POWER ELECTRONICS EE 362L
INDEX
10 Cornerstones...................2
1-phase bipolar inverter.....11
3-phase inverter .................14
3-phase power and
commutation......................7
3-phase PWM inverter.......14
3-phase rectifier ...................7
3-phase Thèvenin equivalent
...........................................8
with α.............................8
3-phase voltage and
commutation..................7, 8
air gap flux ........................16
amp......................................3
Ampere's law .....................20
amplitude modulation ratio12
area
sphere ...........................20
average ................................2
average value.....................19
B magnetic flux dens. ......20
binomial expansion............20
binomial theorem...............20
bipolar inverter ..................12
bridge rectifier .....................6
buck converter ...................10
buck-boost converter ...10, 11
C capacitance......................3
calculus..............................19
capacitance ..........................3
capacitor ..............................2
CF crest factor ....................2
commutation
3-phase power ................7
3-phase voltage ..........7, 8
power..............................6
voltage............................6
commutation interval...........6
complex conjugate.............18
complex numbers ..............18
conjugate
complex........................18
constant torque ..................17
constant volts/Hz ...............17
converter
buck..............................10
buck-boost..............10, 11
Cúk...............................11
dc-dc...................9, 10, 11
step-down .....................10
step-up..........................10
coulomb...............................3
crest factor ...........................2
Cúk converter ....................11
D electric flux dens...........20
dB decibels .........................3
dc...................................2, 19
dc-ac inverters .............11, 14
dc-dc converters ......9, 10, 11
Tom Penick
decibel .................................3
delta-wye transformer..........8
dependent variable.............20
derivatives .........................19
diode current........................8
distortion .............................2
duty cycle ............................9
E electric field ..................20
efficiency of induction motor
.........................................17
electric motors...................15
Euler's equation .................19
even function.......................4
farad ....................................3
Faraday's law.....................20
Fourier series...............2, 4, 5
square wave....................5
frequency domain..............20
frequency modulation ratio12
fsl slip frequency ...............16
full bridge converter ..........11
Gauss' law .........................20
general math ......................18
generalized harmonics
1-phase .........................13
3-phase .........................14
graph paper........................21
graphing terminology ........20
H magnetic field ...............20
half-wave rectifier ...............5
harmonics
generalized, 1-phase.....13
generalized, 3-phase.....14
henry ...................................3
Hoft .....................................2
horsepower ..........................3
hyperbolic functions..........20
I1 ..........................................8
iA rectifier current ...............8
independent variable .........20
inductance ...........................3
induction motor .................16
induction motor model ......15
inductor ...........................2, 3
LC tank circuit ...............3
integration .........................19
inverter ........................11, 14
3-phase .........................14
bipolar ..........................11
harmonic voltage..........13
pulse width modulation 12
J current density ...............20
joule.....................................3
KCL.....................................2
kelvin...................................3
Kimbark's equations ............7
with α.............................7
Kirchoff’s current law .........2
Kirchoff’s voltage law.........2
tom@tomzap.com www.teicontrols.com/notes
KVL ....................................2
L inductance .......................3
L’Hôpitol’s rule.................20
LC tank circuit ....................3
linear range........................12
linearizing an equation ......20
ma amplitude modulation
ratio .................................12
magnetic path length ...........3
magnitude..........................18
Maxwell's equations..........20
mf frequency modulation
ratio .................................12
minimum inductance...........9
model
induction motor............15
motor
induction motor............16
N number of turns ...............3
newton.................................3
ns synchronous speed .......16
odd function ........................4
overmodulation .................12
parallel resistance ................3
permeability ........................3
PF power factor..................3
3-phase rectifier .............9
phase .................................18
phase current .......................8
phasor notation..................18
plotting I1 ............................8
plotting iA ............................8
plotting paper ....................21
plotting V1 ...........................8
plotting Vdc ..........................8
power ..................................2
electric motor ...............15
power and commutation......6
power factor ........................3
3-phase rectifier .............9
pull out ..............................15
pulse width modulation
synchronous .................12
pulse width modulation in
inverters...........................12
PWM pulse width
modulation ......................12
PWM inverter
3-phase.........................14
rectifier
three-phase.....................7
rectifiers ..............................5
resistance
in parallel .......................3
resistor.................................2
rms ................................2, 19
square wave .................19
rms harmonic voltage in
inverters...........................13
PowerElectronics.pdf
root mean square ............... 19
rpm
induction motor............ 16
s slip................................. 16
S.S. capacitor principle ....... 2
S.S. inductor principle......... 2
series ................................. 20
single-phase bridge rectifier 6
slip .................................... 16
slip frequency.................... 16
slip speed .......................... 16
space-time ......................... 18
sphere................................ 20
square wave
Fourier series ................. 5
square wave inverter ......... 11
starting torque ................... 15
step-down converter.......... 10
step-up converter............... 10
synchronous pulse width
modulation ...................... 12
synchronous speed ............ 16
tank circuit .......................... 3
temperature ......................... 3
tesla ..................................... 3
THD .................................... 2
Thèvenin equivalent............ 7
3-phase........................... 8
with α ....................... 8
three-phase rectifier ............ 7
time domain ...................... 20
time-average...................... 18
time-averaged power......... 18
time-harmonic ................... 20
torque ................................ 15
constant........................ 17
starting ......................... 15
trigonometric identities ..... 19
u commutation interval ...... 6
unibipolar inverter............. 12
units .................................... 3
V1 ........................................ 8
Vdc ....................................... 8
vi relationship...................... 2
volt ...................................... 3
voltage and commutation .... 6
volts/Hz ratio..................... 17
volume
sphere........................... 20
watt ..................................... 3
weber................................... 3
wye-delta transformer ......... 8
φag air gap flux ................. 16
η efficiency of induction
motor............................... 17
ρν volume charge dens. .... 20
ωsl slip speed .................... 16
8/18/2003 Page 1 of 21
 10 CORNERSTONES OF POWER 8. S.S. INDUCTOR PRINCIPLE
ELECTRONICS - Hoft
Under steady state conditions, the average voltage
1. KVL across an inductor is zero.
Kirchoff’s Voltage Law. The sum of the changes in
voltage around a circuit loop is equal to zero. This is 9. S.S. CAPACITOR PRINCIPLE
true in both the instantaneous and average (integrate
over one cycle) sense. Under steady state conditions, the average current
through a capacitor is zero.

2. KCL
Kirchoff’s Current Law. The current entering a node is
equal to the current leaving the node. This is also true
in both the instantaneous and average (integrate over
one cycle) sense.
10. FOURIER SERIES
In the 1820s, Fourier came out with a 1-page paper on
his Fourier series. A periodic function may be
described as an infinite sum of sines and cosines.
∞

3. vi RESISTOR v ( t ) = Vavg + ∑  ak cos ( k ω0t ) + bk sin ( k ω0t ) 

k =1
The voltage to current relationship in a resistor.
v = ir See p4.

