DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

INDEX

S.NO DATE EXPERIMENT NAME PAGE. NO MARKS SIGN

1 PATTERN MAKING

2 GATING SYSTEM

3 RISER DESIGN

4 PREPARATION OF MOULD CAVITY USING SPLIT

PEICE PATTERN

5 PREPARATION OF MOULD CAVITY USING SINGLE

PIECE PATTERN

6 MELTING AND CASTING PRACTICE WITH DEFECT

IDENTIFICATION

7 MANUFACTURING OF WASHERS USING

COMPOUND DIE

8 STUDY OF PROGRESSIVE DIE

9 BENDING OPERATION

10 PROCESSING OF PLASTICS-INJECTION MOULDING

11 PROCESSING OF PLASTICS- BLOW MOULDING

12 FORGING OPRATIONS

13 PREPARATION OF LAPJOINT USING ARC WELDING

14 PREPARATION OF LAPJOINT USING SPOT WELDING

15 PREPARATION OF BUTT JOINT USING GAS

WELDING

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

EXPT.NO: DATE:

PATTERN MAKING

Aim: To make a pattern for preparing the mould cavity

Tools and Equipment required: (i) Bench wise (ii) Hand saw (iii) Jack plane (iv)Wood
rasp file (v) Steel rule (vii) Sand paper

Material required: Wooden block, 90x50x25mm

Theory:

A pattern is the replica of the desired casting, which when packed in a suitable
material, provides a cavity called mould. This cavity when filled with the molten material
produces the required casting after solidification

Types of patterns: The common types of patterns are shown in the figure below

Single piece pattern: It is the simplest of all the patterns. This has a flat surface on the cope
side. This makes passible a straight line parting on the joint between the cope and drag of the
mould. It is used for making simple castings.

Fig: Types of pattern

Split pattern: These are recommended for intricate castings, where removal of the pattern
from the mould is difficult. The halves of the pattern are put together by dowel pins. If the
two pieces are similar in size and shape, it is called a split pattern, otherwise it is known as a
two piece pattern. The upper and lower part of the split pattern are accommodated in the cope
and drag parts of the mould respectively.

Loose piece pattern: When a pattern cannot be withdrawn from the mould due to its
complexity, loose pieces are provided to facilitate this. The loose parts or pieces are attached
to the main body of the pattern with dowel pins

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

Cored pattern: When a casting with holes or recesses is to be made, a cored pattern is made
with core prints added to the surface. After moulding, the core prints leave the impressions in
the sand for positioning a dry sand core. A sand core is prepared separate, dried then
positioned in the mould before it is closed. When a molten metal is poured in to the mould, a
cavity or recess is formed in the casting, the shape of which is determined by that of the core

Multipiece pattern: This type of pattern is made in three or more parts. The parts that make
up the pattern are held together with dowel pins. The number of moulding boxes required will
be equal to the number of pieces in the pattern.

The size of the pattern is never kept same as that of the casting. It is always made
larger because of the different allowances mentioned below:

Shrinkage and Contraction allowance: It is the allowance given to the pattern to compensate
the change in dimensions of the castings due to the shrinkage of the metal during
solidification.

Draft or Taper allowance: A tapper should be provided to the vertical walls of a pattern, for
its easy withdrawal from the sand mould. This is known as draft allowance.

Machining allowance: This allowance is provided on the pattern, if the casting needs
machining operations. In general ferrous metals requires more machining allowance than
non-ferrous materials.

Shake allowance: To withdraw pattern from the mould, the pattern should be rapped all
around the vertical faces to enlarge the mould cavity slightly which facilitate easy removal of
the pattern And hence the original pattern dimensions should be reduced to account for this
increase and hence the original pattern dimensions should be reduced to account for this
increase and hence we consider as a negative allowance. There is no method to quantify this
allowance since it depends on the skill of the foundry men. On way to reduce this allowance
is to provide proper draft.

Design of the pattern:

The actual dimension of the required aluminium casting are as shown in the following
figure.

All Dimensions are in mm

Fig: Single piece pattern

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

Shrinkage allowance: For aluminium the shrinkage allowance is 0.013 mm/mm length.

Calculate Pattern dimensions as below

For dimension 75=

For dimension 25=

For dimension 22=

For dimension 20=

For dimension 18=

Fig: Casting with shrinkage allowance

Draft allowance: External taper=5o

Calculate the dimension for the above (where applicable) after following the drag

Fig: Casting with draft allowance and shrinkage allowance

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

Machining allowance: For aluminium machining allowance is 1.5mm for each surface
required to be machined.

Calculate the final dimensions of the pattern after including machining allowance.

Fig: Casting with machining allowance, draft allowance, shrinkage allowance, fillets and
radii

Procedure for pattern design:

1. A pattern layout is first made from the given casting drawing of the final machined
component. Pattern layout is drawn to full scale. The various allowances are then
added in different views.

2. To compensate the shrinkage of the metal in the mould cavity, shrinkage allowance is
incorporated in the pattern layout depending on the metal to be cast. The shrinkage
allowance for aluminium is about 13.0 mm/m

3. To facilitate easy withdrawal of pattern from the rammed mould, draft allowance
depending on pattern material is given

4. Depending on the type of material, the pattern dimensions are increased by an

amount equal to machining allowance.

5. Final dimensions of the pattern are marked on the given wooden and it is cut into he
required shape. The surface of the patter needs to be finished to a high degree of
smoothness by wood rasp file and sand paper

Precautions:

1. Avoid abrupt changes in cross section

2. Avoid sharp corners and edges, by providing the fillets or rounding up the
corners to enable smooth flow of the molten metal.

3. Provide proper allowance to the pattern.

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

Result:

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

EXPT.NO: DATE:

GATING SYSTEM

Aim: to prepare a gating system for the given casting

Material required: casting drawings, mould boxes, green sand and gating tools

Basic requirements for gating system:

1. The mould should be completely filled in the smallest time possible without having
to raise the metal temperature nor use higher metal heads

2. The metal should flow smoothly into the mould without any turbulence. A turbulent
metal flow tends to form dross in the mould

3. Unwanted material such as slag, dross and other mould material should not be
allowed to enter the mould cavity

4. The metal entry into the mould cavity should be properly controlled in such a way
that the aspiration of the atmospheric air is prevented

5. Metal flow should be maintained so that the casting is cooled without any shrinkage
cavities or distortions

6. The gating system should ensure that enough molten metal reaches the mould cavity

7. The gating system design should be economical and easy to implement and remove
after casting solidification

8. Ultimately, the casting yield should be maximized

Elements of a gating system:

Pouring basin: A pouring basin or cup acts as a reservoir of molten metal from which the
molten metal is fed into the sprue. The pouring cup or pouring basin minimizes the splash
and turbulence and allows the entry of clean metal into the downsprue. It helps in mould
erosion by not allowing the molten metal to directly enter the mould cavity. It also helps in
stopping the slag from entering the mould cavity by the means of a skimmer. It holds back
the dirt and slag which floats on top and only allows the clean material underneath it into the
sprue. The pouring basin maybe cut into the cope portion directly or a separate dry sand-
pouring basin may be prepared and used. The molten metal in the metal bearing should be
full during the pouring operation, otherwise a funnel is likely to form through which
atmospheric air and slag may enter the mould cavity.

Sprue: it is channel through which the molten metal is brought into the parting plane where it
enters the runners and gates to ultimately reach mould cavity. The molten metal when
moving from top of the cope to parting plane gains in velocity and as a consequence requires
a smaller area of cross section for the same amount of metal to flow at the top. If the sprue

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

were to be straight cylindrical, then the metal flow would not be created around the metal in
the

sprue. Since the sand mould is permeable, atmospheric air would be breathed into this low-
pressure area, which would then be carried to the mould cavity. To eliminate this problem of
air aspiration the sprue is tapered to gradually reduce the cross section as moves away from
the top of the cope.

