Jacqueline Van Lai HSC Chemistry James Ruse Agriculture

Module 01 High School MMIX

HSCChemistrv
Productionof Materials
l. Fossilfuelsprovideboth energyand raw materialssuchas ethyleneo
for
the productionof other substances
o Identif'tlrcirrclL
r su u rccol'cthr lc n1el' o rrt lre c n rc k in stolrc
rst,ial f f ra c t io n s f ro u rt h c re f in i n g o f
petfoleLlnr
Petroleum,or crudeoil, is a mixtureof hydrocarbons of varyingcarbonchainlengththat must be
separatedusingfractionaldistillation.The globaldemandfor lighterfractionssuchasetheneis much
higherthanthe demandfor heavyfractions.However,fractionaldistillationusuallygivesa much
higheryield of heavyfractions.To meetthe demands, theseheavyfractionsundergocracking,using
heatand/orcatalyststo breakthemdown into shorter,moreusefulfractions.

Therearetwo typesof cracking:

- Breaksdown longmoleculesusinghightemperatures of around700-900"C.

- It candecompose alkanesinto ethylenecompletely.
- A mixtureof alkaneswith steamis passedthrougha very hot metaltube in the absenceof air
to decompose the alkanes

- Long alkanes(C 15-C25)arebrokendown into an alkaneand an alkene.

- As its nameimplies,it usesa catalystknownaszeolites(crystalline aluminoscilicates)
and
carriedout at a temperature
of around500"C.
- This processrequireslessheatandthusenergythanthermalcracking,but it cannot
decompose largealkanesinto ethylenecompletely,so it is insufficientalone.
heat
/zeolite
crH rr<r, , CrH orr,* CrHrrrl
Ethvlene (CzHq),or commonlyknown as ethene,is alwaysa by productof the cracking.It is
removedfrom otherproductsby fractionaldistillation.Thus,catalyticcrackingof petroleumhas
becomethe majorindustrialsourceof ethylene.

' Idcntif,rthatethrlette.
beciir.rse
of thc'Irighreactiritlof itscloLrble
bond^is readilvtransfbrrned
into nranvusefirlproducts
' ldentil,r'that
ethvlelie
servcsasa monorrrer fiorl lvhichpolvmelsarernade
In general,alkenesaremuchmorereactivethanalkanesbecausethey possess doublebondswith
high electrondensity.The doublebondscaneasilyopenup to createtwo singlebonds,allowing
additionalatomsto bond.This typeof reactionis knownasaddition reaction.

Ethylenecanundergomanytypesof additionreaction,somearelistedhere:
Process Reactant Catalyst Product
Hydrogenation Hz Nickel,palladium Ethane
Halosenations Iz None Diiododoethane
Ethylene+ HBr l-bromoethane
Hydrohalogenation None
HCI l-chloroethane
Hydration Water Dil. Sulfuricacid Ethanol
 Jacqueline Van Lai HSC Chemistry James Ruse Agriculture
Module 01 High School MMIX

' Identi l -polvcthr,le

r p o lrrre la n ccl rp la int h et t re a n inosf t h ist e rt l
naesan a rld ition
Polvmersarehigh molecularweightmaterialsformedfrom simplemolecules calledmonomers.
Many identicalmonomerscombineto form a polymerin a processknownas polymerisation. Each
polymercontainsbetweenfew hundredto thousands of monomerunits.Polymerisation canoccur
andfalls intotwo groups:
naturallyor synthetically
- Additional polymerisation: when unsaturated monomersform a singlelargemoleculewithout
the lossof anyatoms.
- Condensationalpolymerisation:when unsaturated monomersform a singlelargemoleculeby
eliminatingsmallmolecule,suchaswater.
Polvethvleneis an additionalpolymerform ethylenemonomersthatjoin togetherby openingup its
doublebonds.Polyethylene hasthe generalformulaCH:(CHz)"CH3,wheren couldbe a numberin
thethousandsto hundreds ofthousands.

n Outline thc stepsin tlie productiono1'pollcth-r'lene as rilr exarnpleof cotnttrercialllattcl

inclustriaI pol1n'rer
lf irnporlartt
Polyethylene is one suchpolymerthat is very importantboth commerciallyand industriallyin our
society.Thereareseveralstepsinvolvedin producingpolyethylene:
- High molecularweightfractionsareextracted from petroleumthroughfractionaldistillation.
- Thesefractionsthen undergocatalyticcrackingto produceethyleneas a by product.
- Throughadditionpolymerisation, manyethylenemonomersarechemicallyjoined to produce
a polymer.
In polymerisation, thereare3 stages:
l) Initiation: ethylene,underhigh temperature is mixed with an initiator,suchas peroxidesto
producefreeradicals.Radicalsarean atomor a groupof atomsthat hasan unpairedelectron,
they arehighly reactive.
R-O-O-R ---+ 2R-O.
Peroxide Reactivefreeradicals
These highly reactiveradicalsreact with anotherethylenemonomerto form a monomer
radical
R-O. + CtHt ---+ R-O-CHzCHz.
Free Radical + Monomer ActivatedMonomerRadical
2) Propagation:the ethylenemonomerradicalreactswith manymore ethylenemonomersto
increasethe carbonchainlengthand form a polymerradical.
R-O-CHzCHz. + nlC2Hal ---+ R-O-[CH2]4CH2'
MonomerRadical + n monomers Polymerfree radicals.
3) Termination:the polymer radicalscollideandreact,forminga longercarbonchain.This is a
completelyrandomprocessso the lengthof the carbonchainscanvary greatly.

t1 t1 /H f.H l -r H H .,H H .H H
i ii I l\ t | \i I
R -O -C .-ci -g C;c c- c c;c c+ c - c- o R
I \r l i i ',,, i ,.,
,,,i i I
HHHHHH} I H H H i I H

,,l H, , ,
o r m o t*:tn r p ly "*t C "j {,: r: v{'rv ta:{i r,- i !-}tcfl {.r
lr,.l
\ l-l H ,/n
 Jacqueline Van Lai HSC Chemistry James Ruse Agriculture
Module 01 High School MMIX

of
There are two types of polyethylenethat can be produceddependingon the conditions
bothutilisesthe sameprocessasoutlinedpreviously.
polymerisation,
1) Gas Phase/Ilish PressureProcess
- High pressure (up to 3000atmosphere) andhightemperatures (up to 300"c)
- Initiatorusedis peroxides, a compoundcontaininga -o-o- group.
- The reactionmust be kept cool as it producessignificantheat.
- The polymerformedis calledLow Densitv Polvethvlene(LDPE).
- It hassignificantchainbranching, thuscannotbe packedclosely.
- Weaker dispersion forces,thusflexible,softandlowertensilestrength
- Readilymeltedand mouldedinto plasticbags,bottlesand etc'

2) Ziesler-Natta/LowDensitvProcess
- Low pressure (20 atm)andlow temperatures of only about60oC'
- Initiatorusedis a catalystcontaininga mixtureof titanium(lll)chloride(TiCl3).
- The polymerformedis calledHieh Densitv Polvethvlene(HDPE).
- lt forms unbranched chainsthat can be packedclosely
- Stronser dispersionforces,thus harder,denserand strongertensilestrength
- Chemicallyresistant,suitablefor petroltanks,binsand pipes.

