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Notes the impossibility of archaeological truth and an acceptance of the


always already fragmentary and marginal nature of the object.2
1. See for example, Halletts review in Journal of Roman Archaeology, vol. 13,
2005, pp. 41935.
2. Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archaologischen Instituts, Athenische Abteilung, To most art historians today, the task of acknowledging
vol. 107, 1992, pp. 22971. the different and fragmentary nature of any historic
3. Thus, griechische is consistently mis-spelled as greichische; further- object seems obvious and conventional. The desire to
more, La statue di culto, spatantike Literature (p. 306); des solve the puzzle of the sculptural fragment and to ima-
Osterreichisches Archaologisches Institut (p. 311); la theme religieux, gine one whole again is understandable, but there are
Entstelung, Beschriebungskunst-Kunstbeschriebung (p. 314); il collectio- different ways of going about it. Until recently, for some
nizmo, der griechisch-romanischen Antike (p. 315); la regne de lemper-
eur (p. 316); in religionsgeschichtlich Beleuchtung, Pompejanishe
historians of medieval sculpture, the present might
(p. 318); Romische Mitteliungen (p. 321) Besitzer des spatantiken only be mentioned in order to forget it: as a point of
Silberfundes von Esquilin und seiner Datierung (p. 325); Toute le memoire departure, to articulate a longing for a single moment in
du monde (p. 326); sozialen unde politischen (p. 327). the past when sculptures were complete, undamaged
objects of religious devotion reflecting a specific icono-
doi:10.1093/oxartj/kcn040 graphic programme and representative of a particular
style.3 When the drive to contextualise historic artefacts

Downloaded from http://oaj.oxfordjournals.org/ at Nipissing University on October 2, 2013


is based more upon identifying their formal similarities
with other objects in order to categorise, to date, and to
Out of Place place in a stylistic taxonomy, than to know as much as
possible about their origins and place in their contexts
Stacy Boldrick over time, scholars may make the objects belong to us,
but they also run the risk of being blind to assumptions,
and of avoiding fundamental questions, questions that
might seem outrageous to specialists. Camilles descrip-
Fred Orton, Ian Wood and Clare Lees: Fragments of tion of Schapiro approaching the art object as extra-
History. Rethinking the Ruthwell and Bewcastle terrestrial succinctly captures the need to respect the
Monuments (Manchester University Press: Manchester and distance between the present us and the past Other.4
New York, 2007), 73 plates, 4 colour plates, some line drawings, The seeds sown by both Schapiro and Camille over the
300 pp., hardback ISBN 978-0-7190-7256-7, 60.00, paperback course of the twentieth century flourish in Fragments of
ISBN 978-0-7190-7257-4, 17.99. History: Rethinking the Ruthwell and Bewcastle
Monuments, written by Fred Orton and Ian Wood with a
In the 1994 Oxford Art Journal special issue dedicated contribution from Clare Lees. This book offers a long-
to Meyer Schapiro, Michael Camille described Schapiros needed alternative to art historical and archaeological
materialist approach in his early writings as one that interpretations of two important pre-Viking standing
integrated formalist analyses of the object with stylistic stone monuments: the Ruthwell and Bewcastle monu-
analyses, and situated the object and its producers and ments.5 Their location (about 30 miles apart, in
users in a time and place, in the social and cultural con- Dumfries and Galloway and Cumbria, respectively) and
ditions which informed its production. Writing about similarities of form and iconographic programme have
medieval and modern art in New York over the course of invited comparisons between the two monuments since
most of the twentieth century, Schapiro mixed with the nineteenth century. The book brings together
international avant-garde artists and understood how art articles published over the last ten years or so and
objects could also be seen as actions.1 By situating revised into a reassessment of this comparison. The col-
Schapiro in his own time and place, Camille argued that laboration between Fred Orton, modernist art historian,
as a medievalist in the 1930s, Schapiro was radically Ian Wood, medieval historian, and Clare Lees, historian
different to his predecessors in starting with the obser- of medieval literature, subjects the monuments to trans-
vation of the objects placement and condition in con- disciplinary readings of their origins, contexts, forms,
temporary history, its status in the present moment: functions, intentions and receptions. The authors begin
by responding to Schapiros early essay about Ruthwell,
In contrast to most of these European scholars, Schapiro did not and echoes of Schapiro appear in the well-written, reinvi-
take the medieval objects under scrutiny for granted, emphasizing, gorated visual analyses which offer new insights into the
not wholeness and continuity, but fragmentation and difference, not sculptural production of the monuments and their
us but them. Schapiro homed-in on Souillac as if it were an
effects, and their materialist histories.
extra-terrestrial object, a strange and crafted meteor that had
That the work leading up to the publication of
landed from that other planet, the past, whose complex surfaces
and structures had to be explained piece by piece and layer by layer
Fragments has been controversial is testament to the
in the present. The essay opens with the severe statement that: longstanding narrow methodological confines of medieval
The sculptures now preserved in the inner west wall of the abbey art history in Britain, and the relatively new imaginative
church of Souillac are the fragments of a larger whole which we can alternatives to these approaches. Collaborative projects
no longer reconstruct. This first sentence is both an admission of in the humanities do not often easily work, but in this

