4umaths Summary

4u Maths Summary
Contents:
Graphs 3
Basic Graphs 3
Trigonometric Graphs 7
Addition & Subtraction of Ordinates 11
Reflection in Axis 13
Rules for Graphing 15
Multiplication of Ordinates 20
Division of Ordinates 21
Behaviours at Critical Points 23
Index Rules 24
Implicit Differentiation 26
Inequalities 30
Complex Numbers 32
Arithmetic of Complex Numbers 32
Geometrical Representation 35
Basic Proofs 38
Vectors 41
De Moivres Theorem 44
nth Roots 46
Loci of Complex Numbers 47
Regions 49
Conics 51
Ellipse 51
Tangents & Normals 56
Equation of a Chord 56
Chord of Contact 56
Basic Proofs 57
Hyperbola 63
Tangents & Normals 65
Chord of Contact 68
Basic Proofs 68
Rectangular Hyperbola 69
Tangent 72
Normal 73
Chord of Contact 74
Basic Proofs 74
Loci 76
Conics in Cones 78
Eccentricity Range 78
4u Maths Summary Page 1 of 117

Integration 80
Algebraic Substitutions 80
Trigonometric Integrals 80
Trigonometric Substitutions 81
Integration by Parts 82
Recurrence Formulas 82
Partial Fractions 83
Volumes 84
Volumes Using Limits 85
Volumes by slicing 86
Volumes by shells 87
Volumes with non-circular slices 89
Mechanics 90
Projectile Motion 91
Simple Harmonic Motion 93
Mathematical Descriptions of Motion 95
Upwards Motion 96
Downwards Motion 97
Circular Motion 99
Uniform Circular Motion 100
Conical Pendulum 101
Banked Circular Track 104
Polynomials 107
Integer Roots of Polynomials 107
Factoring Polynomials 109
Roots & Coefficients of Polynomials 111
Partial Fractions 114
Harder 3 Unit 117

Circle Geometry 117
Induction 117
Inequalities 117

SYLLABUS
RELATED INFORMATION
REFERENCE
Topic 1
Graphs
Basic Curves
Graph a linear ax + by + c = 0
equation. Gradient = a
ax + by + c = 0 b
y = mx + b y-intercept: y = c
b
y = mx + b
Gradient = m
y-intercept: y = c
y
m
10
-10 -5 5 10 x
(0, -3)
-5
-10
Graph a quadratic Axis of symmetry: x = b

Function. 2a
2
y = ax2 + bx + c Roots: ax + bx + c = 0
If a > 0, then concave up.
If a < 0, then concave down.
y
10
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
Graph a cubic Steps:

function. 1. Find factor of whole equation.

y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d 2. Use polynomial division.
3. Find roots of remaining equation.
Steps:
1. Find stationary points and their nature.
2. Find points of infle xion.
3. Find intercepts.
4. Use table of values.
Properties:
Has at most three roots.
y
10
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
3 2
y = x + 4x x 3
Graph a quartic Steps:
function. 1. Find factor of whole equation.
y = ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + 2. Use polynomial division.
dx + e 3. Find roots of remaining equation.
Steps:
1. Find stationary points and their nature.
2. Find points of inflexion.
3. Find intercepts.
4. Use table of values.
Properties:
o Has at most four roots.

y
10
-4 -2 2 4 x
-5
-10
4 3 2
y = x 2x 2x + 4x 1
Graph a Properties:
rectangular Asymptote: x ? 0
hyperbola. Use limit to find horizontal asymptotes.
xy = k y
y= k 10
x
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
xy = 4
Graph a circle. x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c 1. Complete the square to get equation into the form
=0 below.
2 2 2 2 2 2
(x h) + (y k) = r (x h) + (y k) = r
Centre of circle: (h, k)
Radius of circle = r

y
10
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
2 2
(x 3) + (y + 2) = 9
Graph an a>1
exponential Properties:
function. y-intercept: y = 1
y = ax Horizontal asymptote: y = 0
For both cases: The large the value for a, the steeper the curve.
a>1&0<a<1 The graph is always increasing.
y
10
-4 -2 2 4 x
-5
-10
x
y= 4
0<a<1
Properties:
y-intercept: y = 1
Horizontal Asymptote: y = 0
The graph is always decreasing.

y
10
-4 -2 2 4 x
-5
-10
x
y = 0.2
Graph a Function can be re-written as:
logarithmic x=ay
function.
y = loga x
Properties:
Root: x = 1
Vertical Asymptote: x = 0
Graph Basic Sine Curve:
trigonometric
functions.
y = a Sin bx
y = a Cos bx
y = k + a Sin (bx + c)

y
1.5
0.5
-360 -180 180 360 x
-0.5
-1
-1.5
y = Sin x
Basic Cosine Curve:
y
1.5
0.5
-360 -180 180 360 x
-0.5
-1
-1.5
y = Cos x
Trigonometric Graph Transformations:

y = k + a Sin (bx + c)

y
-360 -180 180 360 x
-2
-4
y = 2 + 3sin (2x + 10)

Properties:
k moves the graph up or down by a value of k.
b increases the number of cycles per 360. Number of
normal cycles in 360 is b.
c moves the graph left or right by c.
a increases the amplitude. The maximum displacement
on either side of an equilibrium is a.
The same properties apply for cosine curves.

Graph inverse Basic Sine Curve:
y
trigonometric
functions. 1.5
(Eg: y = a Sin -1bx)
1
0.5
-360 -180 180 360 x
-0.5
-1
-1.5
y = Sin x
Inverse Sine Curve:

y
360
180
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0.5 1 1.5 x
-180
-360
-1
y = sin x
Properties:
Domain: -1 = x = 1
Range: -90 = y = 90
Odd Function
Passes through origin.
All movements are the same as for normal sine curve.
Basically, an inverse trig graph is the equiva lent of switching

the values on the x & y axis.
Graph the y = x
functions: y
y = x 10
&
1
3
y= x
5
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
1
2
y= x
Properties:

Domain: x = 0
Range: y = 0
Always concave down
Always increasing.
1
3
y= x
y
-4 -2 2 4 x
-2
-4
1
3
y= x
Properties:
Odd Function
Inflexion point at (0,0)
Can be moved by constants.
Drawing graphs by Addition and Subtraction of Ordinates:
addition and
subtraction of
ordinates

Graph a function y
y = f(x) c 10
by initially graphing
y = f(x)
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
2 2 2
y = (x 2) , y = (x 2) + 4 & y = (x 2) 4
y = f(x) c
Rules:
If c is positive, the function is moved up by c.
If c is negative, the function is shifted down by c.
Graph a function Addition & Subtraction of Ordinates:
y = f(x) g(x) y
By initially graphing:
y = f(x) & y = g(x) 6
-360 -180 180 360 x
-2
-4
-6
y = 2cosx y = 3sinx y = 2cosx + 3sinx

Rules:
In essence, the y coordinates at each x value are either
added to, or subtracted from each other.
Addition Hints:

Where f(x) & g(x) intersect, the combined graph is
double the value at the intersection.
If either f(x) or g(x) are equal to zero at a point, the
combined graph is equal to the value of the graph not
equalling zero.
Subtraction Hints:
Where the two graphs intersect, the combined graph is
equal to zero.
Drawing graphs by
reflecting functions
in coordinate axes.
Graph y = -f(x) by y = -f(x)
initially graphing y
y = f(x). 10
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
2
f(x) = (x 2) 2 y = f(x)
Rules:
Function is reflected about the x-axis.
All positive values become negative
All negative values become positive.
Graph y = |f(x)| by y = | f(x) |
initially graphing
y = f(x)

y
10
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
2
f(x) = (x 2) 2 y = |f(x)|
Rules:
All negative y-values become the positive equivalent.
All positive values remain the same.
Graph y = f(-x) by y = f(-x)
y = f(x) 10
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
2
f(x) = (x 2) 2 y = f( x)
Rules:
Reflected about the y-axis.
The initial Ways to Graph complex graphs:
emphasis in this Break graph into two or more parts. (Eg: y = logex can be
topic is operating broken into y = x and y = logex)
on graphs of Multiply the y-values of each of these.
these basic

functions in order y
to produce a 10
graph of a more
complex function
(eg: the graph of y
= x logex will be 5
developed by
considering
properties of the
graphs of y = x
-10 -5 5 10 x
and y = logex).
-5
-10
y = ln x , y = x , y = x ln x .
The notations Basic Fact:
logex and ln x are logex = ln x
used to denote the
natural logarithm
of x and students
should be familiar
with both
notations.
Students will need Rules for graphing:
to be able to 1. Look for families or recognise graph type. Mark original
produce quickly a function and y = 1.
neat sketch of y
these basic 2
y
functions in order |y|
to use them in the 1
sketching of y

further functions. 2. Find x & y intercepts.
3. Find asymptotes:
Vertical
Horizontal
Oblique
4. Find Stationary points
y = 0
5. Find inflexion points
y = 0
6. Find critical points
y = 8
7. Find domain & range
8. Use symmetry.

Odd or even functions
9. Examine behaviour at extremities.
Right beside asymptotes.
As x 8
10. Table of values
Students need to y = x
examine the 12
behaviour of the y' = x

2
derivatives of y = 1
x and y = x 1/3 y' =
near x = 0 and 2 x
y
investigate the
behaviour of 4
these functions at
x = 0. They must
be familiar with 2
the term critical
point and with
the possibility of
curves having
-4 -2 2 4 x
vertical tangent
lines at points on
them.
-2
-4
1
1
2
y =
y = x 2 x
Properties of the derivative:
Horizontal asymptote: y = 0
1
3
y = x
1
y' =
3 2
3 x

y
-4 -2 2 4 x
-2
-4
1 1
3
y = x y' =
3 2
3 x
Properties of the derivative:
Horizontal asymptote: y = 0
Symmetrical about the y-axis.
Critical Point:
A critical point is where a tangent drawn to a curve is exactly
vertical. That is, where the gradient of a graph is equal to
infinity or where the first derivative returns a math error.
m=8
y = ERROR (Usually division by zero or square root of
negative)
Tangent to curve is vertical.
Typical functions y = 1 + 3sin 2x for 2 x 2
involving addition
of ordinates could
include y = 1 + 3
sin 2x for 2p = x
= 2p and y = cos
1
x p. Students
should realise that
the graph of 3 sin
2x can be
transformed to the
graph of 1 + 3 sin
2x by either
translating the

graph one unit y
upwards or 4
translating the x-
axis one unit in 3
the opposite
direction.
2
-360 -180 180 360 x
-1
-2
-3
The graph has been shifted one unit up, or the x-axis has
been moved one unit down.
Other types could f(x) = 3sin x + x
include graphing y
functions such as 10
f (x) = 3 sin x + x
for 0 < x < 4. This
may be developed
from the graphs of 5
y = x and y = 3 sin
x. The points
where y = 3 sin x
cuts the x-axis -10 -5 5 10 x
correspond to the
points where y = 3
sin x + x cuts y = -5
x. Once the shape
of the curve has
been roughed out
using addition of -10
ordinates the
position of y = x
stationary points
and points of
inflexion may be
obtained when
appropriate.