UsesRelatedto Properties:

- Plasticcling wrap;becauseit is flexible,clearand nontoxic

- Shoppingbags;it is cheapandflexible
- Milk bottles,six packrings;non toxic,cheap'andrecyclable

- Kitchenutensils:strongdispersionforces,greaterstrength
- Bowls, bucketsandbins:rigid, hardand inflexible
- Pipes,buildingmaterials:rigid,hardandunreactive

. ascommercialllsignilicant
thefbllor.r'ing
Identit-r' rnonomers:
- Vini I ch loride
- Styrette
atlclcolrlnonnalnes
By boththeirsvsternatic
, Describe theuseso1'thepolrmersrnaclell'onrtheirbovelloltoltlersin terlnsof theirpfoperties.

Commonname:vinyl chloride
Molecularformula:CHr:61-tat
Structure:vinyl chloride is an ethylenemoleculein which a hydrogenatom is replacedby a
chlorineatom.
HHHHHHHT-I
(:. (-- + (- t-' P0Yrl*rrsa:r'.,r
../ '\ .r' \

H (-l H t- l
H { -l H ( -|
i , i nyich l nri d *
lrioride
1-rr:rly'rirrylr
c lrloroethene
l pyrr_
i
 Jacqueline Van Lai HSC Chemistry James Ruse Agriculture
Module 01 High School MMIX

Commonname:styrene
Molecularformula:CHz:CHCoHs i:

Structure:styreneis an ethylenemoleculein whichoneof its hydrogen li

n

atomsis replacedwith a benzene ring.A benzenering is a 6 carbonring l .51r i ! t:!r r : i

with alternatingdoublebonds.The doublebondsin benzene arenot

reactivelike the onesin ethylene.

HHHH
'\,tt'.,t HHH
it-riynr*ri-r*iicl' | | '
r-. '-
I r-'
1-. !.-. T !-. '.
\, {-. - (: (- - (-'
s.' \

H {-eH ., H ilr H: | |
H (-1rH5 H i- 6H1
ttyrerl*
elhenyf befizrrrP ,-rolvrtvrenF

Vinyl Chloride Styrene

High dueto the largemolecular Higherdueto the evenlarger
Hardness
weishtof chlorineatoms molecularweishtof benzenerinss
Low due to the large molecular
Low dueto the largemolecularweight
Flexibilitv weight of chlorine atoms.But can be
rings
of benzene
varied bv introducinsadditives.
C-Cl bondis vulnerable to UV light,
C-C andC-H bondis resistant to UV
PVC materialsmustbe usedindoors
Limitations light andheat,permittinguseboth
unlessa UV stabiliseris addedto
preventdecomposition outdoors andindoors.
High, styreneis producedby blowing
gasthroughliquidpolystyrene. The
Heat tolerance Low, decomposes underUV light.
gasestrappedin the foam makesit a
excellentIishtweisht insulator
Waterresistant,doesnot conduct
Other Excellentheat,cold and electrical
electricityor heat,flame resistant,
insulator.Few crystals,canbe made
Properties unreactive andeasilyshaped. Canbe
transparent
madesofterusingplasticisers.
Rigid PVC:waterpipes,guttering, Disposableinsulatingcups,Styrofoam
electricalconduitfloor tiles. cups,eskies,coreof surfboards, CD
Common uses
FlexiblePVC: gardenhose,bottoms casesandaudiocassettes (if
thathold oil andorsanicmaterials crvstallisedand madetransoarent)

UsesRelatedto Properties:

- CD casesandcassette hard,rigid, easilyshapedand goodinsulator

tapes:transparent,

- Styrofoamcups:it is light anda goodthermalinsulatoras its full of air

- Waterpipes,guttering:very rigid andhard,easilyshapedandcanbe UV resistant

- Gardenhoses:flexible,durable,canbe softenedwith plasticisers

andmadeUV
resistant
with additives
 Jacqueline Van Lai HSC Chemistry James Ruse Agriculture
Module 01 High School MMIX

2. Somescientistsresearchthe extractionof materialsfrom biomassto

reduceour dependence on fossilfuels
. c o rn p o u n Jpsrc s ' : n t lr
ss n e e clfbl rlte rnati\csor.rrcoe1s-t lre
D i scr .rthc cl the
o b t a in e llrrrn
petrochcm icalinclrrstr'1
Petrolchemicals arechemicalsderivedfrom petroleum, theyarethe raw materialsthatarerequired
for the productionof polymers,suchas ethyleneand propenewhich formsthe startingmaterialfor
manyproductsandindustries. However,petroleumandcrudeoil arenonrenewable resources, which
meanstheywilleventuallyrun out. It hasbeenforecasted thatworld supplyof crudeoil will run out
mid century.The effectof petrolshortage is alreadyevidentin its significantincrease in priceover
the pastdecade.An alternatesourceis neededto copewith the world demandfor variouspolymers
oncethe supplyofpetroleumrunsout.

Af so,roughly95%of crudeoil is usedasfuel.The combustion of so muchfuel releasespollutants

into the atmosphere,leadingto enhancedgreenhousegaseffectand acidrains.By developingan
alternativesourceof fuel,morecrudeoilcan be usedto producepetrochemicals to creatematerials.

. Hrplairrn'hatis meantbr a condensatior-r

polvnrer
Condensation polymersare polymers thatform by the eliminationof a smallmoleculemostlywater,
whenpairsof monomermolecules join together.Celluloseis an exampleof a condensation
polymer
and alsomany naturalpolymerssuchas starch.proteinand DNA.

' Describe thestructure ol'cellulose poll'mel'lilr"rnci

andidentilf it asan exampleol'a conclensation
asa nrajorcornponent of hiomass
' Describe thereaction involveclrvhena condensation poly'nrcr
is tbrmed
Celluloseis a naturallyoccurringcondensationpolymer,alsoknown as a bjgp!y!11q. The monomer
that formscelluloseis glucose.Insteadof havingbondsopenup,the functionalgroup of the
monomersreacttogether,forming new bondand expellingwater.Therearetwo typesof glucose:o
glucoseandB glucose.a glucoseformsstarchand B glucoseformscellulose.
CH OII C H OH 11rs up
jl
I
il
J
t--1

II alr-] ,{
| ..f
t
l \, l ..1 u
'r. I
,l Twtr -dtnrers tonal st.r-ucture
ou T' - ? OH,
I o'H\" 1.../'
}I
I
oH
I T OH
( / l5 d o wn
rr-glucose /l'-glucose

Glucosehasthe molecularformulaCoHrzOo or HO-CoHroO+-OH. Condensation polymerisation

betweenpairsof glucosemolecules.
occursby eliminatingthe watermolecules Eachglucose
monomerexpelstheir functiongroup(hydroxyl)on its eitherend,which forms water.
- ( ...,lll,,til-[.]i1 ilil-(."1 1 1 ,tir-t)]. 1 I l: il-t i. l{ r, r(} + -[ ' rf ] I l(] -t 1 , , 1 . . l, , , ilr-

n(C6HnO) --+... (C6HrcO),...+ nH 20

+ @ "-,jG .. ff'1
ta

G f f iG
ca
 Jacqueline Van Lai HSC Chemistry James Ruse Agriculture
Module 01 High School MMIX