OXFORD ART JOURNAL 31.3 2008 431


Reviews

book, different areas of specialisation strengthen the out the long history of the site, as it was inhabited by
study. More important is the incorporation of a range of Neolithic Bronze Age peoples and Romans. Understand-
methodological approaches which encompass medieval- ing the concept of place as part of a historic continuum
ists such as Rosemary Cramp and Patrick Wormald, as that includes past, present, and future is critical to deep
well as Nelson Goodman and Thomas Kuhn. Of particular analysis of these contexts, and critical to the larger
note is the authors commitment to ideology and class, issue of the monuments as objects with social biogra-
perspectives sometimes politely referenced but rarely phies constituted not by single moments of production,
directly or self-consciously explored as something funda- but by sets of circumstances and conditions that
mental to the analysis of medieval art-historical sub- informed their production in the past, and that are conti-
jects. But this is not a solely interdisciplinary or nuing to inform their production in the present. In a sort
theoretical project. Its method is syncretic. The fact that of spatio-temporal Google Earth advancement towards
the investigation of place incorporates well-considered the site of the Bewcastle monument, Orton begins his
forays which run the gamut from orohydrography to journey in the northern tip of Cumbria at the time of the
Heidigger (and that is only within the first chapter) sub- Carboniferous period, reviews prehistoric settlements
stantiates its status as a serious research project. The and Roman occupation of the region, and gradually
authors consistent acknowledgement of the epistemo- homes in on the site: the Bewcastle monument, which
logical limitations of their project helps us to negotiate was perhaps part of the deliberate appropriation and
our way through the dense, rich territory, to make sense re-sanctification of a residual Romano-British cult site,
of what can and cannot be proved, and what can and Fanum Cocidii, . . . was erected inside the still standing
cannot be known. walls of a Roman fort (p. 29). Moving from this historic
For the non-specialist, the structure of the book pro- overview to the present, Orton reconceptualises the
vides a framework which allows the reader to build upon chapters material in relation to Heideggers essay
their knowledge of different aspects of the monuments. A Building Dwelling Thinking, taking from it the idea
newly written exordia and postscript articulate the larger that place is constituted by human activity, and that a
ideas behind and ambitions for the project and help to monument should be understood in relation to land, sky,
transform a collection of individual essays into something and its relationship to human experience and to making
that makes sense as a book. In some chapters, the focus sense of the world. From this perspective, it is possible
is on only one of the two monuments. The first chapter to see the Bewcastle monument as a product of those
Place locates the Bewcastle monuments site in its pre- who used it and made it, a response to and represen-
history, in contexts of time and space, and the second tation of what and who they presently thought they
chapter Fragments investigates the fragmentation and were, of what and who they once were, and of who and
reconstruction of the Ruthwell monument. Thus the narra- what they might become (p. 31).
tive moves from the widest to the smallest possible geo- In chapter two, Fragments, Orton turns not to the
logical, geographical, and archaeological context before inception of the Ruthwell monuments production in the
the Bewcastle monument was erected, to the moment Anglo-Saxon period, but rather to another moment in
after the destruction of the Ruthwell monument. These the monuments longer history: the history of iconoclastic
are then followed by assessments of methodological ques- acts and their aftermath. Sometime after 1640, in order
tions of style, an examination of the formal differences to fulfil the act of the Church of Scotland to demolish
between the two monuments, an investigation of the monuments with depictions of religious figures,
social, political, and economic circumstances in the Reverend Gavin Young, Minister at Ruthwell (1617
Kingdom of Northumbria, and more specifically Rheged, a 1671) was responsible for taking down the monument.
consideration of the different relations of the monuments Later accounts of this moment considered the fact that
to time and time-keeping, a comprehensive exploration of Young essentially did not obliterate the monument, but
the Ruthwell runes and The Dream of the Rood, and then rather brought it down with convenient diligence and
finally, an examination of the political and theological no more and no less damage than he could get away
contexts for Northumbrian crosses and the consequences with, thus allowing its survival (p. 35). Orton picks
for the meanings and functions of the Ruthwell monu- apart accounts of the subsequent displacement of the
ment. Led and edited by Orton, the book retains both a fragments, their re-presentation between 1802 and
strong sense of individual authorship in the individual 1823, and re-siting in 1887, and notes the differences
chapters and captures a sense of a dynamic dialogue between the upper and lower stones in the present
throughout. Throughout Ortons chapters, longer passages monument. Although he respects the accounts as intelli-
incorporating more complicated references or obser- gent and credible, they are nevertheless secondary,
vations are broken up with shorter, more theoretical rather than primary sources. It is right to question their
bridges which help the reader to comprehend, question, complete, relational meanings. Well-respected medieval-
and consolidate the material. ists may balk at the idea of questioning whether or not
In the first chapter, Place, Orton describes the the original forms of the Ruthwell and Bewcastle monu-
regional, geological, topographical, and orohydrographi- ments were crosses, but accepted givens should be
cal contexts for the Bewcastle monument and sketches challenged.

