Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
HANDBOOK
by
Kurt E. Peray
CONTENS
2
Chapter 4 CHEMICAL AND PHISIKAL PROPERTIES OF
MATERIALS USED IN CEMENT MANUFACTURING
6.01 Definition of pH
6.02 Calculation of pH
6.03 Indicators
Part II Burning
3
Chapter 8 and 9 KILN PERFORMANCE AND EFFICIENCY
4
13.04 Mean Specific Heat of Fuels
13.05 Mean Specific Heat of Water Vapor
13.06 Heat Transfer Coefficients for Heat Loss on Kiln Shell
13.07 Mean Specific Heat of Clinker (Base: 32 oF)
13.08 Mean Specific Heat of Cement Raw Materials (Base: 32 oF)
13.09 Mean Specific Heat of Exist Gas Components (Base: 32 oF)
13.10 Mean Specific Heat of Fuels (Base: 32 oF)
13.11 Mean Specific Heat of Vapor (Base: 32 oF)
13.12 Heat Transfer Coefficient for Heat Losses on Kiln Shell
13.13 Computations for Natural Gas Firing
5
15.12 Kiln Chain Data-Proof Coil (Oval Links)
15.13 Chain Shackle Data
15.14 Chain System Record Form
PART III
GRINDING
6
19.03 Ratio: Free Height to Mill Diameter
19.04 Internal Volume of Ball Charge
19.05 Percent Loading of Mill
19.06 Bulk Volume of Ball Charge
19.07 Weight of Ball Charge
19.08 Weight of Feed in Mill
19.09 Steel to Clinker Ratio
19.10 Bonds Laboratory Work Index
19.11 Power Required
19.12 Mill Power
19.13 True Specific Power Demand of Grinding Mill
19.14 Mill Operating Efficiency
19.15 Specific Surface Grinding Efficiency
19.16 Mill Size Ratio
19.17 Specific Mill Volume per Horsepower
19.18 Separator Load
19.19 Separator Efficiency
19.20 Circulating Load
19.21 Size of Grinding Balls Required
7
Chapter 23 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
25.01 Viscosity
25.02 Kinematic Viscosity
25.03 Specific Weight
25.04 Specific Volume
25.05 Specific Gravity
25.06 Mean Fluid Velocity
25.07 Barometric Pressure
25.08 Atmospheric Pressure
25.09 Gauge Pressure
25.10 Hydraulic Radius
25.11 Pressure Loss in Any Pipe
25.12 Friction Factor
25.13 Poiseuilles Law
25.14 Reynolds Number
25.15 Critical Velocity
25.16 Total Head
25.17 Pressure Head
25.18 Velocity Head
25.19 Resistance Coefficient
25.20 Bernoullis Theorem
25.21 Head Loss
25.22 Flow Coefficient of Values
25.23 Flow Through a Valve
25.24 Pressure drop Through Valve
25.25 Flow Through Pipe
25.26 Velocity vs. Cross-Sectional Area
25.27 Potential Energy of a Liquid
25.28 Total Energy of a Liquid
25.29 Power of a Liquid
25.30 Flow Through Nozzles and Orifices
25.31 Flow Coefficient
25.32 Flow Through Pipes
8
25.33 Flow Through Rectangular Weirs
25.34 Flow Through Triangular Weirs
25.35 Gas flow Measurements
25.36 Pilot Tube Measurements
25.37 S-Tube Measurements
25.38 One-Point Traverse
25.39 Conversion of Flow Rates
25.40 Flow Determination with Orifice Plate
25.41 Ventury Meters
Chapter 28 PHISICS
9
28.07 Molecular Heat of Gases
28.08 Molecular Heat of Solids
28.09 Latent Heat of Fusion
28.10 Latent Heat of Evaporation
28.11 Heat of Formation and Reaction
28.12 Joule Equivalent
28.13 Temperature of Mixture
28.14 Gas Mixtures
28.15 Gas constant
28.16 Friction Coefficient
28.17 Moment of Force-Torque
Chapter 29 PSYCHROMETRY
10
Part VI Appendix
Section A MATHEMATICS
A1. Algebra
A1.01 Exponents
A1.02 Fractions
A1.03 Radicals
A1.04 Factoring
A1.05 Scientific Notations
A1.06 Logarithms
A1.07 Determinants
A1.08 Quadratic Equation
A1.09 Powers of Ten
A1.10 Powers of Roots
A1.11 Fractions and Decimal Equivalents
A2 Trigonometry
A3. Statistics
A4. Finances
11
A4.15 Deposit Calculation
A6.01 Rectangles
A6.02 Parallelogram
A6.03 Triangle
A6.04 Circle
A6.05 Circular Sector
A6.06 Circular Segment
A6.07 Circular Ring
A6.08 Ellipse
A6.09 Parabola
A6.10 Polygon
A6.11 Trapezoid
A6.12 Catenary
A6.13 Cube
A6.14 Cylinder
A6.15 Pyramid
A6.16 Cone
A6.17 Frustom of a Cone
A6.18 Sphere
A6.19 Segment of a Sphere
A6.20 Sector of a Sphere
A6.21 Torus
12
PART I
CEMENT CHEMISTRY
13
Chapter 1
SiO 2
SR =
Al 2 O3 + Fe 2 O3
Large variations of the silica ratio in the clinker can be an indication of poor
uniformity in the kiln feed or the fired coal. Changes in coating formation in the burning zone,
burnability of the clinker, and ring formations within the kiln can often be traced to changes
of the silica ratio in the clinker. As a rule, clinker with a high silica ratio is more difficult to
burn and exhibits poor coating properties. Low silica ratios often lead to ring formations and
low early strength (3 7 days) in the cement.
Al 2 O3
AF =
Fe 2 O3
Clinker with a high alumina iron ratio, as a rule, produce cement with high early
strength (1 to 3 days) but makes the reaction between the silica and calcium oxide in the
burning zone more difficult.
This factor has been used for kiln feed control for many years in Europe and only
recently has also found acceptance by American cement manufactures. When the lime
saturation factor approaches unity, the clinker is difficult to burn and often shows excessive
high free lime contents. A clinker, showing a lime saturation factor of 0,97 or higher
approaches the threshold of being overlimed wherein the free lime content could remain at
high levels regardless of how much more fuel the kiln operator is feeding to the kiln.
CaO
LSF =
2,8SiO 2 + 1,65 Al 2 O3 + 0,7 Fe 2 O3
14
CaO
LSF =
2,8SiO 2 + 1,1Al 2 O3 + 0,7 Fe 2 O3
This index is very seldom used any more in modern cement technology for kiln feed
control.
CaO
HR =
SiO 2 + Al 2 O3 + Fe 2 O3
Clinker, when burned at a temperature of 1450C, Has the following liquid content:
This is an indicator of the ease of burning for a given clinker. The higher the index
number, the harder the clinker is to burn.
C3 S
BI =
C 4 AF + C 3 A
The burn ability factor is used as a guideline for the kiln operator to show if a given
clinker is easier or harder to burn. Higher burn ability factors yield a clinker that is harder to
burn. Conversely, lower factors make the clinker easier to burn.