y
4
-360 -180 180 360 x
-1
-2
-3
-4
y = 3sinx
Combined Graph:
y= 3sin x cuts the x-axis at 0, 180 & 360.
y = 3sin x + x cuts y = x at the same points.
Basically, y = 3sin x is transposed over y = x.
A function such Reflection of Graphs:
y
as y = logex may
be graphed by
reflecting the
4
graph of y = logex
in the x-axis. The
graph of y = 2
2
logex may then be
obtained by a
suitable
translation. -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
-2
-4
y = ln x y = ln x y = 2 ln x
The graph is reflected in the x-axis.
The translation is achieved by moving the reflection up
two units.
The relationship Relationship between y = f(x) & y = f(x-a)
between the If a is positive, the graph is moved by a units to the right.
graphs of y = f (x) If a is negative, the graph is moved by a units to the left.
and of y = f (x a)

should be y
discussed and 2
used also in
examples
involving the
1
reflection
properties, such
as, for example,
the graph of |1
sin (x 2)|. -360 -180 180 360 x
-1
-2
y = | 1 sin(x 2) |
Sketching functions
by multiplication of
ordinates.
Graph a function y y = C . f(x)
= c.f(x) by initially y
graphing y = f(x). 10
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
2 2 1 2 2
y = (x 2) y = 3(x 2) y = (x 2) y = (x 2)
3
Rules:
If C > 1, then the function becomes steeper. All y-values
are multiplied by C.
If 0 < C < 1, then the function becomes shallower. All y-
values are multiplied by C.
If C < 0, then the function is reflected in the x-axis. Then
apply the rules for a positive value of C in terms of

steepness and shallowness.
Graph a function y = f(x).g(x)
y = f(x).g(x) by y
initially graphing y 10
= f(x) & y = g(x).
-360 -180 180 360 x
-5
-10
y = 4sinx y = x y = x (4sin x)
100 100
Rules:
Y-coordinates are multiplied together.
Sketching functions
by division of
ordinates.
Graph a function y = 1
y = 1 by
f(x)
y
f(x)
= f(x).
4
-2 2 4 6 x
-2
-4
1
2
y = 2
y = (x 2) 3 (x 2) 3
Rules:

Vertical asymptotes of inverse function where original
1
functions roots lie. That is, where f(x) = 0, y = f(x) has
an asymptote.
Where the original function is larger than 1, the inverse
function becomes smaller.
Where the original function is less than 1, the inverse
function becomes larger.
Same rules apply for when original function is less than
zero, however the values are negative.
Points at y = 1 do not move.
Where the original is less than zero, the inverse is also
less than zero.
Where y = f(x) is increasing then the inverse graph is
decreasing and vice versa.
Graph a function y = f(x)
g(x)
y = f(x) y
g(x) by
initially graphing y 8
= f(x) and y = g(x).
6
5 10 15 x
-2
2
2 y = (x 3)
y = (x 3) y = x x
Rules:
Where the denominator is equal to 0, (where the
denominator graph, g(x), cuts the x-axis), a vertical
asymptote occurs at that point.
Can be graphed using reciprocal rule . Eg: graph y = f(x)
1
and y = g(x) . Then use multiplication of ordinates.
f(x)
Where f (x) = 0, g(x) = 0.
f(x)
Where g(x) = 0, g(x) is undefined and a discontinuity

exists.
A good initial idea Behaviours:
of the behaviour y
of functions of the 3
form y = f(x)g(x)
may be obtained
2
by examining the
graphs of y = f(x)
and y = g(x) 1
independently. To
graph y = xex, the
x
functions y = x -3 -2 -1 1 2 3
and y = e x may be
-1
graphed on the
same set of axes.
Important features -2
of the graph of y =
xex can be
-3
obtained.
x x
y =x y = e y = xe
Properties:
For x < 0, xex < 0
For x = 0, xex = 0
For x > 0, xex > 0
As x -8, xex -8
As x 8, xex 0.
This enables a rough shape to be quickly sketched. The
exact positions of the stationary points and points of
inflexion may be determined by calculus.
To graph y = x (x + 1)
x2
y = x (x + 1) , the
x2
graphs of y = x, y
= x + 1 and y = x
2 can be first
sketched. The
regions in the
number plane, in
which the graph
exists, can be
then shaded,
discontinuities
determined,
points of
intersection with
coordinate axes
marked on and the
behaviour of the
function for x

8 investigated. y
Exact positions of 15
stationary points
and points of
inflexion could
lastly be 10
determined if
required.
-2 2 4 6 x
-5
y = 1
y = x y = x + 1 x 2 y = x (x + 1)
x2
Properties:
Asymptotes of the inverse function of the denominator
are also asymptotes for the overall graph.
Roots occur where the numerator functions roots occur.
To sketch y = x (x + 1) , a rough sketch of

x2
y = x (x + 1) can first be drawn and then square root
x2
rules (see below) can be used.
Drawing graphs of
the form y = [f(x)]n
Graph a function y = [ f(x)]
n
n
y = [ f(x)]
by first
graphing y = f(x).

y
10
-2 2 4 6 x
-5
x
-1 -0.5 0.5 1 1.5
-1
-2
2 2 2 2 3
y = (x 2) 3 y = ((x 2) 3) y = ((x 2) 3)
Rules:
When f(x) = 0 or 1, y remains at 0 or 1.
When f(x) > 1, y becomes larger
When 0 > f(x) > 1, y becomes smaller.
If n is even, y is always = 0.
If n is odd, y has the same sign as f(x).

Its derivative is n [f (x) ]n1 f '(x), then all stationary points
and intercepts on the x-axis of y = f (x) are stationary
points of [f(x)]n.
Graph a function y = f(x)
y = f(x) by first
graphing y = f(x).

y
10
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
2 2 2
y = (x 2) 3 y = (x 2) 3 y = (x 2) 3
Properties:
For a positive square root, only values above the x-axis
are shown.
For a negative square root, only values below the x-axis
are shown.
For the graph of y2 = f(x), both values above and below
the x-axis are graphed.
Where f(x) < 0, the square root graph does not exist.
Where f(x) > 1, the values of y are decreased.
Where 0 < f(x) < 1, the values of y are increased.
Where f(x) = 0 or 1, the values of y do not change.
If y = (f(x) then y' = f'(x) .This leads to the
2 f(x)
position of stationary points.
General approach to
curve sketching.
Use implicit Implicit Differentiation:
differentiation to
dy Differentiate each part separately.
compute dx for dy
curves given in Any part containing a y, multiply that derivative by dx
implicit form. dy
Make dx the subject.
Make y the subject in the original equation.
Sub the value for y into the derivative function.

Sample Problem:
1 1
2 2
Differentiate x + y = 4

Solution:
1 1
2 2
x + y = 4
12 12
x + y dy = 0
2 2 dx
12 12
y dy = x
2 dx 2
12
dy = x 2
12
dx 2 y
1
dy = y

2
dx
1
x 2
Rearrange original to find expression for y

1 1
2 2
y = 4 x
Sub into derivative.
1
dy = 4 x 2
dx
1
x 2
Curves graphed 4
x
could include: y = 2
4 x 1
x y
y = 2
x 1
2 x
y = x e 6
2
y = x ln (x 1)
2 2
y = x 9x 4
2 2
x + 2y = 4
sinx
y = 2
x
y = x cosx
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 x
-2
2 x
y = x e

y
-2 2 4 6 8 x
-2
2
y = x ln (x 1)
y
10
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
2 2
y = x 9x

y
10
-5 5 10 x
-5
-10
2 2
x + 2y = 4
y
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 x
-1
-2
-3
sinx
y =
x

y
0.04
0.02
-360 -180 180 360 x
-0.02
-0.04
y = x cosx
y
360
180
-360 -180 180 360 x
-180
-360
Solve inequalities Inequalities:

by sketching an
appropriate graph. For graphs where a function is expressed as being larger
or smaller than a fixed value or other graph, graph them
as separate functions.
Eg: Graph:
2
x 3 2x

y
10
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
Rules:
Graph each function separately.
Where the blue function has a higher y-value than the
red graph, the inequality is fulfilled.
Find the number Graph Solutions:
of solutions of an For the graph:
equation by 2
x 3 = 2x
graphical The number of solutions can be determined by the number
considerations. of times the graphs cross. The x-values at which they cross
are the solutions to the equation.

Topic 2
Complex Numbers
Arithmetic of
complex numbers
and solving quadratic
equations.
Appreciate the The complex number, i, is used when a quadratic equation
necessity of has no real roots.
introducing the For instance the equation x2 + 2x + 3 = 0 has no real roots
symbol i, where and therefore i must be introduced in order to solve it.
i2 = -1, in order to This occurs when the quadratic formula:
solve quadratic 2
equations. x = b b 4ac
2a returns a math error.
Write down the For the complex number z = x + iy:
real part Re(z) and
the imaginary part Real Part = Re(z) = x
Im(z) of a complex Imaginary Part = Im(z) = y
number z = x + iy.
Add, subtract and Addition of Complex Numbers:
multiply complex The real parts are added together and the imaginary parts
numbers written are added together.
in the form x + iy. (a + ib) + (c + id) = (a + c) + (b + d)i
Subtraction of Complex Numbers:

The real parts are subtracted and the imaginary parts are
subtracted.
(a + ib) (c + id) = (a c) + (b d)i
Multiplication of Complex Numbers:

Use the same rule as for two pairs of brackets. (Eg: first
term by first term, first term by second, etc)
2
(a + ib)(c + id) = ac + iad + ibc + bdi
= ac + iad + ibc bd
= (ac bd) + (ad + bc)i

