has an Aquaculture Engineering
Division and a Lab too wr,er8 fibreglass tanks/pools/drums and other stuff is
also. prqduced .

Bamboo cages were first used by the AICRP on Airb~eathl~~ Fish Culture in
Assam followed by the nylon-net cages by the Tank Fi~heries Unit of th e
then CIFRI (now under CIFA) at Bangalore. Unfortunately, only small cages
have been used in India unlike the large ones in other countries for carp,
groupers and salmon culture which have undergone considerable
modifications not only in shape but in the very design itself. While pens of an
indigenous variety have been in use for mullef culture in the Chilka Lake ,
true pens .could be seen only in the Tu.ngbhadra reservoir where they are
'used 'seasonal!y for hort-term carp 'seed rearing. The first open rccirculatorY
system was installed at CIFRI, Barrackpore; which though considered for
year-round seed rearing was found un-economic. The first closed
recirculatory system installed at CIFA too was not a success. Running water
fish culture systems. so popular in Indonesia and Chin3, have not been
adopted on a mass scale in India. The EXperimental Unit at CIF.A. has been
found useful for production of carp fingerlings/juveniles . HowGver, besides
the 'jhora' fisheries in the n0rth-~ast which is 2 kind of rU:1:1ing water fish
culture, the systt?!n1 has 8ttnined ~!reat pop'Jlarity in himachal ?radesh where
an aver3ge product!OI1 of kg is 0btaine~ from 00-00 sq m enclosures.
Waste heat is not used in India as for cage culture in Germany and carp
seed production in Hung3ry.

240
5.AQUACULTURE ENGINEERING - A FEW ASPECTS

5.1 Partitioned Aquaculture System (PAS)

The farmers face serious problems the world over in fish culture that include
losses due to birds and diseases, labour shortage to harvest the fish and
also off-flavor in some cases. With increased stocking and feeding rates to
keep ahead of increasing expenses, these problems have further magnified.
Diseases not only affect profits but also need additional expenses for their
control and prevention. Blue-green algae that cause the off-flavour problem
affect the sale and involve additional costs on feed while holding them in
tanks to get rid of the off-flavour problem.

A new concept, incorporating sanitary engineering principles using a pond or

lagoGn to reduce solids and soluble wastes, has been developed to
minimize these problems and given the name of Partitioned Aquaculture
System .(PAS) . . A 0.3-ha experimerltal PAS unit, especi ally constructed at
the 'Louisiana Agricultural Experiment Station (LAES), is being used to
investigate its economic feasibility. The traditional catfish ponds yield about
900 kg/ha through multiple cropping and re-stocking. In contrast, the PAS
technology allows the production capacity to be increased by almost ten
times approaching over 9,000 kg/ha/yr with feed conversion ratios of 1.5:1
through algal management and waste removal.

The PAS has four basic components: the fish culture unit (raceway), the
settling sump, the paddlewheel mixer and the open pond . The recirculating
PAS does not require large amounts of makeup water beyond the normal
volumes needed to meet evaporation and seepage losses in conventiOtlal
ponds .
Fish Confinement System (Raceway). The raceways are gated,
rectangular, concrete troughs, 1.2 m deep, comprising 2.5 - 4 % of the open
pond area. Two paiallel raceways are used, a larger unit for the channel
catfish and a smaller raceway for aquatic organisms that consume algae.
Water qUality entering and leaving the raceway is monitored continuously by
oxygen, temperature and pH sensors connected to a computer that can
control the rotational speed of the paddlewheel mixel and operate
supplemental aerators .
Settling Sump. The sump, which is 2 m deep, accumulates solid waste
frcm the fish and other sources, such as "dead" algae. The solids are
removed periodically by automatic or manual vacuum to reduce oxygen
camano ~hereby increasing the fish carrying capacity. Nitrogen and
phosphorus recovered from 'the waste are applied to pastl.!ras.
Paddlcwheel Mixer. The paddleVlhee! mixer is the primary control device.
!)esigned.-to rotate at 1.5 - 2 .-pm, it prodLices '8 watfiY"flow of 0.045 to 0.090
m per sacond in the opeli pond. A computer control system regulates water
velocity and reduces oxygen ioss from super-saturated levels by varying the
rvt3lional speed of the mixer from information provided by the m:ygen
~ensors In t.~le raceway::;.
0gen P()nd. The open pond is the waste-treatment unit alld is not used for
fi~.; h culture. The shallow (0.5 to O."t5 m j ponel is subdivided into channels by

241
 internal baffles. This allows for uniform mixing of the water, optimum
penetration of sunlight and maximal algal growth. Algae in the open pond
removes toxic ammpnia from the 'A:'at~r and optimiz~s dissolved oxygen
production. Algal blooms followed by algal die-offs are minimized, thus
stabilizing system water quality.