DISTORTION [%]
4. vi CAPACITOR
The voltage to current relationship in a capacitor. Distortion is the degree to which a signal differs from
its fundamental frequency.
dv RMS value of harmonics for k > 1
i=C THD =
dt RMS value of fundamental frequency k = 1

5. vi INDUCTOR Vdis
%THD = 100
The voltage to current relationship in a inductor. Vrms1

di
2
Vrms − Vrms1
2

v=L = 100
dt Vrms1
Use the polar form of the Fourier Series, see p4.
6. AVERAGE (DC) AND RMS Vdis = rms voltage distortion [V]
Average and dc will be synonymous in this class, but Vrms1 = fundamental frequency rms voltage [V]
are not the same as rms. Vrms = rms voltage [V]
THD = Total Harmonic Distortion [V]
1 t0 +T 1 t0 +T 2
v ( t ) dt v ( t ) dt
T ∫t0 T ∫t0
vavg = vrms =
CREST FACTOR [no units]
The crest factor quantifies the smoothness of the
waveform and is related to the weight of its impact on
7. POWER
components. For DC and a square wave the crest
We are concerned with both instantaneous and factor is 1, for a sine wave, it is 1.414. A large crest
average power. As with rms values, power is related factor means the wave is not as efficient at delivering
to heating. energy.

1 t0 +T Vpeak
Pavg = ∫ p ( t ) dt p (t ) = v (t ) i (t ) CF =
T t0 Vrms
p(t) = instantaneous power [W]

Tom Penick tom@tomzap.com www.teicontrols.com/notes PowerElectronics.pdf 8/18/2003 Page 2 of 21

 PF POWER FACTOR [no units] C CAPACITANCE [F]
The power factor is the ratio of true power (the power i( t ) = I f + ( I o − I f )e − t / τ +
consumed, ignoring the reactive factor) to apparent v C R
v ( t ) = V f + (Vo − V f )e − t / τ
power (the total power consumed). Also, the power -
factor is the cosine of the angle by which the current where τ = RC
lags the voltage (assuming an inductive load). 1 t
PF = cos ( θv − θi )
ic ( t ) = C dv
dt Vc ( t ) = ∫
C 0
i dτ + Vo

L INDUCTANCE [H]
DECIBELS [dB]
i( t ) = I f + ( I o − I f )e − t / τ +
A log based unit of energy that makes it easier to v L
v ( t ) = V f + (Vo − V f )e − t / τ R
describe exponential losses, etc. The decibel means
-
10 bels, a unit named after Bell Laboratories. where τ= L/ R
voltage or current 1 t
L = 20 log
reference voltage or current
v L ( t ) = L dtdi I L (t ) = ∫
L 0
v dτ + I o

.4πµN 2 Ae
power of an inductor: L=
L = 10 log I e × 10
reference power
L = inductance [H]
µ = permeability [H/cm]
UNITS, electrical N = number of turns
Ae = core cross section [cm2]
I (current in amps) = q = W = J = N ·m = V ·C Ie = core magnetic path length [cm]
s V V ·s V ·s s
J
q (charge in coulombs) = I ·s = V ·C = = N ·m W ·s
= LC TANK CIRCUIT
V V V
2 2
C (capacitance in farads) = q = q = q = J = I ·s
Resonant frequency:
V J N ·m V 2 V C L 1
f =
H (inductance in henrys) = V ·s (note that H·F = s 2 ) 2π LC
I
2
J (energy in joules) = N ·m = V ·q = W ·s = I ·V ·s = C ·V 2 = q PARALLEL RESISTANCE
C
I never can remember the
J q·V W · s kg ·m R1 R2
N (force in newtons) = = = = 2 formula for two resistances in
m m m s R1 || R2 =
parallel. I just do it the hard R1 + R2
Wb V ·s H · I way.
T (magnetic flux density in teslas) =
2
= 2 = 2
m m m
V (electric potential in volts) =
W J J W ·s N ·m q
= = = = =
I q I ·s q q C
W (power in watts) =
J N ·m q·V C ·V 2 1
= = = V ·I = = HP
s s s s 746
Wb (magnetic flux in webers) = H ·I = V ·s = J
I
Temperature: [°C or K] 0°C = 273.15K
where s is seconds

Tom Penick tom@tomzap.com www.teicontrols.com/notes PowerElectronics.pdf 8/18/2003 Page 3 of 21

 FOURIER SERIES FOURIER SERIES and Symmetry
When the function f(t) is symmetric, certain shortcuts
The Fourier Series is a method of describing a
can be taken.
complex periodic function in terms of the frequencies
and amplitudes of its fundamental and harmonic When f(t) is an even function, i.e.
frequencies. f(t)=f(-t), bk is zero. The Fourier
series becomes:
Let f ( t ) = f ( t + T ) = any periodic signal ∞
f ( t ) = Favg + ∑  ak cos ( k ω0t ) 
2π
where T = = the period. k =1
ω If there is also half-wave
symmetry, then:
f (t)
4 T /2
f ( t ) cos nωt dt
T ∫0
ak =

t When f(t) is an odd function, i.e.

0 1T 2T
f(t)=-f(-t), ak is zero. The Fourier
series becomes:
∞
f ( t ) = Favg + ∑ bk sin ( k ω0t ) 
∞ k =1
Then f ( t ) = Favg + ∑  ak cos ( k ω0t ) + bk sin ( k ω0t )  If there is also half-wave
k =1
symmetry, then:
ω0 = the fundamental frequency (k=1) in radians/sec. 4
∫ f ( t ) sin nωt dt
T /2
kω0 = the harmonic frequencies (k=2,3,4…) in radians/sec. bk =
T 0
k = denotes the fundamental (k=1) or harmonic frequencies
(k=2,3,4…), not the wave number or propagation When f(t) has half-wave
constant symmetry, i.e. f(t)=-f(t±T/2), there
Favg = the average value of f(t), or the DC offset are only odd harmonics.
1 t0 +T
∫ f ( t ) dt
k=1, 3, 5, …
Favg =
T t0
4 t0 +T / 2
f ( t ) cos nωt dt
T ∫ t0
ak = twice the average value of f(t)cos(kω0t) ak =
2 t0 +T
f ( t ) cos k ωt dt
T ∫ t0
ak =
T
4 t0 +T / 2
bk = ∫ f ( t ) sin nωt dt
2

bk = twice the average value of f(t)sin(kω0t) T t0

2 t0 +T
bk = ∫ f ( t ) sin k ωt dt
T t0 FOURIER SERIES, Polar Form
t0 = an arbitrary time ∞
f ( t ) = Favg + ∑  Fk sin ( k ω0t + δk ) 
k =1

where
−bk
Fk = ak2 + bk2 , δk = tan −1
ak
2 t0 +T
f ( t ) cos nωt dt
T ∫ t0
ak =

2 t0 +T
bk = ∫ f ( t ) sin nωt dt
T t0

Tom Penick tom@tomzap.com www.teicontrols.com/notes PowerElectronics.pdf 8/18/2003 Page 4 of 21