Find the complex Complex Conjugate:
conjugate z of the
number x + iy. For the equation:
z = x + iy
The conjugate is:

z = x iy
Divide a complex Complex Number Division:
number a + ib by a Multiply both the numerator and the denominator by the

complex number c conjugate of the denominator.
+ id. a + ib = a + ib c id
c + id c + id c id
ac iad + ibc + bd
= 2 2 2
c id
(ac + bd) bc ad
= 2 2
+ i 2 2
c + d c + d
Write down a Complex Number Equality:

condition for a + Two complex numbers are equal is their real parts are equal
ib to be equal to c and their imaginary parts are equal.
+ id.
a + ib = c + id IF a = c & b = d
Prove that there Square Roots of Complex Numbers:
are always two Find z given z2 = a + ib.
square roots of a Let z = x + iy
non-zero complex
number.
2
(x + iy) = a + ib
2 2 2
x + 2xyi + i y = a + ib
2 2
(x y ) + (2xy)i = a + ib
Equating Real & Imaginary Parts:
2 2
x y = a
2xy = b
Solving these two equations simultaneously gives a quartic

equation whereby an expression for x2 can be derived. One
of these expressions will be negative and therefore has no
solutions. The other remaining expression will be positive
and therefore has two solutions, one positive and one
negative.
Therefore, a non-zero complex number has two square
roots.
Find the square Square Roots of Complex Numbers:

roots of a complex Example:
number a + ib. Find the square root of 3 + 4i.
Solution:
2
Let z = 3 + 4i
Let z = x + iy
2
(x + iy) = 3 + 4i
2 2
x
y
+ (2xy)i = 3 + 4i
2 2
x y = 3 & 2xy = 4
2
Multiply first equation by x
4 2 2 2
x x y = 3x
Square the second equation
2 2
xy = 4
Solve Simultaneously
4 2
x 3x 4 = 0
2 2
x
4 x + 1 = 0
2
x = 4, 1
x = 2
x = 2, y = 1 & x = -2, y = -1
i is a device by which quadratic equations with real

coefficients could be always solvable.
It could be shown that there exist 2 complex roots for a
complex number. This then leads to the discovery that a
quadratic equation with complex coefficients will have 2
complex roots.
In finding the square roots of a + ib, the statement

a + ib = x + iy, where a, b, x, & y are real, leads to the
need to solve the equations x2 y2 = a & 2xy = b.
Examining graphs of these curves for various values of a
and b will lead to the conclusion that two roots will always
exist for a complex number.

y
10
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
2 2
x y = 5 2xy = 9
Solve quadratic Expand
equations in the
form:
2
ax + bx + c = 0 ,
where a, b & c are
complex.
Geometrical
Representation
Appreciate that The complex number a + ib , represents an ordered pair of
there exists a one (a, b) on the argand diagram.
to one y
correspondence 6
between the
complex number a 5
+ ib and the
ordered pair (a, b). 4
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 x
1 + 4i
Plot the point For the complex number a + ib.
corresponding to The x-value = a
a + ib on the The y-value = b
Argand diagram.

y
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 x
1 + 4i
Define the The modulus of z is the distance from the origin to the
modulus ( |z| ) and complex number z. It can be referred to |z|.
argument (arg z)
of a complex The argument of z is the angle that a line drawn from the
number z. origin to a complex number, z, makes with the x-axis in the
positive direction. It can be referred to as arg (z).
Find the modulus The modulus of the complex number z = x + iy is:
and argument of a 2 2
|z| = x +y
complex number.
The argument of the complex number z = x + iy is:
Tan = y
x
Write a + ib in Modulus-argument form is also known as:
Modulus- Mod-Arg form
argument form. Polar form
Mod-Arg Form of a complex number:

z = r (cos + i sin )
z = r cis
Where:
2 2
r = x + y
Tan = y
x
Remember:
2 2
Mod z = |z| = |x + iy| = x + y = zz = r
Arg z = = ph z

y
x + iy
(r, )
r
y

x x
Arg z is any value of for which x = |z| cos and

y = |z| sin .
Prove basic |z1z2| = |z1||z2|
relations involving z1 |z1|
modulus and =
z2 |z2|
argument.
Arg (z1z2) = Arg z1 + Arg z2 2
Arg z1 = Arg z1 Arg z2 2

z2
2 2
|z| = |z| = x + y
2 2 2 2
zz = |z| = |z| = x + y
z + z = 2x
(z1z2) = z1 z2
z z = 2yi
Arg z = Arg z
= 1 = 2
-1 z
z
z |z|
Use modulus- Multiplication in Mod-Arg Form:

argument Let z1 = r1 cis 1 & z2 = r2 cis 2
relations to do z1z2 = r1r2 cis ( 1 + 2)
calculations
involving complex Division in Mod-Arg Form:
numbers. z 1 = r1 cis ( )
1 2
z2 r2

Recognize the y
geometrical
10
relationships
between the point
representing z and
points 5
representing
z , cz (c is real) &
iz.
-10 -5 5 10 x
-5
-10
z = 4 + 3i z = 4 3 i iz = -3 + 4i
cz = 8 + 6i where c = 2
Rules:
2
i = -1
3
i = i
4
i = 1
Multiplying a complex number by i is equal to a quarter
turn about the origin.
z is a reflection of z in the x-axis.
Multiplying a complex number by a real value, c, results
in both the real and imaginary part being multiplied by
that number.
Students should Proof #1:
be able to prove |z 1z 2| = |z 1| |z 2| & arg (z 1z 2) = arg z1 + arg z 2
these relations. Let z1 = r1cis1
z2 = r2cis2
z1z2 = (r1cis1 )(r2cis2)
= r1r2 (cos1 + isin1)(cos2 + isin2)
2
= r1r2 (cos1cos2 + isin2cos1 + isin1cos2 + i sin1sin2 )
= r1r2 [(cos1cos2 sin1sin2) + i (sin1cos2 + cos1sin2)]
= r1r2 [cos(1 + 2) + isin(1 + 2)]
= r1r2 cis(1 + 2)
|z1z2| = r1r2
|z1z2| = r1r2 = |z1||z2|
arg (z1z 2) = 1 + 2
arg ( z1z2) = 1 + 2 = arg z1 + arg z2

Proof #2:
z1 |z | z
= 1 & arg 1 = arg z 1 arg z 2
z2 |z 2| z2
Let z1 = r1 cis 1
z2 = r2 cis 2
z1 = r1 cis 1

z2 r2 cis 2
= r1 cis 1 r2 cis( 2)

r2 cis 2 r2 cis( 2)
r r cis( 2)
= 12 2 1
r2 cis 0
However, since cis 0 = 1
= r1 cis( 1 2)
r2
z r |z |
1 = 1 = 1
z2 r2 |z2|
arg z1 = 1 2 = arg z1 arg z2

z2
Proof #3:
Let z 1 = a + ib
z 1 = a ib
z 2 = c + id
z 2 = c id
z1 + z2 = (a ib) + (c id)
= (a + c) ib id
= (a + c) i (b + d)
z1 + z2 = a + ib + c + id
= (a + c) + i (b + d)
= (a + c) i (b + d)
= LHS
Proof #4:

Let z1 = a + ib
z1 = a ib
z2 = c + id
z2 = c id
z1z2 = (a ib)(c id)
2
= ac adi bci + bdi
= ac bd adi bci
= (ac bd) i (ad + bc)
z1z2 = (a + ib)(c + id)
2
= ac + adi + bci + b di
= ac bd + adi + bci
= (ac bd) + i (ad + bc)
LHS = (ac bd) i (ad + bc)
= RHS
Proof #5:
n n
|z | = |z|
Let z = rcis
n n
z = r cis n
n n
|z | = r
z = rcis
|z| = r
n n
|z| = r
n n
|z | = |z|
Proof #6:
n
arg(z ) = n argz
Let z = rcis
n n
z = r cis n
n
arg(z ) = n
z = rcis
argz =
n argz = n
n
arg(z ) = n argz
Sample Question Answer:
Q4 (1987) a.
a. Let OABC be a Let z = 3 + 2i
square on an iz = -2 + 3i
argand diagram
where O is the
origin. The points

A and C represent
the complex
numbers z and iz ?
respectively. Find
the complex
number
iz
represented by B.
b. The square is now
z
rotated about O
through 45 in an
anticlockwise
direction to
OABC. Find the O
complex numbers
represented by
the points A, B
and C. By graphical solution, B = 1 + 5i
1 + 5i = z + iz
B = z + iz
b.
To rotate a complex number about the origin by 45 is the
equivalent of multiplying a complex number by:
|z|
2
z
|z|
A' = z
|z|
B' = z + iz
|z|
C' = iz
|z|
Appreciate that a The complex number z = x + iy can be represented as a
complex number vector OZ .
can be
represented as a
vector on the
Argand diagram.
Appreciate the For the addition of two complex numbers. Use vector
geometrical addition to find the resulting vector.

significance of the For z1 + z2
addition of two Where z1 = 5 + 2i & z2 = 1 + 3i
complex numbers.
Given the points Familiarity with the vector representation of a complex
representing z 1 number is extremely useful when work on curves and loci is
and z 2, find the encountered.
position of the
point representing
z, where z = z1 +
z2.
Appreciate that That is:
the vector z = z1 + The gradient of the vector joining z1 to the origin is equal
z2, corresponds to to the gradient of the vector joining (z1 + z2) to z2.
the diagonal of a The gradient of the vector joining z2 to the origin is equal
parallelogram with to the gradient of the vector joining (z1 + z2) to the point
vectors z1.
representing z 1
and z 2 as adjacent
sides.
Given vectors z 1 Subtract the appropriate real parts and separately subtract
and z 2, construct the appropriate imaginary parts.
vectors z 1 z 2 and z2
z 2 z 1.
z1
z2 - z1
z1 z2
z 1 = 1 + 4i z 2 = 3 + 6i z2 z1 z 1 z 2
We need to be able to interpret the expression | z (a +

ib) | as the magnitude of a vector joining (a, b) to the
point representing z. Basically it is the same graph only it
is based at (a, b) instead of the origin.
Students need to recognise that the expression arg(z
z1) refers to the angle, which a vector joining the point
representing z1 to the point representing z, makes with

the positive direction of the real axis. Once again,
basically the same graph but with its base at z1 instead
of the origin.
Given z 1 and z 2,
construct the z1 z2
vector z 1z 2.
z1
z2
z 1 = 1 + 3i z 2 = 3 + 2i z1 z2
Prove
geometrically that
|z 1 + z 2| |z 1| + |z 2| . z1 + z2
z2
z1

C
r2
D
A
r1
Using z1 = 2 + 2i = A
z2 = 1 + 3i = B
z1 + z2 = 3 + 5i = C
Let |z 1| = r1
|z 2| = r2
Let AD be perpindicular to OC
ADO is a right where OA is the hypotenuse
ACD is also a right where AC is the hypotenuse
OD r1 (Pythagoras' theorem)
DC r2 (Pythagoras' theorem)
|OD| + |DC| r1 + r2
|z 1 + z 2| |z 1| + |z 2|
Prove, by Proof:
induction, that
n
(cos + i sin ) =
cos n + i sin n
for positive
integers n.

n
(cos + isin ) = cos n + isin n
Proof by Mathematical Induction:
Let n = 1
1
LHS = (cos + i sin )
= cos + i sin
RHS = cos(1) + i sin(1)
= cos + i sin
True for n = 1
Assume true for n = k
k
(cos + i sin ) = cos k + i sin k
Let n = k + 1
RHS = cos(k + 1) + i sin(k + 1)
k+1
LHS = (cos + i sin )
1 k
= (cos + i sin ) (cos + i sin )
= (cos + i sin )(cos k + i sin k)
= cos cosk sinsink + i cossink + i sincos
= (coscosk sinsink) + i (cos sink + sincos )
= cos (k + ) + i sin (k + )
= cos(k + 1) + i sin(k + 1)
= RHS
True for n = k + 1
True for all positive integer values
Be able to reproduce this.