To obtain fish production levels of 10,000 kg/ha, filter-feeding fish, such as

tilapia or silver carp, and freshwater mussels, are included in the PAS to
consume microscopic algae. Algal consumption by the fish reduces algal
biomass and maintains high rates of algal growth, thus ~mpj'oving water
quality (oxygenation and ammonia reduction), reducing potential for off-
flavor and recapturing some of the nitrogen and phosphorus excreted by the
catfish into the flesh of the filter-feeding species. To optimize harvest of
algae, filter-feeding fi sh are contained in the smaller parallel raceway.
Biomass of the filter-feeding fish is maintained at 20 - 25 % of the target
species biomass, at season's end, to achieve effective algal control. A 300 -
600 % increase in water treatment capacity over conventional methods is
achieved as a result of increased algal growth combined with algal harvest
by filter-feeders and water mixing, thus increasing fish production capacity
overthatofconventionalp00ds.

Advantages and Disadvantages

The PAS can be used to cultivate any aquatic species amenable to high
density culture in a confined raceway . .There IS considerable saving of the
. ..!abour costs because a computer monitors the sy'stem which also allpws for
efficient harvesting because of confinement in' a smaller area. Bird predation
is almost totally reduced as the netting on top of the raceways, which costs
much less than covering the regular pond, prevents this. The confined area
of the system allows fOf an efficient way to feed the fish and to medicate the
fish in case of disease. The problem of off-flavor in fish is controlled as "bad"
algae are not able to get a hold in the shallower ponds. However, in a highly
intensive fish culture system such as the PAS, the danger of catastrophic
failure always exists .. There is a potenti!ll for greater incidence for disease
be~ause of .fish density. Mechanical failure. of the paddlewheel miXer or
failure of supplemental aerators to activate during critical. peri.ods; such as
power outages, could cause massive fish loss from oxygen depletion.

BIOLOGICAL FIL TERS FOR AQUACUL TURE

::;it)i(Jgicai filters are devi(;e::; (0 cuilllre d,ffe:reiit types of microorganisms that

perform different tasks. Biofiitel s are used to maintain water quality in
recirculating or closed loop systems as well as to improve the water quality
before discharging from a facility. The role of biofilters lies in the removal of
ammonia, nitrites and dissolved organic solids besides addition of oxygen,
removal of carbon dioxide, excess nitrogen and other dissolved gases; and,
removal of suspended solids. The microbiology of the nitrifying bacteria and
 filter design are important considerations. The challenge to the designer is to
produce a biofilter that removes the ammonia and nitrite at the required rate,
requires little maintenance, is cost effective and efficient, and is integrated
into the system in which it is operating. Designing a biofilter to meet all of
these requirements is not a trivial exercise.

Types of filters

There are five types of filter configurations commonly used in aquaculture

production systems: submerged , trickling filters, biodisks, biodrtJms, and
fluidized beds.
Submerged Filters
The filter consists of a container fill ed with porous media for the growth of
bacteria. Water enters the fi!ter, passes over the media, and goes out of the
filter. Any material that will allow the water to pa3S through easily a,")d is non-
, toxic to the nitrifying bacteria could be used as the meriia. Some of the more
common media types include pebbles, sand, and plastic media of var!ous
designs. The inflow and outflow must be designed to handle both the normal
. flow through the filter and the backwash flow as the latter is considerably
higher than the normal flow and is a measure for determining the pipe size.

The distinguishing feature of a submerged filter is that the media is always

submerged completely below the water surface There are two common
operational modes fer s~b:Tlcrged fi!ters . When the water flows from the top
of the filter downward and out the bottom filter it is called a down flow filter.
When water flow is from bottom to top it is referred to as an up flow filter.
Occasionally submerged filters are operated such that water flows
horizontally through the filter. This mode is called a cross flow filter.
Trickling Filters
Trickling filtars look the same as a submerged filter except the media are
kept damp, but not submerged. Wastewater is allowed to trickle down
through the filter, but the flow is maintained low enough that the media is not
flooded. This allows air to circulate through the filter at the same time as the
wastewater is moving downward through the filter.
Biodisks
The filter is composed of a series of circular plates, each of which is
attached to a common shaft. Plate spacing along the length of the shaft is
minimized. while maintaining enough space for wastewater to circulate ,
between plates after a bacterial film has been established on both sides of
each plate. The shaft passes through the centre of each plate and is
mounted in bearings attached to each end of the wastewater container. The
mounting is located such that the plates are submerged in the wastewater to
approximately one-half of their diameter. The shaft and plates attached to it
are rotated by a power source, usually an electric motor. Flow through a
biodisk i~ usually parallel to the shaft.