 FOURIER SERIES OF A SQUARE WAVE SINGLE-PHASE RECTIFIERS
A 50% duty cycle square wave can be represented as HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER
an infinite sum of a fundamental sine wave and
As the supply voltage begins it's positive sinusoidal
smaller odd harmonics.
excursion, the diode conducts and current begins to
flow in the inductor. When the voltage crosses zero,
4A  1 1 1 
sin ( ω0t ) + sin ( 3ω0t ) + sin ( 5ω0t ) + sin ( 7ω0t ) + L the current continues to flow through the inductor for a
π  3 5 7  short period due to its stored energy and the diode
conducts until the inductor current flow has halted.
4A /π This point is called extinction and occurs at the angle
A β, where π < β < 2π. At this time vd, which has
followed the supply voltage into the negative region,
becomes zero (discontinuous). vd and the inductor
current remain at zero until the next cycle.

0 i (t)
L
+ + vL -
Vm sin ω t ~ vd RL
-
di
vL = L
dt
While current is flowing through the diode, there is zero
voltage across the diode. When current flow stops at angle
β, the voltage across the diode becomes negative
(discontinuous). Since the average (dc) voltage at the
source is zero and the average voltage across an inductor is
zero, the average voltage across RL is the negative of the
average voltage across the diode.

1 2π
2π ∫ β
Vdiode = Vm sin θ d θ = −VR avg

The average voltage across RL can also be expressed as

the product of the average (short circuit) current and RL.
Under short circuit conditions, the average voltage can be
found by integrating of a half-period.

1 T /2
VR avg = I sc RL VR avg =
T ∫ 0
Vm sin ωt dt

Now there is enough information here to find β iteratively.

Tom Penick tom@tomzap.com www.teicontrols.com/notes PowerElectronics.pdf 8/18/2003 Page 5 of 21

 BRIDGE RECTIFIER, CONSTANT LOAD
VOLTAGE
The current id begins to flow when the magnitude of
the supply voltage exceeds Vd. The current peaks
when the supply voltage magnitude returns to the
level of Vd. As the supply voltage magnitude
continues to fall, id rapidly returns to zero.
id
L dominates load) and a finite inductance Ls in the
+ vL -
Vm sin ωt ~ Vd
u COMMUTATION INTERVAL
Commutation is the transfer of the electrical source
from one path to another. For bridge rectifiers, it
refers to the period of time when diodes from two
sources are on simultaneously, i.e. the delay interval
associated with a reverse-biased diode turning off.
The commutation interval is usually expressed as an
angle u.
The commutation interval is associated with rectifier
circuits having a constant current load (inductance
supply. The interval begins when the source voltage
+ crosses zero going positive or when the thyristor gate
is triggered.
-
2ωLs I d
No trigger: cos u = 1 −
Vm

Vd = Vm sin θb 2ωLs I d
With trigger: cos ( α + u ) = cos α −
Vm
did
vL = L = Vm sin ( ωt ) − Vd ω = the supply frequency [rad./sec.]
dt Ls = the supply inductance [H]
θf
0=∫ Vm sin ( ωt ) − Vd  d ( ωt ) Id = the (constant) load current [A]
θb Vm = the peak input voltage [V]
Equal
in area vs
Vd POWER AND COMMUTATION
In order to have power, the commutation interval must
not be zero.
2
id
Id
Pd =
Vm
2ωLs π
(1 − cos 2 u )

θb θp θf ωt ω = the supply frequency [rad./sec.]

Ls = the supply inductance [H]
Vd = the voltage at the output [V] Id = the (constant) load current [A]
Vm = the peak input voltage [V] Vm = the peak input voltage [V]
θb = the angle at which an increasing supply voltage
waveform reaches Vd and current begins to flow in the
inductor. [radians] VOLTAGE AND COMMUTATION
θp = the angle at which id peaks [radians] θp = π-θb The average voltage output of a full wave bridge
θf = the angle at which the current id returns to zero. [radians] rectifier is
Vm
Vd = ( cos u + 1)
SINGLE-PHASE BRIDGE RECTIFIER π
id iL ω = the supply frequency [rad./sec.]
Ls = the supply inductance [H]
Id = the (constant) load current [A]
L Vm = the peak input voltage [V]
+ vL -
Vm sin ω t ~ C RL

Tom Penick tom@tomzap.com www.teicontrols.com/notes PowerElectronics.pdf 8/18/2003 Page 6 of 21

 THÈVENIN EQUIVALENT KIMBARK'S EQUATIONS (with α)
The Thèvenin equivalent for a single-phase full wave When the trigger angle α is included, Kimbark's
bridge rectifier. equations become:
2Vm RTH Id VLLp
VTH = st
I DC = cos α − cos ( α + u ) 
2ωL 
1 :
π +
+
2ωLs VTH Vd 3VLLp
RTH = 2 : Vdc =
nd
cos α + cos ( α + u ) 
π - 2π 
ω = the supply frequency [rad./sec.] 2
3VLLp
Pdc = cos 2 α − cos 2 ( α + u ) 
rd
Ls = the supply inductance [H] 3 :
Id = the (constant) load current [A] 4πωL
Vm = the peak input voltage [V] VLLp = peak line-to-line voltage [V]
Vd = the average output voltage [V] ω = the supply frequency [rad./sec.]
α = the angle ωt at which the thyristor is triggered [degrees]
THREE-PHASE RECTIFIERS L = the per phase inductance [H]
u = the commutation interval [degrees]
THREE-PHASE RECTIFIER
This circuit is known as 3-phase, 6-pulse line
commutated converter. When the load is dominated 3-PHASE POWER AND COMMUTATION
by inductance, it is modeled as a current source In order to have power, the commutation interval must
(constant current) as shown below. If the load is not be zero. In commercial systems, the commutation
capacitive, it is modeled as a voltage source. interval is typically 4 to 5 degrees but may be as high
as 20° in special high-power converters. The
TRANSFORMER theoretical maximum is u = 60°.
D1 D3 D5
Aø La
+ - 3-PHASE VOLTAGE AND COMMUTATION
Bø Lb The average voltage output of a three-phase rectifier
~ + - Idc can be found by integrating over the first 60°. In the
formula below, the limits of integration have been
Cø Lc
shifted to make the function fit the cosine function.
+ -
Vab Vac Vbc Vba Vca Vcb
D4 D6 D2
V LLp
3
2V LLp