For a cement chemist, these formulas are the most important and frequently used
indicators of the chemical properties of a cement or clinker. The constituents calculated by
these formulas, however, are only the potential compositions when the clinker has been
burned and cooled at given conditions. Changes in cooling rate or burning temperature can
modify the true constituent composition to a considerable extent.
15
If A/F than 0.64
C4AF = 3,043Fe2O3
When appreciable amounts of SO3 and Mn2O3 are present in the clinker, the values of
the chemical analysis have to be recalculated to take into account the amount of CaO that has
been combined with SO3, the amount of free lime present and the Mn2O3.
The values to be used in the Bogue formulas are:
Step 1 If (K2O/SO3) less than 1,176 than not all of the SO3 is combined with K2O as K2SO4.
If [Na2O/SO3 (remain)] is lower than 0,774 than not all of the remaining SO3 is combined
with Na2O as Na2SO4.
CaO (in SO3) = 0,7[SO3 - SO3 (in K2O) - SO3 (in Na2O)]
Having determined the appropriate values for the CaO and Fe2O3, one can then
proceed to calculating the potential clinker constituents by using the previously given Bogue
formulas. When the Bogue formulas are used for feed compositions, keep in mind that the
coal ash addition, dust losses, and alkali cycles can alter the final composition of the clinker.
Also use the analysis on a loss free basis in the calculations of the constituents.
16
1.10 Total Carbonates
TC = 1,784CaO + 2,092MgO
The total alkali content in terms of sodium oxide is calculated from the loss free
analysis:
Or
Of = 100
100 - L
where
Or = percent of oxide (by weight) on a raw basis
Of = percent of oxide (by weight) on loss free basis
L = percent loss on ignition (by weight)
Dust collected in a precipitator or bag house of a kiln shows a different loss on ignition
than the kiln feed because it has been partially calcined. For inventory control purpose and in
some kiln operating studies it is often necessary to express the weight of dust in terms of
equivalent feed weight.
(w d )(1 - Ld )
we =
1 - Lf
where
we = weight of dust in terms of feed
wd = actual weight of dust
Ld = percent ignition loss, dust (decimal)
Lf = percent ignition loss, kiln feed (decimal)
This method is only applicable when the MgO content of the sample is known. Values
from the raw (unignited) basis are used for the calculation.
17
1.15 Percent Calcination
Kiln feed or dust samples taken at any location of the kiln are often investigated for
the apparent degree of calcination the sample has undergone.
(f i - d i )
C = 100
fi
where
C = apparent percent calcination of the sample
fi = ignition loss of the original feed
di = ignition loss of the sample
Problems and examples shown in this chapter are all subsequent chapters are arranged
in the same sequence as the formulas are presented in the chapter.
1.01 A kiln feed mix contains 78,5 CaCO3 , 1,2 percent MgCO3 and an
estimated 0,4 percent combined H2O and organic matter.
Ignition loss = (0,44 x 78,5) + (0,524 x 1,2) + 0,4 = 35,6 percent (ans.).
1.02 It is desired that a given kiln feed shows a silica ratio of 2,75. What must
the Al2O3 content be if the Fe2O3 remains constant at 2,95 and the SiO2 at
22,45?
1.03 The Al/Fe ratio is desired to be 1,80 and the Fe2O3 is to be 2,75 in a given
mix. What must the Al2 O3 content be?
66,75
LSF = = 0,916 (ans.)
[(2,8)(22,15)] + [(1,65)(5,96)] + [(0,35)(2,93)]
1.05 What is the hydraulic ratio for the clinker example given in 1.04?
18
66,75
HR = = 2,15 (ans.)
22,15 + 5,96 + 2,93
61,5
BI = = 3,31 (ans.)
8,8 + 9,8
1.08 What is the burnability factor for a linker of the following characteristics?
a) For Fe2O3,
Fe2O3 = 2,65 + 0,12 = 2,77 (ans.)
b) For CaO
1.10 It is desired that a mix contain 79,8 percent total carbonates. What must
the CaO content be if the MgO is a constant 1,3 percent on a raw basis?
1.11
79,8 - 2,72
CaO = = 43,21 percent (ans.)
1,784
19
1.12 What is the maximum permissible K2O content in the clinker if the
Na2O content is 0,18 percent and the total number of alkalis is not
allowed to exceed 0,63 percent?
0,63 - 0,18
K2O = = 0,68 (ans.)
0,658
1.12.1 In example 1.10, what is the CaO content, loss free, when the loss in ignition is
35,7 percent on this mix?
43,21
CaO (loss free) = 100 = 67,20 percent (ans.)
100 - 35,7
1.13 A kiln is wasting 5850 lb of dust per hour. The loss on ignition of the
dust is 19,5 percent and 35,8 percent on the kiln feed. What weight of kiln feed is
wasted on this kiln per hour?
5850(1 - 0,195)
wc = = 7335,3 lb/h (ans.)
1 - 0,358
1.14 What is the total carbonate content on a sample that show CaO = 47,0
percent and MgO = 0,84 percent on a raw basis?
TC = 1,66791[47,0 (1,48863)(0,84) + (2,098)(0,84)] = 79,25 %
(ans.)
1.14To what percent is the kiln dust in example 1.13 above calcined?
35,8 - 0,19,5
Percent calcination = 100 = 45,5 percent (ans.)
35,8
20
Chapter 2
This formula should only be used as a quick reference in times when no other
analytical methods, other than the titration method, is available.
xC1 + (100 - x )C 2
TC =
100
where
x = material A needed (percent by weight)
100 x = material B needed (percent by weight)
C1 = TC in material A (percent by weight)
C2 = TC in material B (percent by weight)
TC = desired total carbonates
Use this formula only when the MgCO3 content in the two components is constant.
Cf - C2
w = 100
C1 - C f
where
w = weight of material A needed for each 100 unit weights of material B
Cf = CaCO3 desired in mix
C1 = CaCO3 in material A
C2 = CaCO3 in material B
Insert the values found from the raw material analysis (on the raw basis)
21
limestone clay
SiO2 S1 S2
Al2O3 A1 A2
Fe2O3 F1 F2
CaO C1 C2
MgO M1 M2
Loss L1 L2
For limestone
x = C1 + 1,4M1 (2,3S1 + 1,7A1 + F1)
For clay
y = 2,3S2 + 1,7A2 + F2 (C2 + 1,4M2)
100y
P =
x
100
Percent clay = 100
100 + P
P
Percent limestone = 100
100 + P
(M - F)(100 + A)
X = A +
L-M
where
M = percent CaCO3 desired in mix
F = percent CaCO3 found in mix (before correction)
A = percent limestone already added
L = percent CaCO3 in limestone
X = corrected percent limestone needed to obtain M.