243
Biodrums
Biodrums look and operate similar to a biodisk except the disks are replaced
by a cylindrical drum. The cylindrical drum surface is porous, typically some
type of mesh material, and the drum is filled with some type of solid media
having a high specific surface area (area of all of the pieces of media in the
drum) per unit volume. Plastic media, such as plastic rings or balls, are
usually used as media rather than pebbles which are heavy to reduce drum
weight and, hence, the structural support needed for the drum.

Fluidized Beds
The filter consists of a closed container that is partially filled with a
particulate r:1edia, typically sand . Wastewater enters the filter through the
bottom, passes through a distribution plate, moves through the media and
exits from the top of the filter. The distribution plate serves two functions; 1)
it supports the media and prevents it from clogging th e inlet when the filter is
not operating, and 2) it helps distribute the wastewater evenly across the
horizontal area of the filter. During operation sufficient water flow is
maintained to suspend the media particles in the upward flow. This is called
fluidizing the bed, hence the name. Too Iowa water flow rate will not fluidize
the bed, while too high a flow rate will flush the media out of the filter.
Nitrifying bacteria grow on the fluidized particles and remove ammonia as it
moves past.

Bead filter
A bead filter is a special form of a fluidized bed. In bead filters the media
consists of small plastic beads, typically less than 2-4 mm in diameter, that
float. The beads are held in the container by a screen at the outlet and the
water passes upward through t'le bed of beads. The filter is cleaned by
stirring the beads mechanically with a propeller, by the use of 3ir released
into the water stream, or by closing down the flow and letting the beads fall
to the bottom of the container. The solids trapped in the beads are washed
out during cleaning and discarded .

RBC (Rotating Biological Contactors)

Like much of the equipment used in aquaculture, RBC's were first used in
domestic sewage treatment applications. There are several different types
that are manufactured. A typical design consists of plates or disks that are
attached to a horizontal shaft. The shaft is located at the surface of the water
and it is turned at a very slow speed (1-5 rpm). The disks are half
submerged in the water at all times. As they rotate, the biofilm attached to
the surface of the disk is alternately exposed to air and then submerged in
the water. The original designs used an electric motor to turn the shaft.
There is a new design specifically for aquaculture that uses compressed air
or pumped water to drive a paddle wheel in the center of the cylinder. These
RBC's float in the water and do not require bearings or elaborate mechanical
supports.
RBC's have many advantages. They offer excellent treatment efficiencies.

244
They require very little energy to operate and can be located in the culture
tank to save space if necessary. They do not require additional oxygen and
are not limited to oxygen contained in the incoming water. They can remove
dissolved BOD or ammonia depending on nutrient levels. They are
biologically robust and handle shock loads well. It is easy to observe their
operation and visually monitor the biofilm. They only have one major
drawback besides cost and that relates to reliability. If there is a power
failure or the cylinder stops turning for any reason, the biofilm exposed to the
air can dry out. When this happens, the cylinder will be unbalanced and
become difficult to turn.
Recently, an entirely new type of biologh::al filtration unit known as the
Continuous Cleaning Multifunctiorlal Siofilter (CCMS) has been developed
and 'patented by the tSU. It can be described as a downward-flow, '
concentric-draft, elliptical semi-closed loop, three-phase bioreactor. The
patenfed three-phase (solid~liquid-air) interface is the driving force behind
the success of this rydro-dynamically driven biological filter for the
aquaculture industry.

5.2.2 Requirements of oxygen and energy

Oxygen availability to bacteria in rotating biological contactors (RBe's),

including biodisks and biodrums, depends on rotational speed of the RBe.
Selection of proper rotational speed will assure that the bacteria d() not dry
out while out of the water, nor do they run out of oxygen while they are in the
wastewater. Maximum RBG rotational speed is limited by the bacteria scour
velocity at which friction between the water and the media is great enough to
strip the bacteria layer off the filter media. Obviously, velocities that exceed
the scour velocity will destroy the nitrifying capability of the RBe.

Energy requirements of , biofilters is an important concern in aquaculture.

Energy requirements in submerged and trickling filters are primarily due to
pumping water vertically into or out of the filter. Submerged filters can, if
designed correctly, operate with much less energy. Trickling filters usually
require pumping the water to their full height, hence the taller the filter the
more the energy consumed during operation . .

Energy consumption in RBC's is essentially the power required to rotate the

RBC. The faster the RBC is rotated, the higher the energy consumption .

Fluidized bed filters require relative high water velocities to fluidize the
media. Energy loss due to the water flowing through a pipe or filter increases
with the square of the velocity. Thus, doubling the water velocity through the
same pipe increases the energy loss by four times. A similar energy loss is
experienced when water velocity through a filter increases. Thus, a designer
must balance energy usage against other desirable features of a specific
filter. .

Bead filters generally have fairly high water velocities through them. Thus,
energy consumption in thet e filters is primarily due to pressure loss through
the bead bed.