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The third chapter Style, and seeing . . . as explores ship between sculptors action and the effects it
the problem of style as interpretation, with the phrase generates, particularly the way it conveys a sense of
seeing . . . as used to emphasise the idea that the act of corporeal materiality through light and shadow. For
seeing is interpretive. Starting with Schapiros seminal example, in the Bewcastle monuments panel represent-
essay on style from 1953, Orton brings to it Nelson ing Christ on the Beasts:
Goodmans work on similarity and difference to address
the issue of inconstancy of the apparently similar forms Theres a connection between touch and the elusiveness of carved
that constitute a style. The pursuit of looking for similar details that evokes an awareness of the actions of the sculptor.
forms downplays differences in individual forms and Lines, which here are formed by shadows at the edges where
skews the act of seeing. For Orton, uncritical ideas about shallow planes meet, not by actual lines cut into the stone, seem to
style are based on the belief in a style that exists prior to cling to the body. They quicken the eye across the surface. . . .
the art historians acts of description and interpretation, Deeply cut rounded forms, which trap more light and produce more
and when style is used primarily for purposes of identifi- shadow, affect us differently. Shadows, which have no form, are apt
cation and explanation, the art historian is really con- to effect uncertainty. They generate a vitality different to that of
cerned not with observing facts but with deciding what line: one that takes more time to penetrate. We must look into
shadow to perceive whats there; shadows slow the way we come to
counts as observable facts [sic]. The chapter titles
an understanding of form (p. 86).
phrase seeing . . . as has its origins in Wittgensteins
Philosophical Investigations, when he asks, What does
anyone tell me by saying Now I see it as . . .? What con- Orton also considers the monuments in relation to
sequences has this information? What can I do with it?. modes of imperial composition and late-Antique relief
Orton responds to these questions with: sculpture in order to examine the different ways that
Christs body and his clothing are represented in the two
Seeing and seeing as. What is really seen? We see an object as a monuments: Bewcastles Christ has a substantial cor-
thing or as another thing. . . .We see an object and interpret it, and poreality, whereas Ruthwells Christ conveys a sense of
see it as we interpret it. Seeing it as or seeing . . . as is a problem changing action so as to disclose space, not a body
of representation (p. 67). (p. 89). Looking beyond the Christ on the Beasts panel
to consider the formal differences between the monu-
These observations are important when stylistic cat- ments as whole entities, Orton proposes that in the
egories are used to identify and date works of art Ruthwell monument, narrative and sculptural forms grant
because little or no contemporary documentary or other it a consistency and give it a mobility that separates
evidence exists to fix the monument with a time and its space from that of the viewer; by contrast, the
place, although such uncritical applications of stylistic Bewcastle monument has a fixed unity which directly
categories are less common now than they were a gen- confronts the viewer, so that the viewer shares space
eration ago. As in the previous chapter on the Ruthwell with the monument. While Orton acknowledges the lim-
monument, Orton questions the assumption that the ited use-value of what he regards as intuitive analogies,
original form of the Bewcastle monument was a cross. his attention to the monuments differences at the
He suggests the Bewcastle monument could have been microcosmic level of sculptural decision-making informs
a cross, a column, or an obelisk, once again on
our understanding of the monuments larger differences.
the grounds that descriptions and drawings are seco-
Ortons other areas of comparison include the relative
ndary sources, interpretations, and therefore open to
Romanness of the monuments, their interlace and orna-
question. The interplay of concentrated interrogations of
ment, their relationship to time (Bewcastle has a sundial
Antiquarian accounts, including reproductions of tran-
and Ruthwell does not), their inscriptions (Bewcastle
scribed runic inscriptions, and broader theoretical con-
has runic inscriptions, and Ruthwell runic and Roman
siderations help us to make sense of what at times
inscriptions, and both monuments have inscriptions in
appears to be confused and confusing material.
If the Antiquarian texts are difficult to navigate, the Latin and Old English). How the monuments represent
fourth chapters visual analyses of what Orton refers to ideas about death and dying, kingship and nobility, and
as sculptural decision-making and their effects are of a ideas about women, or about what it meant to be a
different order, conveying some of the dynamism of the woman, is touched on. Although Orton and, elsewhere,
monuments sculptural forms and resonating with a Wood suggest potential links between both monuments
clarity and invigorating depth. In this chapter, Orton and double monasteries, fundamental questions about
arrives at the larger aim of the book: to concentrate on gender are not as rigorously explored as they could be,
the differences between the two monuments, as scho- despite recent relevant studies such as Karkovs con-
lars have so often stressed their similarities. The author sideration of the concept of degendered difference in
analyses the monuments forms in relation to facture relation to Ruthwell.6 However, what is most important
and function and looks for clues to sculptural decision- about this chapter is the way it subjects the monuments
making. The comparative visual analyses of both monu- to a visual scrutiny to suggest a singular context for
ments focus on the sculptural process, on the relation- each monument.