Prove that n
(cos + isin ) = cos n + isin n
n
(cos + i sin ) = Let n = m, where m is a positive integer.
cos n + i sin n m
for negative LHS = (cos + isin )
integers n. 1
= m
(cos + isin )
= 1
cos m + isin m
= 1 cos m isin m
cos m + isin m
cos m isin m
cos m isin m
= 2 2
cos m + sin m
= cos m isin m

1
= cos( m) + isin( m)
= cos n + isin n
= RHS
Find any integer This is known a De Moivres theorem:

power of a given (r cis )
n n
= r cis n
complex number. n
= r (cos n + isin n)
Find the complex To find the nth roots of any complex number we use the
nth roots of 1 in fact:
modulus- n n
If R (cos + isin ) = r(cos + isin ) then:
argument form. 1
n + 2k
R = r and = , where k = 0, 1, 2,...(n-1)
n
Therefore the nth roots of the complex number

1
n
r (cos + i sin ) have the modulus r and arguments
given by = + 2k , where k = 0, 1, 2, (n 1).
n
Finding nth roots of 1:

n
z = 1
Let n = 5
5
z = 1
1
Using z = r cis + 2k

n
where k = 0,1,2,3,4
n
z1 = cis 0 = 1
z2 = cis 2

5
z3 = cis 4

5

z4 = cis 6

5
8
z5 = cis
5
Use the same method for zn = -1.

Sketch the nth
roots 1 on an
z2
Argand diagram.
Illustrate the
geometrical
relationship
connecting the z3
nth roots of 1.
z4
z5
The roots represent evenly spaced points on the unit

circle.
They are also the vertices of an nth sided polygon.
Given equations y
Re(z) = c, Im(z) = 4
k, sketch lines
parallel to the
appropriate axis.
2
-4 -2 2 4 x
-2
-4
Re(z) = 3 Im(z) = 2
Rules:
For Re(z) = c, the real part of z becomes the graph.
Therefore the locus of the graph is x = c.
For Im(z) = k, the imaginary part of z becomes the
graph. Therefore the locus of the graph is y = k .
Given an For this type of locus, let z1 and z2 represent points on the
equation, argand diagram. If the distance from P to z1 is equal to the
|z z 1| = |z z 2| , distance from P to z2 , then we know from plane geometry
4u Maths Summary P(z) Page 47 of 117

sketch the that the locus is the perpendicular bisector of the line joining
corresponding z1 and z2.
line.
z2
z1
z 1 = 2 + 0i z 2 = -1 + i
Rules:
Let z1 and z2 be normal Cartesian co-ordinates.
Find the midpoint of z1 and z2.
Find the gradient of the line joining z1 to z2 .
Inverse the gradient to find the gradient of the line
perpendicular to it.
Use point-gradient formula to find equation of the line
representing the point P.
Given equations These two equations represent the locus of a circle.
|z| = R and
|z z 1| = R , |z| = R
sketch the Is the locus of a circle with a centre at the origin and radius
corresponding R units.
circles.

y
-4 -2 2 4 x
-1
-2
-3
|z| = 2 |z z 1| = 2 where z 1 = 2 i
Rules:
The value of R becomes the length of the radius.
The point z1 becomes the centre of the circle.
Given equations The graph is a ray which originates from either the origin or
arg z = and z1, and goes off at angle in the positive direction.
arg (z z 1) = ,
sketch the
corresponding
rays.

z1

arg z = arg (z z 1) = where z1 = -3 + 2i
4 3
Rules:
The graph is just a ray that starts at z1
The ray makes an angle with the positive direction.
Sketch regions The graphs are sketched exactly the same way but the area
associated with in which the equation is fulfilled must be determined.
any of the above
curves. Remember:

Dotted lines for < or >.
Solid lines for = or =.
Give a geometrical Use basic names to describe the locus of a point or the
description of any region in which an equation is fulfilled.
such curves or
regions. Eg: The area inside a circle with radius 3 units and centre at
(3, 2).
Be able to graph and describe these:
Be able to understand the intersection of more than one

region or graph.
Examples need only involve replacing z by z = x + iy in

relations such as:

Topic 3
Conics
Write down the Equation of an ellipse with centre at the origin:
defining equation 2 2
x y
of an ellipse with 2
+ 2
= 1
centre at the a b
origin.
This is regarded as the defining equation.
Sketch the ellipse y
showing points of
intersection with
the axes of
symmetry. (0, b)
x
(-a, 0) (a, 0)
(0, -b)
2 2
x y
2
+ 2
= 1
a b
Find the lengths y
of the major and

minor axes and
semi-major and
semi-minor axes
of an ellipse.
x
2b
2a
Rules:
Major axis length = 2a

Minor axis length = 2b
Semi-major axis length = a
Semi-minor axis length = b
Write down the Parametric Coordinates:
parametric x = a cos
coordinates of a y = b sin
point on an
ellipse.
y
Sketch an ellipse
using its auxiliary
circle.
(acos , asin )
(acos , bsin )
x
2 2
2 2 2 x y
x + y = a 2
+ 2
= 1
a b
Equation of the Ellipse:

x = a cos
y = b sin
Equation of the Auxiliary Circle:
x = a cos
y = a sin
The parametric representation x = a cos , y = b sin is

useful in graphing the ellipse from an auxiliary circle. The
shape of an ellipse should be examined as the ratio b
a
varies.
Find the equation The definition of a conic is:
of an ellipse from PS
its focus-directrix = e
definition. PM
Where P Is any point on the conic
S The focus of the conic
M A point on the directrix

e The degree of eccentricity
For an ellipse, 0 < e < 1

Rearranging the definition of a conic gives:
PS = ePM
Therefore, the equation of an ellipse can be calculated by

substituting in appropriate values for the focus, directrix and
eccentricity.
The focus -directrix definition should be used whenever a

focal distance is to be calculated.
Find the Using the definition of a conic:
eccentricity from PS = ePM
the defining
equation of an 2
(x ae) + (y 0)
2
= e x a 2 + (y y) 2

ellipse. e
2 2 2 2
(x ae) + y = e x a
e
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
x 2aex + a e + y = e x 2aex + a
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
x ex + y = a ae
2 2 2 2 2
1 e x + y = a 1 e

2 2
x y
2 + 2 2 = 1
a a 1 e

2 2 2
b = a 1 e

Given the For the ellipse with equation:

equation of an 2 2
x y
ellipse, find the 2
+ 2 = 1
co-ordinates of a b
the foci and Foci:
equations of the (ae, 0)
directrices.
Directrices:
x = a
e

Sketch an ellipse, y
D D
marking on it the
positions of its
foci and a
x = a
directrices. e (0, b) x =
e
(-ae, 0) (ae, 0)
(-a, 0) O (a, 0) x
(0, -b)
D D
2 2
x y
2
+ 2
= 1
a b
The major properties of an ellipse are to be proven for both
a general ellipse with centre O and for ellipses with given
values of a and b.
Use implicit 2 2
x y
differentiation to 2
+2
= 1
find the equations a b
of the tangent and Implicitly Differentiating Gives:
the normal at 2x 2y dy
P(x1, y1) on an 2 + 2 = 0
a b dx
ellipse. 2y 2x
dy = 2
2
b dx a
2
dy = 2xb
dx 2
2a y
2
dy = b x
2
dx ay
Let P = (x1, y1)
2
Gradient = b x1
2
a y1

Equation of the tangent at P is:
2
b x1
y y1 = 2
(x x1)
a y1
2 2
a y1(y y1) = b x1(x x1)
2 2 2 2 2 2
a y1y a y1 = b x1x + b x1
2 2 2 2 2 2
a y1y + b x1x = b x1 + a y1
2 2
Dividing everything by a b gives
2 2
y y1 x x1 x y
2
+ 2
= 2
+ 2
b a a b
2 2
x y
Since 2 2 = 1 +
a b
x x1 yy
2
+ 21 = 1
a b
2
a y1
Gradient of the Normal = 2
b x1
Equation of the Normal:
2
a y1
y = y1 = 2 (x x1)
b x1
2 2
b x1 (y y1) = a y1 (x x1)
2 2 2 2
b x1y b x1y1 = a y1x a x1y1
Dividing everything by x1y1 gives:
2 2
b y b 2 = a x a2
y1 y1
2 2
a x b y = a2 b 2
x1 y1

Find the equations x = acos
of the tangent and dx = asin
the normal at P d
( acos , bsin ) y = bsin
on an ellipse.
dy = bcos
d
dy = bcos
dx asin
Equation of the tangent is:
y bsin = bcos (x acos )

asin
2 2
aysin absin = bxcos + abcos
2 2
aysin + bxcos = abcos + absin
Dividing Everything by ab
ysin + xcos = cos2 + sin2
b a
Tangent is:
xcos + ysin = 1
a b
Gradient of the Normal = asin

bcos
y bsin = asin (x acos )

b cos
2 2
bycos b sincos = axsin a sincos
Dividing everything by sincos
by b 2 = ax a2
sin cos
ax by = a2 b 2
cos sin
Find the equation The equation for the chord of an ellipse is:
of a chord of an x cos + + y sin + = cos
ellipse.
a 2 b 2 2
Find the equation Let PT and PQ be tangents of an ellipse.
of a chord of
contact.

Let P = (x1, y1)
Q = (x2, y2)
T = (x0, y0)
Equation of tangent PT:
x0 x1 y0 y1
2 + 2 = 1
a b
Equation of tangent PQ:
x0 x2 y y
2
+ 0 22 = 1
a b
Hence both P & Q satisfy:
x x0 yy
2
+ 20 = 1
a b
The chord of contact is useful as a tool in the proof of a

number of properties of an ellipse.
Prove that the Let P = (acos , bsin )
sum of the focal S = (ae, 0)
lengths is S' = ( ae, 0)
constant.
2 2
PS = (acos ae) + (bsin 0)
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
PS = a cos 2a ecos + a e + b sin
2 2 2
Using b = a 1 e

2 2 2 2
b = a ae
2 2 2 2
ae = a b
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
PS = a cos 2a ecos + a b + b sin
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
PS = a cos 2a ecos + a b 1 sin
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
PS = a cos 2a ecos + a b cos
2 2 2 2 2 2
PS = a
b cos 2a ecos + a
2 2 2 2 2 2
PS = a e cos 2a ecos + a
2 2 2
PS = a (1 ecos)
PS = a (1 ecos)
PS' = a (1 + ecos)
PS + PS' = 2a (A constant)
The focus -directrix definition leads to a simple proof that the

sum of the focal lengths is constant (2a).