Dueto the structureof B glucose,everyalternatingunit of glucoseflips.

i- - - - - - - ,-,,t i
:_i_..i,.i-;:l ta' -'l
i
:
r
r :-.rl
-'--i -rr -.-
il
' -i ir - : 4,.--
----
Irr-l , . '] L.- :
-,-
fi H
| i' i- iLlir F r
I r-, , ' i-i i
,-,H ;
| "
L
,1...
y. {lH :
i.
i' : ' ' ; - iH ti ,l i,,
/ L,.,l
a \l i | |
ir . , n, r !i F
i iLrt \t
\t
tt
It
;
i
i
!l
ii\l
\ ,
{'
t I
i-l :i ii -'re- i_;
i-Eir
IEiT | 'r-L) tt
ll rl ti il
.'l il ,-,-l
'-l -i _____
i J ',
r- i i .l i
'l ___.i
Lj : I i ll',c]Hi:

Pronertiesof Cellulose:
- Despitethe hydrogenbonding,its structureis so largethat its insolublein water
- Everysecondunit of glucoseflips,creatinga linearstructureso it hashighdensityand
strength
- It is foundabundantlyin nature,makingup 50o/o of the total biomasson Earth
- Commonlyfoundin plantcell walls
- Usedindustriallyin the manufactureof fibressuchas cottonandpaper

' ldentil'rthatcellLrlosc
cotitaitrs
tltcblsiccai[ron-chain
strrrcirrr---. to bLrildpctrr-rlclrc-itrical:
lree,lcel
andcliscirssits rrotcntial
asa ra\\ n-raterial
The basiccarbon chain structuresneededto build petrochemicals areethylene,propeneandbutene,
whichhavea carbonchainlengthof two, threeandfour.Glucose,the basicmonomerof cellulose,
hasa carbonchainlengthof 6. Hence,theoretically glucosemolecules canbe transformed intothe
basiccompounds thatarepresentlyobtainedfrom petrochemicals.

Celluloseis a majorcomponent of biomass.Biomassis a renewableresource, formedwhengreen

plantsusecarbondioxide,waterandsolarenergyfor photosynthesis. In theory,cellulosecanprovide
infiniteamountof renewable raw materialsbut with theknowntechnologiesit is yet too expensive
andinefficientto do so on a massscale.

Problemsassociatedwith Cellulose:
r It is difficultto breakcelluloseinto glucose.This is because
the longchainsof celluloseare
bondedto eachotherthroughhydrogenbondingto form very compactfibres.This makesit
difficultfor chemicalsto getbetweentheseglucose-glucose links.Onesolutionto this is using
strong,concentrated sulfuricacid,butthis is expensive.
' Fossilfuelsarecurrentlymuchcheaper to producethanbiomassfuels.After celluloseis broken
downto glucose,it mustbe fermentedintoethanolandthendehydrated into ethylene.
This is a
Iongandexpensive process
' Fertilelandis requiredto growcropsto useasan energysource.However,theselandshavemore
importantrolesin growingcropsasa sourceof food.Clearingforestsfor landcanalsoleadto
destruction of animalhabitatsandenvironmental concernssuchas soil erosion

In conclusion, cellulosehasa greatpotentialasa replacement

to crudeoil asa sourceof fuel. It is
renewable andenvironmentally friendly.However,furtherresearchmustbe conducted to find more
efficientand low-costingmethodsof usinscelluloseasa sourceof fuel.
 Jacqueline Van Lai HSC Chemistry James Ruse Agriculture
Module 01 High School MMIX

' theuseor thepotential

E,valuate useof a namedbiopolvrner in relationto itspropcrtics.
produced
Polyhydroxvbutanoate(PHB)
Production:
PHB is a naturallyoccumingbiopolymerthat is producedfrom a typeof bacteriacalledAlcaligenes
eutrophus.Thesebacteriaarecultivatedin largecoloniesand areallowedto reproducerapidly on a
nutrientrich diet.At which pointan importantnutrientsuchasglucoseis takenaway.The bacteria
beginto producePHB as a sourceof energy.The bacteriaarethenharvestedfor its PHB.

Propertiesand Uses
- It is a renewableresource
- Biodegradable. Disposable containersfor shampoo,beverages etc.will naturallydecompose
so it savesspacesin landfills.
- It will alsodecompose naturallyin humanbodiesso it is usedas suturesso no surgeryis
necessary to removeit afterwards.
- Biocompatible.It will functionnormallyin a humanbody meaningit haspotentialto be used
as surgicalimplants
- Similar structureto polypropyleneso it canreadilyreplacemanypetrochemical plastics

Advantagesand Disadvantases
In the medicine,the development of PHB is very importantas it canreplacetraditionalsutures,
allowing it to decomposenaturallyin humanbodies,avoidinganothersurgeryto removethem
afterwards.Its biocompatibilityalsomeansit hashighly suitable,forsurgicalimplants.

Commercially,it is still moreexpensiveto producethanpetrochemicals which havehinderedits

developmentandhenceit is not massproduced.Furthermore,PHB is brittle andcannothandlehigh
impact.Also, PHB would obviouslybe unsuitablefor areaswherethe materialmustnot decomposeo
suchaswaterpipes.However,as landfillsbecomemorestrained, PHB's biodegradabilitymakesit
muchmoreattractiveandenvironmentally friendly.Also,as fossilfuel suppliesdwindle,societywill
be increasingly
relianton PHB andotherbiopolymers for its renewabilityandit's increasing
economically efficiencyasthe pricesof fuel risesdueto demands.

RecentDevelopment
Recently,scientistshavebeenableto geneticallyengineera bacteriumknown aspglito produce
PHB by transferring the genesof Alcaligeneseutrophusthatproduces PHB.This methodis more
efficientas scientists
aremorefamiliarwith E.coli'sphysiologyso it is easyfor us to manipulate
its
growthandproductionrateoallowinghigherandfasteryieldsof PHB.This is in comparison much
moreefficientthanAlcaligenes eutrophus,of which scientistiknownlittle about.This helpsto make
PHB moreeconomically viable.However,the useof transgenic plantsis a controversialissueamong
society,raisingmanyquestions amongreligiousgroups.
 Jacqueline Van Lai HSC Chemistry James Ruse Agriculture
Module 01 High School MMIX

3. Other resources,suchas ethanol,are readily availablefrom renewable

resourcessuchas plants
. I ) c s r r it ' , c t li ," ' i l c i rl ti ri i ti o n r" r1 ' c i i i .rrl lt,r ci l l )l crrc antl i cl crtti l r tl tc ttecri tbi ' cal nl rst i n tl i i s pl ocess
lt it ( l t llc elt tl tl .r' i tt:r ti
. I ) c s c r ibe t lr c a d d i ti ,rl t rl l ' \\i i tc rt() c th \1 c n,' r' estrl l i i rg i n th. protl ttr-.l r,tttri etharrol and i ci gtti l r thc
nc c c i lir r "c r t a l r rl i rr th i s p rr\(e s s a l tc ltl :c cl tl l tl .r:.1
ttseti
Ethanolis a memberof the alkanol homologousseries.Alkanolshavethe generalformula
CnHzn*rOH. Ethanolhasthe molecularformulaCzHsOH.
HH
iiG)
Ethylenecan be producedfrom ethanolthrough&!y@: HH I
conc' HtSoo I
Ethanol , ethylene * water
,o, ,/
C2HsoH (t) Je!:'-rc) CrH o,*t + H 2o1r1 HH

The catalystrequiredin dehydrationof ethanolis concentratedsulfuric acid. 'u' H

Sulfuric acid works by breakingthe C-OH bond and C-H bonds,allowing the
'H
formationof a doublebondandwater.It is alsoa powerfuldehydrationagent.