Sprue base well: this is a reservoir for the metal at the bottom of the sprue to reduce the
momentum of the molten metal. The molten metal as it moves down the sprue gains in
velocity, some of which is lost in the sprue base well, by which the mould erosion is reduced.

Runner: it is generally in the horizontal plane, which connects its sprue to its ingates, thus
letting the metal to enter the mould cavity. The number of runners is 1 or 2. The runners are
normally made trapezoidal in cross section. It is a general practice to cut the runners in the
cope and then ingates in the drag. The main for this is to trap the slag and dross which are
lighter and thus trapped in the upper portion of the runners.

Ingates: these are the openings through which the molten metal enters the mould cavity. The
shape and cross-section of the ingate should be such that it can be readily broken off after
casting solidification and also that is allows the metal to enter quietly into the mould cavity.

Riser: most of the foundry allows shrink during solidification. Hence a reservoir of molten
metal is to be maintained from which the metal can flow readily into the casting when the
solidification is taking place. These liquid metal reservoirs are called risers

Fig: Basic elements of the gating system

Procedure: the sequential steps in designing the gating system are:

1. Estimation of optimum pouring time of casting which is influenced by

- The fluidity and dross forming characteristics of metal

- Casting geometry/wall thickness
- Total mass of the casting including risers

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

2. Calculation of sprue choke area

Ac = m / ( dtc(2gh))
Where Ac=choke area,mm2
m=casting mass,kg
t=puringtime,sec
d=mass density of the molten metal,g/cm3
g=acceleration due to gravity ,mm/s2
H=effective metal head,mm
C=efficiency factor which is a function of the gating system used(discharge
coefficient)

3. calculation of sprue dimensions: Ratio of sprue top and choke areas based on pouring
basin depth and aprue height.

4. Calculation of sprue base well: sprue base well area should be 5 times that of the
sprue choke area and depth should be approx equal to that of the runner

5. Selection of gating ratio sprue choke area : runner area : ingate area =1:4:4. This is
selected depending on the fluidity,slag and pouring temperature of molten metal.

6. Calculation of area of the runner:

Area of the runner=4 * (area of the choke)

If w= width of runner
H=height of runner
Then w=2h

7. calculation of ingate dimensions: Total ingate area Ai= 4 x sprue choke area

Assuming two ingates,area of each gate=Ai/2

For avoiding unction hot spot, thin section w:h=4:1 is chosen
Height of ingate section=h
Width of ingate section=w

Calculations:
a) mass of the casting:
volume of casting=V= cm3
density of casting(aluminium)== 2.7g/cm3
mass of casting=m= x V kg
mass of pouring metal=m/0.6= kg

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

b) calculation of sprue-choke area:

sprue choke area Ac= m / ( dtc(2gh))
Where Ac=choke area, mm2
m=casting mass, kg
t=pouring time, sec
d=mass density of the molten metal, g/cm3
g=acceleration due to gravity , mm/s2
H=effective metal head,mm
C=efficiency factor which is a function of the gating system used(discharge
coefficient)

c) calculation of area of top of the sprue:

by law of continuity,
rate of flow Q=AtVt = AcVc

At = (AcVc)/Vt
Where Vt velocity at top =(2gh)
H=metal head above the top of the sprue= 25mm
Vc=velocity of choke =(2gh)
Also At=(dt2 )/4 mm2
dt= mm

d) area of the sprue base well = 5 x (area of sprue choke)=

e) ratio of areas of choke, runner and in gates = 1:4:4

area of runner= 4 x area of choke
if w=width of runner
h=height of runner
then w=2h
so, w= mm and h= mm

f) calculation of ingate dimensions:

totalingate area Ai= 4 x sprue choke area
Assuming two in gates, area of each gate=Ai/2
Height of in gate section=h=
Width of in gate section=w=

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

Result:

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

EXPT.NO: DATE:

RISER DESIGN

Aim: To prepare a riser for the given casting

Material required: casting drawings, moulding boxes, green sand and hand tools

Theory:
The casting process is essentially a phase transformation of metals from liquids to
solid state in a pre-shaped cavity. This phase transformation is accompanied by some
volumetric shrinkage in most of the cast metals. In order to produce a sound casting,it is
necessary to provide means for compensating volumetric shrinkage. Risers or feeders are the
reservoirs of liquid metal, provided in the mould,to compensate for the volumetric shrinkage
of the casting over the total solidification period.
The various functions of a riser are:
1) The primaryfunction of a riser is to feed metal casting as it solidifies so that no
shrinkage cavities are formed
2) A riser allows escape of air and gases as the mould cavity is being filled with
molten metal
3) A riser should promote directional solidification
4) A riser full of molten metal indicates that the mould cavity has completely filled
up with molten metal
5) A casting solidifying under the liquid metal pressure of riser is sound

The various types of risers commonly used are:

Top riser: most common and most efficient risers provided on castings where hot-spots are
accessible from the top directly. They are easy to mould easy to fettle and act efficiently by
gravitational force.They also help to exhaust mould gases and indicate filling of mould cavity
with metal,forming complete casting.Whenever possible top risers are automatically chosen

Side riser: provided on casting having hot-spots not accessible for direct top risers. They help
in reducing excess metal of padding and reduce felting cost.

Blind risers: used to feed localized hot-spots which are below parting line and not accessible
for top as well as side risers. Some times when a casting shape has a profile with different
heights, the higher spots are fed by pen top risers and lower spots by blind risers. Blind risers
reduce the requirement of feed-metal which would otherwise need excessive height of open
risers. Atmospheric pressure can be made to operate on liquid metal contained in a blind riser
by providing a core to penetrate solidifying surface skin. Blind risers are exhaustively used
for intricate castings like valves needing thorough feeding all over.

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

Design of the riser: when the freezing rate of the riser is the same as that of casting an
infinitely large riser is required. However when freezing rate of the casing is higher than that
of theriser,the riser needs to be large enough to accommodate the amount of shrinkage in the
casting. A hyperbolic curve is then fitted between these two extreme limits based on
experimental determination of the soundness of the casting made with different risers .J.B
caines has developed an equation for this curve as
( )

Where X= freezing ratio =(surface are of casting/volume of casting)/ (surface are

of riser/volume of riser)
= (SAc/Vc)/ (SAr/Vr)
Y=volume ratio=volume of riser/volume of casting
= Vr/Vc
a=constant determined experimentally by freezing characteristics
b= liquid solid solidification shrinkage
c= constant relative freezing rate of ruser and casting

Calculations:
Surface area of casting=(SAc)= mm2
Volume of the casting=Vc = mm3
Take height of riser, H= 75mm
Surface are of riser=(SAr)=DH + D2/4 mm2
Where D= diameter of riser
Volume of the riser=Vr= D2/4 x H mm3
Freezing ratio=X== (SAc/Vc)/ (SAr/Vr)
Ratio of riser volume to casting volume= Y= Vr/Vc
Substituting the values of X and Y in equation
( )

For aluminium, a= 0.1 , b=0.06 and c=1.08

Therefore D= mm

Precautions :
1. The riser must be of such volume that it has enough reservoir of feed metal in order to
get casting
2. The solidification time of the riser should be greater than that of the casting.
3. It should derive sufficient feeding pressure either by atmospheric pressure or by
metallostatic pressure.

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

Result:

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

EXPT.NO: DATE:
PREPARATION OF MOULD CAVITY USING SPLIT PEICE PATTERN

AIM: To prepare a mould cavity for a stepped circular split pattern.