Prove the
reflection
property, namely
that the tangent to
an ellipse at a
point P on it is
equally inclined to
the focal chords
through P.

tan = b

aesin

tan = b
aesin
tan = tan
=
RPS' = TPS
The reflection property of the ellipse may be approached

by using the result that the bisector of an angle of a
triangle divides the opposite side into two intervals,
whose lengths are in the same ratio as the lengths of the
other two sides.

Prove that the
chord of contact
from a point on a
directrix is a focal
chord.
QR is a focal chord
Prove that part of
the tangent
between the point
of contact and the
directrix subtends
a right angle at the

corresponding
focus.
Prove simple Students are not expected to do proofs, under examination
properties for conditions, which are more difficult than those involved in
both the general the Contents and Skills objectives.
2 2
x y
ellipse 2
+ 2
=1 Locus problems on the ellipse are not included.
a b
and for ellipses
with given values
of a and b.
Write down the General Equation of a Hyperbola:
defining equation 2 2
x y
of a hyperbola 2
2
= 1
with centre at the a b
origin.
Sketch the
hyperbola
2 2
x y
2
2
=1
a b ,
showing points of
intersection with
axes of symmetry
and positions of
asymptotes.
(-a, 0) (a, 0)
Rules:
Cuts the x-axis at (-a, 0) & (a, 0)
The asymptotes are: y = bx
a
The shape of the hyperbola should be examined as
b varies.
a
Find the length of Rules:
the major and Length of major axis = 2a
minor axes and Length of minor axis = 2b
semi-major and Length of semi-major axis = a
semi-minor axes Length of semi-minor axis = b
of a hyperbola.
Write down the Parametric Coordinates:

parametric x = a sec
coordinates of a y = b tan
point on the
hyperbola.
Find the equation The definition of a conic is:
of a hyperbola PS
from its focus- = e
directrix PM
definition. Where P Is any point on the conic
S The focus of the conic
M A point on the directrix
e The degree of eccentricity
For a hyperbola , e > 1

Rearranging the definition of a conic gives:
PS = ePM
Therefore, the equation of a hyperbola can be calculated by

substituting in appropriate values for the focus, directrix and
eccentricity.
The focus -directrix definition should be used whenever a

focal distance is to be calculated.
Find the Using the definition of a conic:
eccentricity from PS = ePM
the defining
equation of a 2
(x ae) + (y 0)
2
= e x a 2 + (y y) 2

hyperbola. e
2 2 2 2
(x ae) + y = e x a
e
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
x 2aex + a e + y = e x 2aex + a
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
x ex + y = a ae
2 2 2 2 2
1 e x + y = a 1 e

2 2
x y
2 + 2 2 = 1
a a 1 e

2 2 2
From before b = a 1 e

2
Since e > 1, 1 e < 0
2 2 2
b = a e 1
Given the For the hyperbola with equation:
equation of the 2 2
x y
hyperbola, find 2
2 = 1
the coordinates of a b
its foci and Foci:
equations of its (ae, 0)
directrices.
Directrices:

x = a
e
Sketch a
hyperbola, y= a y= a
marking on it the e e
positions of its
foci and
directrices.
(-ae, 0) (ae, 0)
Use implicit
differentiation to
find the equations
of the tangent and
normal at P(x1, y1)
on a hyperbola.
Gradient of Tangent

Equation of tangent to hyperbola:
x x1 yy
2
21 = 1
a b
Equation of normal to hyperbola:

2 2
a x + b y = a2 + b2
x1 y1

Find the equations
of the tangent and
normal at P
(asec , btan )
on the hyperbola.
Gradient of Tangent
Equation of tangent to hyperbola

xsec ytan = 1
a b
Equation of normal to hyperbola

by + ax = a2 + b2
tan sec

Find the equation The equation of a chord from P (asec , btan ) to
of a chord of a Q(asec , btan ) is:
hyperbola.
x cos y sin + = cos +

a 2 b 2 2
Find the equation Let the point on directrix = T(x0 , y0)
of a chord of Let P(x1, y1) & Q(x2 , y2)
contact.
Therefore the chord formulas for both are:
x0 x1 y0 y1 x0 x2 y0 y2
2
2
= 1 & 2
2
= 1
a b a b
Both equations satisfy the relation:

x x0 y y0

2
= 1 2
a b
The chord of contact is useful in proving some properties.

Prove that the Proving PS PS = k
difference of the
focal lengths is a
constant.

Prove the The same geometry theorem, as used in the case of the
reflection property ellipse, is useful in proving the reflection property of the
for a hyperbola. hyperbola.
Prove that the This proof is exactly the same for the hyperbola as it is with
chord of contact the ellipse.
from a point on
the directrix is a
focal chord.
Prove simple The major properties of the hyperbola are to be proven for
properties for the both the general hyperbola with centre O and for hyperbolae
general hyperbola with given values of a and b.
and also
hyperbolae with Students are not e xpected to do proofs, under examination
given values of a conditions, which are more difficult than those involved in
and b. the skills objectives.
Locus problems, on a hyperbola with the general equation,

are not in the course.
The Rectangular
Hyperbola
Prove that the
hyperbola with
equation
1 2
xy = a is the
2
hyperbola
2 2 2
x y = a
referred to
different axes.

A definition needs to be given for a rectangular hyperbola. It
quickly follows, from seeing the connection between
x2 y2 = a2 and xy = a2 , that the eccentricity is 2 .
Write down the Eccentricity = 2
eccentricity, Foci = (a, a)
coordinates of
foci and vertices, Directrices = x + y = a
equations of a a
Vertices = , or (c, c)
directrices and 2 2
equations of Asymptotes = x = 0, y = 0
asymptotes.
Sketch the
hyperbola D
1 2
xy = a , for
2
varying values of D
S
a, marking on
vertices, foci,
directrices and
asymptotes.

Asymptotes are the x and y axes.
Write down the When the value of c changes, substitute the new value into
parametric the following formulas:
coordinates for x = ct
the rectangular
y = c
hyperbola t
2
xy = c , for
P ct, c
varying values of t
c.
Find the equation
of the chord
joining P cp, c
p
to Q cq, c .
q
Gradient of PQ

Find the equation
of the tangent at
P.

Find the equation
of the normal at P.
Find the equation

of the chord
joining P(x1, y 1) to
Q(x2, y 2).

Therefore, the equation of the chord from P to Q is:
Find the equation

of the chord of
contact from T(x0,
y0).
Find the point of Use the equations for tangents and normals.
intersection of
tangents and of Solve these simultaneously to find the points of intersection.
normals.
Prove simple Area of the Triangle:
geometrical
properties of the
rectangular
hyperbola T
including:
o The area of the
triangle
P
bounded by a
tangent and
the asymptotes
is a constant.
o The length of R
the intercept,
cut off a
tangent by the
asymptotes,
equals twice

the distance of
the point of
contact from
the
intersection of
the
asymptotes.
Length of Intercept:
T
O R

Find loci of points Intersection of tangents:
including:
o Loci
determined by
intersection This example is for a problem whereby the points P & Q
points of must join to form a chord that passes through a given point,
tangents. in this case (0, 4).
o Loci Also, for this example, c = 3.
determined by
intersection
points of
normals
o Loci
determined by
midpoints of
intervals.

Intersection of Normals:
Midpoints of intervals:

The locus is therefore a hyperbola that shares the same
asymptotes as the original equation.
It is not intended that locus problems should include

sophisticated techniques for elimination of parameters.
Students are expected to be able to proceed from a pair of
parametric equations to obtain a locus expressible by a
linear equation (perhaps with constraints on x or y). In cases
where the resulting locus is not expressible in terms of a
linear equation, it will be given in algebraic o r geometric
form and students will verify that this form is satisfied
(perhaps with additional constraints).
Appreciate that
the various conic
sections (circle,
ellipse, parabola,
hyperbola and
pairs of
intersecting lines)
are indeed the
curves obtained
when a plane
intersects a
(double) cone
Relate the various For e = 1:
ranges of values The locus is a parabola
of the eccentricity PS = PM
e to the
appropriate conic For e < 1:
and to understand The locus in an ellipse.
how the shape of PS < PM
a conic varies as
its eccentricity For e > 1:
varies. The locus is a hyperbola
PS > PM
Appreciate that All conic sections deal with just equations in x and y.
the equations of
all conic sections

involve only
quadratic
expressions in x
and y.

Topic 4
Integration
Use a table of The table of standard integrals is supplied in an exam and
standard can be referred to for integration.
integrals.
Change an Look for constant values that can be removed, trig
integrand into an substitutions, etc.
appropriate form
by use of
algebra.
Evaluate Let u equal some portion of the integrand so that the
integrals using integrand can be rearranged to give an integrand in terms of u
algebraic and du.
substitutions.
Eg:

u du

Only simple substitutions are needed, eg u = 1 + x2,

2 4 x
v2 = 1 x in x(1 + x ) dx , dx .
1x
The effect on limits of integration is required, and definite
integrals are to be treated.
Evaluate simple Trigonometric Identities:
trigonometric 2 2
sin + cos = 1
integrals. 2 2
1 + cot = cosec
2 2
tan + 1 = sec
Sums & Differences:
sin( + ) = sincos + sin cos
sin( ) = sincos sin cos
cos( + ) = cos cos sinsin
cos( ) = cos cos + sinsin
tan( + ) = tan + tan

1 tan tan

tan( ) = tan tan

1 + tan tan
Double Angles:
sin 2 = 2sincos
2 2
cos 2 = cos sin
2
= 2cos 1
2
= 1 2sin
2tan
tan 2 = 2
1 tan
Transformations:

asin + bcos = rsin( + )
asin bcos = rsin( )
acos + bsin = rcos( )
acos bsin = rcos( + )
2 2
where r = a + b
tan = b
a
Integration of Trigonometric Functions:

Basic Trigonometric Integration:
sinax dx = 1 cosax + c

a
cosax dx = 1 sinax + c

a
sec ax dx = 1 tanax + c
2
a
Integration of Squared Trig Functions:
sin ax = 1 x 1 sin 2ax + c
2
2 4a

cos ax = 12 x + 1 sin 2ax + c
2
4a
Inverse Trigonometric Functions:
1 -1
dx = sin x + c