KIMBARK'S EQUATIONS
Kimbark's equations give the average current, voltage,
and power of a 3-phase rectifier as a function of the
commutation interval u.
0
VLLp π
ωt
I dc = (1 − cos u )
3
st
1 :
2ωL u
3VLLp
nd
2 : Vdc = (1 + cos u ) 1  u 3 π

2π Vdc = ∫0 V cos θ d θ + ∫ 6
π VLLp cos θ d θ 
π/3 
LLp
2
{ 2 u−

(1 − cos u )
3VLLp 6
rd
3 : Pdc = 2 60°
4πωL
VLLp = peak line-to-line voltage [V]
ω = the supply frequency [rad./sec.]
L = the load inductance [H]
u = the commutation interval [degrees]

Tom Penick tom@tomzap.com www.teicontrols.com/notes PowerElectronics.pdf 8/18/2003 Page 7 of 21

 PLOTTING Vdc (constant current) WITH α PLOTTING iA (constant current)
Vdc is periodic at 60° intervals. During the iA is the current through the A-phase supply of a 3-
commutation interval (from α to α+u), Vdc follows the – phase rectifier. iA is periodic at 360° intervals. The
3/2 Vbn curve. This curve is centered between the Vcb plot of iA consists of the plot of I1 and the inverse plot
and Vab curves. For the remainder of its period, Vdc of I4. A graph sheet is provided on page 21 for
follows the Vab curve. A graph sheet is provided on practice.
page 21 for practice.
60°
Vab 0 α 180° t
VLLp +α
3
2 VLLp
3
2 Vbn INFLUENCE OF TRANSFORMER TYPE
αu ON iA WAVEFORM
iA is the current through the A-phase supply of a 3-
VLLp = peak line-to-line voltage [V]
phase rectifier.
α = the angle ωt at which the thyristor is triggered [degrees] DELTA-WYE OR WYE-DELTA DELTA-DELTA OR WYE-WYE
TRANSFORMER TRANSFORMER

PLOTTING V1 (constant current)

V1 is the voltage across diode D1. V1 is more
complicated and is periodic at 360° intervals. Refer to
t t
the circuit entitled Three-Phase Rectifier on page 7.
Plot Vdc first. While D1 is on, V1 is zero. When D1
goes off, V1 briefly follows Vab then -Vdc. After that, it
tracks Vac and then repeats the cycle. A graph sheet
3-PHASE THÈVENIN EQUIVALENT
is provided on page 21 for practice. The Thèvenin equivalent for a 3-phase full wave
bridge rectifier.
α to 120° + α + u V1 is zero
120° + α + u to 180° + α V1 tracks Vab 3VLLp RTH Id
VTH =
180° + α to 300° + α + u V1 is -Vdc π +
+
300° + α + u to α V1 tracks Vac 3ωLs VTH Vd
The 0° reference is 30° before Vab peak voltage. RTH =
π -
VLLp = peak line-to-line voltage [V]
PLOTTING I1 (constant current) ω = the supply frequency [rad./sec.]
I1 is the current through diode D1 of a 3-phase Ls = the supply inductance [H]
rectifier. I1 is periodic at 360° intervals. A graph sheet Id = the (constant) load current [A]
is provided on page 21 for practice. Vd = the average output voltage [V]
α to α + u I1 rises from 0 to I1 max
α + u to 120° + α I1 is constant 3-PHASE THÈVENIN EQUIVALENT
120° + α to 120° + α + u I1 falls to zero (with α)
The 0° reference angle is 30° before Vab peak voltage. The Thèvenin equivalent for a 3-phase full wave
The curvature of the rising and falling diode current plots is bridge rectifier.
related to the trigger angle α. 3VLLp RTH Id
α < 90° VTH = cos α
π +
+
0 α t 3ωLs VTH
α = 90°
RTH = Vd
π -
0 α VLLp = peak line-to-line voltage [V]
t
α > 90° ω = the supply frequency [rad./sec.]
α = the angle ωt at which the thyristor is triggered [degrees]
0 α
t Ls = the supply inductance [H]
u u Id = the (constant) load current [A]
120° + u Vd = the average output voltage [V]

Tom Penick tom@tomzap.com www.teicontrols.com/notes PowerElectronics.pdf 8/18/2003 Page 8 of 21

 PF POWER FACTOR IN A 3-PHASE L MINIMUM INDUCTANCE
RECTIFIER REQUIREMENT
in all 3 For continuous operation, the inductor should be sized
}
phases
so that under minimum current conditions it does not
Pavg fully discharge before reaching the end of the period
PF = T.
3VLN rms I L rms
{ I di
current in
di di discharging
each line
di charging
Iavg
The term 3/π below is the reduction in power factor
due to the current Id not being a sine wave. DT t
T
3 Id
PF = cos α + cos ( α + u )  continuous operation
π 2 I L rms
3  cos α + cos ( α + u ) 
In the plot above, the inductor discharges fully just as the
=  
period ends. In this case, 2Iavg is the peak current. So the
π 2 
peak current is both the product of the charging slope and
the charging interval as well as of the discharging slope
(absolute) and discharging interval.
DC-DC CONVERTERS dichg. didischg.
DT = (1 − D ) T = 2 I avg
D DUTY CYCLE dt dt
The duty cycle is the fractional portion of the period T The values for di/dt are found by using Kirchoff’s Voltage
Law for both the “on” and “off” states.
in which the inductor is charging. Practical values for
D range from about 0.2 to 0.8. The plot below shows
discontinuous operation; i.e. there is a period of time
when the inductor is neither charging nor discharging.
I
iL

DT t
T
discontinuous operation

It is preferable that the converter operate in continuous

mode in order to reduce ripple.

Tom Penick tom@tomzap.com www.teicontrols.com/notes PowerElectronics.pdf 8/18/2003 Page 9 of 21

 STEP-DOWN CONVERTER STEP-UP (BOOST) CONVERTER
The step-down converter or buck converter can The step-up converter produces an output voltage up
produce an output voltage as much as ~80% below to ~5X the input voltage.
the input voltage. iL io
iL io L
L + vL -
+ vL - + +
+ + +
Vd C Vo RL
Vd Voi C Vo RL
- -
- - -
Vo − Vd
V Duty Cycle: D=
Duty Cycle: D= o Vo
Vd
TVo
Lmin = D (1 − D )
2
Minimum inductance: In choosing L, We want to avoid Minimum inductance:
discontinuous operation. Select Lmin using the minimum 2I o
expected current IL.
Vd − Vo Vo DT
Lmin =
Vo
(1 − D ) T ∆I L = DT Ripple voltage: ∆Vo =
2I L L RL C
Vout DT
Ripple voltage: When choosing C, we want RC ?T . Minimum capacitance: C=
Another consideration is the ripple voltage. For ∆Vo RL
continuous operation this is