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If the first four chapters thoroughly consider site and bases for their proliferation in seventh- and eighth-
object and difference, crucially, the remaining chapters century theological debates, in image controversies, or
provide broader insights into complex historic, social, in changes to liturgical rites. After this impressively
and cultural identities and political instability and politi- wide-ranging exploration of cross cults and ideas, Wood
cal regionalism in the eighth-century Northumbria. Most looks again at the Ruthwell monument, and draws
importantly, Ian Woods reflections on the varied forms together material from the previous chapters to assess
of monastic communities in the regions open up ques- its function in relation to context and to propose that
tions about the place of the two monuments in relation the monument was originally sited in a church.
to land-tenure. In the eighth century, all land belonged The one disappointment with the book is that its inven-
to the king, who gave it to warriors in return for military tive content is not matched by inventive design. New
service, but took the land back after the warriors death. photography, some of which could have been in colour,
By founding a monastery, a layperson ensured that the and additional maps delineating historic kingdoms and
land could be inherited. Wood proposes that whether or regions could have attracted a new audience to the
not linked to a bogus monastery (defined according to study of Anglo-Saxon stone monuments. And yet as a
Bede as monasteries showing no trace of monastic model of art-historical enquiry, it is extremely useful.
life), the Bewcastle monument had to have been built Indeed, for many scholars, this book may become more
on the property acquired from the king, and Ruthwell important as a methodological tool than as a singular,
could have had links with a female or double monastery. comprehensive, and authoritative guide to the subjects.
Woods conservative hypothesising helps the reader to The book concludes with a short section on class and
negotiate between fact and possibility, but it also makes ideology. The authors identify the producers and users of
more believable intriguing ideas about the two monu- both the Ruthwell and Bewcastle monuments as aristo-
ments relationships with their regions, Bewcastles cratic, but of different factions, one more religious and
situation close to Hadrians Wall, and Ruthwell in the other more secular: the Ruthwell monument was
relation to what may have been the kingdom of Rheged. erected by some sort of ecclesiastical institution, most
It also convinces the reader to accept Woods broad probably a monastery, and that the Bewcastle monu-
conclusion that the communities that erected the ment was of secular production, but . . . we keep in mind
two monuments were very different. Bewcastles ethni- the complexity of what constituted the idea of a theolo-
cally mixed community may have been dominated by gically informed devout secularity (p. 201). The authors
family or political interests and identified with its Roman open-ended conclusions about first producers and users