2 2 a
a x
1 -1
dx = cos x + c
2 2 a
a x
a -1
2 2
dx = tan x + c
a + x a
Evaluate The Substitution Method:

Integrals using
trigonometric
substitutions.
2
1 + t
t

2
1

Let t = tan
2
Ratios:
2
tan = t
2
t
sin =
2 2
1 + t
1
cos =
2 2
1 + t
Basic Ratios:
2t
sin = 2
1+t
2
1t
cos = 2
1+t
2t
tan = 2
1t
Derivative:
d = 2
dt 2
1+t
Evaluate This works for an integrand whereby one part is also to be
integrals using differentiated and the other part capable of being integrated.
integration by
parts.
u dv dx = uv v du dx
dx dx
or

uv' dx = uv vu' dx

Derive and use Recurrence Formula:

recurrence n n 1
cos x dx Let u = cos x
relations.
du = sinx (n 1) cos n 2x
n
dx
In = cos x dx
dv = cosx
n 1 dx
= cos x . cosx dx
v = sinx
n 1

n 1 n 2
In = sinxcos x + (n 1)sinxcos x . sinx dx

n 1 2 n 2
= sinxcos x + (n 1) sin x cos x dx

n 1 2 n 2
= sinxcos x + (n 1) (1 cos x)cos x dx

n 1 n 2 n
= sinxcos x + (n 1) cos x cos x dx

n 1 n 2 n
= sinxcos x + (n 1) cos x dx (n 1) cos x dx

n 1
In = sinxcos x + (n 1)In 2 (n 1)In
n 1
In + (n 1)I n = sinxcos x + (n 1)In 2
n 1
nIn = sinxcos x + (n 1)In 2
In = 1 sinxcos x + n 1 In 2
n 1
n n
Then use this new-found equation to solve an integral such
as:
6
cos x dx

Integrate rational Completing a square will often result in an inverse tan result.
functions by
completing the
square in a
quadratic
denominator.
Integrate rational Partial Fractions:
functions whose Used in situations whereby the denominator is broken into
denominators parts so it can be integrated.
have simple
linear or Example:
quadratic 5x + 1
factors.
(x 1)(x + 2)
Let 5x + 1 = a + b
(x 1)(x + 2) x 1 x+2
5x + 1 = a(x + 2) + b(x 1)
Then solve for x = -2 & 1 to find values of a & b
Then integrate:
a
+ b
x1 x+ 2

Integrals involving the Log Function:
1
dx = lnx + c
x
h'(x)
dx = ln h(x) + c
h(x)
If one of the factors in the denominator is a quadratic, then

instead of b being part of the equivalence, use a basic
linear function.
Example:
5x + 1 = a + 2bx + c
2
(x + 3x + 2)(x 2) x 2 x + 3x + 2
Note that sometimes polynomial division is needed to

solve an integrand.

Topic 5
Volumes
Appreciate that, A solids volume can be calculated by dividing it into slices or
by dividing a shells.
solid into a
number of slices Let us say V = A(x). x
or shells, whose
volumes can be By summing these together in a series and taking the limit as
simply x 0.
estimated, the
volume of the b
solid is the value
of the definite
integral obtained
V = lim
x 0
a
A(x). x
as the limit of b
the
V = A(x) dx
corresponding a
approximating
sums. This can then be adjusted so a definite integral is reached.
The purpose of this topic is to provide practical examples

of the use of a definite integral to represent a quantity (in
this case, a volume) whose value can be regarded as the
limit of an appropriate approximating sum. Emphasis is to
be placed on understanding the various approximation
methods given, deriving the relevant approximate
expression for the corresponding element of volume and
proceeding from this to expressing the volume as a
definite integral. The evaluations of infinite series by a
definite integral, or of integrals by summation of series, are
not included in this topic.
Volumes of revolution could lead, from questions involving
rotation about a coordinate axis, to rotation about a line
parallel to a coordinate axis, eg find the volume of the
solid formed when the region bounded by y = 2 x , the x-
axis and x = 4 is rotated about the line x = 4.
Always draw a sketch

Find the volume
of a solid of
revolution by
summing the
volumes of
slices with
circular cross-
sections.
Find the volume
of a solid of
revolution by
summing the
volumes of
2
slices with x = y
annular cross- From this revolution we take a typical slice, which in this case
sections. is a spherical slice.
x
radius = y
A(x)
So, therefore the area of the circle can be expressed as:

2
A(x) = y
Meaning the volume of this slice is:

2
V = y x
By summing together and taking the limit, the volume of the

whole solid is:
5
V = lim
x 0
0
A(x) x
5

V = A(x) dx
0
5
2
V = ( y ) dx
0
5
2
V = y dx
0
Since y2 = x

5

V = x dx
0
2 5
V = x
2 0
V = 25 units
3
2
This method can also be applied to rotations around the y-

axis.
Notes:
Examples involving annular shells should include
questions as difficult as the following. The region R,
2 4
bounded by: 0 x 2 , 0 y 4x x , is rotated
about the y-axis. The solid so formed is sliced by planes
perpendicular to the y-axis. Express the areas of the
cross-sections so formed as a function of y, the distance
of the plane from the origin. Use this result to calculate the
volume of the solid.
Find the volume This is used when a graph is being rotated about the y-axis
of a solid of between x = a & x = b.
revolution by
summing the Take for instance, this example, where we rotate the area
volumes of enclosed between the line y = -x + 2 a nd the x & y-axes.
cylindrical
shells.
We firstly take our typical slice. This is a cylinder with:

Radius = x
Height = y
Width = ?x
This is then unfolded to give a rectangle.
?x

y
2 x
Therefore:
V = Volume of a cylindrical shell .
2 2
V = [ (x + x) x ] y
2 2 2
V = [ (x + 2xx + x ) x ] y
2
V = y (2xx + x )
2
However, x is negligible, so:
V = 2 x y. x
Taking the limit and integrating, gives:

2
V = lim
x 0 0
V
2

V = 2 xy dx
0
Since y = x + 2
2

V = 2 x ( x + 2) dx
0
2
2
V = 2 ( x + 2x ) dx
0
Finding definite integral gives:

2
x3 2
V = 2 + x
3 0
V = 8 units
3
3
Notes:
A formula for summing by cylindrical shells should not be
learnt. Each problem should rather be developed from first
principles.

Find the volume
of a solid which
has parallel
cross-sections
of similar shape.
4
5
4
We are given the dimensions of the base and told the height
is 4m. That is, 4m right through the middle of the pyramid
from top to bottom.
For this our typical slice is:
a
b
x
c
Since the sizes of a, b and c will vary proportional to how far

along the pyramid we go, we break them down into three
single triangles.
This way, each of the values for a, b and c can be calculated

in terms of x.
Since each of these vary proportionally with x:
a b c
5 4 3
a = x b = x c = x
5 4 4 4 3 4
a = 5x b = x c = 3x
4 4

We now have values for our typical slice.
5x
x 4
x
3x
4
We then use the area of a triangle.
A(x) = 1 bh
2
A(x) = 1 3x x
2 4
Meaning the volume of the typical slice is:

2
V = 3x x
8
By summing and taking the limit:

4
2
V = lim
x 0 0
3x x
8
4
2
V = 3x dx

0 8
3x3 4
V =
24 0
3
V = 8 units
Notes:
The process of writing the limiting sum as an integral
should be extended to cases where cross-sections are
other than circular. These cases should only involve
problems in which the geometrical shape is able to be
visualised, eg prove that the volume of a pyramid of height
1 2
h on a square base of side a is a h
3

Topic 6
Mechanics
Projectile Motion
Derive the Horizontally:
equations of
motion of a
projectile
x = vt cos
.
x = v cos
..
x = 0
Vertically:
2
y = vt sin gt
2
.
y = v sin gt
..
y = g
Cartesian Equation of Motion:

2
gx 2
y = 2
(1 + tan ) + x tan
2V
Maximum Height: .
Max height occurs when y = 0
2 2
h = V sin

2g
Range:
Since projectile motion is a parabola, the time taken for the
entire journey will be double that taken to reach the maximum
height.

2
R = V sin 2

g
Maximum Range:
Max range occurs when the projectile is fired at 45.
2
R = V
g
Time of Flight:
Since projectile motion is a parabola, the time taken for the
entire journey will be double that taken to reach the maximum
height.
T = 2Vsin
g
Use equations Use the above equations and substitute in values that are
for horizontal known in order to find those that arent.
and vertical
components of
velocity and
displacement to
answer harder
problems on
projectiles.
Simple Harmonic
Motion
Write down Simple Harmonic Motion:
equations for
displacement,
velocity and
acceleration
given that a
motion is simple
harmonic.

x = a cos(nt + )
.
x = d (a cos(nt + )
dx
.
x = an sin(nt + )
..
x = d ( an sin(nt + )
dx
.. 2
x = an cos(nt + )
.. 2
x = n [acos(nt + )]
.. 2
x = n x
Use relevant Substitute in known values to the formulas above to find

formulae and unknown values.
graphs to solve
harder problems
on simple
harmonic
motion.
Use Newtons Newtons Laws:
laws to obtain Every object in a state of uniform motion tends to
equations of remain in that state of motion unless an external force
motion of a is applied to it.
particle in The relationship between an object's mass m, its
situations other acceleration a, and the applied force F is F = ma.
than projectile Acceleration and force are vectors (as indicated by
motion and their symbols being displayed in slant bold font); in
simple harmonic this law the direction of the force vector is the same
motion. as the direction of the acceleration vector.
For every action there is an equal and opposite
reaction.
This translates to a few necessary formulas:
F = ma
where F - Force in Newtons
m - Mass in kg
2
a - Acceleration in ms
p = mv
where p - Momentum
m - Mass
1
v - Velocity in ms
1 kg wt = 9.8 N
The classical statement of Newtons first and second laws

of motion should be given as an illustration of the
application of calculus to the physical world. Resolution of
forces, accelerations and velocities in horizontal and
vertical directions is to be used to obtain the appropriate
equations of motion in two dimensions.
Describe Use the above formulas and represent situations using them.
mathematically
the motion of Students should be able to represent mathematically,
particles in motions described in physical terms. They should be able
situations other to explain, in physical terms, features given by
than projectile mathematical descriptions of motion in one or two
motion and dimensions.
simple harmonic
motion.
Mathematical
Descriptions of
Motion
.. ..
Given x = f(x) If x = f(x), use d 1 v2
and initial dx 2
conditions 2
2
f(x) = d 1 v
derive v = g(x) dx 2
and describe the 1 2
resultant motion. 2
v = f(x) dx

Recognise that a Look for equations that look like the ones above.
motion is simple
harmonic given Also, if the motion needs to be proven, integrate or
an equation for differentiate to show that:
.. 2
either x = n x
acceleration,
velocity or
displacement,
and describe the
resultant motion.
Resisted Motion
along a horizontal
line
Derive, from Remembering F = ma,
Newtons laws of n
If resistance is kv
motion, the n
equation of a = kv
motion of a n
F = mkv
particle moving
in a single
direction under a
resistance
proportional to a
power of the
speed.