RESOURCES : Teak wood of 70x70 x 150mm3Hack Saw, Jack Plane, Steel Rule, Wood
working Lathe, Vernier Calipers and Emery Paper.
THEORY:
A patternis amold formingtoolinthe hands of foundry men.
A patternisthe modelorthe replicaoftheobjectto cast.
Exceptforthevariousallowancesapatternexactlyresemblesthe castingto be made.
A pattern may be defined as a model or form around which sand is packed to give rise
to a cavity known as mould cavity in which when molten metalispoured,the resultis
Cast Object.
Functions of aPattern:
A pattern prepares a moldcavity for the purpose of making acasting.
A pattern may contain projections known as core prints if the casting requires a core
and need to be hallow.
Runner, gates and risers(used for introducing and feeding molten metal to the mold
cavity) may form the partofthe pattern.
A pattern may help in establishing locating points on the mold and therefore on the
casting with a purpose to check the casting dimensions.
Pattern establishes the parting line and parting surfaces in the mold.
Patterns properly made and having finished and smooth surfaces reduce
castingdefects.
Properly constructed patterns minimize overallcostofthe castings.
Pattern Making Tools:
The following tools are used for different purposes bya patternmaker. (a)
Measuring,Making andLayoutTools
(i) Steelrule (ii) Shrinkage rule
(iii) Caliper (iv) Divider
(v) Markinggauge (vi) Trammels
(vii) Trysquare (viii) T-bevel
(ix) Combination square.
(b)Tools for clamping purposes:
(i) Handvice (ii) Patternmakers vice
(iii) Barclamp (iv) C-clamp
(v) Handscrew
(vi) Pinchdog( tohold wooden pieces together for joiningetc.).

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

(c)SawingTools:
(i) Copingsaw (ii) Bowsaw
(iii) Compass saw (iv) Ripsaw
(v) Crosscutsaw (vi) panelsaw
(vii) Backsaw (viii) Dove tail saw
(ix) Miter saw with miter box.
WoodWorkingLathe:
The wood working lathe is one of the most important machines used in a carpentry shop.
This is employed primarily for turning jobs in making cylindrical parts. However, by
suitably manipulating the tools, tapers, radii, and other irregular shapes can also be
easilyturned.
It resembles the engine lathe most frequently used in the machine shop and consists of a
cast iron bed, a head stock, tail stock, tool rest, live and dead centers, and a speed control
device (shown in Fig). The drive, in modern lathes, is individual motor driven; and a cone
pulley on the headstock spindle is connected by a belt to a cone pulley on the motor shaft.
In practice, the work piece is either clamped between two centersoronafaceplate. Long
jobs are held between the centers and turned with the help of gouge, skew chisel, parting
tool, etc. Generally, the lathe is supplied together with a number of accessories for making
it useful for a variety of jobs. The size of a woodworking lathe, as in the engine lathe, is
usually specified in terms of the so-called swing of the lathe and the maximum distance
between enters.

Fig: Block diagram of wood turning Lathe

WORKPIECE DIAGRAM:

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

PROCEDURE:

1. The given workpiece is prepared using theJack plane.

2. The work piece is cut by using sawing tools according to the dimensions showninfigure
3. Finish the same using wood raspfile
4. Fixthe work piece on woodworking lathe.
5. Fix a dead center in the tailstock.
6. Perform operations according to the dimensions shown in figure
7. Finish the work using emery paper.
8. One half of the pattern is molded in the bottom box, the parting being cut an incline as
shown. The other half pattern is then placed in position and sand poured and rammed to
form these parting with a sloped onwards from the upper flange of the pulley
9. The top box is next placed on the bottom box and properly located. Sand is poured and
rammed without damaging the false core.
10. The top box is gently removed; the upper half pattern is gently taken out from the top
box.
11. The top box is replaced on the drag and the entire mould is turned upside down.
Thebottombox, whichnow isatthetop, isgentlyliftedand the remaining halfofthe patternis
withdrawn.
12. The bottom box is replaced and the mould is inverted. The spruces are removed, pouring
basin is cut and the mould is finished after piercing holes (vents).

PRECAUTIONS:

The work piece should be held rigidly in the vice while performing cutting operation.
The work piece should be heldrigidly inthe chuckoflathe.
Make sure that the axis of drillcoincides with the axis of work. Optimum machining
conditions should be maintained.

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RESULT:

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

EXPT.NO: DATE:
PREPARATION OF MOULD CAVITY USING SINGLE PIECE PATTERN

AIM: To prepare a mold for a given single piece pattern

RESOURCES:

S.NO Nameof theEquipment Quantity

1 Moulding sand 10Kg

2 Facingsand,Baking sand 1kg
3 Partingsand kg
4 Pattern 1
5 Cope box 1
6 Drug box 1
7 Bottom board 1
8 Sprue,Riser 1
9 Chaplets 1
10 Gate cutter 1
11 Trowel 1
12 Vent rod 1
13 Sleek 1
14 Bellow 1

PRECAUTIONS:

1. There should be enough clearance between the pattern and the walls of the flask.
2. The ramming of the sand should be done properly so as not to compact it too hard,
which makes the escape of gases difficult.

PROCEDURE:
1. First a bottom board is placed either on the moulding platform or the floor making
surface ever.
2. The drag-moulding flask is kept upside down on the bottom board along with the
drag part of the platform at the center of the flask on the board
3. Sand is poured and rammed without damaging position of pattern
4. The top box is gently removed; the upper half pattern is gently taken
5. out from the top box.
6. The top box is replaced on the drag and the entire mould is turned upside down. The
bottom box, which now is at the top, is gently lifted and the remaining half of the
pattern is withdrawn.

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

7. The bottom box is replaced and the mould is inverted. The sprues are removed,
pouring basin is cut and the mould is finished after piercing holes (vents).

DIAGRAM:

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

RESULT:

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

EXPT.NO: DATE:
MELTING AND CASTING PRACTICE WITH DEFECT IDENTIFICATION

AIM: To fabricate the aluminium metal casting as per the given pattern and identify the
casting defects

RESOURCES:

S.NO Nameof theEquipment Quantity

1 Electric furnace 1
2 Metal 1kg
3 Crucible Graphite
4 Ladle 1

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The furnace crucible should be clean and red hot for charging
2. Charge material should be free from oil, moisture etc.,
3. Melting must be done under steady condition to reduce gas pickup.

PROCEDURE:
Melting Procedure For Aluminum Alloys:-
The charge materials, chemicals should be free from moisture, oil, and corrosion powder
and should be preheated before charging. The calculation of charge should be done
considering the melting loss of each element in the melting furnace for final desired
analysis.
1. The furnace crucible should be clean and red hot for charging.
2. Aluminum alloys get readily oxidized and form dross, using proper covering top with
flux and chemicals help to reduce this. Different proprietary chemicals are available
for different alloys.
3. Melting should be done under steady conditions without agitation. Stirring is done to
reduce gas pickup.
4. Once melting is complete, degassing using solid chemicals like hexachloro- ethane
which evolves chlorine by purging with nitrogen or argon gas is done to remove the
dissolved hydrogen. Hydrogen is evolved from moisture.
3H2O+2AlAl2O3+6H
5. Hydrogen absorbed by liquid metal causes serious porosity in casting during
solidification. Degassing should be done in the temperature range 730Cto 750C
6. Liquid metal after degassing is treated with sodium containing chemicals to improve
mechanical properties.
7. 6. Liquid metal once ready should not be super-heated. Agitated or kept long in the
furnace which will cause dressing and gas pickup. Dross should be skimmed
properly before pouring.

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

8. Alloys containing magnesium should be melting carefully as it is highly reacting.

Special fluxes and chemicals like sulphur are used to inhibit the reactivity and
prevent spontaneous ignition, melting loss and dross.

