SUBJECT: REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

UNIT: II

UNIT NAME: VAPOUR COMPRESSION SYSTEM, REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

AND CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

CLASS: MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 6TH SEMESTER

UNIT 2
ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM AND CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
.

PRINCIPLE OF WORKING OF VAPOUR COMPRESSION SYSTEM

Vapour compression refrigeration systems are the most commonly used among all refrigeration
systems. In a vapour compression refrigeration system, refrigeration is obtained as the
refrigerant evaporates at low temperatures. The input to the system is in the form of
mechanical energy required to run the compressor.

Compressor, condenser, turbine and evaporator. Refrigeration effect is obtained at the

evaporator as the refrigerant undergoes the process of vaporization and extracts the latent heat
from the low temperature heat source. The low temperature, low pressure vapour is then
compressed isentropically in the compressor to the heat sink temperature Tc. The refrigerant
pressure increases during the compression process and the exit vapour is saturated. Next the
high pressure, high temperature saturated refrigerant undergoes the process of condensation in
the condenser as it rejects the heat of condensation to an external heat sink at Tc. The high
pressure saturated liquid then flows through the turbine and undergoes isentropic expansion.
During this process, the pressure and temperature falls.

Where, C Compressor
THE CARNOT REFRIGERATION CYCLE

T-S diagram

(Process 4-1)
Refrigeration effect (q4-1 = qe) is obtained at the evaporator as the refrigerant

undergoes the process of vaporization (process 4-1) and extracts the latent heat from the low
temperature heat source. T

(Process 1-2)
The low temperature, low pressure vapour is then compressed isentropically in the
compressor to the heat sink temperature Tc. The refrigerant pressure increases from Pe to Pc

during the compression process (process 1-2) and the exit vapour is saturated.

(Process 2-3)
Next the high pressure, high temperature saturated refrigerant undergoes the
process of condensation in the condenser (process 2-3) as it rejects the heat of condensation
(q2-3 = qc) to an external heat sink at Tc.
(Process 3-4)
The high pressure saturated liquid then flows through the turbine and undergoes isentropic
expansion (process 3-4). During this process, the pressure and temperature fall from P c,Tc to Pe,

Te.

This low temperature and low pressure liquid-vapour mixture then enters the evaporator
completing the cycle.
Applying first and second laws of thermodynamics to the Carnot refrigeration cycle,

Net work done = heat absorbed to evaporator - heat rejected from condenser

W = q e - qc

. qe = Te (S1 - S4 )

qc = Tc (S2 - S3 )
Isentropic work transfer process 3-4
S4 = S3
Isentropic work transfer process 1 2
S2 = S1

W = Te (S1 - S4 ) Tc (S2 - S3 )

So, network done, W = Te Tc (S1 - S4 )

Refrigeration effect, qe = Te (S1 - S4 )

Coefficient of performance, COP = refrigeration effect

Of refrigeration
Network done

= Te (S1 - S4 )

Te Tc (S1 - S4 )

Te
COP = Te Tc
The cycle involves two isothermal heat transfer processes (processes 4-1 and 2-3) and two
isentropic work transfer processes (processes 1-2 and 3-4). Heat is extracted isothermally at
evaporator temperature Te during process 4-1, heat is rejected isothermally at condenser

temperature Tc during process 2-3. Work is supplied to the compressor during the isentropic

compression (1-2) of refrigerant vapour from evaporator pressure Pe to condenser pressure Pc,

and work is produced by the system as refrigerant liquid expands isentropically in the turbine
from condenser pressure Pc to evaporator pressure Pe. All the processes are both internally as

well as externally reversible, i.e., net entropy generation for the system and environment is zero.

EFFECTS OF SUBCOOLING AND SUPERHEATING;

SUBCOOLING:
In actual refrigeration cycles, the temperature of the heat sink will be several
degrees lower than the condensing temperature to facilitate heat transfer. Hence it is possible
to cool the refrigerant liquid in the condenser to a few degrees lower than the condensing
temperature by adding extra area for heat transfer. In such a case, the exit condition of the
condenser will be in the subcooled liquid region. Hence this process is known as subcooling.