Theoppositeofthispro ceS S iskn o wna s h y d ra t io n , t h e . c a t a ly s t is @, wh ic h

breaksthe doublebondto form ethyl hydrogensulfatethat reactswith waterto form ethanol,
reproducing As a catalystit doesnot takepartin the endreaction!
sulfuricacidin theprocess.

Hydration of ethylene:
dit' Il2so4
CrHo*nr+ H2o11y >CrH5oHlrt

. [)cscribearrcl fbr thernaurusesof cthanolasstllrentlirr polarandttclttpolalsubslatrccs

accorint
Ethanolis usedextensively asan industrialandpharmaceuticalsolvent,suchasmethylated spirits,
solventbasedpaints,inks,perfumesandantiseptics. This is becauseethanolcandissolvebothpolar
andnon polarsubstances.This uniquepropertyis dueto its structure,it has:
- A polar hydroxyl(OH) group, which canfbrm dipole-dipole ion dipoleor
attraction,
hydrogenbondingwith otherpolarmoleculessuchaswater,glucoseandsucrose
- A non polar ethyl(CzHs)group,whichcanform dispersion forceswith othernon polar
substances suchas iodine.otheralkanesandalkenes.

This dual-dissolvingnatureof ethanolis only possiblebecause it is a small molecule,wherethe

attractiondueto polarand non polarsectorshaveequalpoweragainsteachother.For larger
molecules suchas octanol,the attractiondueto alky groupis muchstrongerthanits OH groupand
henceit doescannotdissolvepolarsubstances.

rl

tt
8*C C Li
lt
tl

t1
 Jacqueline Van Lai HSC Chemistry James Ruse Agriculture
Module 01 High School MMIX

n Outlinethe useo1-ethanol
as a lirel anclcxplainn'hr it can be callcclaren*r'ablercsoLlrces
. Asscssthe potortiulo1'cthanolas an altcrnrtilc lircl ancldiscLrss
the aclvantages
and
clisa.lrlutti l!es,'l-ilr Llse
>
Ethanol is consideredas a renewable resourcebecauseit is derived from glucose. Despite its short
chain, ethanol is a liquid and thus it is commonly used as portablefuel for camping and as biogasin
car engines.It also considereda fuel becauseit readily undergoescombustion:

C 2H sOH (D * 3Oztst ------+2CO2r t 3H rOtt,

rt
Advantagesof usingEthanol as a fuel:
- 80y' of the world'sdemandfor fuel is petroleumbased.The supplyof petroleumwill
eventuallydwindleand its price will rise,makingethanola moreattractiveandcostefficient
sourceof fuel.
- It is a @, it canbe derivedfrom glucose.
- Theoretically,it is greenhouse neutral:
Photosynthesis:6COz1*1+ 6HzOtll----+CoHrzOo (uq)fconsumes6 molesof COz]
Fermentationof Glucose:C6H12O6
(aq)# 2CzHsOH(tl+2COzlryfreleases
2 molesof CO2]
Combustionof ethanol:2CzHsOH1rl + 602 @------+4COzre)* 6HzO(g)[releases 4 molesof
COzl
Fromtheseequations, thenetamountof carbondioxidereleased is zero.However,in reality
it is not,but still muchmoreenvironmentally friendlythancombustion of petrol.
- Ethanolundergoes completecombustionmoreefficientlythanoctane,the major componentof
petrol.This is dueto its shortercarbonchain lengthandthe fact that it alreadycontainsan
oxygenatom,so lessoxygenis requiredfor the combustion.This producescleanerfuel with
fewerpollutantssuchas sootandcarbonmonoxide.
---+18 H 2O,,,+ l6COr1 lRequiresI 2.5molof oxygen]
2CrH,rtrt + 25O2G) *1

Disadvantagesof using Ethanol as a fuel:

- Currently,it is still muchcheaperto producefuel throughcombustionof petrol
- Produceslessenergyper mole than octane
- Carenginescanonly useup to l5%oof ethanolas additiveto regularpetrol,knownas
"gasohol".Any morethan l5%orequiresenginemodification,which incurseconomicand
financialissuessuchasthe failureof Brazil in the 1970s.
- Largeareasof arablelandmust be dedicatedto growingsuitablecropsto be harvestedfor
fermentation.Theselandsmay alreadybe usedto grow food cropsandclearingany new land
cancauseenvironmentalproblemssuchas soil erosion,deforestation and salinity.
- Disposalof the largeamountsof smellywastefermentationliquorsafterremovalof ethanol
canbe environmentally damaging

Future Research:
Futureresearchof ethanolis concentratedon makingit moreeconomicallyviableby increasingits
productionrateand yield. Oneway to do this is by geneticallyengineeringyeasttho increasethe
concentrationof alkanolproducedin fermentation to higherthanthe l5% possibleat the moment.
Anothermethodis developing a mechanism to decompose celluloseinto glucoseeconomically,or
maybeevenproducingethanoldirectlyfrom cellulose
 Jacqueline Van Lai HSC Chemistry James Ruse Agriculture
Module 01 High School MMIX

o i ti o r.iu i i ,-i c trr l ri c l r tl i r tcnl e ni ;.i i i ontri -sr.l !i i r' :i r l l i r' i l tr,ri crl
Dc s c libc t itc c r.rn tl
The conditionsrequiredfor fermentation are:
- Presence of grainor fruit mashedup with water
- Presence ofyeast
- Anaerobic conditions(absence of air)
- Temperature keptaroundbodytemperature, i.e.-37'C. Too low andthe reactionwouldbe
slowerandtoo hish veastwill not survive

t Sttttitnlil ise t lr . c lt c nt i> i|r r r j ilr e f r l' t t - le 1 1 1 a i i ( )ln) l r r r r : r :

of glucose,yeastis initiallyaddedto mashedgrainandwater.Any oxygen
In the fermentation
presentwill be absorbedby the growingandreproducing yeastcellsandthe conditionschangeto
anaerobic. When yeastis deprivedof air, it will respireandbreakdownthe storedglucoseto obtain
energyandin the processformingethanolasa productof cellularrespiration
CuHrrOu,rtl2C2H sOH (ont*2COrtrt
As fermentation continues,bubblesof carbondioxideescapesfrom themixture.Whenethanol
concentration reaches15Yo,the fermentation
processstopsasanyalcoholconcentration higherthan
this will killthe yeast.To obtainhigherconcentration
of ethanol,fractionaldistillationis used,which
obtainsup to 95o/o ethanol.