(M - F)(100 + B)
X = B +
F-C
where
M = percent CaO or CaCO3 desired in mix
F = percent CaO or CaCO3 found in mix
B = percent clay already added
C = percent CaO or CaCO3 in clay
X = percent clay needed to obtain M
22
2.03 Three Component Mix Calculation
SiO2 S1 S2 S3
Al2O3 A1 A2 A3
Fe2O3 F1 F2 F3
CaO C1 C2 C3
c1b2 - c 2 b1
x = = .......... Parts of Material I
a 1b2 - a 2 b1
a 1c 2 - a 2 c1
y = = .......... Parts of Material II
a 1b2 - a 2 b1
23
Let
SiO 2
r = silica ratio desired =
Al 2 O3 + Fe 2 O3
CaO
R = hydraulic ratio desired =
SiO 2 + Al 2 O3 + Fe2 O3
Then
a = S1 rO1
b = rO2 - S2
c = rO3 - S3
d = L1 - (S1 + O1)R
e = (S2 + O2)R L2
f = (S3 + O3)R - L3
ca - bd
Comp. 2 = x 100
ec - bf
cd - fa
Comp. 3 = x 100
ec - bf
24
To be calculated from the raw analysis data. Also make sure to use the proper sigh (+
or -).
L C I
C3S x1 = .. x2 = x1 =
C3A y1 = .. y2 = y3 =
C2S + C4AF z1 = .. z2 = .. z3 = ...
Note: Proceed with the calculations only when the sum total of the compounds
corresponds to the total of the oxides, i.e, for L: total oxides = x1 + y1 + z1 , etc.
a = x2/x1 = ..
b = x3/x1 = ..
c = xt/x1 = ..
d = y2 y1a = ..
e = z2 - z1a = ..
f = (y3 - y1 b)/d = ..
g = (yt - y1c)/d = ..
h = z3 - z1b ef = ..
i = (z1 z1c eg)/h = ..
All weights units can be used, i.e., the results can be expressed in ton/ton, or kg/kg of
clinker. Results obtained must all be positive numbers. If any of the results are negative, the
desired mix cannot be obtained with the given raw materials. Fighter the targets have to be
changed or other suitable raw materials must be selected.
For I = i = ..
for C = g fi = ..
for L = c aC bi = ..
Total = weight of mix/wt. clinker = = ..
for I = I/Wu = ..
for C = C/Wu = ..
for L = L/Wu = ..
(Results are expressed as percent in form of decimals)
L C I S
SiO2 . ..
Al2O3 . ..
Fe2O3 . .
CaO . . .
25
b) Desired clinker composition
C3S = xt = ..
C2S = yt = .
C3A = zt = .
C4AF = wt =
(to be calculated from raw analysis data, make sure to use the proper sign)
L C I S
C3S = x1 = .. x2 = .. x3 = .. x4 = ..
C2S = y1 = y2 = . y3 = y4 = ..
C3A = z1 = . z2 = . z3 = . z4 = .
C4AF = w1` = w2` = w3` = w4` =
Lc Cc Ic Sc
#/ton . . .. ..
Note: The sum total of the oxides of each raw material must equal the
sum total of the compounds of that material.
a = x2/ x1 =
b = x3/ x1 =
c = x4/ x1 =
d = xt/ x1 =
e = y2 y1a =
f = z2 z1a =
g = w2 w1a =
h = (y3 y1 b)/e =
i = (y4 y1c)/e =
j = (yt y1d)/e =
k = z3 bz1 fh =
l = w3 bw1 gh =
m= (z4 z1c fi)/k =
n = (zt z1d fj)/k =
o = w4 w1c gi lm =
p = (wt w1d gj ln)/o =
26
f) Weight of each component required per unit weight of clinker.
The result can be expressed in terms of kg/kg clinker. Results obtained must all be
positive numbers.
for S = =
for I = =
for C = =
for L = d aC bI - cp =
Total = Wu = weight of mix/unit weight clinker =
The cost of the mix per unit weight of clinker can be calculated as follows:
Step 1 x1 = 100 a = ..
Step 4 CaO = 0,24564(e + 7,6 SiO2 + 6,718 Al2O3 + + 1,43 b + 2,852SO3 = ...
Step 6 x must equal x1 +- 0,2 percent to make the calculated chemical composition
acceptable.
27
PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS
2.01 Given a clinker of 68,5 percent C3S and a kiln feed of 81.3 percent
CaCO3 content be in the kiln feed to obtain a clinker of 61 percent C3S?
68,8 x = 5860
x = 85,17
Hence, the mix must contain 85,17 percent limestone and 100 85,17 = 14,83 percent
clay. (ans.)
2.02 (b) How many kilograms of limestone are needed for every 100 kg of clay in the
example given in 2.02 (a)?
79,6 - 21,0
w= 100 = 574,5 kg limestone (ans.)
89,8 - 79,6
2.02 (c) Given:
Raw Basis
What must the ratio be between these two raw materials in the mix?
166,536
= 3,16 : 1 (ans.)
52,738
2.03 (d) A kiln feed tank contains 58 percent limestone and show a CaCO3
content of 78,4 percent. What percent limestone must the tank contain to
obtain a final CaCO3 content of 79,3 percent? The limestone used to
make this correction shows 91,4 percent CaCO3 .
28
(79,3 - 78,4)(100 + 58)
x = 58 + = 69,75 percent (ans.).
91,4 - 79,3
What percentage of each is needed to obtain a lime saturation factor of 0,935 and silica
ratio of 2,75 in the mix?
a1 = -52,272 a2 = 1,9925
b1 = 194,934 b2 = -27,975
c1 = -33,705 c2 = -224,155
100
z = = 1,8678
53,54
2.03 (c) Given the same three materials as in example 2.03 (a), determine the
percentage of each needed to obtain C3S = 62 percent, C3A = 7,72 percent, and the sum
C2S + C4AF = 28,28 percent.
I = 0,0163 = 0,0163
C = 0,2470 [(4,5269)(0,0163)] = 0,3209
L = 0,287 [(-2,709)(0,3209)] [(-0,9389)(0,0163)] = 1,1717
29
Total mix = 1,5090
Proportions:
0,0163
I = = 0,0108 = 1,08 percent (ans.)
1,5090
0,3209
C= = 0,2127 = 21,27 percent (ans.)
1,5090
1,1717
L= = 0,7765 = 77,65 percent (ans.)
1,5090
Double check:
2.04 Given the four raw materials below, calculate the percentage of each
needed to obtain a mix of 60,5 C3S, 19,3 percent C2S, 10,3 percent C3A,
and 8,6 percent C4AF.
b) Targets:
c ) Compounds:
L C I S
S = = 0,0815
30
I = 0,0521 [(-,00938)(0,0815)] = 0,0597
Total = 1,5156
0,0815
Percent S = = 0,0538 = 5,38 percent (ans.)
1,5156
0,0597
Percent I = = 0,0394 = 3,94 percent (ans.)
1,5156
0,0853
Percent C = = 0,0563 = 5,63 percent (ans.)
1,5156
1,28905
Percent L = = 0,8505 = 85,05 percent (ans.)
1,5156
Double check:
(The other compounds, likewise, should be double checked in the same manner.)
2.06 A kiln feed mix is desired that shows the following characteristics:
What is the chemical composition of this mix if the sum total of the auxiliary oxides
(MgO, SO3, and alkalis) is expected to be percent?