245
 5.3.3 ~io~lter Design/Design Data
:Siofilter.' de'sign ' requires some knOwledge of the 'other components of the
culture system. For example, what aeration' system, what solids removal
methods, and what arrangement of the system components will be used in
the overall system. This data impacts on the operating conditions of the
biofilter and will, thus, influence its design. There is also a body of data
needed that details the water quality requirements acceptable to the species
being cultured. Acceptable ranges of pH, temperature, ammonia
concentration and other variables must be known. The largest weight of fish
the filter will support at al'y time during the life cycle of the crop must be
determined. Feed to be used and feeding rates anticipated, water
temperature and range of water temperatures expected, and the range of
oxygen demand by the fish. all need to be determined 'prior to .designing a
biofilter. Waste production rates by the particular fish species are also
needed for the range of fish sizp.s expected in the ' culture system. ThiS
should include solids production as well as ammonia production.

Design of any filtration system is based on the principle that the filter must
remove wastes at or above the maximum rate at which the crop produces
them. If the production system has sufficient volume of water in it, there is
some potential for short term (i.e., a few hours) waste removal rates to be
slightly less than the hourly maximum production rate. However, filters
shou:d almost always be designed for the maximum short term ammonia
. production rates.Cleaning
,
Multifunctional Biofilter
,

246
 ~ CONTO UR SURVEY
A LECTURE DELIVEREO AT
CENTRAL INSTITUTE OF FISHERIES EDUCATION
(A DEEMED UNIVERSITY)

BY'
ABDULRAZAQ A HONNUTAGI
PRINCIPAL. M. H. SABOO SIDDIK POLYTECHNIC, MUMBAI

--.....,.---._ -----~- ------~

I Surveying is the science or art of making

\Vhat is urvcying? measurements to detemline or estab li sh
the relative position of points above, 011,
or beneath the surface oCthe earth.
I Surveys are generally divided into classes ;

: according to the type of data obtained, the i

methods and instruments used, and the I
purposes to be served.
e ______ _ I

: Some examples of surveys are: ;

I Geodetic surveys, I
I

Topographic surveys,
I

I Aerial or photogrammetric
~l.lrvlJys,

Geologic surveys,
Engineering surveys, and
Land surveys .

,-
.. - ...
WHAT IS SURVEYING?
I

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f.'h.1 ,j,';" , .;.nh . .

There are (; parts to a Surveyor's Work

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H('pur1ilic, ,, It,::i'''';al ,,','l),:,u .. i'lll ,,1 tlh.' \~I :'Oo\..

W:.Jy synl'LD: STUDY .. 0 SURVEy:~m?

. . _ _ _ _ . . . . - - - -. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _. . " . . ._ _ __

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WHAT IS M EAS UR ED?

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HOW AR THESe MEASUR - D?

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WHICH IN STRU M ENT SHOUL.D 'U S ?

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WHAT I S ACCURACY?

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." ... ' ... '.1 .... '

What is contouring?

Contowing is drawing lines througb a 2 dimensional array of numbers so

that the lines connect all points of equal value.

In aJppograp'hic map these iso-lines (iso m~ same) are called contours

and represent lines of constant elevation.

On a weather map the iso-lines might be isobars and represent lines of

:onstanl air pressure, or isothenns, which are lines.of.constant temperature .
.' >

oS lO 15 10 S
f(~
1 , U t,ct ~;;~
10 20~O 10 1'I.'t.........~'Y_)''''
15 2 30 15 ~ "/
)0 2 20 10 F;, Ie
5 10 15 10 5 C4nfetlr In-lc,.y,,1
H3 k .25',.... conf.c..,,- =5"""
 : :.: .,...-: . . . . SOME r..O, I~TS
.. . .
.'

Coritour lines 6fthe same value can connect and cross, but contour lines
of different values can never intersect.

TIlink about it.

How can a point be 25 111 c1evatior. and 20 m elevation, simultaneously?

The contour interval is the spacing between contour lines

,I
In Figurc Ib I usc contour interval of 10 m. This means I draw contours for 10,20
and 30 m.
In Figurc I c I usc a contour int.:rval of 5 m. This means drawing contours for 5, 10,
15,20,25 and 30 m.
The smaller the contour interval, the more contour lines there will be on the plot.

Note that the contour plots changc with contour interval, but the hill remains the
same. You should be able to visual;zc the hill sticking

Figure 2 is a more complicated example.

Here I've analyzed the contour field using a eoptour inter:val of 10.
Can yo~ visualize the ridge -on the left and the plain t!) the rig~t?
 .ample n filii ,l1IilaM. c I..., WIT,:I CIII HI iIII
ltG/II : SO,(OO,
Sol.u.. :
OaIf: SO,!XXl scllc
lO,tnlm.lm-I(() au,
:, 1M m- HIIl- I~X I(xx) -2eo
'"'f:IXj
Contoul ir.ttM1
1
t>o. 01 C1D1 per lID,
10
"T-IOllltlrtl, Au ,

- No. or(utIIJU1:: pc , 5aor cl" ~hlu ...