VoT 2 (1 − D)
∆Vo = BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER 1
8 LC The buck-boost converter provides a reversed polarity
Minimum Capacitance: The expressions for finding the output and enables the output voltage to be above or
value of the filter capacitor are derived from the relation below the input voltage.
∆V = ∆Q/C, where Q is current × time.
+ iL + -
∆I T
C= L Vd L vL C Vo RL
8 ∆Vo -
+
D = duty cycle [no units] - +
Vo = output voltage (average) [V] io
∆Vo = output ripple voltage (peak to peak) [V]
Vo
Vd = input voltage [V]
Duty Cycle: D=
T = period 1/f [s] Vo + Vd
Lmin = minimum inductance for continuous operation [H]
∆IL = the difference between the maximum and minimum Minimum inductance:
TVo TV
current in the inductor. For continuous operation, this is
Lmin = (1 − D ) = o (1 − D )
2
twice the average load current. [A]
2I o 2I L
L = inductance [H]
C = capacitance [F] Vo DT
Ripple voltage: ∆Vo =
RL C
Vd = supply voltage [V]
Vo = average output voltage [V]
IL = average current through the inductor [A]
Io = average output current [A]

Tom Penick tom@tomzap.com www.teicontrols.com/notes PowerElectronics.pdf 8/18/2003 Page 10 of 21

 BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER 2 DC-AC INVERTERS
This version was given to us by Dr. Grady. SINGLE-PHASE, FULL-BRIDGE,
L 1 iL1 C1 SQUARE-WAVE INVERTER
+ + vC1- - For a square-wave inverter operating an induction
iL2 motor with inductance L:
Vd L2 CL Vo RL Square wave function (Fourier series):
+
- + 4Vdc  1 1 
v (t ) = sin ω0t + 3 sin 3ω0t + 5 sin 5ω0t + L
Vo π
Duty Cycle: D= , assuming vc1 = Vd
Vo + Vd 4Vdc
Peak value, fundamental waveform: v1rms 2 =
π
CÚK CONVERTER Ripple voltage: vripple ( t ) = vo 0 − vo1 ( t )
The Cúk converter also provides a reversed polarity
output. Capacitor C1 is the primary storage device for 4Vdc
where vo1 = sin ω0t is the fundamental waveform
transferring energy from input to output. The π
advantage of this circuit is its low input and output
ripple currents; the disadvantage is the requirement of and vo0 is the square wave.
the large capacitor C1. 1 t
iripple ( t ) = vripple ( τ ) d τ
L ∫0
Ripple current:
L1 iL1 C1 iL2 L2
+ + vL1 - + vC1 - - vL2 + - 1 π
iripple peak = iripple ( t ) , at t =
2 ω
Vd C Vo
RL
- +
io
Vo
Duty Cycle: D=
Vo + Vd

FULL BRIDGE CONVERTER

The full bridge converter has the additional
capabilities of reverse current flow, e.g. a motor
connected to the load could generate a current flow
back to the source, and reversible output polarity.
id

+ SINGLE-PHASE, PULSE WIDTH

TA+ DA+ TB+ DB+
io MOTOR MODULATED, BIPOLAR INVERTER
This requires the introduction of two new terms, mf
A + Ra and ma. Refer to the next two boxes.
Vd Vo La Peak value, fundamental waveform: v1rms 2 = maVdc
B +
- - ea v1rms
th
k harmonic: ( value from table ) = vk rms
N T DA+ TB- DB+ ma
A-
- using the table for Generalized Harmonics on page 13.

v1rms 2 vk rms
Ripple current: iripple peak =
ω0 L
∑
k >1 k
???

Tom Penick tom@tomzap.com www.teicontrols.com/notes PowerElectronics.pdf 8/18/2003 Page 11 of 21

 mf FREQUENCY MODULATION RATIO
The ratio of the switching frequency to the modulating
control frequency in an inverter circuit.
fs
mf =
f1
When mf is small (mf ≤ 21) it should be an odd integer in
order to avoid subharmonics. In the figure below, mf = 15.
Note the symmetry of the triangle wave and control signal.
This is called synchronous pulse width modulation.
V
PULSE WIDTH MODULATION IN BIPOLAR
INVERTERS
The relationship between the triangle wave, the
control waveform, and the output waveform for an
inverter operating in the linear range is shown below.
The square wave output can be produced using a
comparator to compare the triangle wave with the sine
wave.
V triangle
wave

t
t control
waveform
V
output
fs = switching frequency [rad./s or Hz] waveform
f1 = control frequency or modulating frequency [rad./s or Hz]

t
ma AMPLITUDE MODULATION RATIO
The ratio of the control signal amplitude to the triangle
wave amplitude in an inverter circuit.

Vˆcontrol
ma =
Vˆtri PULSE WIDTH MODULATION IN
UNIPOLAR INVERTERS
When ma < 1, the inverter is operating in the linear range as
shown in the figure below. When in the linear range, the The relationship between the triangle wave, the
frequency harmonics are in the area of the switching control waveform, and the output waveform for a
frequency and its multiples. A drawback is that the unipolar inverter operating in the linear range is shown
maximum available amplitude of the fundamental frequency below. The square wave output can be produced
is limited due to the notches in the output waveform (see the using a comparator to compare the triangle wave with
next box). the sine wave.
When ma ≥ 1, the inverter is in overmodulation. This causes triangle
V wave
more side harmonics in the output waveform.
V inverted
control
waveform
t
t control
waveform
V
output
Vˆcontrol = peak amplitude of the control signal. The signal waveform

has a frequency of f1 [V]

Vˆtri = peak amplitude of the triangle wave [V] t

Tom Penick tom@tomzap.com www.teicontrols.com/notes PowerElectronics.pdf 8/18/2003 Page 12 of 21

 vh rms RMS HARMONIC VOLTAGE GENERALIZED HARMONICS IN
The magnitude of the fundamental frequency and SINGLE-PHASE PWM INVERTERS
major harmonics for single-phase PWM inverters may The values in the generalized harmonics table are the
be calculated using the following formula and values ratio of the peak-to-peak harmonic voltages to the dc
from the Generalized Harmonics table in the next box. voltage. It is assumed that mf is an odd integer
It is assumed that mf is an odd integer greater than or greater than or equal to 9. See previous box.
equal to 9.
ma:
1
Half-bridge or vh rms 2 = Vdc ( GH h ) h 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
one-leg, single- 2 123
phase: value 1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
from table
mf 1.242 1.15 1.006 0.818 0.601

vh rms 2 = Vdc ( GH h ) mf ± 2 0.016 0.061 0.131 0.220 0.318

123
or
value mf ± 4 0.018
Full bridge, from table
2mf ± 1 0.190 0.326 0.370 0.314 0.181
single-phase:

vh rms = v1rms
( GH h ) 2mf ± 3 0.024 0.071 0.139 0.212

( GH h =1 ) 2mf ± 5 0.013 0.033

mf = frequency modulation ratio, the ratio of the triangle 3mf 0.335 0.123 0.083 0.171 0.113
wave frequency to the control waveform frequency [no 3mf ± 2 0.044 0.139 0.203 0.176 0.062
units] 3mf ± 4 0.012 0.047 0.104 0.157
h = the harmonic (integer)
Vdc = dc supply voltage [V] 3mf ± 6 0.016 0.044
(GHh) = value from the generalized harmonics table for the 4mf ± 1 0.163 0.157 0.008 0.105 0.068
th
h harmonic
4mf ± 3 0.012 0.070 0.132 0.115 0.009
(GHh=1) = value from the generalized harmonics table for
the h = 1 (fundamental) harmonic. In the case of single- 4mf ± 5 0.034 0.084 0.119
phase, this is the same as ma. 4mf ± 7 0.017 0.050