Solution:
11,85 + [1,692(2,95)]
Al2O3 = = 6,36
2,65
The sum total of the primary oxides is 97,91 and x1 has been found earlier to be 98,0.
Therefore, this composition is acceptable since the two agree closely with each other.
31
Chapter 3
Percent slurry moisture Sp. gr. of slurry Pulp density kg dry solids
kg/m3 per m3
16 2,123 2122,3 1781,8
17 2,095 2094,3 1738,3
18 2,067 2066,3 1694,3
19 2,041 2040,3 1652,6
20 2,015 2014,4 1611,5
21 1,990 1989,4 1571,6
22 1,965 1964,4 1532,2
23 1,941 1940,3 1494,0
24 1,917 1916,3 1456,4
25 1,895 1893,9 1420,5
26 1,872 1871,3 1384,8
27 1,851 1849,8 1350,3
28 1,829 1828,4 1316,4
29 1,809 1808,3 1283,8
30 1,788 1787,4 1251,2
31 1,769 1768,4 1220,2
32 1,749 1748,4 1189,0
33 1,730 1729,4 1158,7
34 1,711 1710,5 1128,9
35 1,693 1692,4 1100,1
35 1,675 1674,4 1071,6
37 1,658 1657,4 1044,2
38 1,640 1639,5 1016,5
39 1,624 1623,5 990,4
40 1,607 1606,5 963,9
41 1,591 1590,5 938,5
42 1,575 1574,4 913,1
43 1,560 1559,4 888,8
44 1,545 1544,5 864,9
45 1,530 1529,4 841,2
46 1,515 1514,5 817,8
47 1,501 1500,4 795,2
48 1,487 1486,5 773,0
49 1,473 1472,6 751,0
50 1,459 1458,5 729,2
32
3.02 Properties of Water
100F
w1 =
100 - M
Cw 1 100CF
G = =
3,6D 3,6(100 - M)D
Note: This formula applies only to the cylindrical portion of the slurry tank.
CT = pR2S/F
100
sgw =
M + (100 - M)(1/s gs )
33
3.08 Dry Solids per unit Volume of Slurry
Note: volumes for S, s, sgw and sgs can also be obtained from 30.1.
3.03 A given kiln uses a slurry of 32 percent moisture and the dry solids rate
has bee found to be 1,593 kg/kg clinker. What is the slurry consumption on this
kiln?
100(1,593)
w1 = = 2,343 kg slurry/kg clinker (ans.)
100 - 32
3.04 In example 3.03 above, what is the slurry feed rate (It/s) when the kiln
produces 36,500 kg clinker/h?
Solution:
1. From Table 3.01 (b), find the pulp density of the slurry
D = 1748,4 kg/m3
(36,500)(2,343)
2. G = = 0,01359 m3/s
(3,6)(1748,4)
3.
and: (1000)(0,01359) = 13,59 liters/s (ans.)
3.05 A kiln feed tank has a diameter of 16,3 meters. The kiln receives slurry
of 36 percent moisture and shows a specific dry feed consumption of
1,63 kg/kg clinker. How many kilograms of clinker are produced when
the slurry level in the cylindrical portion of the tank drops 1 cm?
Solution:
From Table 3.01 (b), find the kg solids/m3 of slurry.
S = 1071,6 kg/m3
(3,1416)(8,15) 2 (1071,6)
cT = = 137,186 kg/m = 1371,9 kg/cm (ans.)
163
34
3,07 Given: specific gravity of dry solids = 2,68. What is the specific gravity
of the slurry when it contains 31,5 percent moisture?
100
sgw = 1,753 (ans.)
31,5 + (100 - 31,5)(1/2,68)
Chapter 4
35
4.02 Bulk Densities of Common Materials
kg/m3
Aluminum 2595
Asbestos 3045
Brick (basic) 2400-2965
(alu.) 1520-1760
(firecly) 1360-1520
Cement (packed) 1506
(loose) 1200-1440
Clay (loose) 960-1200
Clinker 1440-1700
Coal (loose) 800-865
Coke 480-640
Concrete (reinforced) 2325
Gravel (loose) 1760
Ice 919
Iron (Cast) 7210
Iron Ore 2805
Kiln Feed (dry) 1360
Kiln Dust (loose) 1040
Limestone 1520
Mortar 1665
Fuel Oil 895
Sand 1520
Shale 2480
Slurry (@35 percent H2O) 1682
Steel 7850
Water 1000
36
4.04 Typical Fuel Oil Properties
37
4.06 Sieve Sizes
38
4.10 Particulate Concentration in Gases
For gases:
1mg/liter = 24,04 m ppm
1mg/m3 = 0,02404 m ppm
where
particulate:
To calculate the particulate concentration in a known volume of gas, use the following
formula:
c = (2,205 x 10-6)(m/V)
where
c = concentration, lb,ft3
m = total particulate matter, mg
V = volume of gas sample through dry gas meter (standard condition), ft3
39
4.12 Selected Minerals and Ores
40
Magnetite Lodestone (black)
Siderite Black band, kidney ore
Limestone Calcite Calcium carbonate
Dolomite Calcium-magnesium carbonate
Alkerite Calcium-magnesium-iron carbonate
Aragonite Orthorhombic calcium carbonate
Manganocalcite
Magnesium Magnesite Magnesium carbonate
Dolomite Pearlspar
Brucite Magnesium hydroxide
Carnallite Hydrous potassium-magnesium chloride
Manganese Psilomelane Manganese oxide
Pyrolusite Manganese dioxide
Phosphates Collophane Hydrous calcium phosphate
Apatite Calcium-chloro-fluoro phosphate
Wavellite Hydrous alumina phosphate
Voelckerite
Pyrite & Sulfur Pyrite Iron disulfide
Quartz Sand Silicon dioxide
Quartzite
Amethyst Transparent quartz
Smoky quartz Smoky yellow, black
Citrine
Rose quartz
Aventurine
Chalcedony
Chrysoprase
Heliotrope
Agate
Titanium Ilmenite Ferrous titanae
Rutile Titanium oxide
Sphene Calcium-titano silicate
a) Ingeous rock
These are formed by the intrusion or extrusion of magma or by volcanic activity. The
following minerals belong to this group:
41
b) Sedimentary rock
These are formed by deposits of sedimentation. They can also consist of fragments
of rock deposited in water or by precipitation from solutions and organisms. The following
rocks belong to this group:
c) Metamorphic rock
These are minerals that have been changed by the action of heat, pressure, and water.