-~'I~.II. Fnl

~-------------------------------------------~

r-----------~-----------

l!=_HARACTERISTICS OF-CONTOURS I
7.,..,.P(''''':.rl.t!c-.~:':: - -- - --- _.._ --
The foUo"laa cbt.rlct_rl.liet of CO,IIOIII'1 arc Icc pI In vicw
~l~e preparial oc rc~dl~, a coatollr map.
-r: Two coolOll.rl of dllfecent elev'lionl tlo nOI <:fOli eacb
oln! e,,"pt io Ibe ~.c of 10 ovub.O,iol cliff. '
-r CootOUI'1 of did'erent dentlons do not uoitt to form one
coall'"r c~cept in " .. ~.e of. venical cJiff. ,
J. CoDIOII .. drawn cloler d_picl ... tc_p slope lod, \f dr.wo
far apart. reprCltot ,cotle slope .
..-4. CooIOII" eqllally splccd d~(1 a unirrom slope. Whco
: OOtOIl .. are p.rlllt., tqwdilllnl lad ,tr.iabl, Ibeu rtprel.ot .0
inclioed plane IUrfa.ce.
5. Cootour II loy,;,oint it rerpcollicullr to tbe lioc or Ibe
IleepUI,!.1.o pe al Ibe polOI.
<. A conlour Hne mUll clole itstlr bllt occa 001 be IIlccnar!l~
withio Ibe limill or Ibe map itltlr.
- ...:1..- A .el of tinl (OotOllll with hilhcr valuel iOilde.
hill ",berc.. 1 , or cia, contou .. ",itb lowtr vlluu lo.ide depict
J:pt: .'
:; p?Dd or a d~r . ._\un . ,,110":' ~ "\:.'~."\ ,

J'
...-.'7 "---:, .. n :c-,t?u:, erOK rid~e or V.,hlped '_~\(1 tt. ... J
form Iblrp V-sblrot ....'=s Ihu.' CJIo'I....t.t'i?l:T:'rttir.-;;-m!I"!l;o~

if_th_.-C_ 0_~-C_AN._ lt1 O('_bj_ ~~

uliio contovraod oo the olher hind t~!y. tU!r~leEt ,. vI.llc1 If tbe
cooeavilr of Ibo lower 'II. luo COD our, lies toward, t'lit b.,her value
COol
_______ >e F -
__ conlour
The time _ _ _musl
___ nl_Q_.II_r._il00
IPP'" '_C._-bOlh
I_o_.._'a_rd_I_
lb..I_,id., or.
h_,-.:.n:..f_,..I_.!_fIW
__ er______
rid,.
'or ,;v"Ucy.
JO. CoDlou" do not "ave ' Mrp turoins, .
./
...
 .. ,.

r.'''f.J,....... _-
- A~_4"'"
....

,
,
.~

n.. ''(d. ". ...........

"I~.
"-.1' (/) "" ,t.-.v.

.*~~
rt"" 'c.I. "" ............ "IlL ~ .. # _ ~

~
...........
"".N(/).A,............... .,..'.(I)../
.......,.IiI'.

.... ....
,0
Ie -l--..,
-T- -+-~
--j-
I
---+-,., !.

... .. ---4- - -!-..,

I.
:
/ I., h'
~
1'1 ,.,
10

.
; . 4' .
;'4 ~':r ~: .;:,,' ~..:~ ,
.I ......._
 METHODS OF CONTOURING
f.W w .." ' _ ~..........,t ., 1M n~"_.,.. ".~.,....
............,. . ". . . ......,. .....
,. ......... ,. ,lie
~I""
~o..... _......
.... ,..... "....... T'1w .. , ........... .r
~
.....,., ....... _ .... .
t. ... : I. uo. _,.. ..ado", ....... .r J'Oio\a arc Ii.... 'paC
IMII. nc .....1_ t( .... poi... cu k OO ...oJ",IIJ plot,,,, ...
..... \able _ .......... IC__' ,.,.,.1..............r ...u.
~