' and (irlcLi,atcihc tnlLrclirl ethariollltrrri

[)ellltc tlic rlolar licrttof conthirsliono1-ac:orlllouitL]
llrst-hancJ data
Molar heatof combustionis the amount of energyreleasedwhen one mole of a compound under
goes combustion under standardroom temperatureand atmosphericpressure.The molar heat of
combustionof ethanol is l360kJ/mol. The formula for calculatinsheatof combustionis:
\\:here:
lH = heat .-.Icc'urtrustirrn
ikJ:
LH - -t?l{Af llt = Itla55 L-af\"'ater (.ql
c = specii-icheat capacit"'i-{i8 tbr rlater )
= changein ter:rlrerature i:C )
-lf
The molarheatof combustion
canbe foundby dividingthetotalheatof combustion
by the number
of molesof fuel burnt.

However,in realityit is hardto obtainthis resultin an experiment.

This is dueto severalfactors:
- Heat from spirit bumer dissipated into the environment
- Heatescaping the containerholdingthe water
- Lackof oxygenleadingto incomplete combustion,indicatedby formationof sootand
yellow flames
 Jacqueline Van Lai HSC Chemistry James Ruse Agriculture
Module 01 High School MMIX

4. Oxidation-reductionreactionsare increasinglyimportant as a sourceof

energy
r Er pl aintheclisltla ce ; irlc r' n rio f t ' ' lt n s tleo 1 ' c lc rt t " , , t t s
illnt s o lL t t it )ir5
nrcnto l'rnctnls
A displacement reactionis a reactionin whicha more reactivemetaltransfers electrons to a !q
reactivemetal'sion to convertit to an atom by neutralisingthe charge.Reactionsthat involvethe
transferof electrons arecollectivelyknownasRedox reactions.Redoxreactions alwaysconsistof
an oxidationandreductionreaction,or two half equations.
o Oxidation is the lossof electrons
. $[@ is the gain of electrons

For example,whenzinc metalis placedin coppersulfursolution,thezinc will give2 electrons

to the
negativecopperion, formingzinc sulfur and solidcopper
. Chemicalequation:Zn 61-rCuSO+(uq)# ZnSOqluq; * Cu 1r;
r Net ionic equation',Zn + Cu2*--------+Znz*+ Cs
The net ionicequationis thensplit into two half equations:
. Zn -----+ Zn"- t 2e This is oxidationaszinc loseselectrons
. Cu2** 2e --------+Cu This is reductionascoppergainselectrons
o The speciethat is oxidisedis the@, i.e.zinc
r The speciethat is reducedis the oxidant/oxidisineagent,i.e.copper

r Identifvtherclatiolrslripbetvvccn
displacernent br otherntctalsto thc
of'metalirinsin solr,rtion
relatir,e
activitl of rne'tals
In displacement reactions, only a morereactivemetalcandisplacea lessreactivemetal.ln the
previousexample,zinc displaced copperbecause it wasmorereactive.lf copperwas placedin a zinc
sulfate,no reactionwill takeplace.The relativitiesof metalsarerepresented in the Agl!yi$@:
K tsa I-i }la { ln I'lu Al Zn I;c litt []l-r H {.-lrrAq I}t Arr

Metalson the left aremore reactivewhile metalson the right are lessreactive.Therefore,a metal in
the seriescandisplacea solutioncontainingany metalon its right,but cannotdisplaceany solution
containingmetalson its left. ln general:
- Metalson the left arevery reactiveandloseelectrons, or oxidises,very easily
- Metalson the right areunreactivebut in ion form they canelectrons,or reduce,very easily

I Describc anderplaingalr.'arric cellsin terrlsol'oxidation/recluction

reactiolrs
r OLrtline of salraniccells ancltfacethedircctionol'electron
tireconstrLrctiorr flol
' Deflnethetermsanocle. cathocle. clectrodeanclelectroll'te galvanicce-lls
to clescribe
A salvanic cell is a devicethat utilisethe chemicalenergyreleasedby a spontaneousredoxreaction
to performelectricalwork.

. A galvaniccell consisttwo @!fu!!q connectedby a copperwire and a salt bridge.Eachhalf

cell consistsof a solutionof an electrolyte
andan electrode.
. An electrolvteis a substance which in aqueousor moltenstateconductselectricity.
. An electrodeis a solidconducting terminalconnected to the externalcircuit.The materialof
E.g.Cu is usedfor CuNOg.
the electrodeis usuallythe solidstateof electrolyte.
 Jacqueline Van Lai HSC Chemistry James Ruse Agriculture
Module 01 High School MMIX

Thereare2 typesof electrodes in termsof charge:

- 1s!9: thenegativeelectrode whereoxidationoccurs
- Cathode:the positiveelectrode wherereductionoccurs
Therearealso2 typesof electrodes in termsof material:
- I&lalelectrodes suchas copperand silver
- Inert electrodesuchas platinumdo not react
A salt bridee is a U-tubefilled with a solution,usuallypotassium nitrate(KNO3).Its purpose
is to allow the misrationof ionsto neutralise the charseof thetwo half cells.

Apparatus,:l a Gah'attic,:ell
In this galvarrir rell- the uei ic,nit e{rlrti*li
E
N
rrf the reactiorris:
-'i :'l'i

{.-rtis'r - i,rq r ( .Ltl' ',1.j - Jr\g I

{ts
-r\g'
The oridation equaticnis. ejectron flor'.,
(,.,tt ." ' ( . . , t 1- ' t , iy - -.-
t-, t
The reductic'nequatiorris:
t 1 -l
-r
'r ' /1 : - 4
-
' ;L - ;
-\f i ri
l r,
li:
The atiove celtrcarralsc.lre represerrtedas: tl

Lr"rl Lr]. L 11- .Lli J: t,- -

. r.,,!+
. \fhere Zu Zrr:-representsr uretr.l]rletal iou ,^.11ttt.l F uu
tr*\J3
. The doutrleliue represerltstire salt trridge
.

In this example,copperdisplaced silverbecause it is morereactive.Theanodeis the copperandthe

cathodeis the silver.Oxidation occursat the anodewherecopperlosesan electron.Sinceelectrons
flow towardsthe positiveterminal,thereis a net electronflow towardsthe cathode.Whenelectrons
arriveat the cathodeit reactswith the silvercationsin the electrolyteand forms solid silveron the
silverelectrode,processknown as4g!41!!g. At the sametime the copperis losingmassas it is
oxi dised.Thiscanbeco n firme d b ywe ig h in g . T h is re a c t io n p ro d u c e s 1 . lV a n d is @
meaningit cancontinueon its own withoutexternalhelp.If a negativevoltageis shown,the reaction
is not spontaneous whichoccurswhena lessreactivemetaltriesto displacea morereactivemetal's
ions.Suchreactionrequiresextemalpowersupplyto startandthroughoutthe reaction.

Readingthe Standard Potential Table:

o Going down and left of the list, reactivityandthe tendencyto be reduced(oxidant)increase
o Goingup andrightof the list,reactivityandtendencyto be oxidised(reductant) increase
o OIL RIG: oxidisationis lost(of electrons), reductionis gain(of electrons)
o More reactivemetal(up the list) oxidises,lessreactivemetal(downthe list) reduces
 Jacqueline Van Lai HSC Chemistry James Ruse Agriculture
Module 01 High School MMIX

Potential DifferenceCalculations
To calculatethe potentialdifferencein the galvaniccell above,we mustusethe tableof standard
potentials.
The valueson thistablearecalculated with respectto a hydrogenelectrode- 0V.