The following minerals belong to this group:
42
4.14 Chemical Formula and Molecular Weight of Common Minerals
43
Chapter 5
FORMULAS AND DATA USED IN COMBUSTION
CALCULATIONS
Formula: C + O2 = CO2
Molecular weight: 12 + 32 = 44
Mass: 1 + 2,66 = 3,66 kg + 7829 kcal/kg
C + O2 = CO
12 + 16 = 28
1 + 1,33 = 2,33kg + 2400 kcal/kg
2H2 + O2 = 2H2O
4 + 32 = 36
1 + 8 = 9 kg + 28,64 kcal/kg (Hu)
S + O2 = SO2
32 + 32 = 64
1 + 1 = 2 kg + 2213 kcal/kg
44
5.03 Heat Value of Fuel
For coal:
For oil:
where
d = density at 15 C (kg/dm3)
The net heating value accounts for the heat losses that are experienced for the
evaporation of the moisture in the fuel as well as the water that is generated by the
combustion of hydrogen. Heating values obtained in the calorimeter are gross values and
can be converted to the net basis by the following formulas:
where
H2 = percent hydrogen (sum total of H2 in the fuel and the moisture)
In Europe it is the custom to express the heating value or fuel consumption in terms of
the net basis whereas in North America the gross heating value is generally used.
a) Ultimate analysis
where
C = percent carbon, H = percent hydrogen, N = percent nitrogen,
S = percent sulfur, O = percent oxygen.
The percent oxygen (O) is not determined by analytical methods but calculated by
difference to make the sum total equal to 100.
45
b) Proximate analysis
The percent free carbon is calculated by difference to make the sum total equal to 100.
Analysis of solid fuels should be reported with a note containing a remark in respect to
the method in which the analysis is expressed. The following are the methods (basis)
frequently used:
a) as analyzed
b) dry basis
c) as received
d) combustible basis (moisture and ash free)
e) as fired
For inventory control purposes it is of advantage to express coal tonnage, heating
value and its composition on the dry basis to eliminate the fluctuations coal undergoes
when it is stored and exposed to weathering.
Let
Y = percent C, S, N, or percent ash
O = percent oxygen
H = percent hydrogen
m = percent moisture
subscript:
a = as analyzed basis
d = dry basis
r = as received basis
f = as fired basis
c = combustible basis
100
Hd = (Ha 0,1119ma)
100 - m a
Od = calculated by difference
46
Multiply all components, except hydrogen, by the factor
100 - m r
100
100 - m
H = Hd = 0,1119m
100
100
100 - m r
100
Hd = (Hr 0,1119mr)
100 - m r
Od = calculated by difference
100 - (ash + m f )
100
100 - (ash + m c )
Hf = Hc + 0,1119mc
100
Of = calculated by difference
100
Hc = (Hr 0,1119mr)
100 - (ash + m r )
The following table shows clearly how the values of a coal analysis and the heating
value can change when the analysis is expressed in different terms.
47
As Dry Ash and As As
analyzed basis Moisture free received fired
C (carbon) 61,24 67,30 75,36 57,00 66,76
H (hydrogen) 5,74 5,20 5,93 6,12 5,25
S (sulfur) 2,46 2,70 3,03 2,29 2,68
N (nitrogen) 1,73 1,90 2,12 1,62 1,88
O (oxygen) 19,09 12,20 13,56 8,62 12,02
Ash 9,74 10,70 - 9,06 10,61
M (moisture) 9,0 - - 15,30 0,80
Volatiles 32,49 35,70 39,97 30,24 35,41
Free Carbon 48,78 53,60 60,02 45,40 53,17
For a cement chemist, it is important to know the chemical composition of the coal
ash. The majority of the ash, during the burning of coal, enters the clinker and modifies its
chemical composition. On coal fired kilns, it is not only important to maintain a uniform kiln
feed but also to fire the kiln with a coal of uniform composition. In plants, where coal
originates from several different suppliers, provisions should be made to blend these coals
before they are fired in the kiln. A typical analysis of coal ash is shown in the following:
Coal 250
Wood 300
Bunker C oil 200
Diesel fuel 350
Natural gas 550
The percent coal ash contained in the clinker can be calculated from the loss-free
analysis of the ash, raw mix, and clinker as follows:
Analysis
48
C - Cm
x1 = 100 =
C a - Cm
S - Sm
x2 = 100 =
Sa - S m
A - Am
x3 = 100 =
A a - Am
F - Fm
x4 = 100 =
Fa - Fm
Changes in the composition of the clinker as a result of coal ash addition can be
calculated by the following method:
Analysis (loss-free)
DC = wyCaz = DF = wy Faz =
DS = wy Saz = DM = wyMaz =
DA = wyAaz = DN = wyNaz =
clinker composition
CaO = C- DC = (..) (X/v) =
SiO2 = S - DS = (..) (X/v) =
Al2O3 = A - DA = (..) (X/v) =
Fe2O3 = F - DF = (..) (X/v) =
MgO = M - DM = (..) (X/v) =
Alkalis = N - DN = (..) (X/v) =
v = Total =
49
5.12 Determination of Theoretical Fuel Consumption
Knowing the properties of the coal, kiln feed, and the exit gas allows an engineer to
calculate the coal consumption by using Dr. Kuhls formula:
Data needed:
a = constant, 0,266
b = percent carbon in dry coal
c = percent hydrogen in dry coal
d = percent nitrogen in dry coal
e = percent oxygen in dry coal
f = percent sulfur in dry coal
g = percent ash in dry coal
100 CO 2 + CO
p =
100 + 1,89 CO - 4,78 O 2
q = percent O2 (oxygen) in exit gas
s = percent N2 (nitrogen) in exit gas
t = percent CO (carbon monoxide) in exit gas
Calculations
400m
K1 =
100 - n
mg
K3 = b/3 -
2500 - 25n
V = as - q + t/2
W = p+t
coal consumption,
K 1V
x =
K 2W - K 3V
where
x = kg coal/100 kg clinker
Example: A kiln under investigation showed the following analysis during the time of
the test:
Coal (dry) Kiln feed (dry)
percent carbon : 72,16 total carbonates : 79,26
percent hydrogen : 5,37 loss ignition : 35,8
percent nitrogen : 1,58
50
percent oxygen : 7,89 Exit gas
percent sulfur : 2,00
percent ash : 11,00 CO2 (true) : 27,38
O2 : 1,6
CO : -
N2 : 70,99
(400)(79,26)
K1 = = 493,83
100 - 35,8
72,16 (79,26)(11,00)
K3 = - = 23,51
3 2500 - [(25)(35,8)]
0
V = (0,266)(70,99) 1,6 + = 17,28
2
W = 27,38 + 0 = 27,38
(493,83)(17,28)
x = = 22,4 kg coal/100 kg linker (ans.)
(28,75)(27,38) - [(23,51)(17,28)]
What is the net heating value of this coal expressed in terms of kcal/kg?
8,9
Hv = (80,8)(75,8) + (287 ) 4,8 - + [22,45(1,5)] [6(0,5)] = 7216,6 kcal/kg
8
66,5 - 67,9
x1 = 100 = 2,07
0,4 - 67,9
51
20,5 - 19,8
x2 = 100 = 2,27
49,3 - 19,8
7,3 - 6,9
x3 = 100 = 1,84
28,6 - 6,9
2,5 - 2,1
x4 = 100 = 2,13
20,9 - 2,1
Chapter 6
6.01 Definition of pH
In a compound, if:
[H+] higher than [OH-] : compound is acidic nature
[OH-] higher than [H+] : compound is basic (alkaline)
[H+] = [OH-] : compound is neutral
6.02 Calculation of pH
pH = x log y
[H+] = y10-x
[H+] x [OH-] = constant (~ 10-14)
Example:
A solution of NaOH is o,o15 n. What is pH?
but
52
[H+] x [OH-] = 10-14
thus
10 -14
[H+] = = 10-12,176
10 -1,824
pH = 12,176
6.03 Indicators
53
PART II
B U R N I NG
54
Chapter 7
TECHNICAL INVESTIGATION OF
KILN PERFORMANCRE
Introduction
The significant formulas for a study of the kiln performance and efficiency are given.