:: ..,I,ftc
_....... N.. I. 1. ,,-,,f fI\C1"~ , ......."". Ie
~~.::.,..~.i':::"'::~f:k.I.~!c ~~:'~fI~~:r4'::
... ",4
II
,_trlcoI
.,.ltl
II 1<. . . . _ " ' " 10 ~I"
't. "'"""
It("~'1. lIi..,(,..
(I'" ..........d o( , poI.1 oa caUl
,It.
h btc W'ChO"- " .41 Ik ."Pf'C) ....... n .re 4,.."
('C)fIt ..Ioe 0( lilt _,,,,. The opal ....1. 0( _PO" ..I r ""',, .. . b
...ow,_ thnn, n ,Itud .. cINIIM,-all""', .ao... ud &. "",-.n, Iq.r''''1 .iU lOp&. """ &-. bcdo ~ "rue' .ntI "I '" of
IkII( ' 4orCe:4 ..
df'd. Ie. 'Wlt . ~
k..,. ror.,....,.
Ifa,"" '.rrnN'
n,uo.ne, or """II
f C'Cilllt' C," d<tfft . ..
.tC'U wbe" beUe,
Lb. tkPl...... att olio IILt.IIO tkpit1lbcil '.((1<1 (","m ..~iIt
' ae"rat"), II rcqul(C'4.
4c"';iAC COM.wf Ii... T'1 (ll)Moen ft bet."c u, 'rot kvth . te
"upo&tltd eed dl'l." Tl6 dbod of C'OaI4\"i., fOCDllilDd
Tlu _ 2110'" .C'\ct ''0''" ,." k di\'I'ftI huo ''''0 '\CPI : ho II C.._ , ., "..11...1
(-, TI\c ~to" oC UIC ~~tftU 0_ It\c ~'O,," I, 1JI~'f \ lotIoet _"ootlnJ Is "'.... onl ... pIored i. " 11
0I .. 1I4d 0{
eonlfol. ",Ie """,. , nlt1U"" ' '''I.IKIHd it ek, ftC,. quklrt
(6, ftlotf i", tlf Ih. ,01." ('ttl .he pl... 'e,," IC(tJo" I.. ..4 kw, ~ ., compand wit" d\ftC'l .t\Md oC' t\ourWt,.
hotboflul COI'IU,,!. I'"'irtn IOtIIood 0( ......Ii., CI. be .."plo,.d '" I"' .. don
tent ".," ck."ilc-d below :
Tin ''''0 nrtutto,_, me,. be utfi,4 01011 " "'lIth ,tlle owlly It 0'"
tun-eror .t
t.nplo,ul 1011'1 k ",UI., lOf .,."nl.". tbot poleh aMf , .... I.I("'J "I'''''' ..nb04. ' '1J ..... " .... "'"~ntI.
otht, (or ,yr ... ,,,,. 'hel' lotaJio" b, r1ut' u hhl\,.
b!f""e~",ic ~.tI,!",,:

~,
~.
I. Tlwt
b",' _"1' .to_ ..,........1
.-thod
aM '.-o"'lth~ ~Vf'."
.roub~""'_
I. 'Tho. nw.Utod
Itvl It WI 41 ...
It .. tM
Jc:...... .. ..d _"
....

t. hi. - ' 7 .,..,.1"'- 2. 1t M .....,. d, p.

J. It ... ~t rrw ..n.IIIH'~""",,' J. It I. "".-J (Of' y.,_. :~~:
r;!;;4.~:7:-,~r...:~~-::::;..:;:, r:.-i:,.'::-
H .-c.
or-:-:"7. ';.t~:'~ r.Uw."
. U CI&f\ __ .",I,,-bt,. "..." t"",
.",.,_r1fW
.... ttOCL
roe.. ..c .
TM ..80&11..
e.A1 boll
.un_,..,
eoon ..... r Itt.n "" '-..........lfio
or c.n.... .
.........-_, by i,h.
~O(_OM-c::tJ~ .

c-'at&.a'kIon 01 f'edwo.d ...... or

J
'- 10 be d.,.... I., Ibco "-I'd a.Ad 0 - .....
u - I. eon ,,,,,",,,,,- UM _kzvf. UOCM e-.
..,.4d\H)ll!Od .._te
J. Th4 .k1u",lon.
I .,.. don. ~ ......... d
.nd , . . _ d . _ .. n bill ~Io" w .
,~

n04 .,. checked : _b . . . n.ede4.

WHEN AREA TO I.E

URVEYEl> IS MALl.
DIRECT METHODS & TilE GROUNO I
NOT VERY MU II
1) BY SQUARES . UNDULATING

TilE AREA TO DE
URVEYED IS DIVIDED
INTO NO. OF SQUARES.