Subcooling is beneficial as it increases the refrigeration effect by reducing the throttling loss at
no additional specific work input. Also subcooling ensures that only liquid enters into the
throttling device leading to its efficient operation. Below diagram shows the VCRS cycle without
and with subcooling on P-h and T-s coordinates. It can be seen from the T-s diagram that
without subcooling the throttling loss is equal to the hatched area b-4-4-c, whereas with
subcooling the throttling loss is given by the area a-4-4-b. Thus the refrigeration effect
increases by an amount equal to (h4-h4) = (h3-h3). Another practical advantage of subcooling is

that there is less vapour at the inlet to the evaporator which leads to lower pressure drop in the
evaporator.
Effect of super cooling shown as PV & TS diagram

SUPERHEATING
Similarly, the temperature of heat source will be a few degrees higher than the
evaporator temperature, hence the vapour at the exit of the evaporator can be superheated by
a few degrees. If the superheating of refrigerant takes place due to heat transfer with the
refrigerated space (low temperature heat source) then it is called as useful superheating as it
increases the refrigeration effect.
Effect of superheating as shown in PV, TS Diagram
On the other hand, it is possible for the refrigerant vapour to become superheated by exchanging
heat with the surroundings as it flows through the connecting pipelines. Such a superheating is
called as useless superheating as it does not increase refrigeration effect
Useful superheating increases both the refrigeration effect as well as the work of compression.
Hence the COP (ratio of refrigeration effect and work of compression) may or may not increase
with superheat, depending mainly upon the nature of the working fluid. Even though useful
superheating may or may not increase the COP of the system, a minimum amount of
Superheat is desirable as it prevents the entry of liquid droplets into the compressor

EFFECT OF EVAPORATOR AND CONDENSER TEMPERATURES

The performance of a standard VCRS cycle can be obtained by varying evaporator and
condensing temperatures over the required range. Below figure shows the effects of evaporator
and condensing temperatures on specific and volumic refrigeration effects of a standard VCRS
cycle. As shown in the figure, for a given condenser temperature as evaporator temperature
increases the specific refrigeration effect increases marginally. It can be seen that for a given
evaporator temperature, the refrigeration effect decreases as condenser temperature increases.
These trends can be explained easily with the help of the P-h diagram. It can also be observed
that the volumetric refrigeration effect increases rapidly with evaporator temperature due to the
increase in specific refrigeration effect and decrease in specific volume of refrigerant vapour at
the inlet to the compressor. Volumetric refrigeration effect increases marginally as condenser
temperature decreases.

a) Effect of evaporator and condenser temperatures on specific and volumic works of

compression of a standard VCRS cycle

b) Effect of evaporator and condenser temperatures on COP of a standard VCRS

cycle
Figure a shows that the specific work of compression decreases rapidly as the evaporator
temperature increases and condenser temperature decreases. Once again these effects can be
explained using a T s or P h diagram. For a given condenser temperature, the volumic work of
compression increases initially, reaches a peak, then starts decreasing. This is due to the fact
that as evaporator temperature increases the specific work of compression decreases and the
specific volume at the inlet to the compressor also decreases. As a result, an optimum
evaporator temperature exists at which the volumic work of compression reaches a maximum.
Physically, the volumic work of compression is analogous to mean effective pressure of the
compressor, as multiplying this with the volumetric flow rate gives the power input to the
compressor. For a given power input, a high volumic work of compression implies smaller
volumetric flow rates and hence a smaller compressor.

Figure b shows the effect of evaporator and condenser temperatures on COP of the SSS
cycle. As expected, for a given condenser temperature the COP increases rapidly with evaporator
temperature, particularly at low condensing temperatures. For a given evaporator temperature,
the COP decreases as condenser temperature increases. However, the effect of condenser
temperature becomes marginal at low evaporator temperatures.

Results show that at very low evaporator temperatures, the COP becomes very low and also the
size of the compressor becomes large (due to small volumic refrigeration effect). It can also be
shown that the compressor discharge temperatures also increase as the evaporator
temperature decreases. Hence, single stage vapour compression refrigeration systems are not
viable for very low evaporator temperatures

USE OF LIQUID-SUCTION HEAT EXCHANGER:

Required degree of subcooling and superheating may not be possible, if one were to rely only
on heat transfer between the refrigerant and external heat source and sink. Also, if the
temperature of refrigerant at the exit of the evaporator is not sufficiently superheated, then it
may get superheated by exchanging heat with the surroundings as it flows through the
connecting pipelines (useless superheating), which is detrimental to system performance. One
way of achieving the required amount of subcooling and superheating is by the use of a liquid-
suction heat exchanger (LSHX). A LSHX is a counter flow heat exchanger in which the warm
refrigerant liquid from the condenser exchanges heat with the cool refrigerant vapour from the
evaporator. Since the temperature of the refrigerant liquid at the exit of condenser is
considerably higher than the temperature of refrigerant vapour at the exit of the evaporator, it
is possible to sub cool the refrigerant liquid and superheat the refrigerant vapour by exchanging
heat between them