An engineer should follow the sequence in which the formulas are presented herein as many
calculation require the results obtained from earlier computations.
To simplify the engineers task, all the formulas are presented in the form of work
sheets that can be used to arrange the study in an orderly fashion. At the conclusion,
a summary sheet is also given to compile all the significant results of this study.
Data, formulas, and results are presented in metric system units by using the
appropriate worksheets in this chapter.
These worksheets can also be used to perform studies of parts of the kiln system
(e.g., the cooler operation). The reader should have no difficulties in selecting the appropriate
formulas from the worksheets in these instances.
For a complete study, it is essential that the kiln data be selected during a time when
the kiln operates in a stable and uniform manner.
Kiln
Process: ___________________________________________________________________
Manufactured by: ____________________________________________________________
Year placed in operation: ______________________________________________________
Types of clinker produced: _____________________________________________________
Types of fuel burned: _________________________________________________________
Primary air source: ___________________________________________________________
Feeder type: ________________________________________________________________
Type of dust collector: ________________________________________________________
Dust processing: _____________________________________________________________
Preheater
Type: _____________________________________________________________________
Manufactured by: ___________________________________________________________
Year: _____________________________________________________________________
Cooler
Type: ____________________________________________________________________
Manufactured by: ___________________________________________________________
Year: _____________________________________________________________________
55
Fans
Drives
Function Type Hp
.. ..
.. ..
.. ..
Date of investigation:_________________________________________________________
Tested by: _________________________________________________________________
56
Chapter 8& 9
KILN PERFORMANCE AND EFFICIENCY
Data needed
Fuel Analysis (Oil or Coal as Fired)
AA = Percent ash = ..
AH = Percent hydrogen = ..
AC = Percent carbon = ..
AN = Percent nitrogen = ..
AO = Percent oxygen = ..
AS = Percent sulfur = ..
AM = Percent moisture = ..
AQ = Heat value (kcal/kg) = ..
AJ = Heat value (kJ/kg) = ..
57
EO2 = Percent O2 (by weight) = ..
Weight of Materials
WCl = Kiln output (kg/h) = ..
WdF = Dry feed rate (kg/kg of clinker) = ..
WA = Fuel rate, as fired (kg/kg of clinker) = ..
Kiln Dimensions
L1 = Kiln length (m) = ...
L2 = Kiln diameter (m) = ...
L3 = Effective burner tip orifice area ( m2 ) = ..
L4 = Length of chain section (m) = ..
L5 = Total chain surface area (m2) = ..
L6 = Effective kiln feed end throat area (m2) = ..
L7 = Refractory thickness (mm) = ..
L8 = Sum total of (all) chain length (m) = ..
L9 = Kiln shell thickness (mm) = ..
L10 = Kiln slope (degrees) = ..
Operating Parameters
Ph = Hood draft (mm H2O) = ..
PBe = Feed end draft (mm H2O) = ..
PKs = Kiln speed (rpm) =
58
HAlk = Percent alkalis (total as N2O) = ..
HIg = Percent ignition loss = ..
Temperatures (Celsius)
TC = Feed entering kiln = ..
TSa = Secondary air = ..
TPa = Primary air = ..
TBe = Kiln exit gas = .
TSt = Cooler stack = .
TCl = Clinker at cooler exit = .
TF = Fuel as fired = .
TZ1 = Average shell, lower third = .
TZ2 = Average shell, middle third = .
TZ3 = Average shell, upper third = .
T = Kiln room = .
Dimensions
X1 = Cooler length, grates, (m) = .
X2 = Cooler width, grates, (m) = .
X3 = Total effective area of hood opening m2
where ambient air is infiltrated = .
CALCULATIONS
a = 0,01785 CCa = .
b = 0,02092 CMg = .
c = 0,01 CAl = .
d = 0,01 CSi = .
e = 0,01 CFe = .
f = 0,00075 CSi + 0,003534 CAl = .
Subtotal = .
100 - Hig
g = subtotal = ..
100
Subtract ash in clinker
A 100
h = W A A = ..
100 100 - C Ig
59
i = kg feed required per kg clinker = ..
k1
k1 = = ..
WdF
In the absence of reliable data for actual feed usage, WdF can also be determined as follows:
100 - H Ca
LSF = = .
2,8H Si + 1,65 H Al + 0,35H Fe
H Si
S/R = = .
H Al + H Fe
H Al
A/F = = .
H Fe
Percent liquid = 1,13 C3A + 1,35 C4AF + HMg + HAlk = .
w1
efficiency = 100 = ..
wf
60
9.11 Products of Combustion
Subtotal =
Note: For natural gas firing, use the formula 13.08 in chapter 13.
Note: The assumption is made that wasted dust has been 50% calcined. Find a, b, f in 9.01
and k2 in 9.02.
Adding the products in 9.11 and 9.12 gives the total weight of exit gas.
61
9.14 Percent Moisture in Kiln Gas
w gm _ wgd
Percent H2O = 100 = percent
w gm
9.15 Density of Kiln Exit Gas
a) At 0 C, 760 mm Hg
Note: Use calculated values from 9.13 for CO2, SO2, etc.
w gm
vBe = = m3/kg clinker
w o2
(v Be )(wCl )
vs = = m3/s
3600
VCO
= m3 s/m2 grate area
X1 X 2
62
Kiln surface area = (L2 0,002 L7)pL1 = .. m2
24WCl
Specific area loading = = .daily t/ m2
1000(m 2 surface)
Using the inside lining kiln volume, the specific volume loading in terms of daily metric
tons production is calculated as follows:
24WCl
Specific volume loading = = daily t/ m3
1000(m 3 volume)
(WA )(WCL )( Aq )
Specific Thermal loading = = .kcal/h m2
(m 2 surface)
(WA )(WCL )( A j )
= = .kJ/h/ m2
(m 2 surface)
where
Ly = lining and coating thickness (mm)
Lx = length of burning zone (m)
63
9.01 i Theoretical amount of feed required kg/kg cl.
h Ash content in clinker kg/kg cl.
9.02 k1 Amount of feed wasted as dust kg/kg cl.
k2 Percent dust loss, in terms of fresh feed percent
wdF Actual amount of feed used kg/kg cl.