T Il E SIZE VARY FROM

S TO 20M DEPENDING
UPON T il E NATURE OF
CONTOUR & ONTOUR
INTERVAL

Til E ELEVATIONS OF
ORNElt,S OFSQUARES I
... ~ V"_ ..;_-..
.'I>E ''''''
' 11 ........ - "- '01. I"
~I::~;!; cr" L~'.'L t. .
STAFf

TOUR LlNF's ARE

DRAWN BY
INT RPOLATfON
 DIRECT METHODS
.....,...
2) BY CROSS SECfIONS
to lbh IMtbod . ~'OM- INC"oe, .,t
'va tn . ........ to &be OCGU'
ltDC 01 .. f044 . ,..11 ... ,. or r... l ,It Th ,1104 ill .... ","-W.
f.f r. il ... , towlc t", ... ). TIM .p.a ~ I~ (fo.. Mcdoo dcpc.w.
-roo lhe ch,. C1cr .r \be: tunl . , (oalow, 10,,,,,,.1 .. J 11M
"""pot( 0' th. f- W"C' . TM CION ' MC"'"' .bwld be .Ote dotel),
.~ ccd _ben thc C(NIh",U CVU'C .. 10 boN"", . " "'''fI
or Oil run
T~ ,rou' Medoa ud Ike polo" UI \lwo be pluI\C'6 ' 04 tIlo

tk,.., ioa or t.&Cb ,!Hat h muk (_d T\c (OIUOU' lioe. are interpOlated
01 lb . . .,utapUoo .hA c lbue , .....fonD .Iope bel_MD ' .0 J'Olo.1 01
'wo adj.(<<., COOI04ln. th .... Jo Fi, lOt. IN poIOlt aurhd . it ..
dolJ an Ih, ~.l' . tt".II,. tU'''''lC'd I. ,be. hid ..tlilc tbe roil"
,ked "ilb x ." tbe 6n' C/O ......rc.too ere , ... pol." lotcrpolal.4
Oft COIUO"".

DIRECT METHODS
3) BY TACHEOMETRIC METHOD
(III) I, T.d ......"k "",ItH
10 the ca .. 0( bUI, 'crr.Jo, Lbo " ,bIOmetric method m.), be
..cd .Ub .duDtlac. A &ad"CO'CDcler La tbcodolilC' l.Ikd .~tb
.t.dLa dlapb,. ... 10 lb., " . .diD" ... ~t aU \ltc tb.rN baln
- , be tot... TN 'lAlf lolctc<pt, I, the. obtoloed by ...tJa, III.

Flo. 10 10 'I&.,r"
c:.t."...,.- .........
......a (D) \oct.... . u.. ,-",,___
. . u.. ~
.Hr.f"," ,. drw.d. . tV) ltd . . . . . . . . .,...., ~M ., &1M . . .'
~k'" dM 14.. or .1, \t .,.. etA. t.M eea.,d .. I", i~ _14&1"
dift'crc.act ",Wcta Ut.. ,udio .. ""oa( 0. top &ad bouocD .i.tet . ..,.p....'"
n. lla. or ,Up, ... _to II, ladltloe ..1111 III, boriIoa<.t.I. 'boa
.,_0 ....+K.COI.
o_" ..
lacrc&llol ,bel ,u.e or IDlUM.CD' ob..,.a,loDi. TN laorizoeuJ 'M
.".,. ~1.a4 K r. '-........W . . . . ..
dla........<1 ...... _.,od. aI_ tbo tocb<o_IO, pt~ 100111
 INTERPOLATION OF CONTOURS
Int<fl>Ol .. i.. ofd>c: COIIIoun" d>c: "",,<Sa of'"""inc Ihc con._. """"",i""",tI, beI.em Ihc pI~1Id .-.I ....."
un.... .""""",,, ,...,
... abIi1l1c<1 by indI................ TIoc mc1IIodI ofin''''l'OIa,"", 1ft boaod the ....... u("_d
bot_ ,lie , ..'0 ""'... " . . iform. TIoc du.f n..u.ocs. of """'l'QIacioft ....

(I) Oy esllmallon
(Ii) Oy arithmetic caleutallons
(Iii) Oy graphicallllethod,

(I) By Estimation
1 his n'k.'alK'd I~ clCt1emcly r"",h and is \lSCd (or ''''111 Kalt WOfL only. The rulli~ of contour ~nb bc1_n the ~uidoc
points .. c loc.aled by ()II~im .

(ii) Oy Arithmetic Clculation

The InCfhoJ. thoua;h accurate, is time: c.onwminjf.. The pusillON of c:uniour poinu ~ ..un the Ivide rctrqll ~ loe.ltd h,
arithmetic calculolaion.
I'.. c.. mplc. lcl A. n.1> and C Ix Ihe ,t'ide poin" plotlCd on lite n...,. luv'''ll.le ... 'oo ... ..( ben'., blTl. C>l~' ~
anJ _ ') fCCl fCSpcc1h.ly eft. 10'12,.
Lct AO "OO-CD-CA-: Inch on I~ ,.,~" Ind In it be u:quin"'d to 1 lie the P'lII""4\ ur
b() ~ . 610 iln..J 01 S (<<1 ((MHoon on these hna. The vn1icIJ difTcrrnc:c in clC'VlliOf\ between A Ind U I I (CtI T)-60T04,..q"Q (' ,
Iknee. Ihe dilunCft of Ihe contour poinlJ (rom A will be