Half Equation Potential Difference

Zn'* +2e- ;^ Znr", -0.76V

Cu'* +2e- 0.34V

--Cur,,
oxidation,we mustflip the equationroundwhichalsoflips thepotential
But aszinc undergoes
difference:
4n,",-Zn:* +2e- (0.76V)

Addingthe valuestogether,the galvaniccell hasa potentialdifferenceof 1.10Vwith respectto the

anode,copper.Everycoupleof electrolytesproduces the samevoltage,no matterhow manymoles
ofeach substance
are present

Purposeof the Salt Bridge

As oxidationoccursat the anode,graduallytherewill be an excessof positiveions(suchas copper
ionsin the aboveexample).Similarly,in theotherhalf celltherewillbe an excessof negativeions
(nitrateions)asmoresilverionsbecomesolidsilver.This would causean imbalance of positiveand
negativechargesin the systemandthe Redoxreactionceases.

The saltbridge'spurposeis to comnletethe circuit andallowthe migrationof ionsto maintain

electricalneutralitv in both half cells.In the aboveexample,nitrateionsfrom the saltbridgemoves
into the coppernitratesolutionto neutralisethe excessof positivechargesfrom coppercations.
Meanwhile,potassium cationsfrom the saltbridgemovesintothe silvernitratesolution.This
balancesthe chargesin both cells.KNO3 is commonlyusedbecauseit's q!g[!g

r Accountfbr changes in theoxicliitior-r

stateof specics in ternrsof theirlossor gainof electrons
The oxidation stateof an elementis its valency.It is definedasthe chargeof an elementin a
compoundwhen all its bondedatomsandelectronpairsareremoved.

The oxidationstate:
- of atomsin elementalform is 0, suchas H2andPa
- of i onsar eeq u ato , .OH-: -1 ,P O + : -3 ,NH+ *: l, S O q 2 ' : -2
l th e ircharg ee.g

For example,the oxidationnumberof manganese

in permanganate
ion (MnOa-)is:
:
Totalcharge- chargeofoxygen chargeofmanganese
Chargeof manganese : -l + 8:7

In general
- Oxidationis INCREASEin oxidationstate,corresponding
to a lossof electrons
- Reductionis DECREASEin oxidationstate,correspondingto a gainof electrons
 Jacqueline Van Lai HSC Chemistry James Ruse Agriculture
Module 01 High School MMIX

. Gatheranclpresgrtirrlbrmationon the structurcchemistrrof a dr1 cell of'leacl-acid cell and

cell irr tert-ns
evaluateit in contparisonto the br-rtton cost anclpracticalitl'.impact
of: clienristrr".
or-rsocietr.crtt ilotrntentalimpaet
Drv Cell

Voltase 1 .5V
Anode (-) Zinc
Anode half equation Znur-------+Zn'*
+2e-
Cathode(+) oxide(MnOr)andcarbon
Mans.anese
Cathodehalf equation + LNH4clk,t,+ 2e- --) MnrOrt,,,* 2NH r(or)1 H rOrq + 2Cl -
2AInO2(n
Electrolyte Aqueouspasteof ammoniumchloride
Overall equation Zfl,,, r 2MnOr, + 2 N H 4CI@n,-----) MnrOr(,t * Zn(N H.), C 1.,+ H 20
",
Costand practicality and cheapto replace
Materialsare inexpensive
Not rechargeable
Low energydensity(outputto sizeratio)
Shonbatterylife
Leakscausedby zinccasingoxidisingduringdischarge
Robust,easyto storeandportable
Cannotdeliverhish currents
Impact on society - Widelyusedin low currentappliances and
suchastorches,calculators
remotecontrols
- availablebattery,madeportableadvicespossible
Firstcommercially

Impact on environment - Ammoniumsaltsandcarbonarenon toxic

- Manganese(lll) oxide
oxidereadilyoxidisesto insolublemanganese(lV)

Voltase l .6v
Anode (-) Zinc
Anode half equation 2n,.,+ 2OH- ----+ Zn(OH), + 2e-
Cathode(+) Graphite and silver oxide oaste
Cathode half equation AgrO,,,+ H rO,,,+ 2e- 12Agc, + 2OH-
Electrolvte KOH paste
Overall equation Znle + AgrO+ ZnO,,,+ 2Ag,
",
Cost and practicality veryexpensive dueto silver
very smallandponable
providelargeamountsof electricity
long batterylife
not rechargeable
steelcasedoesnot takepart in reactionso leaksare unlikely
Impact on society Dueto its smallsizeandhighconstantvoltageit is widelyusedin
smallerappliancessuchaswatches,calculators,digitalcameras.
Goodfor appliancesthat requiresmallbatteryand long batterylife

Impact on environment - All materialsare non toxic

- KOH is a strons baseand can causeburns if battery is damaged
 Jacqueline Van Lai HSC Chemistry James Ruse Agriculture
Module 01 High School MMIX

Visual Comnarisonof the two cells

Dry Cell Silver Button Cell

' - 7t ti -),
: 1'",

rrli, r -_it i -i iilllrlt

I :it e rl tti l't't

it{-)Hrn R Fiit.::r-;':
a; i-1.Agr

Evaluation:
- In termsof chemistry,the buttoncell is ableto producealargervoltageas silverasa higher
reductionpotentialthanmanganese. It alsohasa moreconstantsupplydueto its alkalinestate.
- In termsof costandpracticality, thedry cell is morepracticalin mostsituations as it is much
cheaperandusedby manymoreappliances. Dry cellsarealsocheaper,the silverin buttoncells
areexpensive. However,the buttoncell is moreusefulin situations thatrequiresmallcellswith
longbatterylife. It is alsomorereliableas it doesn'tleakeasily,whilethe zinc casingis
graduallyoxidised.AIso,dry cell'svoltagedropsovertime andmay be too low for some
applicationsdespitenot beingflat yet.
- In termsof impacton society,the significanceof the dry cell's historymeansit had a far greater
impacton societythanthe morerecentbuttoncell. It allowedfor portableelectricaldevicesto be
inventedandusedon a largescale.
- In termsof environmental impacts,bothhavevery little negativeeffectsand arepreferredover
morepollutingcellssuchas leadacid.

r Analr 'scittlitrma tiofr"()ln

n 5eco n c la r' -\ ' s ()rrrc
s u c lrearsc o lrlp u t csrimrrlu t io nnsro rnroc l e l
. lc c L rla
iiilsto rnocielthepolvnrcrisatiorr
pr()cess
Computersimulationsareusefulin studyingthe polymerisation process. It allowsus to seeclearly
therelationship betweenthe structure of the monomerandthe structureof the polymer.Also it shows
visuallyhow andwhichbondsarebrokenduringinitiationby an initiatorandhow bondsareformed
duringpropagation. Computersimulations alsoallow bondanglesto be accurately portrayedandthe
molecules to be rotatedandalteredquickly.Whennecessary, it is a dynamicmodelthatallowsus to
seethe interactionof the catalystwith the reactants.