9.03 C3S in clinker percent
C2S in clinker percent
C3A in clinker percent
C4AF in clinker percent
LSF, Lime Saturation Factor percent
S/R, silica ratio percent
A/L, alumina iron ratio percent
Percent liquid percent
9.04 l Theoretical heat required kcal/kg
9.05 m Percent air infiltrated at feed end percent
9.06 n Excess air present in exit gas percent
9.07 o Combustion air required / kg fuel kg/kg
9.08 w1 Combustion air required/ unit time kg/h
9.09 ws Air infiltrated at hood kg/h
z Percent of combustion air infiltrated percent
9.10 wt Total air flow into cooler kg/h
w2 Excess air vented at cooler stack kg/h
w3 Combustion air into the kiln kg/h
w4 Primary air kg/h
Percent primary air percent
9.11 w6 Combustion products kg/kg clinker
9.12 w7 Gases from slurry or feed kg/kg clinker
9.13 wgm Total moist exit gases kg/kg clinker
wgd Total dry exit gases kg/kg clinker
9.14 Moisture content in exit gases percent
9.15 do1 Density of moist gases (standard condition) kg/m3
Do2 Density of moist gases (actual condition) kg/m3
9.16 vBc Volume of exit gases m3/kg clinker
vs Exit gases volume per unit time m3 /s
9.17 Cooler air factor m3 . s/ m2grate
Primary air velocity m/s
Spesific surface loading daily tons/ m2
Spesific volume loading daily tons/ m3
Thermal loading of burning zone kcal/h/ m2
64
Chapter 10 & 11
HEAT BALANCE
In the appendix, the reader will find graphs for the mean specific heat of gases and
solids that will be used in the ensuing calculations. In all the formulas given, Q denotes the
heat content (kcal/kg), QJ , and c8 the mean specific heat in terms of (kcal/kg)(C), cJ
in terms of (kJ/kg).
HEAT INPUT
Q = WAAq = .kcal/kg
QJ = WAAJ = .kJ/kg clinker
Q = WAcmTj = .kcal/kg
QJ = WAcjTj = .kJ/kg clinker
It is assumed that the organic matter in the kiln feed has a constant heat value of
5028 kcal/kg and 21,036 kJ/kg.
Cc
Q = g 5028 = kcal/kg
100
Cc
QJ = g 21,03 = kJ/kg clinker
100
(find g in 9.01).
11.04 Heat Input from Sensible Heat in Kiln Feed
Q1 = WdFcmTC =
Q2 = (kg H2O in slurry) TC =
Qtotal = kcal/kg
QJ1 = WdFcjTC =
QJ2 = (kg H2O in slurry) TC 4.184 = .
QJ total = .kJ/kg clinker
1
Q = wt c m FT = kcal/kg
WCl
65
1
QJ = wt c J FT = .kJ/kg clinker
WCl
(find wt in 9.10).
Include in this calculation only that amount of primary air which originates from the
atmosphere. Do not include the fraction of primary air that has its origin from the cooler.
1
Q = w4 c m FT = kcal/kg
WCl
1
QJ = w 4 c J FT = kJ/kg clinker
WCl
(find w4 in 9.10)
When the temperature in the area where the majority of the infiltration takes place, is
significantly different from T, use the appropriate temperature for this calculation.
1
Q = ws c m FT = kcal/kg
WCl
1
QJ = w s c J FT = kJ/kg clinker
WCl
(find ws in 9.09)
HEATS OUTPUTS
For Q in terms of kcal/kg, the result of 9.04 can be entered here directly.
Q = kcal/kg clinker
In the International system of units (SI) this heat fraction is calculated as follow:
The heat loss in the exit gas is calculated from the heat content of each individual gas
component. The weights of these components has been calculated in 9.13.
66
QN2 = wN2 CmTBc =
Qexcess air = wexcess air CmTBc =
Total, Q = kcal/kg
The total weight of water, (wtotal H2O) can be found in 9.13. The remits obtained
represents only the amount of heat that has to be expanded to turn the given weight of water
into steam at 0 C. The heat losses associated with raising this steam to the kiln exit gas
temperature have been included in 11.09.
Q = k1 cm TBe = ..kcal/kg
QJ = k1 cj TBe = ..kJ/kg clinker
(find k1 in 9.02).
Q = cmTcl = kcal/kg
w2
Q = c m TSn = .kcal/kg
WCl
w2
QJ = c J TSt = .kJ/kg clinker
WCl
67
11.14 Heat Losses by Radiation on Kiln Shell
In the appendix find the heat transfer coefficient qm (kcal/ m2 h C) and qJ (kJ/ m2 h C) for
the average shell temperature, Tz, in each zone of the kiln.
Let
ss = kiln shell surface area,
L1
ss = p L2 = .m2
3
1
Q1 = s s q m (TZ 1 - T ) = .
WCl
1
Q2 = s s q m (TZ 2 - T ) = .
WCl
1
Q3 = s s q m (TZ 3 - T ) = .
WCl
Total, Q = = kcal/kg
1
QJ1 = s s q J (TZ 1 - T ) =
WCl
1
QJ2 = s s q J (TZ 2 -T) =
WCl
1
QJ3 = s s q J (TZ 3 - T ) = .
WCl
C Ig - G Ig
d = = ..
C Ig
a+b
TCdust = WdF k 2 = ..
i
Then,
Q = tcTCdust380,6 = .kcal/kg
QJ = tcTCdust1592,5 = .kJ/kg clinker
68
Note: Include this heat loss in the heat balance only for that fraction of the dust that is
wasted and not returned to the kiln
(find a, b in 9.01 and k2 in 9.02).
Heat Balance
69
Chapter 12
TECHNICAL INVESTIGATION OF
THREE KILN MODELS
Introduction
Models of wet process, a dry process, and a suspension preheater kiln are given here
and their performance characteristics have bee calculated in accordance to formulas given
in this chapter. The data are selected values of kiln parameters typical to these types of kilns
when they are operated efficiently and properly maintained.
Data
Fuel analysis
(applied to all three kilns and stated on a as fired basis)
Aa = 7,7
Ah = 4,8
Ac = 74,4
An = 1,4
Ao = 9,1
As = 2,1
Am = 0,5
Aq = 7106 kcal/kg
Weights
Wet kiln Dry kiln Preheater
WCl 28580 68860 110220
WdF 1,61 1,57 1,55
WA 0,183 0,157 0,113
70
Kiln Dust
Wet kiln Dry kiln Preheater
GIg 19,9 13,5 7,3
G 0,8 1,0 1,0
Kiln Dimensions
Wet kiln Dry kiln Preheater
L1 129,5 160,0 65,5
L2 3,43 4,72 4,33
L3 0,152 0,152 0,23
Volumes
Wet kiln Dry kiln Preheater
VPa 1,87 4,17 4,75
VCo 20,24 52,60 79,60
VEx 7,78 32,18 54,55
Temperatures
Wet kiln Dry kiln Preheater
TC 24 52 41
TPa 82 82 82
TBe 174 524 252
TSt 141 252 268
TCl 74 79 85
TF 24 24 24
TZ1 296 307 293
TZ2 235 252 265
TZ3 107 201 79
T 29 29 29
Others Parameters
Wet kiln Dry kiln Preheater
Ph -1,27 -1,27 -1,27
X1 15,2 28,7 41,1
X2 2,13 2,59 2,74
X3 0,074 0,168 0,145
Clinker Analysis
Wet kiln Dry kiln Preheater
HSi 21,8 20,83 21,7
HAl 6,8 7,0 6,7
HFe 3,2 3,3 2,9
HCa 65,9 66,4 66,3
HMg 1,2 1,4 1,0
HS 0,2 0,3 0,8
HAlk 0,58 0,62 0,85
HIg 0,20 0,15 0,25
71
Summary of Kiln Performance Study Results
72
HEAT BALANCE
(Wet Process Kiln)
Note: Unaccounted losses are calculated by difference to make the two sides equal.