O' ...nof610 fi """"",poin. (11'19) X 20 -0 26 tnch (app ' .1

The twocoruour poinu 11'\jl1 be located on AB. Slmil:arly.lhc pMicion or the (OOlo-,r points 011\ Ihe lina A . CD. nn and
abu on AD and lie may bc-Ioc.lcd. Conlour li nes mlY Ihcn be drwwn Ih'ou'h """''1')1111(' tonlour 1X)1I1U,
os ,howl\ tn fia 10'12

"(iii) BY GRAPHiCAL i'Yf'r:'! ~Ol)

In the graphical method, the interpolation is done with the help of a

Tracing paper or a tracing cloth
 USE OF CONTOUR MAPS

i'~J_~~L-~~__'
~ R. at' ~ e J
,., f'I '

,
USE OF CONTOUR MAPS (CONT)
1.
....
Tn.ct.c .t 0....... ~ ... t.._.....,. ~ w...-._ ... oe~ .......
~ . . . .*,,--., rI .... CUI ..
A .,-.1.... ..,... fw ......
....., ..... .-. \Me (4IftM 0( all .'W ~ .......
a.. .....
"''''''c. A..,.........., ........ &o ......., .tta. ~
..' ... l000l00'....... _ 0 ( ....... now...... _k. ...
41001.. " " " _ 01. . . . . . . . . (011.................... :

flJ
U!
~
.'It 10.,..,....--.
_1_..... . ......
~
. ""-....... . . ___
( I / I e . . - " , _ ~nq.", __ "'t~..w.. ...

-n. _-.IJooIo_ - ....... --u...~.

.._...,_--..,.w..
.......... ...,_ ....... _......
.. ~'4oc
_
III'I.
...... .... - .

-
......... ....... _,"' ...,.._
-(-~U/.

I.
. __ ............... II_"_
~'
--oI.CIO
c:...... _ oe-.......,. c.,....I.,.

"-
WPtrtf. ""
MlI.41
P'II. tt"

" 'er"..,--""'10
..... ......, ... . Ltc tt
__ ...............
.. wqWNrd co :oc... ....... f,. . A . . . . . . . . . . .w
,..,. ( ..
.,......, 0(
--'_Io
-
-'.....
no _10.,,... .., .. -.( 10

....,., k .
n.. _ _
....to ........
~,.
I'J...
_0 .... ...........
10 100.
-.. ... .._, '"
. P.............. - ......ooIt.... - . . ... _~..
- - . . . ......""
......_._._
,... ...~:.: . . . " ' __ 100.
WOI ...................... ....,fI( . .
:.0, ...
I ioU (f1c. 10'171. ... - . . . . .01........ .., . . _ _ 10-.1. JI-u.n,....

...... ................
..., .............' ..... . . . . . . . . . . OM........... Cl&JcU..kIIf .
lMlitUJ .... _ .,,.. C_"' ....I _eM ... lit( ' k .......
~
USE OF CONTOUR MAPS (CONT)

.......1'

.r

.. ......-
 'WARES AVAILABLE

------
H -.---
....-. ,......--~ ....
- -.l
"!..
urf;;-;;-onto~r -';;-aps givo
u full control over all map
rameters . You can accopt
Surfer intelligent defaults

~1~~1JJJI':':'
to automatically croate a
1 "::':: ::;::_j
I __ .;; , \~< '/1 I contour map, or doublc-click
I a map to easily customize
_.1.. '. .. ' ,'.
I :. '" ....

' "' :;. ' I #\.

I. -t.' I
I . map features . Di splay
contour maps over any
I-,'":.:,
- ..
- .... ,. .
/
/ /
. '. "
/""
, l:' I
" w'"

._
contour range and contour
I
1":.' I

I {
I -. ..
interval, or specify only the
1 contour levels you want to
- I
"~"'
..
... . . .. ', '; .... I display on the map. And with
Surfer you can add color fill
. '
j. .
, IIbetween contours to produce
dazzling displays of your

'-_-._-_-_-._..J,.w:_
....
-~f

...._.... .... ..."

J" ! maps, or produce gray scale
fills for dramatic black and
white printouts.

, I Create Co nto urs

Image; ogc1Jl Go.fn_O Help

Image Range: O.O()OOOO 1037.000000

Contour Range; L..lz_o~-'-__---.JI - '1000

# Omtours: ,9 .

Scale: Unear S qrt Log

1200: 0 1-,
244 . 568908999
Contours: 299. 069756244 i ,
365 . 715819996
447 . 21359S5

AesoIuUon: High Medium LDw

,
I Plata canitlUl"S ill ~t!?JIClta yfdPll J
Make ContDurs I exit
--- ----, ._----'
" - - - -