Tom Penick tom@tomzap.com www.teicontrols.com/notes PowerElectronics.pdf 8/18/2003 Page 13 of 21

 THREE-PHASE, SQUARE WAVE THREE-PHASE PWM INVERTER
INVERTER The relationship between the fundamental of the line-
to-line rms output voltage and the dc input voltage is
2 4Vdc
DC-AC voltage relationship: vLL rms = 2 1
1
3 2π vLL1 rms = maVdc
3 2
Inverter voltage:
4V  1 1  V To find the rms values of the harmonic components
vAN = dc sin ω0t + sin 3ω0t + sin 5ω0t + L + dc
2π  3 5  { 2
vh rms =
vLL1 rms ( GH h )
( GH h =1 )
dc
offset
3
(The factor of 2 in the amplitude is due to the dc voltage
being only positive.)
vLL1 rms = the line-to-line rms voltage of the fundamental
harmonic [V]
Motor neutral (fictional) to system neutral voltage:
ma = amplitude modulation ratio, the ratio of the control
4V  1 1 1  V
vnN = dc  sin 3ω0 t + sin 6ω0t + sin 9ω0t + L + dc waveform to the triangle wave [no units]
2π  3 6 9  { 2 h = the harmonic (integer)
dc
offset vh rms = the rms voltage of the hth harmonic [V]
Voltage, system to motor neutral (fictional): (GHh) = value from the generalized harmonics table for the
th
h harmonic
v An = vAN − vnN (GHh=1) = value from the generalized harmonics table for
2V  1 1  the h = 1 (fundamental) harmonic
= dc sin ω0t + sin 5ω0t + sin 7ω0t + L
π  5 7 
Current, line-to-neutral:
GENERALIZED HARMONICS IN
2Vdc  1 1  THREE PHASE PWM INVERTERS
i (t ) = sin ω0t + sin 5ω0t + sin 7ω0t + L dt
π L ∫  5 7 
The values in the generalized harmonics table are the
−2Vdc  1 1  ratio of the line-to-line harmonic voltages to the dc
=  cos ω0t + 2 cos 5ω0t + 2 cos 7ω0t + L voltage. It is assumed that mf is a large odd integer
π ω0 L  5 7  and a multiple of 3. See previous box.
Ripple current, composed of the harmonics—all peak ma:
simultaneously:
h 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
2Vdc  1 1 1 
iripple peak =  + + + L 1 0.122 0.245 0.367 0.490 0.612
πω0 L  5 7 11
2 2 2
 mf ± 2 0.010 0.037 0.080 0.135 0.195
This series can be created from other series:
mf ± 4 0.005 0.011
1 1 1 π 2
1) 1+ 2
+ 2 + 2 +L = 2mf ± 1 0.116 0.200 0.227 0.192 0.111
3 5 7 8 2mf ± 5 0.008 0.020

1  1 π  3mf ± 2
2 0.027 0.085 0.124 0.108 0.038
1 1 1
2) 2 
1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + L = 2   3mf ± 4 0.007 0.029 0.064 0.096
3  3 5 7  3  8 
4mf ± 1 0.100 0.096 0.005 0.064 0.042
1) – 2) =
4mf ± 5 0.021 0.051 0.073
1 1 1  1   π2  π2
1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + L = 1 − 2    = 2 4mf ± 7 0.010 0.030
5 7 11  3  8  3
1 1 1 π2
so that + + +L = −1
52 7 2 112 9
2Vdc  π2 
and iripple peak =  − 1
πω0 L  9 

Tom Penick tom@tomzap.com www.teicontrols.com/notes PowerElectronics.pdf 8/18/2003 Page 14 of 21

 INDUCTION MOTORS P POWER [W]
T TORQUE [N·m] The electromechanical power equals the air gap
power minus the power lost in the rotor winding
Torque.
resistance.
3Vs2 Rr f − f sl
Tem = Pem = Pag − Pr = 3 Rr I r2
 R 
2
2
sωs  Rs + r  + ( X s + X r ) 
f sl
 s   f
Pag = 3 Rr I r2 Pr = 3Rr I r2
Pem Pag f sl
Tem = Tem =
ωr ωs For applications such as centrifugal pumps and fans, power
is proportional to the cube of the motor speed by some
For applications such as centrifugal pumps and fans, torque constant of proportionality k2.
is proportional to the square of the motor speed by some
Power ; k1 ( speed )
3
constant of proportionality k1.

Torque ; k1 ( speed )
2

INDUCTION MOTOR MODEL 1

Pem = electromechanical power [W]
Pag = air gap power, the power crossing the air gap [W] The 3-phase induction motor consists of 3 stationary
stator windings arranged 120° apart. The squirrel-
ωs = synchronous speed [rad./sec.]
cage rotor consists of a stack of insulated laminations
ωr = rotor speed [rad./sec.]
with conducting bars inserted through it close to the
Vs = line-to-neutral supply voltage [V]
circumference and electrically connected at the ends.
s = slip; the fractional amount of rotational speed lost due to
rotor loading and other factors [rad./rad.] Per-phase Model
f = rated frequency [Hz] Is Rs Xs Ir Xr Rr
fsl = slip frequency sf [Hz] +
Im
Eag 1-s
Xm Rr(s )
Tstart STARTING TORQUE [N·m] -
A higher torque may be desired for starting. This is
Is = stator current [A]
accomplished by raising the frequency and increasing the
rotor current Ir by an amount proportional to its value at Rs = stator resistance [Ω]
100% rated torque. Xs = stator reactance [Ω]
Ir = rotor current [A]
Tstart
f start = f sl rated f sl rated = sf Rr = rotor resistance [Ω]
Trated Xr = rotor reactance [Ω]
Im = magnetizing current [A]
Tstart I 3Vs2
= r Tstart = Xm = magnetizing reactance [Ω]
Trated I r rated sω s
In the design of the induction motor, there is a tradeoff INDUCTION MOTOR MODEL 2
between starting torque (also called pull out) and motor
efficiency. A higher rotor resistance produces a higher The 3-phase induction motor may also be modeled
starting torque but hurts the efficiency. with a Thèvenin equivalent.