Ts diagram & pv diagram

Vapour compression system with Heat exchanger schematic diagram

SIMPLE ABSORPTION SYSTEM
In the simplest absorption refrigeration system,
refrigeration is obtained by connecting two vessels, with one vessel containing pure
solvent and the other containing a solution. Since the pressure is almost equal in both the
vessels at equilibrium, the temperature of the solution will be higher than that of the pure
solvent. This means that if the solution is at ambient temperature, then the pure solvent
will be at a temperature lower than the ambient. Hence refrigeration effect is produced
at the vessel containing pure solvent due to this temperature difference. The solvent
evaporates due to heat transfer from the surroundings, flows to the vessel containing
solution and is absorbed by the solution.

COMPARISON OF MECHANICAL AND ABSORPTION SYSTEM

Schematic diagram of mechanical and absorption system

Continuous output vapour compression refrigeration system and a continuous output vapour
absorption refrigeration system. As shown in the figure in a continuous absorption system, low
temperature and low pressure refrigerant with low quality enters the evaporator and vaporizes
by producing useful refrigeration Qe. From the evaporator, the low temperature, low pressure

refrigerant vapour enters the absorber where it comes in contact with a solution that is weak in
refrigerant. The weak solution absorbs the refrigerant and becomes strong in refrigerant. The
heat of absorption is rejected to the external heat sink at To. The solution that is now rich in

refrigerant is pumped to high pressure using a solution pump and fed to the generator. In the
generator heat at high temperature Tg is supplied, as a result refrigerant vapour is generated at

high pressure. This high pressure vapour is then condensed in the condenser by rejecting heat
of condensation to the external heat sink at To. The condensed refrigerant liquid is then

throttled in the expansion device and is then fed to the evaporator to complete the refrigerant
cycle. On the solution side, the hot, high-pressure solution that is weak in refrigerant is
throttled to the absorber pressure in the solution expansion valve and fed to the absorber
where it comes in contact with the refrigerant vapour from evaporator. Thus continuous
refrigeration is produced at evaporator, while heat at high temperature is continuously
supplied to the generator. Heat rejection to the external heat sink takes place at absorber and
condenser. A small amount of mechanical energy is required to run the solution pump. If we
neglect pressure drops, then the absorption system operates between the condenser and
evaporator pressures. Pressure in absorber is same as the pressure in evaporator and pressure
in generator is same as the pressure in condenser.
It can be seen from Fig. that as far as the condenser, expansion valve and evaporators are
concerned both compression and absorption systems are identical. However, the difference lies
in the way the refrigerant is compressed to condenser pressure. In vapour compression
refrigeration systems the vapour is compressed mechanically using the compressor, where as in
absorption system the vapour is first converted into a liquid and then the liquid is pumped to
condenser pressure using the solution pump.
ELECTROLUX REFRIGERATOR
Shows a schematic diagram of an Electrolux refrigerator. It is a domestic
refrigerator and is the best known absorption type of refrigerator. Here pump is dispensed with.
The small energy supply is by means of a heater which may be electric or gas.

The principle involved makes use of the properties of gas-vapor mixtures. If a liquid is exposed to
an inert atmosphere, it will evaporate until the atmosphere is saturated with the vapor of the
liquid. This evaporation requires heat which is taken from the surroundings in which the
evaporation takes place.
The ammonia liquid leaving the condenser enters the evaporator and evaporates into the
hydrogen at the low temperature corresponding to its low partial pressure. A cooling effect is
thus produced. The mixture of ammonia and hydrogen passes to the absorber into which is also
admitted water from the separator. The water absorbs the ammonia and the hydrogen returns
to the evaporator. In the absorber the ammonia therefore passes from the ammonia circuit into
water circuit as ammonia in water solution. This strong solution passes to the generator where it
is heated and the vapor given off rises to the separator. The water with the vapor is separated
out and a weak solution of ammonia is passed back to the absorber, thus completing the water
circuit. The ammonia vapor rises from the separator to the condenser where it is condensed and
then returned to the evaporator.
SOLAR VAPOUR ABSORBTION SYSTEM