Molecular modelsareusedto modelthe polymerisation processas it hasmanyadvantages than

writingequationson paper.It showsthe three dimensionalstructure andshapes of molecules,
where
andhow the bondsconnectatomsthroughout the molecule.This is importantasthe bondingand
structure
of the moleculedirectlyinfluencethe chemicalandphysicalproperties of the molecules.
 Jacqueline Van Lai HSC Chemistry James Ruse Agriculture
Module 01 High School MMIX

Lead Acid Cell:

Voltase 1.92V
Anode (-) Lead
Anode half equation Pbu, + HrSOoront------>PbSOo6l-r 2H* + 2e-
Cathode (+) Lead(IV)oxide
Cathodehalf equation PbOz(n + 2H* + H rSOor^ * 2e- ------+PbSO4@+ 2H rO,
Electrolyte Sulfuricacid
Overall equation Pb*",+ PbOrf,,+ 2H rSOo@r)
1 2P bSO4(n+ 2H 2OU)
Cost and practicality - Materialsareexpensivedueto leadcontent
- Rechargeable, canlastmanyyears
- Low energydensity(outputto sizeratio) of any rechargeable
batteries
- Batteryis very heavyand large,hardto handleand store
- Not subjectto memory,can leavechargingfor prolongedtime
- Low maintenance asno electrollteneedsto be filled
- Recharges very slowly
Impact on society - Widely usedin automobiles,forklifts and largeuninterruptable power
supplysystem
- First commerciallyavailablerechargeable batteryand still the most used
rechargeablebattery
Impact on environment - High leadcontentand sulfuricacid is a environmentalhazardif not
disposedcorrectly.
- Leadcancauseanaemiain humans
Ca*pde
Pb/Sngrid

Pb&

HrS&

Por.ous
SePeretsr
 Jacqueline Van Lai HSC Chemistry James Ruse Agriculture
Module 01 High School MMIX

5. Nuclearchemistryprovidesa rangeof materials

o Distirrguishbctricc-nstableantl t';.rtlirrlictirc
i:r,ltiltc.'lrrrriclc:u'il-.c
tlic c,-'rtclitic,ns
rrntlcrnhich a
ttttclstt. ir t t it . 1; t blt '
Isotopesareatomsof the sameelementbut with differentmassnumber.Someelements havestable
and radioactiveisotopessuchas carbon.Radioactiveisotopesor 4 ljglgglgpg arethosethat
spontaneously emit radiationfrom its nucleus.Thereare3 typesof radiation:

Alpha Decav:heliumnucleiareejectedfrom the unstablenucleibecause it is too heavy.For

example:the decayof uranium-238
:', . =il, - l'- l'li
11-
Beta Decav:electronsareejectedfrom the nucleusdueto n:p ratio too high. For this to occur,a
neutronin the nucleusmustdecompose to form protonandelectron:
ln-lp* -1,"
The nucleuslosesI neutronbut gainsoneproton,hencethe elementis differentbut samemass
number.For examplethe betadecayof cobalt-60:
!- ,.,, '_ 'l . -:,\i
Gamma Radiation:gammaray emissionoccursusuallywith betaandalphadecay.Theyarehigh
energyelectromagneticwavesthat havehigh penetratingpower.

Propertiesof Alpha, Beta and Gamma decay

Radioactive Identity Charge Penetrating Ionising Electricfield Magneticfield
decay power power deflection deflection
Alpha Heliumnucleus TL Low High To negative Yes
Beta Electron -l Medium Medium To positive Yes
Gammaray EMR 0 High Low None No

Thereare2 conditionsto predictwhetheran atom is radioactive:

l. If the atomic number (Z) is greaterthan83,thenthe atomis radioactive.
2. lf proton-neutron ratio is outside:
- lf Z < 20, ratiois I :l
- lf Z is around30, ratiois aboutl: 1.3
- lf Z is around80,ratiois aboutl: 1.5
If the no. of neutronand protonareplotted,thereis a
':
naruowbandcalledthe zone of stabilitv, anythingthat "
lieswithinthiszoneis stable. H ".
b"
o
E ::,

E
= u,
z

:: - +, : , t , : E: - i ':
f.lunlbFroi protonr
 Jacqueline Van Lai HSC Chemistry James Ruse Agriculture
Module 01 High School MMIX

u [)cse l'it'r r ' lt t ] \ \ { t ' it t t \ t li, lt ii' , r . ii"it r r . i! i: i l t i l l j i ) r i t t c a {1

Transuranicelementsareartificialelements with atomicnumbergreaterthan 92 (uranium,the
heaviestnaturallyoccurringelement).Transuranic elementsarenot foundin nature,theyare
Therearetwo methodsof producingtransuranic
artificialandareonly foundin nuclearreactors.
elements.
i. NeutronBombardmentin NuclearReactors
Nuclearfissionis a processwherean atomis bombarded with neutronswhich causethe atomto
breakdown into smallerelements. However,for someisotopes
This oftenoccursin nuclearreactors.
suchas uranium-238, theyareunstable whenneutronsareabsorbed andundergoe betadecayto form
a newelement, Np:

Tu * in-';lu ---- _1"*Twp

Neptunium rapidly decaysto plutonium Pu which is much more stable
+ -'i'^ru
Ttup---t _lle

* NuclearFusionin ParticleAccelerators
In this process,
a lighteratom'srrucleusis srnashed
into a heavieratom'snucleus.For example,
plutonium-239 is bombarded with heliumto form curiumandneutron.
'il P, + | He------->'ficm
+ ln
Atoms heavierthan heliurn can also be usedsuch bornbardinsuraniurnwith carbonto form
californiurn:
u,)u*'tc ---'l\cf +a(ln)
When bombardingheavy nuclei with high speedpositive particleslike the examplesabove,we first
needto acceleratethesepositiveparticlesto a high speedto overcomethe repulsionbetweenthe
positive particleand the nuclei so that they fuse together.

Particle Accelerators
* Cyclotron
A cyclotron consistsof two @ with alternatingpositive and negativefields causedby an AC
power source.A proton is passedthrough the cyclotron which is kept in a spiral path using a strong
magnetic field. The frequency of AC is in phasewith the speedof the proton so that when the proton
passesthrough the gap betweenthe two Dees,the voltagesalternateso that the Dee it's going into is
now negativeand will attractthe proton. After many revolutionsit acquireshigh speedand strikesa
target.Cyclotronsusually use chargedparticlessuch as electrons,protonsand smallnuclei

' 1 - ..l."
\ \ : r : l+ ;t:i:= ir i.ji\ i: I- :.;i= :: -'
l : : + 1,'+. ' = r , 1 l' + ;:.' :i::, r :' i1 .;,1 q l; J
111 111jli *l 11lirl',,i ;r 11r-li,r'1,-r',','iir:
f i . i ' , :,itr ' ;r i,::, t' f tl' - . []i..
 Jacqueline Van Lai HSC Chemistry James Ruse Agriculture
Module 01 High School MMIX

{. Linear accelerator
In a linearaccelerator
ionsof elementsareaccelerated in a straightline of a seriesof cylinders.These
cylindershavealternatecharge;a negativealwaysfollowsa positive,so thatparticlesarealways
beingrepelledby a positivecylinderwhile pulledforwardby a negativecylinder.As the speed
becomesfaster,the cylindersgetslongerso that the ion staysthe sameamountof time in each
cylinder.Theseacceleratorsareusuallymorethana kilometrein lensth

lon source Trrget elenrent

L*ant1tE.
nickel.64 i'tAC sc'urce l*on; pi*:brsnruth-
1.0?

l'

r.'
Hollow t ubes
i
lon beanr
slrkes arget
. Describe holr cornntercial radioisotopes
arcproducecl
I lclentiflv
oneLlseo1'anantedradioisorope :
- In inclustr_r
- ln m e d icine
' Describe ther'r'avin r"lrichtheabol'enarledinclustrial
anclrneclical
r.aclioisotopes
afeusecla'ci
explaintheirusein tennsol-theirproperties
Commercialradioisotopes areusuallyproducedin nuclear reactorsandparticleaccelerators.
The
differenceis that nuclearreactorsproduceneutronrich isotopeswhereasaccelerators produce
neutrondeficientisotopes.