Pem = electromechanical power [W] Per-phase Model

Pag = air gap power, the power crossing the air gap [W] R TH X TH
ωs = synchronous speed [rad./sec.] + +
ωr = rotor speed [rad./sec.] VAn ~ ETH
Vs = line-to-neutral supply voltage [V] -
-
s = slip; the fractional amount of rotational speed lost due to
rotor loading and other factors [rad./rad.] VAn = system to motor neutral (fictional) voltage [V]
f = rated frequency [Hz] RTH = Thèvenin equivalent resistance [Ω]
fsl = slip frequency sf [Hz] XTH = Thèvenin equivalent reactance [Ω]
ETH = fundamental frequency back-EMF [V]

Tom Penick tom@tomzap.com www.teicontrols.com/notes PowerElectronics.pdf 8/18/2003 Page 15 of 21

 ns SYNCHRONOUS SPEED [rpm] φag AIR GAP FLUX [Wb]
The magnetic field within the motor (air gap flux φag) The air gap flux is generated by the magnetizing
rotates at a rate called the synchronous speed and is current Im and rotates in the air gap between the stator
proportional to the frequency of the supply voltage. and rotor at the synchronous speed ns.
Under no-load conditions, the squirrel cage rotor turns
Eag
at approximately this speed, and when loaded, at a N s φag = Lm im k3φag =
somewhat slower speed. f
ωs 120 The ratio of voltage to hertz is generally kept constant in
ns = 60 × = f order to maintain the air gap flux constant under varying
2π p motor speeds. So the supply voltage and frequency are
For example, the ns of a 2-pole motor operating at 60 Hz is adjusted to keep Eag/f constant. See the next box,
3600 rpm, for a 4-pole motor, it’s 1800 rpm. CONSTANT VOLTZ/Hz OPERATION.

ns = synchronous speed [rpm] Ns = the equivalent number of turns per phase of the stator
ωs = synchronous speed [rad./sec.] winding
f = frequency of the applied voltage [Hz] Lm = magnetizing inductance [H]
p = number of poles in the motor [integer] im = magnetizing current [A]
k3 = some constant
f = frequency of the applied voltage [Hz]
s SLIP [rad./rad.] Eag = air gap voltage, voltage across the magnetizing
The difference between the synchronous speed and inductance Lm [V]
the rotor speed, normalized to be unitless. The slip
can range from near 0 under no-load conditions to 1
at locked rotor. In other words, the slip is the
fractional loss of rotation speed experienced by the
rotor in relation to the speed of the rotating magnetic
field. If the rotor is moving at ¾ the speed of the
magnetic field, then the slip is ¼.
ωs − ωr
s=
ωs
ωsl Slip Speed: The difference between the synchronous
speed and the rotor speed (unnormalized) is the slip speed.
ωsl = ωs − ωr
fsl Slip Frequency: Induced voltages in the rotor will be at
the slip frequency, proportional to the slip
f sl = sf
ωs = synchronous speed [rad./sec.]
ωsl = slip speed [rad./sec.]
ωr = rotor speed [rad./sec.]

Tom Penick tom@tomzap.com www.teicontrols.com/notes PowerElectronics.pdf 8/18/2003 Page 16 of 21

 CONSTANT VOLTS/Hz OPERATION
For variable frequency motor drives, the air gap flux is
generally maintained constant as described in the
previous box. This type of operation results in the
following properties:

The electromechanical torque is proportional to the

slip frequency
Tem ∝ f sl

which implies that for constant torque operation, the

slip is inversely proportional to the synchronous
frequency
1
s∝
fs

The magnetizing current remains constant

I m = constant

The starting torque is inversely proportional to the

synchronous speed
1
Tstart ∝
ωs

The maximum torque is a constant

Tmax = constant

The change in torque with respect to the slip speed is

a constant
∂Tmech
= constant
∂ωsl
fsl = slip frequency sf [Hz]
ωs = synchronous speed [rad./sec.]
ωsl = slip speed [rad./sec.]
T = torque [J/rad.]
s = slip [rad./rad.]

η EFFICIENCY
The efficiency is the power delivered divided by the
power supplied.
 1− s 
Rr  
η=
Pmech
=  s 
; 1− s
Psupplied R
Rs + r
s s →0
Rr = rotor resistance [Ω]
Rs = stator resistance [Ω]
s = slip [rad./rad.]

Tom Penick tom@tomzap.com www.teicontrols.com/notes PowerElectronics.pdf 8/18/2003 Page 17 of 21

 GENERAL MATHEMATICAL
x + j y COMPLEX NUMBERS PHASOR NOTATION
Im When the excitation is sinusoidal and under steady-
state conditions, we can express a partial derivative in
y phasor notation, by replacing ∂ with jω . For
A ∂t
θ example, the Telegrapher's equation ∂V = − L ∂I
∂z ∂t
0 x Re ∂V
jθ
becomes = − LjωI . Note that V ( z , t ) and
x + jy = Ae = A cos θ + jA sin θ ∂z
I ( z , t ) are functions of position and time (space-time
Re{ x + jy} = x = A cos θ
functions) and V ( z ) and I ( z ) are functions of position
Im{ x + jy} = y = A sin θ only.
Magnitude { x + jy} = A = x 2 + y 2 Sine and cosine functions are converted to
y exponentials in the phasor domain.
Phase { x + jy} = θ = tan −1 Example:
x v v
j
π
E ( r , t ) = 2 cos ( ωt + 3 z ) xˆ + 4sin ( ωt + 3 z ) yˆ
j=e 2

The magnitude of a complex number may be written as the = Re{2e j3 z e jωt xˆ + ( − j) 4e j3 z e jωt yˆ }
absolute value. v v
E ( r ) = 2e j3 z xˆ − j4e j3 z yˆ
Magnitude { x + jy} = x + jy
The square of the magnitude of a complex number is the
product of the complex number and its complex conjugate. TIME-AVERAGE
The complex conjugate is the expression formed by
reversing the signs of the imaginary terms.
When two functions are multiplied, they cannot be
converted to the phasor domain and multiplied.
x + jy = ( x + jy )( x + jy ) * = ( x + jy )( x − jy )
2
Instead, we convert each function to the phasor
domain and multiply one by the complex conjugate of
the other and divide the result by two. The complex
conjugate is the expression formed by reversing the
signs of the imaginary terms.
For example, the function for power is:

P (t ) = v ( t ) i (t ) watts

Time-averaged power is:

1
P (t ) = ∫ v ( t ) i ( t ) dt watts
T

T 0

For a single frequency:

Re{V I * } watts
1
P (t ) =
2
T = period [s]
V = voltage in the phasor domain [s]
I* = complex conjugate of the phasor domain current [A]