..
Derive an If x = f(t), use dv
expression for dt
velocity as a dv = f(t)
function of time dt

v = f(t) dt

..
If x = f(v), use dv if initial conditions are (t,v)
dt
dv = f(v)
dt
dt = 1
dv f(v)
t = 1 dv

f(v)
Then rearrange
Derive an .. 2
If x = f(x), use d 12 v
expression for dx
velocity as a d 1 v2 = f(x)
function of
dx 2
displacement.
1 2
2
v = f(x) dx

Derive an .. 2
d x
expression for If x = f(t), use 2
displacement as dt
2
a function of d x = f(t)
time. 2
dt
Then intergrate twice
Motion Vertically
Upwards
Derive, from Remember F = ma,
.. n
Newtons laws of x = (g + kv )
motion, the n
equation of F = m (g + kv )
motion of a
particle, moving Typical cases to consider include those in which the
vertically resistance is proportional to the speed and to the square
upwards in a of the speed.
medium, with a Analysis of the motion of a particle should include
resistance R consideration of the behaviour of the particle as t becomes
proportional to large. Graphs can offer assistance in understanding the
the first or behaviour of the particle.
second power of The origin should be placed at the point of projection.
its speed. The maximum height reached by the particle can be
obtained from the expression relating speed and
displacement.
The time taken to reach this maximum height can be

obtained from the expression relating speed and
displacement.
The time taken to reach this maximum height can be
obtained from the expression relating speed and time.
Problems should include cases where the magnitude of
1 2
the resistance is given. (eg: R = v )
10
..
Derive an If x = f(t), use dv
expression for dt
velocity as a dv = f(t)
function of time dt

v = f(t) dt

..
dt
dv = f(v)
dt
dt = 1
dv f(v)
t = 1 dv

f(v)
Then rearrange
Derive an .. 2
d x
displacement as dt
2
time. 2
dt
Solve problems Use the above equations and substitute in values.
by using the
expressions
derived for
acceleration,
velocity and
displacement.
Motion of a Particle
Falling Downwards
Derive, from Remember, F = ma
Newtons laws of a = g kv
n
motion, the
equation of F = ma
n
motion of a F = m (g kv )
particle falling in
a medium with a Cases, other than where the resistance is proportional to
resistance R the first or second power of the speed, are not required to
proportional to be investigated.
the first or Students should place the origin at the point from which

second power of the particle initially falls. If the motion of a particle both
its speed. upwards and then downwards is considered then the
position of the origin should be changed as soon as the
particle reaches its maximum height. Care must then be
taken in determining the correct initial conditions for the
downward motion.
The time taken for the particle to reach the ground should
be found .
Problems should include a study of the complete motion of
a particle, projected vertically upwards, which then returns
to its starting point. For specific resistance functions,
comparisons should be made between the times required
for its upward and downward journeys and between the
speed of projection and the speed of its return.
Determine the Terminal velocity occurs when acceleration has ceased.
terminal velocity n
g kv = 0
of a falling n
particle, from its g = kv
equation of n
v = g
motion. k
v = n
g
k
Derive Time:
..
expressions for If x = f(t), use dv
velocity as a dt
function of time dv = f(t)
and for velocity dt
as a function of

displacement. v = f(t) dt

..
dt
dv = f(v)
dt
dt = 1
dv f(v)
t = 1 dv

f(v)
Then rearrange
Displacement:
.. 2
If x = f(x), use d 12 v
dx
d 1 v2 = f(x)

dx 2
1 2
2
v = f(x) dx


Derive an .. 2
d x
displacement as dt
2
time. 2
dt
Solve problems Use above equations and substitute in known values.
by using the
expressions
derived for
acceleration,
velocity and
displacement.
Circular Motion
Define angular Angular Velocity:
velocity of a
point moving
about a fixed
point.
.
= d =
dt
Deduce, from Through differentiation
this definition of = d
angular velocity, dt
expressions for . 2 ..
= d2 =

angular
acceleration of a dt
point around a
fixed point.
Prove that the Velocity:
instantaneous v = Change in arc AB
velocity of a Change in time
particle moving
v = d R
in a circle of dt
radius R, with
v = Rd

angular velocity dt
, is R .
v = R
Prove that the

tangential and
normal
components of
the force acting
on a particle

moving in a
circle of radius
R, with angular
velocity . , need
to be Mr and
2
mR
respectively.
Uniform Circular
Motion
Write down the
formula
appropriate for a
particle moving
around a circle
with uniform
angular velocity.

Apply these Use above equations, substitute in known values.
formulae to the
solution of
simple problems
Conical Pendulum
Use Newtons Conical Pendulum:
law to analyse
the forces acting
on the bob of a
conical

pendulum.
Vertically:
T cos mg = 0
Radially:
2
2
T sin = mv = mr
r
Derive results
2 2
Tension = 4 mn l

g
h = 2


2
tan = v
rg
Discuss the The vertical depth of the bob below the pivot point is
behaviour of the independent of the length of the string and the mass of the
pendulum as its bob.
features vary. As the speed of the particle increases, it rises upwards.
Apply derived Use above formulas and substitute in known values.
formulae to the
solution of
simple
problems.
Banked Circular
Track
Use Newtons
laws to analyse
the forces acting
on a body,
represented by a
particle, moving
at constant Vertically:
speed around a N cos F sin mg = 0
banked circular Radially:
track. 2
N sin + F sin = mv
r
Derive results

2
h = vd
Rg
2
tan = v
Rg
Calculate the
optimum speed
around a banked
track given the
construction
specifications.
v = Rg tan

Calculate the
forces acting on
a body,
travelling around
a banked track,
at a speed other
than the
optimum speed.
2
F = mv cos mg sin
r

Topic 7
Polynomials
Integer roots of
polynomials with
integer coefficients.
Prove that, if a The general form of a polynomial is:
polynomial has n n 1 n 2
a nx + a n 1x + a n 2x + ..... + a1x + a0
integer
coefficients and a 0 is the constant term
if a is an integer
root, then a is a If a is an integer root, then a is a factor of a0 .
divisor of the
constant term.
Test a given This is known as the remainder theorem.
polynomial with
integer If P(a) = 0 then:
coefficients for (x a) is a factor of P(x)
possible integer a is a root of P(x)
roots.
Example:
2
P(x) = x 6x + 5 = 0
Testing x = 5
2
P(5) = 5 65+5 = 0
Since P(5) = 0 , (x 5) is a factor of P(x)
All possible integer roots of polynomials lie among the
positive and negative integer divisors of its constant term.
However, not all polynomials contain integer coefficients.
If P b = 0 then:
a
(ax b) is a factor of P(x)
b is a factor of P(x)
a
Where b is a factor of the constant term and a is a factor of
the leading term.
Example:
3 2
P(z) = 2z 3z + 2z 3 = 0
z could potentially be any of the following:
3 , 1 , 32 , 12
In this case, P 3 = 0.
2
(2z 3) is a factor of P(z)

Multiple Roots
Define a multiple A polynomial of degree n has n roots, but they are not
root necessarily all different.
We say that a is a root of multiplicity r when the factor

(z a) occurs r times.
Therefore:
r
P(x) = (z a) .Q(x)
Write down the The order of a root is the number of times it appears as a
order factor.
(multiplicity) of a
root.
Prove that if r
P(x) = (x a) .S(x) where r > 0 and S(a) 0
r
P(x) = (x a) .S(x) r
, where r > 1 and u = (x a)
S(a) 0 , then du = r (x a)r 1
P'(x) has a root a dx
of multiplicity v = S(x)
(r 1).
dv = S'(x)
dx
r r 1
P'(x) = (x a) .S'(x) + r (x a) .S(x)
r 1
= (x a) [(x a)S'(x) + r S(x)]
r 1
= (x a) Q(x)
Solve simple These can include examples whereby the derivative of a
problems function must first be established.
involving
multiple roots of
a polynomial.
State the The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra asserts that every
fundamental polynomial P(x) of degree n over the complex plane has at
theorem of least one complex root.
algebra.
Deduce that a n n 1
Let P(z) = a nz + a n 1z + .... + a 1z + a 0 = 0
polynomial of
degree n > 0, Let z1 be a root. So P(z1) = 0
with real or P(z) = (z z1)Qn 1(z)
complex where Qn 1(z) is a polynomial of degree (n 1)
coefficients, has
exactly n By continuing this pattern we get:
complex roots, P(z) = a n(z z1)(z z2)....(z zn) where an 0
allowing for
multiplicities. Using this result, the factor theorem should now be used to
prove (by induction on the degree) that a polynomial of
degree n > 0 with real or complex coefficients has exactly n
complex roots.