CASTING DEFECTS DUETO IMPROPER MELTING:

1. Improper chemical analysis: In correct charge, calculations, including wrong

estimates of melting losses, metal recovery, excessive losses due to improper fluxing
and slogging operations, improper covering of nonferrous melt causes this defect.
2. Gassy metal/hydrogen pickup/pin hole porosity: unclean melting causes formation
and absorption of hydrogen into liquid metal. As casting solidifies the absorbed
hydrogen losses solubility and forms cavities inside casting.
3. Oxygen absorption Excessive oxygen furnace operations in atmosphere following
oxidation during melting cause this defect. It also causes loss of costly metal added in
the charge.
4. Slag inclusions Improper fluxing and slag removal slag particles to be mixed in the
metal being poured. Careless pouring, lip pouring for alloys with fluid slag causes
slag particles to enter casting.
5. Colds hut, misrun, un filled castings Low pouring Temp, delay in pouring, duet many
folds being poured, loss of heat from label, due to improper covering failure of ladle
opening in the bottom pouring cause premature solidification of metal causing
defects.
6. Sand fusion, metal penetration, rough surface Excessive pouring temperature of liquid
causes damage to the casting surface by attacking mould surface.
7. Sand erosion sand inclusions Un controlled high pouring rate from ladle into mould
leads to erosion of mould/core
DIAGRAM:

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

RESULT:

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

EXPT.NO: DATE:
MANUFACTURING OF WASHERS USING COMPOUND DIE
AIM:
To manufacture the washers with optimum utilization of sheet using compound die.

EQUIPMENT:
1. Hydraulic Press,
2. Compound Die,
3. G.I Sheet.

PROCEDURE:
Preparation of Scrap Strip Layout:
Plan the layout accordingly that the percentage utilization of the sheet should not be less than
75%.
%Utilization = Area utilized/ Total Area of sheet
Total Area of sheet = L (Stock Length) W (Stock Width )
Area Utilized depends on the shape of component which is blanked or pierced from
the sheet.
Draw the layout with optimum layout and it will used while manufacturing the
components.

Manufacturing of Washers:
1. Position the bottom part of the compound die just under the ram of the press.
2. Place the material between the punch and die.
3. Fix the top part of the die (punch) in the die holder and tighten it.
4. Close the release valve of the pump.
5. Operate the low pressure lever i.e. plunger with bigger dia. The ram will move
very fast and touch the job.
6. Then operate the high pressure lever i.e. plunger with smaller dia. The gauge will
start indicating the load.
7. Open the release valve, the ram will return to the original position.

Calculations:

Sketch:

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

Component:

Scrap Strip Layout:

PRECAUTIONS
1. Punch and die should be aligned.
2. Apply the load up to the mark. Do not exceed the red mark given in the dial gauge.

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

Result:

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

EXPT.NO: DATE:
STUDY OF PROGRESSIVE DIE
AIM:
1. To study a progressive tool and perform blanking and piercing operations.
2. To determine the punching force and blanking force theoretically and compare the
same with obtained readings.

TOOLS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED: Progressive tool, Clamps and Blank.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED: Hydraulic Press
SPECIFICATIONS:
Capacity: 25 tons
Distance between columns: 865x300 mm2
Distance between ram to bed: minimum 180mm and maximum 915mm
Travel of ram: 180mm
Power of motor: 5 H.P.

THEORY:
Sheet Metal Working or Press Working of Sheet Metal
Press working may be defined as a chip less manufacturing process bywhich various
components are made from sheet metal. This process is alsotermed as cold stamping. The
main features of a press are: A frame whichsupports a ram or a slide and a bed, a source of
mechanism for operating theram in line with and normal to the bed. The ram is equipped with
suitable punchand a die block is attached to the bed .A stamping is produced by the down
wardstroke of the ram when the punch moves towards and into the die block. Thepunch and
die block assembly is generally termed as a die set or simply as adie. Press working
operations are usually done at room temperature. In thisprocess, the wall thickness of the
parts remains almost constant and differs onlyslightly from the thickness of the initial sheet
metal. The initial material in coldpress working is: low carbon steels, ductile alloy steels,
copper and its alloys, aluminium and its alloys, as well as other ductile materials from 10th of
a mm toabout 6 or 8 mm thick.
Elastic recovery or spring back. In metal working processes, the totaldeformation imparted to
a work piece will be the sum of elastic deformation andplastic deformation. We also know
the elastic deformation is recoverable whereas plastic deformation is permanent. So, at the
end of a metal workingoperation, when the pressure of metal is released, there is an elastic
recovery bythe material and the total deformation gets reduced a little. This phenomenon is
called as spring back. This phenomenon is of more importance in cold working operations,
especially in forming operations such as bending etc .Spring back depends upon the yield
point strength of a metal. The higher the yield point strength of a metal, the greater the spring
back. The amount of spring back for aforming operation is difficult to predict and cut- and try
methods are mostsatisfactory to account for it. To compensate for spring back, the
colddeformation must always be carried beyond the desired limit by an amount equalto the
spring back.

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Press operation: The sheet metal operations done on a press may be groupedinto two
categories, cutting operations and forming operations.
In cutting operations, the work piece is stressed beyond its ultimate strength.The stresses
caused in the metal by the applied forces will be shearing stresses.
In forming operations, the stresses are below the ultimate strength of the metal.In this
operation, there is no cutting of the metal but only the contour of the workpiece is changed to
get the desired product. The cutting operations include:blanking, punching, notching,
perforating, trimming, shaving, slitting and lancing etc.The forming operations include:
bending, drawing, redrawing and squeezing.The stresses induced in the metal during bending
and drawing operations aretensile and compressive and during the squeezing operations these
arecompressive.
Blanking: Blanking is the operation of cutting a flat plate from sheet metal. Thearticle
punched out is called the blank and is the required product of theoperation. The hole and
metal left behind is discarded as waste. It is usually thefirst step of series of operations.
Punching: It is a cutting operation by which various shaped holes are made insheet metal
.Punching is similar to blanking except that in punching , the hole isthe desired product , the
material punched out to form the hole being waste.
Perforating: This is a process by which multiple holes which are very small andclose
together are cut in flat work material .
Trimming: This operation consists of cutting unwanted excess material from theperiphery of
a previously formed component.
Shaving: The edges of a blanked part are generally rough, uneven and unsquare. Accurate
dimensions of the part are obtained by removing a thin strip ofmetal along the edges.
Slitting: It refers to the operation of making incomplete holes in a work piece.
Lancing: This is a cutting operation in which a hole is partially cut and then oneside is bent
down to form a sort of tab or louver. Since no metal is actuallyremoved, there will be no
scrap.
Bending: In this operation, the material in the form of flat sheet or strip isuniformly strained
around a linear axis which lies in the neutral plane andperpendicular to the lengthwise
direction of the sheet metal.
Drawing: This is a process of a forming a flat work piece into a hollow shape bymeans of a
punch which causes the blank to flow into a die cavity.

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Types of Dies:
The dies may be classified according to the type of press operation andaccording to the
method of operation.
Types of press operation: According to this criterion, the dies may be classifiedas: cutting
dies and forming dies.
Cutting dies: The dies are used to cut the metal. They utilize the cutting orshearing action.
The common cutting dies are: blanking dies, piercing dies,perforating dies, notching,
trimming, shaving dies etc.
Forming dies: These dies change the appearance of the blank without removingany stock.
These dies include bending dies, drawing dies, squeezing dies etc
Method of operation: According to this criterion, the dies may be classified as:
single operation dies or simple dies, compound dies, combination dies, transferdies,
progressive dies and multiple dies
Study of Progressive Die:
A progressive or follow on die has a series of stations. At each station anoperation is
performed on the work piece during a stroke of the press. Betweenstrokes the piece in the
metal strip is transferred to the next station. A finishedwork piece is made at each stroke of
the press. A progressive die is shown in fig.while the piercing punch blanks out a portion of
the metal in which two holes hadbeen pierced at a previous station Thus after the stroke two
holes will bepunched each stroke of the press produces a required finished component.