past, whereas Ruthwell was Anglian in a still-British concur with their understanding of the monuments as
world. fragments of ideology, as parts of a whole that can
In her theoretically grounded chapter, Clare Lees sum- never be reconstructed. Orton, Wood, and Lees interro-
marises a comprehensive review of the close links gate their subjects and scholarship, test but respect the
between the poem The Dream of the Rood and the limits of empirical knowledge, and show how important
Ruthwell monument, territory well-trodden by the literary it is to question the accepted facts, to hypothesise
scholar, but perhaps less familiar to the art historian. about specific areas of inquiry, but also to understand
The latest scholarship seems to be content with under- the constraining and distorting effects that the goal to
standing that both works belong to a more widespread label the appearance, meanings or definitions of an art
tradition and are not directly linked, with one inspired by object can have on the art object itself.
the other. Touched on in the other chapters, Leess con-
sideration of the oral and aural in the Ruthwell monu-
ment also directs attention to the other senses, and Notes
intertextual ideas, where seeing, reading and saying 1. Michael Camille, How New York Stole the Idea of Romanesque Art:
open the mind to the structure of signification itself. Medieval, Modern and Postmodern in Meyer Schapiro, Oxford Art Journal,
As in The Dream of the Rood, the monument seems vol. 17, no. 1, 1994, pp. 65 75, p. 66.
to speak and listen, and the viewer to see, hear, and 2. Camille, How New York Stole the Idea of Romanesque Art, pp. 67 8.
Camille is citing Schapiros 1939 essay The Sculptures of Souillac, reprinted
respond. Lees ends by bringing back her emphasis on
in Romanesque Art (George Braziller: New York), pp. 10231, p. 102.
the bodily, multi-sensory experience of the monument, 3. In contrast to earlier studies, see C.E. Karkov and Fred Orton (eds),
on the very kinetic and kinaesthetic processes, the Theorizing Anglo-Saxon Stone Sculpture (West Virginia University Press:
different levels of movement, interaction of body and Morgantown, WV, 2003). For an excellent insight into the historiography of
mind, sense and cognition that it was almost certainly later medieval art history, see Conrad Rudolph, Introduction: A Sense of
made to effect in the first place (p. 169). Loss: An Overview of the Historiography of Romanesque and Gothic Art,
In the last chapter, Wood considers the cult of the in Conrad Rudolph (ed.), A Companion to Medieval Art: Romanesque and Gothic
in Northern Europe (Blackwell: Oxford, 2006), pp. 1 43.
cross in Northumbria, starting with Oswalds seventh-
4. On the Middle Ages as Other, see B. Holsinger, The Premodern Condition:
century wooden cross, and asks why there were such a Medievalism and the Making of Theory (University of Chicago Press: Chicago, 2005).
significant number of stone crosses in Northumbria from 5. See Eamonn O Carragain, Ritual and the Rood. Liturgical Images and the
the eighth century onwards. In his survey of literary and Old English Poems of The Dream of the Rood Tradition (The British Library:
documentary references to crosses, he finds no direct London, 2005), which complements Fragments of History.