* Radioisotopein Medicine:Technetium-99m
Production: Technetium-99m
is producedby bombardingmolybdenum-98with a neutronto form
Molybdneum-99:
noltwo
liiut" + in---+ +y
Molybdneum-99then undergoes
betadecayto form technetium-99m

]lu"+'ni:Tt+ _0,"
This canalsobe donethroughparticleaccelerators.
An isotopeof hydrogen,deuterium,is
accelerated
and bombardedat Molybdenum-98creatingTechnetium-99m andan excessof neutrons.

Uses:technetium is usedextensively
in the medicalfield astracersfor diagnosis.Smallamountsare
injectedinto the bloodstream andthroughits distributionin the body we candetectbloodclots,
constrictions andbraintumours.E.g.Tc-99mis combinedwith tin and injectedintothe bloodwhere
it attaches itselfto redbloodcells,accumulatingat anybloodclots.The advantages of this method
arethat it canexaminea patientwithout significantharmand it alsoallowsrapiddiagnosis.

Properties:technetium-99m is usefulfor medicaldiagnosis because it hasa short half life of 6

hours.This allowsit to decayrapidlyin humanbodiesso that its radiationcauses
minimaldamages.
However,its radiationreleased insidethe bodystill hasthepotentialto kill healthycells.Also,dueto
its shorthalf life, it mustbe producednearwhereit's used.Technetium-99m is alsoveryexpensive
to produceand it will alsogenerate radioactivewaste
 Jacqueline Van Lai HSC Chemistry James Ruse Agriculture
Module 01 High School MMIX

.i. Radioisotopein Industry: Cobalt-60

Production:cobalt-60is producedby bombarding cobalt-59with neutronso
which areabsorbed
by
the nucleus.Cobalt-60is radioactive
andbeginsto undergobetaandgammadecay:

]ico+ir- flco+y
*y
fico----+iili + _1"
@: cobalt-60is usedin gausing metal thicknessand finding faultswithin objectssuchas metal
pipes,bothrely on the detectionof gammaray emission.A sourceof cobalt-60is placedon oneside
of the metalsheetsanda photographic film is placedon theotherside.Variationsin thethickness of
the metalsheetscan be identifiedby the consistencyin the levelof radiationdetectedby the
photographic film. If the radiationlevelsaretoo high,it indicates
thatthe sheetis too thin anddidn't
absorbenoughradiation.shielcJecl
r*.f,toac1!ve
scLlrr:e..,. shee1 ot filrtt of nraterial
'-l b*irrgfc,r'nred

. an'roLrntof racliatiorr
r l r tnr hr r l hr r crrrl r ooi
-'detector t rY rr ?r

cleperrd=oii its thickne:rs

Properties:cobalt-60haslow energyemissionso thatthe metalsheetscanabsorba significant

portionof it. Low energyemissionalsomeansit is safer.It alsohasa long half life of 5.J years so
that it doesnot needfrequentreplacement. However,it is alwaysemittingradiationso it mustalways
be monitored,usedcobalt-60is difficult to disposedandhencecanpresenta environmentaland
healthhazard.

Note: half life is the time takenfor half of the radioisotopes

in the given sampleto decay.

' Process infortnationf'rotlsecontlar)'

sr)urces
to tlescribe
recentcliscoveriesof elentents
Most recenttransuranic elements arecreatedby acceleratinga smallnucleuswithin a particle
acceleratorto collidewith a heaviernucleus.New elements arehardto verify astheyonly existfor a
fractionof a secondsometimes. Somerecentlydiscovered elementsare:
'." Darmstadtium: discovered in Darmstadt.Germanyandpreviouslyknown as ununnilium.
Darmstadtiumhasa atomicnumberof I l0 and is producedby bombardingLead-208with
Nickel-64

'!ipn+ gNt---4 iilnr + l,

t?' Americium:discovered in 1944in Universityof California,it is producedby bombarding
pu-
239 with neutronstwice andthenfrom the unstablePu-241'ssubsequent betadecay.Often
usedin smokealarms

T]P"+ 2ln --->'llp"*-) ,llz* * _0,

 Jacqueline Van Lai HSC Chemistry James Ruse Agriculture
Module 01 High School MMIX

o i C i C t l i i l - t i i t - r ' iit;:,.i1 1 . .:t;r 1 i,,,,,' ,' - - . ii,. r l ti r i ,i l r,.:r-i i i , t1, i .', i r;i .l l i i i l l ii

Therearefour typesof detectingradiationfrom radioisotopes:

a) PhotoeraphicFilm
Whenphotographic andthe
film comesin contactwith radiation,the silverhalidedecomposes
film darkens.This is commonlyusedas radiationbadgesfor peoplethatwork with radioisotopes
to monitorthe amountof radiationtheyreceive

b) ScintillationCounter
Scintillationcounterdetectslow energynon-ionisingradiation.Whenceftainsubstances are
irradiatedwith alpha,betaor gammaray,theygive off light.Whenexcitedelectrons jump to
higherenergyshellsas energyis absorbed,theygive off light asthey returnto theirgroundstate.
which in tum emitsan electricalpulsethat can
This light is thenpassedthrougha photomultiplier
be recorded.

c) Cloud Chamber
This instrument wateror alcohol.Whenradiation
consistsof an air spacewith supersaturated
passes throughthe instrument, air becomesionised.Theseionsactasthe nucleuswhichvapours
formsdroplets.In this way the pathof theradiationbecomes visibleas 'clouds'.Alphaparticles
travel in straightlines,betaparticlesleavea zig-zagpathand gammaray leavesa faint track.

d) Geieer-MullerCounter
The Geiger-Mullercounterdetectsionisingradiationandhenceparticularlyeffectivein detecting
betaparticles.Radiationentersthrougha thin window at the endof the tube filled with argongas
andas it hits argonmolecules,it ionisesit by knockingelectrons out. High voltageaccelerates
theseelectrons towardthe centralelectrode,hittingmoreargonmoleculesalongthe way and
ionisingthem.This flow of electrons This pulse
formsan electricalpulseat the centralelectrode.
is amplifiedandusedto generate clicksin an audioamplifieror by an electronicdigitalcounter.
The positiveargonionsmoveslowlytowlds the negative completethecircuit.
:ase.to

rr"\ '1
o-'
E"' ....*. f-1
!, 1
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