Factoring
Polynomials
Recognise that a A real polynomial can be written as a product of real linear
real polynomial and quadratic factors.
of degree n can
be written as a Example:
product of real 3 2
P(z) = 2z 3z + 2z 3
linear and real
quadratic Using the remainder theorem:
factors. P 3 = 0
2
Factor a real
polynomial into 2z 3 is a factor of P(z)
a product of real 2
z + 0z + 1
linear and real 3 2
quadratic 2z 3 |2z 3z + 2z 3
factors. 3 2
2z 3z
2
0z + 2z
2
0z + 0z
2z 3
2z 3
0
2
P(z) = (2z 3)(z + 1)
Recognise that a A complex polynomial of degree n can be written as a product
complex of n complex linear factors.
polynomial of
degree n can be Using the example from above:
written as a 2
P(z) = (2z 3)(z + 1)
product of n 2 2
complex linear = (2z 3)(z i )
factors. = (2z 3)(z i)(z + i)
Factor a
polynomial into As you can see above, the complex roots of real
a product of polynomials occur in conjugate pairs.
complex linear
factors. That means that if (z i) is a factor of P(x), (z + i) is also a
factor.
Students should be able to factor cubic and quartic

polynomials over both the real and complex planes.
There are instances where a polynomial cannot be factorised

using the remainder theorem. There are a number of
alternatives that need to be familiarised:
Difference of cubes:
3
z 1 =0
2
(z 1)(z + z + 1) = 0

Difference of two squares:
4
z =1
4
z 1=0
2 2
(z 1)(z + 1) = 0
z = 1, i
Completing the square:
4
z = -1
4
z +1=0
4 2 2
z + 2z + 1 2z = 0
2 2 2
(z + 1) 2z = 0
2 2
(z + 1 2 z)(z + 1 + 2 z) = 0
2 2
(z 2 z + 1)(z + 2 z + 1) = 0
Any combination of two or more of the above methods.
Write down a If given the roots, say a, b & c.
polynomial given
a set of P(x) = (x a)(x b)(x c)
properties
sufficient to
define it.
Solve Solve as shown above.
polynomial
equations over There is, however, another method that can be employed.
the real and
complex planes. De Moivres Theorem:
If z = r(cos + isin) then
n n n
z = r (cos + isin)
n n
z = r (cosn + isinn)
n n n
r (cos + isin) = r (cosn + isinn )
Example:
Use De Moivre's theorem to express cos 3 in terms of cos
and sin 2 in terms of sin.
cos 3 + i sin 3
3
= (cos + i sin)
3 2 2 3
= cos + 3 i cos sin 3cossin i sin
Equating Real & Imaginary parts:
3 2
cos 3 = cos 3cossin
3 2
= cos 3cos(1 cos )
3
= 4cos 3cos

2 3
sin 3 = 3cos sin sin
2 3
= 3(1 sin )sin sin
3
= 3sin 4sin
Roots &
Coefficients of
Polynomials
Write down the Quadratic Equations:
relationships 2
If & are roots of ax + bx + c = 0 then:
between the
roots and + = b
a
coefficients of
polynomial = c
equations of a
degrees 2, 3 & 4.
Cubic Equations:
3 2
If , & are roots of ax + bx + cx + d = 0 then:
++ = b
a
+ + = c
a
= d
a
Quartic Equations:
4 3 2
If , , & are roots of ax + bx + cx + dx + e = 0 then:
+++ = b
a
+ + + + + = c
a
+ + + = d
a
= e
a
Use these Quadratic:
relationships to 2
P(x) = x (sum of roots )x + (Product of roots )
form a
polynomial Cubic:
equation given 3 2
its roots. P(x) = x (Sum of roots )x + (Sum of roots 2 at a time )x
(Product of roots )
Quartic:
4 3 2
P(x) = x (Sum of roots )x + (Sum of roots 2 at a time )x
(Sum of roots 3 at a time )x + (Product of roots )

Form an Roots are: m, m & m
equation, whose
roots are a m( + + ) = mb
a
multiple of the 2
2
roots of a given m ( + + ) = m c
equation. a
3
3
m = m d
a
2 3
3 2
x + mb x + m c x + m d = 0
a a a
3 2 2 3
ax + mbx + m cx + m d = 0
Form an Roots are: 1 , 1 & 1
equation, whose
roots are the 1 +1+1
reciprocals of
the roots of a
given equation. = + +

=c a
a d
1 +1+1 = c
d
1 + 1 + 1

++
=

= b a
a d
1 + 1 + 1 = b
d
1 = a
d
3 2
x + cx + bx + a = 0
d d d
3 2
dx + cx + bx + a = 0

Form an Roots are: + k , + k & + k
equation, whose
roots differ by a + + + 3k = b + 3k = b + 3ak
a a
constant from
the roots of a ( + k )( + k ) + ( + k )( + k ) + ( + k )( + k )
given equation. 2 2 2
= + k + k + k + + k + k + k + + k + k + k
2
= + + + 2k ( + + ) + 3k
2
= c + 2k b + 3k
a a
2
= c 2bk + 3k = c 2bk + 3ak
2
a a a
2
Sum of Roots Two at a time = c 2bk + 3ak
a
( + k )( + k )( + k )
2 2 2 3
= + k + k + k + k + k + k + k
2 3
= + k ( + + ) + k ( + + ) + k
2
3
= d + kc + k b + k
a a a
2 3
= d + kc k b + ak
a
2 3

= d kc + k b ak
a
2 2 3
x + b 3ak x + c 2bk + 3ak x + d kc + k b ak
3 2
= 0
a a a
3 2 2 2 3
ax + ( b 3ak)x + ( c 2bk + 3ak )x + (d kc + k b ak ) = 0
Form an 2 2
Roots are: &
equation, whose 2 2
roots are the +
squares of the 2
roots of a given = ( + ) 2
equation. 2
= b 2c
a a
2
2c
b
= 2
a a
2
b 2ac
= 2
a

2 2 2
= c
a
2
c
= 2
a
2 2
x + 2ac b c
2
2 x + 2 = 0
a a
2 2 2 2
a x + (2ac b )x + c = 0
Partial Fractions
Write a fraction
in terms of
quotient and
remainder.
2
f(x) = 2x + 3x + 8
x+ 2
2x 1
2
x + 2 2x + 3x + 8
2
2x + 4x
x+8
x2
10
f(x) = Q(x) + R(x)
B(x)
f(x) = (2x 1) + 10
x+ 2
Write a fraction
in terms of
distinct linear
factors.
x+ 3
f(x) = 2
x 6x + 5
x+3 a + b
2
x 6x + 5 x 5 x 1
x + 3 = a(x 1) + b(x 5)
Let x = 1
4 = -4b
b = -1
Let x = 5
8 = 4a
a = 2

x+3 2 1

2
=
x 6x + 5 x 5 x 1
Write a fraction
in terms of
distinct linear
factors and a
simple quadratic
factor. 2
6x 53x + 42 a bx + c
2
+ 2
(2x 3)(2x 5x 3) 2x 3 2x 5x 3
2 2
6x 53x + 42 = a(2x 5x 3) + (bx + c)(2x 3)
Let x = 1.5
-24 = -6a
a = 4
Let x = 0
42 = -12 3c
c = -18
Let x = 1
-5 = (-6 4) + (b 18)(-1)
-19 = b 18
b = -1
4 x + 18
f(x) = 2
2x 3 2x 5x 3
Write a fraction
in terms of the
product of two
different simple
quadratic
factors. 3 2
f(x) = 2x 2+ 7x 24x + 3
(x 1)(x + 1)
3 2
2x + 7x 4x + 3 ax + b + cx + d
2 2 2 2
(x 1)(x + 1) x 1 x +1
3 2 2 2
2x + 7x 4x + 3 = (ax + b)(x + 1) + (cx + d)(x 1)
Let x = 1
8 = 2(a + b)
a +b = 4 (1)
Let x = 0
3 = bd (2)

Let x = 2
39 = 5(2a + b) + 3(2c + d) (3)
Let x = -1
12 = 2(b a)
ba = 6 (4)
(1) into (4)
4 a a =6
-2a = 2
a = -1
b = 5
d = 2
Sub a, b & d into (3)
39 = 15 + 6c + 6
6c = 18
c = 3
3x + 2 x5
f(x) = 2 2
x +1 x 1
Apply these Refer to integration summaries.

partial fraction
decompositions
to the integration
of
corresponding
functions.

Topic 8
Harder 3 Unit
Circle Geometry
Solve more See attached sheet.
difficult
problems in
geometry.
Induction
Carry out proofs Mathematical induction occurs in four steps.
by mathematical
induction in STEP 1) Prove the statement is true for the lowest possible
which S(1), integer value, usually n = 1.
S(2)S(k) are
assumed to be STEP 2) Assume the result is true for n = k.
true in order to
prove S(k+1) is STEP 3) Use algebraic manipulation to prove the result is true
true. for n = k + 1.
Use
mathematical STEP 4) Have a concluding statement.
induction to Since the formulas was proven true for n=1, it was
prove results in assumed true for n=k. It was then proven true for
topics which n=k+1, meaning it is true for all n = 1.
include
geometry,
inequalities,
sequences and
series, calculus
and algebra.
Inequalities
Prove simple If a > b then:
inequalities by 2
use of the (a b) > 0
definition of a > 2 2
a 2ab + b > 0
b for real a and 2 2
b. a +b > 2ab
Prove further
results involving
inequalities by
logical use of
previously
obtained
inequalities.

4umaths Summary

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

4umaths Summary

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

4u Maths Summary

4u Maths Summary Page 1 of 117

Harder 3 Unit 117

4u Maths Summary Page 2 of 117

Graph a quadratic Axis of symmetry: x = b

Graph a cubic Steps:

4u Maths Summary Page 3 of 117

4u Maths Summary Page 4 of 117

4u Maths Summary Page 5 of 117

4u Maths Summary Page 6 of 117

4u Maths Summary Page 7 of 117

-360 -180 180 360 x

-360 -180 180 360 x

Trigonometric Graph Transformations:

4u Maths Summary Page 8 of 117

-360 -180 180 360 x

y = 2 + 3sin (2x + 10)

The same properties apply for cosine curves.

-360 -180 180 360 x

4u Maths Summary Page 9 of 117

-1.5 -1 -0.5 0.5 1 1.5 x

Basically, an inverse trig graph is the equiva lent of switching

4u Maths Summary Page 10 of 117

4u Maths Summary Page 11 of 117

-360 -180 180 360 x

y = 2cosx y = 3sinx y = 2cosx + 3sinx

4u Maths Summary Page 12 of 117

4u Maths Summary Page 13 of 117

4u Maths Summary Page 14 of 117

4u Maths Summary Page 15 of 117

behaviour of the y' = x

4u Maths Summary Page 16 of 117

4u Maths Summary Page 17 of 117

-360 -180 180 360 x

4u Maths Summary Page 18 of 117

-360 -180 180 360 x

4u Maths Summary Page 19 of 117

4u Maths Summary Page 20 of 117

-360 -180 180 360 x

4u Maths Summary Page 21 of 117

4u Maths Summary Page 22 of 117

4u Maths Summary Page 23 of 117

To sketch y = x (x + 1) , a rough sketch of

4u Maths Summary Page 24 of 117

When f(x) = 0 or 1, y remains at 0 or 1.

When f(x) > 1, y becomes larger

When 0 > f(x) > 1, y becomes smaller.

If n is odd, y has the same sign as f(x).

4u Maths Summary Page 25 of 117

Make y the subject in the original equation.

Sub the value for y into the derivative function.

4u Maths Summary Page 26 of 117

Rearrange original to find expression for y

4u Maths Summary Page 27 of 117

4u Maths Summary Page 28 of 117

4u Maths Summary Page 29 of 117

-360 -180 180 360 x

-360 -180 180 360 x

Solve inequalities Inequalities:

4u Maths Summary Page 30 of 117

4u Maths Summary Page 31 of 117

Subtraction of Complex Numbers:

Multiplication of Complex Numbers:

= (ac bd) + (ad + bc)i