The schematic diagram of a solar absorption refrigeration system. This system is different from
a conventional vapour compression refrigeration system. Basic components of such
refrigeration system are absorber, generator, solar panel, condenser, expansion valve,
evaporator, DC battery and fan. The compressor in the vapour compression system is replaced
by a generator, absorber and pump. Refrigerant (NH3) in the evaporator absorbs the heat from
the refrigerated space and gets evaporated. It is then passed to absorber where it is dissolved
with absorbent (H2O) and pumped to generator. Electrical energy from solar panel is utilized
for heating in the generator and the refrigerant enters into condenser. The refrigerant is
converted to liquid in the condenser and the pressure of the liquid refrigerant is dropped to the
evaporator pressure with the help of an expansion device (ED). The main advantage of
absorption system is compression of liquid instead of vapour which results in less mechanical
work requirement as input. But the system is much expansive compared to compression
refrigeration system.

GIFFORD-MCMAHON (GM) COOLERS

Gifford-McMahon (GM) coolers have found widespread application in many low-temperature
systems; e.g., in MRI and cryopumps. Helium at pressures in the 10 to 30 bar range is the
working fluid. The cold head contains a compression and expansion space, a regenerator, and a
displacer. Usually the regenerator and the displacer are combined in one body. The pressure
variations in the cold head are obtained by connecting it periodically to the high- and low-
pressure sides of a compressor by a rotating valve. Its position is synchronized with the motion
of the displacer. During the opening and closing of the valves irreversible processes take place,
so GM-coolers have intrinsic losses. This is a clear disadvantage of this type of cooler. The
advantage is that the cycle frequencies of the compressor and the displacer are uncoupled so
that the compressor can run at power-line frequency (50 or 60 Hz) while the cycle of the cold
head is 1 Hz. In this way the swept volume of the compressor can be 50 (60) times smaller than
of the cooler. Basically (cheap) compressors of domestic refrigerators can be used, but one
must prevent overheating of the compressor as it is not designed for helium. One must also
prevent oil vapor from entering the regenerator by high-quality purification traps.

The four stages in the cooling cycle of the GM cooler.

The cycle can be divided in four steps, as follows: the cycle starts with the low-pressure (LP)
valve closed, the high-pressure (HP) valve open, and the displacer all the way to the right (so in
the cold region). All the gas is at room temperature.

From a to b. The displacer moves to the left while the cold head is connected to the HP side
of the compressor. The gas passes the regenerator entering the regenerator at ambient
temperature Ta and leaving it with temperature TL. Heat is released by the gas to the
regenerator material.
From b to c. The HP valve is closed and the LP valve opened with fixed position of the
displacer. Part of the gas flows through the regenerator to the LP side of the compressor.
The gas expands. The expansion is isothermal so heat is taken up from the application. This
is where the useful cooling power is produced.
From c to d. The displacer moves to the right with the cold head connected to the LP side of
the compressor forcing the cold gas to pass the regenerator, while taking up heat from the
regenerator.
 From d to a. The LP valve is closed and the HP valve opened with fixed position of the
displacer. The gas, now in the hot end of the cold head, is compressed and heat is released
to the surroundings. In the end of this step we are back in position a.

MAGNETIC REFRIGERATION

A magnetic refrigeration cycle employs a solid-state magnetic material as the working

refrigerant, and exploits the magneto caloric effect (MCE), or the ability of a material to
warmup in the presence of a magnetic field and cool down when the field is removed. Heat
absorption and heat rejection are facilitated by thermally linking the magnetic material with
the cold source and hot sink respectively, using an environmentally benign heat transfer
fluid such as water, anti-freeze mixture or a gas, depending on the operating temperature
range. The forces involved in applying and removing the magnetic field provide the
necessary network input to the cycle for heat pumping from the source to the sink.
Magnetization and demagnetization of a magnetic refrigerant can be viewed as analogous
to compression and expansion in a vapour compression refrigeration cycle, but in contrast
these magnetic processes are virtually loss free and reversible for soft ferromagnetic
materials. Further advantages associated with the solid-state nature of magnetic
refrigerants are the absence of vapour pressure, resulting in zero ODP and zero GWP, and a
large magnetic entropy density which is the key thermodynamic property determining the
magnitude of the MCE. Magnetic refrigeration therefore offers the prospect of efficient,
environmentally friendly and compact cooling. State of development Magnetic refrigeration
technology for operating temperatures near to room temperature, including both magnetic
materials and systems design, is under active development by several teams in North
America, the Far East and Europe and a number of prototype systems (including both
reciprocating and rotary designs) have been announced. Cooling capacities of prototypes
are low, maximum reported to date is 540 W, with a COP of 1.8 at room temperature.