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Principle of metal cutting

The cutting of sheet metal in the press work is a shearing process. The punch isof the same
shape as of the die opening except that it is smaller on the each sideby an amount known as
clearance. As the punch touches the material andtravels downward, it pushes the material
into the die opening. The material issubjected to both tensile and compressive stresses as
shown in fig (a).

Stresses will be highest at the edges of punch and die and the materialwill start
cracking there. The various steps in the rupture or facture of materialcan be written as
stressing the material beyond the elastic limits; plasticdeformation reduction in area

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fracturing starts in the reduced area and becomescomplete. If the clearance between punch
and die is correct, the cracks startingfrom the punch and die edges will meet and the rupture
is complete as shown infig (b). If the clearance is too large or too small the cracks do not
meet andragged edge results due to the material being dragged and torn through the die.

Clearance: The die opening must be sufficiently larger than the punch to permit aclean
fracture of the metal. This difference in dimensions between the matingmembers of a die set
is called clearance. This clearance is applied in thefollowing manner:

c is the amount of clearance per side of the die opening.

When the hole has to be held to size, i.e. the hole in sheet metal is to be accurate, and
slug is to be discarded the punch is made to the size of hole and the die opening size is
obtained by adding clearance to the punch size shown in fig (a).

In blanking operation where the slug or blank is desired part and has to be held to size
the die opening size equals the blank size and the punch size is obtained by
subtracting the clearance from the die opening size shown in fig (b).

The clearance is a function of the kind, thickness and temper of the workmaterial harder
materials requiring clearance than soft materials, the exception being aluminium. The usual
clearances per side of the die, for various materials,are given below in terms of the stock
thickness, t:
For brass & soft steel, c=5% of t
For mild steel, c=6% of t
For hard steel, c=7% of t
For Aluminium c=10% of t

The total clearance between punch and die size will be twice these figs theseclearances are
for blanking and piercing operations.
The clearance may also be determined with the help of the following equation:
c=0.0032tX
Where s is the shear strength of the material in N/mm2

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Cutting forces: In cutting operation as the punch in its downward movemententers the
material it need not penetrate the thickness of the stock in order toaffect complete rupture of
the part. The distance which the punch enters in to thework material to cause rupture to take
place is called penetration and is usuallygiven as percentage of the stock thickness. The %
penetration depends on thematerial being cut and also on the stock thickness. When a hard
and strongmaterial is being cut very little penetration of the punch is necessary to
causefracture. With softer the penetration will be greater. The percentage penetrationis also
depends upon the stock thickness, being smaller for thinner sheets.
The max force F max in Newtons needed to cut a material is equal to :
For a circular blank of diameter D mm and of thickness t mm the maximumcutting force will
be given as:
Fmax= D t s = P t s.
Where P is the perimeter of the section to be blankedFor rectangular blanks the length L and
width b it is
Fmax= 2(L+b) t s.

PROCEDURE:

1. Component to be produced:
2. Fix the punch to the ram of the press.
3. Fix the die on the bed of the machine using clamps, bolts and nuts.
4. Place the blank of required size between the die and punch.
5. Apply pressure hydraulically on the blank through the punch so that piercing will
takes place at the first station.

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6. Note down the reading of the pressure gauge which directly gives the force required
to perform the piercing operation.
7. Move the blank in forward direction until it touches the stopper on the die.
8. Again apply pressure hydraulically on the blank so that piercing punch blanks out a
portion of the metal in which already two holes had been pierced. At the same time
piercing operation takes place at the first station.
9. Note down the reading of the pressure gauge which directly gives the force required

gives the force required to perform blanking operation.

10. Compare the values with the theoretically obtained values.
11. The process may be repeated to produce the components in mass production.

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:

Piercing Force (Fp) =
Blanking & Piercing Force (Fbp) =
Blanking Force (Fb = Fp - Fbp) =
Maximum force needed to cut material is Fmax = P. t. s
Where P is the Perimeter of the blank
t is the thickness of the blank
s is the shear strength of the material.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The die should be properly clamped to the bed of the machine and it is not disturbed
during the process.
2. The punch is properly fixed to the ram of the machine.
3. The load should be applied uniformly on the blank.
4. The ram should be fed slowly towards the die and make sure that it is properly in line
with the die.

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RESULT:

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

EXPT.NO: DATE:
BENDING OPERATION
AIM:
To perform Bending Operation as per given dimension.

MATERIAL REQUIRED: MS round bar of 25mm diameter.

EQUIPMENT AND TOOLS REQUIRED: Hydraulic Press, Draw tool.

THEORY:
Bending:
Bending is the metal working process by which a straight length istransformed in to
the curved length. It is a very common forming process forchanging sheet and plate into
channels, drums, tanks etc. During the bendingoperation, the outer surface of the material is
in tension and the inside surface isin compression. The strain in the bent material increases
with decrease in theradius of curvature. The stretching of the bend causes the neutral axis of
thesection towards the inner surface. In most cases the distance of the neutral axisto the inside
of the bend is 0.3t - 0.5t where t is the thickness of the part.
Bending terminology is illustrated in fig.

Fig: Bending terminology

Bending Methods:
The three bending methods commonly used are V-bending, edge bending,and U Bending
V-BENDING:

Fig: V- Bending
In V bending, a wedge shaped punch forces a metal sheet or strip in to awedge
shaped die cavity .The bend angle may be acute, 90or obtuse. As thepunch descends the
contact forces at the die corner produces a sufficiently largebending moment at punch corner
to cause the necessary deformation.To maintain the deformation to be plane - strain, the side

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creep of the partduring its bending is prevented or reduced by incorporating a spring

loadedknurled pin in the die. The friction between pin and the part will achieve this.Plane
strainconditions will also be established in the center of the sheet if itswidth is more than 10
time its thickness.
Spring Back:
At the end of the bending operation, when the pressure on the metal isreleased, there
is an elastic recovery by the material. This causes a decrease inthe bend angle and this
phenomenon is termed as spring back For low carbonsteel it can be 10 20and for medium
carbon steel, it can be 30 40forphosphorus bronze and spring steel can be 100 150To
compensate for springback the wedge shaped punches and the mating dies are made with
included angles somewhat less than required in the formed component.

Due to this thecomponent will be bent to a greater angle than desired but will spring
back to thedesired angle for other types of bending the part is over bent by an angle equalto
the spring back angle by having the face of the punch undercut or relieved.

PROCEDURE

Bending Operation:
1. Fix the wedge shaped punch to the ram of the press.
2. Fix the wedge shaped die cavity on the bed of the press using clamps, bolts and nuts.
3. Place the MS round bar between the punch and die.
4. Apply pressure on the bar by moving the ram in downward direction through the
punch.
5. As the punch descends, the contact forces at the die corner produce a sufficiently
large bending movement at the punch corner to cause the necessary deformation.
6. Then the bar will take the shape of die cavity.
7. Measure the included angle of the bar using inclinometer and repeat the
8. process until the included angle reaches 900

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The die should be properly clamped to the bed of the machine and it is not
disturbed during the process.
2. The punch is properly fixed to the ram of the machine.
3. The load should be applied uniformly on the bar.
4. The bar should be held properly on the die block.

