Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
July 2012
2 Exponential Functions
3 Complex Numbers
4 Eulers Identity
6 Calculating Values
7 Exercises
8 Summary
Other values that are relevant for calculus are derived later in this book.
y
1 =
sin
1
=
r
cos = 1
x
CS Helms (CMI) Euler JUL 2012 4 / 37
Exponential Functions
a + =a a
x y x y
(3)
(a ) = a
y x xy
(4)
a0 = 1 (5)
The number e is a special number that we will call the natural exponent. This
number has many special properties. For our purposes, we will focus on this fact:
z = x + iy where i 2 = 1 (10)
y
z = x + iy
z = x iy . (12)
z = x + iy
x
z = x iy
z + z = x + iy + (x iy )
= 2x (13)
z z = x + iy (x iy )
= 2iy (14)
zz = (x + iy )(x iy )
= x 2 + y2 (15)
1 1 z z
z =
zz
=
x 2 + y2
(16)
The angle, in radians, formed by point z with the real axis of the complex plane is
called the angle of z . In this book we will use the letters and to represent the
angle of z .
y
z = x + iy
y
z = x + iy
p 2 +y
2
x
r=
x
where
Re e = cos
i
(20)
Im e = sin
i
(21)
and
e = e
i
i
(22)
e e =1
i
i
(23)
e e = e (+)
i i i
(24)
e 2 = e2
i i
(25)
CS Helms (CMI) Euler JUL 2012 12 / 37
Sine Defined with Euler
Theorem
sin =
e e
i i
2i
(26)
Proof.
2iy = z z
2i sin = z z
sin =
z z
2i
sin =
e i
e i
2i
Theorem
cos =
e + e
i i
(27)
2
Proof.
2x = z + z
2 cos = z + z
cos =
z + z
2
cos =
e i
+ e i
2
Theorem
sin() = sin (28)
Proof.
sin() =
e e
i i
2i
e
e
i
i
2i
=
= sin
Theorem
cos() = cos (29)
Proof.
cos() =
e + e
i i
2
=
e + e
i i
2
= cos
Theorem
sin2 + cos2 = 1 (30)
Proof.
sin2 + cos2 = y 2 + x 2
= zz
= ei e
i
=1
Theorem
1
sin cos = {sin( + ) + sin( )} (31)
2
Proof.
sin cos =
e e e + e
i i i i
2i 2
e +
i
+ e e + e
i i i i i i i
2 2i
=
1 e e e () e ()
(+) i (+) i i i
2i 2i
= +
2
1
= {sin( + ) + sin( )}
2
Corollary
sin 2
sin cos = (32)
2
Proof.
1
sin cos = {sin( + ) + sin( )}
2
1
= {sin 2 + sin 0}
2
sin 2
=
2
Theorem
1
sin sin = {cos( ) cos( + )} (33)
2
Proof.
sin sin =
e e e e
i i i i
2i 2i
e i+
i
e e + + e
i i i i i i
2 2i 2
=
1 e
(+)
i
+ e (+) e () + e ()
i i
i
2i
= 2
2 2
1
= (cos( + ) cos( ))
2
1
= {cos( ) cos( + )}
2
CS Helms (CMI) Euler JUL 2012 20 / 37
Sine Times Sine Corollary
Corollary
1 cos 2
sin2 = (34)
2
Proof.
Theorem
1
cos cos = {cos( ) + cos( + )} (35)
2
Proof.
cos cos =
e + e e + e
i i i i
2 2
=
ei +i
+e + e i +i + e i i
i i
4
1 e i (+) + e i (+) e i () + e i ()
= +
2 2 2
1
= {cos( + ) + cos( )}
2
1
= {cos( ) + cos( + )}
2
CS Helms (CMI) Euler JUL 2012 22 / 37
Cosine Times Cosine Corollary
Corollary
1 + cos 2
cos2 = (36)
2
Proof.
Proof.
z = e (+)
i
= e ( + )i i
=e e
i i
Hence,
Corollary
Proof.
z = e ()
i
= e ( )i i
= e e
i i
Hence,
The geometric definition of sin is the length of the side of a right triangle that is
opposite . And cos is defined as the length of the side of a right triangle
adjecent to . For most angles of , you will need to use a calculator to obtain
values for sin and cos. When studying calculus, you will focus on these angles:
= 0, , , , = {0 , 30 , 45 , 60 , 90 }
6 4 3 2
Equations (1) and (2) give us the answers for the extreme values of this set. The
proofs of those equations are self evident, since the triangles are actually lines.
1
R = Y
= 4
0 X x
Figure: /4
CS Helms (CMI) Euler JUL 2012 28 / 37
Calculations for 45
The right triangle with acute angle = /4 is called an isosceles triangle because
vertical and horizantal sides are necessarily equal in length. We can use the
Pythagoras Theorem R 2 = X 2 + Y 2 along with the fact that X = Y to
calculate the length of the sides.
X 2 + Y 2 = R2
Y2 +Y2 = 1
2Y 2 = 1
Y 2 = 1/2
Y = 1/2
p
positive root only
sin(/4) = 2/2 = cos(/4) (43)
= /6
1
= /3
A D B x
Figure: /3 and /6
CS Helms (CMI) Euler JUL 2012 30 / 37
Calculations for 30 and 60
The equalateral triangle formed by the radius of a unit circle necessarily contains
three equal acute angles, = /3. The perpendicular bisector creates two right
triangles where = /6. Therefore,
and
AD 2 + CD 2 = 1
(1/2)2 + CD = 1
2
CD 2 = 3/4
CD = 3/4
p
positive root only
sin(/3) = 3/2 = cos(/6) (45)
You can utilize equations (28) and (29) to calculate other corresponding values of
sin or cos. Here are some other tools you may want to utilize in your future work:
sin
tan = , cos 6= 0. (46)
cos
There exists two additional angles for which easy trigonometric calculations are
possible. These angles are 15 and 75 . Using the tools we have developed in
this book, lets proceed to find the values.
sin 15 = sin(45 30 )
= sin(45 ) cos(30 ) sin(30 ) cos(45 )
! !
2 3 1 2
=
2 2 2 2
6 2
= (48)
4
sin 75 = sin(45 + 30 )
= sin(45 ) cos(30 ) + sin(30 ) cos(45 )
! !
2 3 1 2
= +
2 2 2 2
6+ 2
= (49)
4
CS Helms (CMI) Euler JUL 2012 33 / 37
More Cosine Calculations
cos 15 = sin(90 15 )
= sin(75 )
6+ 2
= (50)
4
cos 75 = sin(90 75 )
= sin(15 )
6 2
= (51)
4
sin 15 6 2 6 2
tan 15 =
=
cos 15 6+ 2 6 2
62 2 6+2
=
62
84 3
=
4
=2 3 (52)
sin 75 6+ 2 6+ 2
tan 75 =
=
cos 75 6 2 6+ 2
6+2 2 6+2
=
62
8+4 3
=
4
=2+ 3 (53)
CS Helms (CMI) Euler JUL 2012 35 / 37
Summary of Values
sin cos tan
0 0 0 1 0
6 2
6+ 2
/12 15 4 4 2 3
/6 30 1 3 3
2 2 3
/4 45 2 2 1
2 2
3
1
/3 60 2 2 3
6+ 2
6 2
5/12 75 4 4 2+ 3
/2 90 1 0