Tom Penick tom@tomzap.com www.teicontrols.com/notes PowerElectronics.pdf 8/18/2003 Page 18 of 21

 RMS TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
+ jθ
rms stands for root mean square. e + e− jθ = 2 cos θ e+ jθ − e − jθ = j 2 sin θ
root mean square e ± jθ = cos θ ± j sin θ
f ( t )rms = f (t )
2

〈 p 2〉 1
sin 2θ = sin θ cos θ cos 2θ = 1 − 2 sin 2 θ
The plot below shows a sine wave and its rms value, along
2
with the intermediate steps of squaring the sine function and sin ( a ± b ) = sin a cos b ± cos a sin b
taking the mean value of the square. Notice that for this
type of function, the mean value of the square is ½ the peak
value of the square.
CALCULUS - DERIVATIVES
d u v ⋅ u ′ − u ⋅ v′
dx
= 2
d u
′ u
dx e = u ⋅ e
v v
dx a = a ln a
d x x d u
′ x
dx a = u ⋅ a ln a

1 u′
d
dx
ln x = d
dx
ln u =
x u
d
′
dx sin u = u cos u
′
dx cos u = − u sin u
d

CALCULUS - INTEGRATION
In an electrical circuit, rms terms are associated with heating
x n +1
∫ = + ∫ = +C
n
or power. Given a voltage or current waveform, the rms dx x C x dx
value is obtain by 1) squaring the waveform, 2) finding the n +1
area under the waveform (integrating) over the length of one
1 u
∫ e dx = u′ ⋅ e + C ∫ xe dx = ( x − 1) e + C
cycle, 3) dividing by the period, and 4) taking the square root u x x
of the result.
1 t0 +T 2
f ( t )rms = f ( t ) dt
T ∫t0
eax
∫ xe dx =
ax
( ax − 1) + C
a2
The rms value differs from the average or dc value in that
1 1
∫ x dx = ln x + C ∫ a dx = ln a a +C
the dc value is the average of the original waveform and the x x
rms value is the square root of the average of the square of
the waveform.
1 1
∫ sin u dx = − u′ cos u ∫ cos u dx = u′ sin u
RMS OF A SQUARE WAVE
∫ sin u du = 12 u − 14 sin 2u + C
2
Vp
Vrms
∫ cos u du = 12 u + 14 sin 2u + C
2

∫ u dv = uv − ∫ v du
DT t Integration by parts:
T

Vrms = V p D

EULER'S EQUATION
e jφ = cos φ + j sin φ

Tom Penick tom@tomzap.com www.teicontrols.com/notes PowerElectronics.pdf 8/18/2003 Page 19 of 21

 CALCULUS – L’HÔPITOL’S RULE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
If the limit of f(x)/g(x) as x approaches c produces the j sin θ = sinh ( jθ )
indeterminate form 0/0, ∞ / ∞, or −∞ / ∞, then the
derivative of both numerator and denominator may be j cos θ = cosh ( jθ )
taken
j tan θ = tanh ( jθ )
f ( x) f ′( x)
lim = lim
x →c g ( x ) x →c g ′ ( x )

provided the limit on the right exists or is infinite. The

LINEARIZING AN EQUATION
Small nonlinear terms are removed. Nonlinear terms
derivative may be taken repeatedly provided the
include:
numerator and denominator get the same treatment.
• variables raised to a power
To convert a limit to a form on which L'Hôpital's Rule • variables multiplied by other variables
can be used, try algebraic manipulation or try setting y ∆ values are considered variables, e.g. ∆t.
equal to the limit then take the natural log of both
sides. The ln can be placed to the right of lim. This
is manipulated into fractional form so L'Hôpital's Rule MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS
can be used, thus getting rid of the ln. When this
Maxwell's equations govern the principles of guiding
limit is found, this is actually the value of ln y where
and propagation of electromagnetic energy and
y is the value we are looking for.
provide the foundations of all electromagnetic
Other indeterminate forms (which might be phenomena and their applications. The time-
convertible) are 1∞ , ∞ , 0 , 0⋅ ∞, and ∞−∞. Note that
0 0
harmonic expressions can be used only when the
0 =0
∞ wave is sinusoidal.
STANDARD FORM TIME-HARMONIC
(Time Domain) (Frequency Domain)
SERIES v
v ∂B v v
1+ x ; 1+
1
x , x =1
Faraday's ∇× E = - ∇ × E = -jωB
2
Law ∂t
v
1 x 3 x 2 5 x 3 35 x 4 v v ∂D v v v
; 1− + − + − L , − 12 < x < 12 Ampere's ∇× H = J + ∇ × H = jωD + J
1+ x 2 8 16 128 Law* ∂t
v v
1
; 1 + x 2 + x 4 + x 6 + L , − 12 < x < 12
Gauss'
Law
∇ ⋅ D = ρv ∇ ⋅ D = ρv
1 − x2 no name v v
law ∇⋅ B =0 ∇⋅ B=0
1
; 1 + 2 x + 3x 2 + 4 x 3 + L , − 12 < x < 12
(1 − x )
2
E = electric field [V/m]
B = magnetic flux density [Wb/m2 or T] B = µ0H
1
; 1 − x + x 2 − x 3 + L , − 12 < x < 12 t = time [s]
1+ x D = electric flux density [C/m2] D = ε0E
ρ = volume charge density [C/m3]
1
; 1 + x + x 2 + x 3 + L , − 12 < x < 12 H = magnetic field intensity [A/m]
1− x J = current density [A/m2]

*Maxwell added the ∂ D term to Ampere's Law.

BINOMIAL THEOREM ∂t
Also called binomial expansion. When m is a positive
integer, this is a finite series of m+1 terms. When m is
not a positive integer, the series converges for -1<x<1.
GRAPHING TERMINOLOGY
With x being the horizontal axis and y the vertical, we have
m ( m − 1) m ( m − 1)( m − 2 )L ( m − n + 1) a graph of y versus x or y as a function of x. The x-axis
(1 + x ) = 1 + mx + x +L + x +L
m 2 n

2! n! represents the independent variable and the y-axis

represents the dependent variable, so that when a graph
is used to illustrate data, the data of regular interval (often
SPHERE this is time) is plotted on the x-axis and the corresponding
data is dependent on those values and is plotted on the y-
Area = πd = 4πr Volume = 16 πd 3 = 43 πr 3
2 2
axis.

Tom Penick tom@tomzap.com www.teicontrols.com/notes PowerElectronics.pdf 8/18/2003 Page 20 of 21

 Van Vbn Vcn

Vab Vac Vbc Vba Vca Vcb

0° 60° 120° 180° 240° 300° 360°

Tom Penick tom@tomzap.com www.teicontrols.com/notes PowerElectronics.pdf 8/18/2003 Page 21 of 21