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RESULT:

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

EXPT NO: DATE:

PROCESSING OF PLASTICS-INJECTION MOULDING

AIM: To make a plastic key chain with university logo by using injection molding.

RESOURCES: Die, injection- molding equipment, Plastic pellets

THEORY:

Plastics:

Polymers can be divided into three broad divisions: plastics, fibers and elastomers (polymers
of high elasticity, for example, rubber). Synthetic resins are usually referred to as plastics.
Plastics derive their name from the fact that in a certain phase of their manufacture they are
present in a plastic stage (that is acquire plasticity), which makes it possible to impart any
desired shape to the product. Plastics fall into a category known chemically as high polymers.

Thus Plastics is a term applied to compositions consisting of a mixture of high molecular

compounds (synthetic polymers) and fillers, plasticizers, stains and pigments, lubricating and
other substances. Some of the plastics contain nothing but resin (for instance, polyethylene,
polystyrene).

Types of Plastics:

Plastics are classified on the broad basis of whether heat causes them to set( thermo setting)
or causes them to soften and melt(thermoplastic).

Thermosetting Plastics: These plastics undergo a number of chemical changes on heating and
cure to infusible and practically insoluble articles. The chemical change is not reversible.
Thermosetting plastics do not soften on reheating and cannot be reworked. They rather
become harder due to completion of any leftover polymerization reaction. Eventually at high
temperatures, the useful properties of the plastics get destroyed. This is called degradation.
The commonest thermosetting plastics are: alkyds, epoxides, melamines, polyesters,
phenolics and ureas.

Thermoplastic Plastics: These plastics soften under heat, harden on cooling, and can be
resoftened under heat. Thus they retain their fusibility, solubility and capability of being
repeatedly shaped. The mechanical properties of these plastics are rather sensitive to
temperature and to sunlight and exposure to temperature may cause thermal degradation.
Common thermoplastics are: acrylics, poly tetra fluoro ethylene (PTFE), polyvinyl chlorides
(PVC), nylons, polyethylene, polypropylene etc.

Injection Moulding:

An important industrial method of producing articles of thermoplastics is Injection Moulding

(shown in fig.). The process is essentially as follows

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The moulding material is loaded into a hopper from which it is transferred to a heating
section by a feeding device, where the temperature is raised to 150oC 370oC and pressure is
built up. The material melts and is forced by an injection ram at high pressure through a
nozzle and sprue into a closed mould which forms the part. The mould is in at least two
sections, so that it may be split in order to eject the finished component. For the process to be
competitive the mould must be fairly cool (between ambient temperature and the softening
point of the plastic) and consequently the mould must be cooled by circulating air

Fig: Plastic injection moulding

PROCEDURE:

1. The pellet form of plastic is introduced into the container through hopper.
2. The plastic pellet enters into the container. The container is heated with the coil,
which is wounded around it.
3. The plastic of powder form is converted into molten stage at a temperature of 800C.
4. The die is placed exactly below the nozzle of the container.
5. The melted plastic is injected into the die with the help of lever arm and it is allowed
to solidify say for about one minute.
6. Then retract the lever arm slightly and open the mould.
7. Then eject the mould piece of the required shape from the die.
PRECAUTIONS:

1. The material should not be heated rapidly.

2. The die should be placed exactly below the nozzle.
3. Proper temperature should be maintained while heating the plastic.

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

RESULT:

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

EXPT.NO: DATE:

PROCESSING OF PLASTICS- BLOW MOULDING

AIM: To prepare a bottle of 200 ml using blow molding machine.

RESOURCES: Blow molding machine, Low grade poly ethylene

THEORY:

Working Principle: The process is applied to only thermo plastics, which are used for
producing hollow objects such as bottle, and flow table objects by applying air pressure to the
sheet material when it is in heated and in soft pliable condition. Blow moulding can be
accomplished in two manners; one is direct blow moulding and other indirect blow moulding.
In the former case, a measured amount of material in the form of tube is either injected or
extruded in a split cavity die. The split mould is closed around the tube, sealing off the lower
end. The air under pressure is blown into the tube, which causes the tube to expand to the
walls of cavity. In the latter case, a uniformly softened sheet material by heat is clamped at
the edges between the die and cover, which causes the sheet to attain a hemispherical shape
or the configuration of mould whatever it may be parts obtained by indirect blow moulding
have excellent appearance but they are more costly as only to percent of the sheet stock is
utilized and also there is a tendency for excessive thinning of sheet at the deepest point.
Experimental Diagram

Fig: Blow moulding process

Operating instructions:

1. Install the machine on a leveled strong flooring near the compressor (within 2 meters).
For letter rigidity foundation bolt is recommended & anti vibration rubber mounting
can be used.
2. The machine must be placed in a position where all parts are accessible readily.

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3. Check for lose any loose electrical connection with the help of certified electrician
and with the electrical circuit enclosed.
4. Fill the lubricator with SAE 20 grade oil to the level indicated. The lubrication has
been set to allow one drop of oil for every 5 strokes of air cylinder (oil) drop is factory
set, no need to adjust)
5. Connect the air filter to the compressor by rubber/nylon hose (Min inside dia 10mm),
pressure with standing capacity 20kg/cm2.
6. Set the pressure switch in the compressor as per the compressor manual to switch on 7
kg/cm2 pressure & switch off at 10kg/cm2 (NOTE: The air pressure should not
exceed 10cm2)
7. Set the air pressure in machine by adjusting the injection & release regulator
8. Set release pressure 2kg/cm2 by adjusting release regulator.
9. Operate the hand lever valve and check for smooth functioning of plunger.
10. Set the blow pressure in regulator and operate the hand lever valve to check flow of
air throw blow nozzle.
11. Electrical connection should be given as indicated on the main plug phase, neutral and
earth.
12. Proper earthing should be done.
13. Check the incoming voltage (230VAC, 50Hz) Now the machine is ready for operation
PROCEDURE:

1. Set the die in position. Adjust the guide rod nuts to suit die height. Align the tapered
face of the die for sealing the parison while blowing also checks for the face opening
and closing of the die.
2. Ensure minimum die height is 80mm. provide spacing plates if necessary.
3. Set the injection, release and blow pressure by rotating (clockwise) the regulator knob
to suit the requirement of moulding the container.
4. Feed correct quantity & quality of plastic material and switch on the power supply.
5. Switch on the heater.
6. Set the required timings controller to control the bottom heater.
7. Allow sufficient time to stabilizer.
8. When temperature reached, operate the hand lever valve.
9. Extrude the parison (Tubular form) to the required length and close the two die
halves. Release the injection cylinder.
10. Operate the hand lever valve and blow the air so that the parison to form the shape of
the container as designed in the die.
11. Allow the component to cool.
12. Open the die & take the product out of the die.
13. Now the machine is ready for next cycle.

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RESULT:

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

EXPT.NO: DATE:

FORGING OPRATIONS

AIM: Study on the different types of forging operation

Forging

Forging is the term for shaping metal by using localized compressive forces. Cold forging is
done at room temperature or near room temperature. Hot forging is done at a high
temperature, which makes metal easier to shape and less likely to fracture. Warm forging is
done at intermediate temperature between room temperature and hot forging temperatures.
Forged parts can range in weight from less than a kilogram to 170 metric tons. Forged parts
usually require further processing to achieve a finished part.

Hot forging

Hot forging is defined as working a metal above its recrystallization temperature. The main
advantage of hot forging is that as the metal is deformed the strain-hardening effects are
negated by the recrystallization process. Other advantages include:

Decrease in yield strength, therefore it is easier to work and takes less energy (force)
Increase in ductility
Elevated temperatures increase diffusion which can remove or reduce chemical in
homogeneities
Pores may reduce in size or close completely during deformation
In steel, the weak, ductile, FCC austenite is deformed instead of the strong BCC
ferrite at lower temperatures
The disadvantages of hot working are:

Undesirable reactions between the metal and the surrounding atmosphere

Less precise tolerances due to thermal contraction and warping from uneven cooling
Grain structure may vary throughout the metal due to many various reasons
Cold forging

Cold forging is defined as working a metal below its recrystallization temperature, but
usually around room temperature.