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6. Catherine Karkov, Naming and Renaming: The Inscription of Gender in mounted on a pyramid, rather than bombarding the
Anglo-Saxon Sculpture, in C.E. Karkov and Fred Orton (eds), Theorizing viewer with heraldic information. As the importance of
Anglo-Saxon Stone Sculpture (2003), pp. 31 64. chivalric traditions dwindled, Craske argues the Roman
traditions of ancestor worship were resurrected. These
doi:10.1093/oxartj/kcn032 were manifest in the form of the widow mourning her
deceased husband, the expression of gratitude to bene-
factors, and the deployment of motifs such as trophies
The Politics of Posterity hanging from trees on the Duke of Montagus monument
(Roubiliac, 1752). Further, Craske emphasises the
epigraph as a Roman tradition and aligns the decline of
Kate Retford horrific imagery in monumental sculpture with Roman
concerns of hygiene and their desire to separate the
living and the dead.
Once Craske starts working from the sculpture out-
Matthew Craske, The Silent Rhetoric of the Body: A wards, things pick up. The rest of the book falls into two
History of Monumental Sculpture and Commemorative Art sections. Chapters 4 through to 7 provide us with a
in England, 1720 1770 (Yale University Press for the Paul Mellon chronological narrative of monumental sculpture in the
Centre for Studies in British Art: New Haven and London, 2007), early and mid-eighteenth century. This is likely to be the
60 b&w illns, 256pp., ISBN: 0300135416, 45.00 hardback section with which art historians working in the field will
most engage, as it tells us vast amounts about artists
It is impossible to resist the joke that will no doubt be such as Henry Cheere, Peter Scheemakers, and Michael
made in every review of Matthew Craskes new book, Rysbrack and explores the practicalities of production,
The Silent Rhetoric of the Body. This is indeed a monu- practice, and marketing in their shops in a way that
mental history of monumental sculpture, coming in at complements much recent scholarship on eighteenth-
around 500 pages. It is the result of many years labour, century painting. We first meet the Flemings,
spent visiting and meticulously recording monuments Scheemakers and Rysbrack, in a chapter which polarises
scattered across England, poring over newspapers for the culture of funerals, retaining a certain grim iconogra-
references to these sculptures and their producers, and phy from an earlier age, with the polite imagery of the
working patiently through the infinite complexities of monumental sculpture produced by these continental
wills and settlements in order to extract the true mean- artists. One could still order funeral invitations adorned
ing of commissions. The book provides an extraordinarily with skeletons and the figure of Father Time, but
rich account of sculpture and sculptural practice in this eschew such imagery on the tomb. The funeral was a
period and is particularly welcome as the history of matter of catharsis: the monument was a matter of com-
eighteenth-century visual culture in the last few decades memoration and posterity. The reformed classicism of
has been distinctly biased towards the two-dimensional. Rysbrack is convincingly aligned with both the polite,
We know less about the wealth of sculpture produced in genteel ethos of Addison and Shaftesbury and the moder-
this period than we ought, and Craskes book brings ate theological tenets of Latitudinarianism. The refined
something previously unencountered before the reader in gentleman was provided with a visual language for his
almost every single chapter. monumentlooking back to the Ancients via Francois
The book does take a while to get goingaround four Duquesnoy (Il Fiamingo)that privileged inner merit
chapters, to be precise, as Craske sets up preoccupa- over outer display, timelessness over fashion. These
tions and introduces general themes before getting to sculptures eschewed the emblematic and perfected the
the actual material of his book. In these opening sec- silent rhetoric of the body, featuring eloquently gestur-
tions, the reader experiences a certain amount of ing, standing figures posed against simple pyramids.
confusion in grappling with the broad thesis before This imagery was not supplanted, and Craske is care-
becoming fully acquainted with the evidence. This is a ful to avoid crude narratives of change. However,
shame, as the sculptures are subsequently engaged with he traces the emergence of a new interest in the
in compelling detail. One of the major ideas Craske is expression of emotion and grief in the 1740s, enabling
keen to develop at this stage is the decline of chivalry. the success of Roubiliac. In the era of the evangelical
In brief, Craske proposes that the elite stopped demand- revival, graveyard poetry and Sensibility, Roubiliacs
ing detailed and overbearing heraldic devices and opted monuments became a viable optionbut Craske is care-
instead for modest and even witty displays. The canopy ful to emphasise that they were just that: an option.
tomb was long gone as Louis-Francois Roubiliac made This was not a wholehearted revival of the macabre, and
subtle plays on the language of shields of arms. In those who did seek overt expressions of grief and
Roubiliacs 1755 monument to General James Fleming, bereavement were tapping into a new consumer fashion.
Hercules binds a serpent to his club, one of the attri- Many patrons still opted for the calmer language of the
butes of Prudence but also the heraldic device of Flemingsa useful reminder as it is primarily Roubiliac
Flemings family. Other patrons opted for a single shield who has penetrated mainstream histories of eighteenth-

OXFORD ART JOURNAL 31.3 2008 435

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