Advantages:

No heating required
Better surface finish
Superior dimensional control
Better reproducibility and interchangeability
Directional properties can be imparted into the metal
Contamination problems are minimized

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Disadvantages:

Higher forces are required

Heavier and more powerful equipment and stronger tooling are required
Metal is less ductile
Metal surfaces must be clean and scale-free
Intermediate anneals may be required to compensate for loss of ductility that
accompanies strain hardening
The imparted directional properties may be detrimental
Undesirable residual stress may be produced
Processes

There are many different kinds of forging processes available, however they can be grouped
into three main classes:

Drawn out: length increases, cross-section decreases

Upset: Length decreases, cross-section increases
Squeezed in closed compression dies: produces multidirectional flow Common forging
processes include: roll forging, swaging, cogging, open-die forging, impression-die forging,
press forging, automatic hot forging and upsetting. Open-die drop-hammer forging

Open-die forging is also known as smith forging. In open-die forging a hammer comes down
and deforms the workpieces, which is placed on a stationary anvil. Open-die forging gets its
name from the fact that the dies (the working surfaces of the forge that contract the
workpiece) do not enclose the workpiece, allowing it to flow except where contacted by the
dies. Therefore the operator needs to orient and position the workpiece to get the desired
shape. The dies are usually flat in shape but may have a specially shaped surface for
specialized operations; for instance the die may have a round, concave, or convex surface or
be a tool to form holes or be a cut-off tool. Open-die forging lends itself to short runs and is
appropriate for art smithing and custom work. Other times open-die forging is used to rough
shape ingots to prepare it for further operations. This can also orient the grains to increase
strength in the required direction.

Impression-die drop-hammer forging

Impression-die forging is also called closed-die forging. In impression-die work metal is

placed in a die resembling a mold, which is attached to the anvil. Usually the hammer die is
shaped as well. The hammer is then dropped on the workpiece, causing the metal to flow and
fill the die cavities. The hammer is generally in contact with the workpiece on the scale of
milliseconds. Depending on the size and complexity of the part the hammer may be dropped
multiple times in quick succession. Excess metal is squeezed out of the die cavities; this is
called flash. The flash cools more rapidly than the rest of the material; this cool metal is
stronger than the metal in the die so it helps prevent more flash from forming. This also
forces the metal to completely fill the die cavity. After forging the flash is trimmed off. In
commercial impression-die forging the workpiece is usually moved though a series of
cavities in a die to get from an ingot to the final form. The first impression is used to

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

distribute the metal into the rough shape in accordance to the needs of later cavities; this
impression is called a edging, fullering, or bending impression. The following cavities are
called blocking cavities in which the workpiece is working into a shape that more and more
resembles the final product. These stages usually impart the workpiece will generous bends
and large fillets. The final shape is forged in a final or finisher impression cavity. If there is
only a short run of parts to be done it may be more economical for the die to lack a final
impression cavity and rather machine the final features.

Impression-die forging has been further improved in recent years through increased
automation which includes induction heating, mechanical feeding, positioning and
manipulation, and the direct heat treatment of parts after forging. One variation of
impression-die forging is called flashless forging, or true closed-die forging. In this type of
forging the die cavities are completely closed, which keeps the workpiece from forming
flash. The major advantage to this process is that less metal is lost to flash. Flash can account
for 20 to 45% of the starting material. The disadvantages of this process included: additional
cost due to a more complex die design, the need for better lubrication, and better workpiece
placement. There are other variations of part formation that integrate impression-die forging.
One method incorporates casting a forging preform from liquid metal. The casting this then
removed after it's cooled to a solid state, but while still hot. It is then finished in a single
cavity die. The flash is trimmed and then quenched to room temperature to harden the part.
Another variation follows the same process as outlined above, except the preform is produced
by the spraying deposition of metal droplet into shaped collectors (similar to the osprey
process).

Closed-die forging has a high initial cost due to the creation of dies and required design work
to make working die cavities. However, it has low reoccurring costs for each part, thus
forgings become more economical with more volume. This is one of the major reasons
forgings are often used in the automotive and tool industry. Another reason forgings are
common in these industrial sectors is because forgings generally have about a 20% higher
strength to weight ratio compared to cast or machined parts of the same material.

Press forging

Press forging is variation of drop-hammer forging. Unlike drop-hammer forging, press forges
work slowly by applying continuous pressure or force. The amount of time the dies are in
contact with the workpiece is measured in seconds (as compared to the milliseconds of drop-
hammer forges). The main advantage of press forging, as compared to drop-hammer forging,
is its ability to deform the complete workpiece. Drop-hammer forging usually only deforms
the surfaces of the workpiece in contact with the hammer and anvil; the interior of the
workpiece will stay relatively undeformed. There are a few disadvantages to this process,
most stemming from the workpiece being in contact with the dies for such an extended period
of time. The workpiece will cool faster because the dies are in contact with workpiece; the
dies facilitate drastically more heat transfer than the surrounding atmosphere. As the
workpiece cools it becomes stronger and less ductile, which may induce cracking if

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

deformation continues. Therefore heated dies are usually used to reduce heat loss, promote
surface flow, and enable the production of finer details and closer tolerances. The workpiece
may also need to be reheated.

Press forging can be used to perform all types of forging, including open-die and impression-
die forging. Impression-die press forging usually requires less draft than drop forging and has
better dimensional accuracy. Also, press forgings can often be done in one closing of the dies,
allowing for easy automation.

Upset forging

Upset forging increases the diameter of the workpiece by compressing its length. Based on
number of pieces produced this is the most widely used forging process. Upset forging is
usually done in special high speed machines; the machines are usually setup to work in the
horizontal plane to facilitate the quick exchange of workpieces from one station to the next.
The initial workpiece is usually wire or rod, but some machines can accept bars up to 25 cm
(10 in.) in diameter. The standard upsetting machine employs split dies that contain multiple
cavities. The dies open enough to allow the workpiece to move from one cavity to the next;
the dies then close and the heading tool, or ram, then moves longitudinally against the bar,
upsetting it into the cavity. If all of the cavities are utilizes on every cycle then a finished part
will be produced with every cycle, which is why this process is ideal for mass production.

A few examples of common parts produced using the upset forging process are engine
valves, couplings, bolts, screws, and other fasteners. The following three rules must be
followed when designing parts to be upset forged:

1. The length of unsupported metal that can be upset in one blow without injurious buckling
should be limited to three times the diameter of the bar.

2. Lengths of stock greater than three times the diameter may be upset successfully provided
that the diameter of the upset is not more than 1.5 times the diameter of the stock.

3. In an upset requiring stock length greater than three times the diameter of the stock, and
where the diameter of the cavity is not more than 1.5 times the diameter of the stock, the
length of unsupported metal beyond the face of the die must not exceed the diameter of the
bar.

Roll forging

Roll forging is a process where round or flat bar stock is reduced in thickness and increased
in length. Roll forging is performed using two cylindrical or semi-cylindrical rolls, each
containing or more shaped grooves. A bar is inserted into the rolls and when it hits a stop the
rolls rotate and the bar is progressively shaped as it is rolled out of the machine. The
workpiece is then transferred to the next set of grooves or turned around and reinserted into
the same grooves. This continues until the desired shape and size is achieved. The advantages
of this process is there is no flash and it imparts a favorable grain structure into the
workpiece. Examples of products produced using this method include axles, tapered levers

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

and leaf springs. Net-shape and near-net-shape forging This process is also known as
precision forging. This process was developed to minimize cost and waste associated with
post forging operations. Therefore the final product from a precision forging needs little to no
final machining. Cost savings are gained from the use of less material, and thus less scrap, the
overall decrease in energy used, and the reduction or elimination of machining. Precision
forging also requires less or a draft, 1 to 0. The downsize of this process is it's cost,
therefore it is only implemented if significant cost reduction can be achieved.

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RESULT:

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

EXPT.NO: DATE:
PREPARATION OF LAPJOINT USING ARC WELDING

AIM: Prepare a Lap Joint using Arc Welding Process.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: Wire Brush, Grinding Machine, Protective Equipment,

Welding Transformer, Electrodes, Tong, Chipping Hammer

MATERIAL REQUIRED: Mild steel flat of 50 x45 x 10 mm3 2 Nos.

THEORY:
Definition: Electric arc welding is a welding process where in coalescence is
produced by heating with an arc or arcs, with or without the application of pressure and with
or without the use of filler metals. Electric arc welding is quite versatile and able to weld
under many conditions. High quality welds are produced. Metal is deposited rapidly and it is
competitive cost wise for many situations. Electric arc welding is the most extensively used
method of joining components of metallic parts, the source of heat being an electric arc. An
electric arc is a continuous stream of electrons flowing trough some sort of medium between
two conductors of an electric circuit and accompanied by intense heat generation and
radiation.
Types of Welding Joints:
While designing for welding it appears both logical and fundamental to first consider
the various forms of weld joints. A joint indicates the position where two or more members
of a structure meet and are to be joined by welding.
Classification:
1. Butt Joint
2. Edge Joint
3. Tee Joint
4. Corner Joint
5. Lap Joint

PROCEDURE:
1. The edges of the given material is prepared using wire brush and finish the same
grinding machine to remove the rust and scales presented on the edges.
2. The machine is set to the required current (75 amps).
3. Place the two work pieces on the table with required position as shown in figure.
4. The work pieces are kept in the required position and tack welding is performed on
the work pieces

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

.
5. First run of welding is done to fill the gap and penetration of the weldment by holding
the electrode at about 700 and moving the electrode to another end uniformly.
6. Second run of welding is done with proper weaving and uniform movement.
7. The scale formed is chipped with chipping hammer.
8. Filing is done to remove any spatter around the weld.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Never look at the arc with the naked eye. Always use a shield while welding.
2. Always wear the safety hand gloves, apron and leather shoes.
3. Ensure proper insulation of the cables and check for openings.
4. Care is taken to avoid arc blow, which will cause serious defect in the weldment.
5. Inflammable and combustible materials are removed from the vicinity of welding
operations.

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

RESULT:

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

EXPT.NO: DATE:
PREPARATION OF LAPJOINT USING SPOT WELDING

AIM: To prepare a lap Joint on the given work pieces using spot welding equipment.

MATERIAL REQUIRED : GI Sheet of 50 x 50 mm2 --- 2 Nos.

APPARATUS REQUIRED : Spot Welding Equipment, Snips and Gloves

THEORY:
In resistance welding (RW) a low voltage (typically IV) and very high current
(typically 15,000 A) is passed through the joint for a very short time (typically 0.25 s). This
high amperage heats the joint, due to the contact resistance of the joint and melts it. The
pressure on the joint is continuously maintained and the metal fuses together under this
pressure. The heat generated in resistance welding can be expressed as
H = k l2 R t
Where H = the total heat generated in the work, J
l = electric current, A
t = time for which the electric current is passing through the joint, s
r = the resistance of the joint, ohms
and k = a constant to account for the heat losses from the welded joint.
The resistance of the joint, R is a complex factor to know because it is composed of
The resistance of the electrodes,
The contact resistance between the electrode and the work piece,
The contact resistance between the two work piece plates,
The resistance of the work piece plates.

The amount of heat released is directly proportional to the resistance. It is likely to be

released at all of the above-mentioned points, but the only place where a large amount of heat
is to be generated to have an effective fusion is at the interface between the two work piece
plates. Therefore, the rest of the component resistances should be made as small as possible,
since the heat released at those places would not aid in the welding.
Because of the squaring in the above, equation, the current, i needs to be precisely
controlled for any proper joint. The main requirement of the process is the low voltage and
high current power supply. This is obtained by means of a step down transformer with a
provision to have different tappings on the primary side, as required for different materials.
The secondary windings are connected to the electrodes which are made of copper to reduce
their electrical resistance. The time of the electric supply needs to be closely controlled so
that the heat released is just enough to melt the joint and the subsequent fusion takes place
due to the force (forge welding) on the joint. The force required can be provided either
mechanically, hydraulically or pneumatically. To precisely control the time, sophisticated
electronic timers are available.
The critical variable in a resistance welding process is the contact resistance between
the two work piece plates and their resistances themselves. The contact resistance is affected

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

by the surface finish on the plates, since the rougher surfaces have higher contact resistance.
The contact resistance also will be affected by the cleanliness of the surface. Oxides or other
contaminants if present should be removed before attempting resistance welding.
PROCEDURE:
1. The two pieces to be joined by spot welding are placed between the two electrodes in
the required position.
2. Set the timer for which the current flows through the electrodes with reference to the
thickness of the plates

3. Press the foot lever, so that the movable electrode moves towards the fixed electrode.
4. This causes to develop a pressure of about 200-1000 Kg / cm2 on the sheets.
5. A low voltage and very high current is passed through the joint for a very short time.
6. The duration of the current flow is for about 2 sec (This high amperage heats the joint,
due to contact resistance at the joint and melts it).
7. Then the metal under electrodes pressure is squeezed and welded Pressure is then
released and the process is repeated until the job is completed.

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Proper pressure should be applied on the electrodes.
2. Correct electrode diameter needs to be chosen depending on the material thickness to
be joined.
3. Proper weld time should be selected for welding.

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

RESULT:

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

EXPT: DATE:
PREPARATION OF BUTT JOINT USING GAS WELDING

AIM: To prepare a Butt Joint Using Gas Welding.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
Gas cylinder (oxygen, acetylene)
1. Metal plate
2. Goggle,apron and safety shoe
3. Lighters
4. Tong pliers
5. Regulators
6. Cylinder valve
7. Cylinder cap
8. Flashback Arrester
9. Tip cleaner
10. Check valve
11. Torch&Torch tip
MATERIAL REQUIRED: Mild steel plate of 6 mm thickness

PROCEDURE:
1. The pressure was checked and both gas valves were switched on. The pressure reading
was kept in the correct reading.
2. Acetylene gas was released in a small amount through the nozzle.
3. The flame was ignited using the friction on the torch. The flame was then set as
neutral flame. The process of gas welding was then started.

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4. With the inner core of the flame, small circle was made at the beginning point of the
weld until a pool of molten metal formed.
5. By maintaining the molten pool with a series of circular movements, the molten was
then moved slowly to the other end.
6. If you move too fast across the work piece, you will lose the molten pool. If you move
too slowly across the work piece, you will burn through the metal.
7. After the welding process was finished, the flame was then distinguished by turning
off the oxygen valve and acetylene valve.
8. The work piece was then picked up using tong pliers.
9. The workplace was then cleaned up.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Only operate welding equipment you have been trained to use
2. Weld only in designated area
3. Avoid cylinders away from fire or expose heat
4. Always wear approved goggles and apron while doing the welding process.
5. Never use acetylene working pressures in excess.
6. Remove all the flammable material

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VIGNAN UNIVRSITY

RESULT:

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