HEAT BALANCE
(Dry Process Kiln)
Note: Unaccounted losses are calculated by difference to make the two sides equal.
73
HEAT BALANCE
(Suspension Preheater Kiln)
Note: Unaccounted losses are calculated by difference to make the two sides equal.
Chapter 13
COEFFICIENT, AND
Compiled in this chapter, are the important parameters an engineer needs to complete
a kiln investigation as outlined in Chapters 8 through 11.
Here the engineer will find the graphs that show him at a glance the appropriate
specific heat and heat transfer coefficient to be used for his computations. The reader
is advised to make use of the appropriate graphs and formulas in accordance with the
particular system of units employed for his study.
The formulas shown in Chapter 8 through 9 apply to kilns fired with coal or fuel oil.
In this chapter, the appropriate formulas for gas firing which should be used in Chapter 8
and 9 are also shown.
74
13.01 Mean Specific Heat of Clinker (Base: 0 C)
Temperature (C)
75
Temperature (C)
Temperature (C)
Temperature (C)
76
13.05 Mean Specific Heat of Water Vapor (Base: 0 C)
Temperature (C)
Shell temperature C
77
13.13 Computations for Natural Gas Firing
Analysis of natural gas fuels are usually expressed in terms of percent by volume with
is the same as molar proportions. The formulas given below allow for combustion
calculations in terms of the unit production of clinker. Hence, the results obtained are
expressed in the same terms as the results computed in this study for liquid and solid fuels.
Data required:
Fuel rate
Wa = m3gas/kg of clinker = .
Combustion air required (items 9.07 and 9.07 for natural gas firing)
9,55c1 Wa = ..
16,70d1 Wa = ..
23,86e1 Wa = ..
31,02f1 Wa = ..
38,19g1 Wa = ..
Subtotal : = ..
Weight of combustion air entering kiln (items 8.08 and 9.08 for natural gas firing)
Products of combustion (items 8.11 and 9.11 for natural gas firing).
78
Chapter 14
USEFUL FORMULAS IN
KILN DESIGN AND OPERATION
Any moisture introduced into the gas stream is ultimately transferred into superheated
steam and, in doing so, absorbs heat and cools the exit gases. The equations can be solved
for any one of the unknowns if the other variables are known.
The approximate time taken by the feed to travel the length of the kiln can be
calculated by the following formulas:
11, 4 L
T =
NDS
where
T = travel time (min)
L = length of kiln (m)
N = kiln speed (RPM)
D = kiln diameter (m)
S = slope of kiln (m/m)
79
(m / m slope) L
Percent slope = n = 100
L
Note : Exit gas concentrations are calculated by difference to make the two sides equal
in the total.
100 - a B
SCF =
100 7000
w = Ahd
w
r = 60
WcCl
80
wc c (t1 - t 2 )
q = f
c a (T2 - T1 )
q
qm =
r
wc c (t1 - t 2 )
T2 = + T1
qc a
Q c - Q1
E = 100
Qc
Qc = cct1
where
A = cooler grate area m2
cc = mean specific heat of air
d = clinker density kg/m3
E = thermal efficiency of cooler
f = constant, 1,17
h = clinker bed depth m
q = cooling air required kg
qm = cooling air required kg/min
r = clinker residence time min
t1 = temperature clinker in C
t2 = temperature clinker out C
T1 = temperature air in C
T2 = temperature air in C
Qc = heat content of clinker, cooler in kcal/kg
Ql = total heat losses in cooler kcal/kg
w = weight of clinker in cooler kg
WCl = kiln output kg/h
Note: The cooler heat losses, Ql, can be obtained from the heat balance and radiation
losses are estimated at 0,07Qc for grate coolers, 0,10Qc for planetary coolers. Ql must include
all losses (clinker at discharge, cooler stack and radiation losses).
In the absence of a complete analysis of the gas, the air requirements can be estimated from
the following table. This table is based on natural gas with a heating value of 9345 kcal/m3
81
14.8 Products of Combustion on Natural Gas Firing
One standard cubic meter of natural gas, when burned, yields the following
combustion products:
CO2 = 2,0778 kg
H2O = 1,6340 kg
N2 = 11,1003 kg
O2 = 0,3669 kg
Total = 15,179 kg
WclWdfT
Percent loading =
df60V
where
Wcl = kiln output kg/h
WdF = feed rate kg/kg cl.
T = residence time (see 6.02) min
df = bulk density of feed kg/ m3
V = internal kiln volume m3
The formulas given here are applicable in the metric system of units.
Q = radians
r = radius inside lining
A1 = area occupied by feed
r2
A = (Q - sin Q)
2
A1
percent loading = 100
p r2
82
14.11 Flame Propagation Speed
For coal fired kilns, the primary air velocity should be at least twice as high as the
flame propagation speed to prevent flash backs of the flame. Flame propagation is usually
considerably lower than the velocity needed to convey coal dust by means of primary air into
the kiln. Therefore, the minimum velocity necessary to convey coal without settling in ducts
takes precedence over flame propagation speed when setting air flow rates or designing new
burners (minimum velocity needed in ducts to prevent settling: 35 m/s). Coal burners are
usually designed to deliver a tip velocity of 45 to 70 m/s.
a) Friction horsepower
Wd h d t NF 0,0000092
hpf =
dr
b) Load horsepower
kW = 07355hpm,total
For sinQ, use the following approximate values:
Percent kiln loading: 5 10 15
sinQ : 0,59 0,73 0,82
83
N = kiln speed (rpm)
F = constant, 0,018 for oil, 0,06 for grease lubricated bearing
l = Kiln length (m)
D = kiln diameter (m)
In chapter 9, Section 9.13, the total weight of the exit gas components were
calculated. In many studies, it is desirable to express this composition in terms of percent
by volume. The following steps are taken to accomplish this.
Step 1: Convert weights of each component into kg moles as follows:
weight of N2 =.moles N2
28,02
Step 2: To obtain the percent by volume of any component, divide the moles of the
component by the total moles of gas.
4,38Qeadc
Dollars per year =
b
8760dCQmA
Monetary value/year =
B
84
B = fuel heat value (kcal/kg)
C = kiln output (kg/h)
Qe = specific heat consumption (Btu/t)
Qm = specific heat consumption (kcal/kg cl.)
Hv
T =
vs
where:
Note: V can be obtained by dividing the result of 8.11, or 9.11 i.e., w6 by 1,3569WA when
metric units are using.
The true CO2 content is the amount of carbon dioxide contained in the exit gases after
a correction has been made to account for the effects of excess and deficiency of air present.
100(CO 2 + CO )
True CO2 =
100 + 1,89CO - 4,78O 2
Data needed:
85
ALKALI BALANCE
Input Output
Feed: Wf Kf = .. Clinker: Kc =.
Wf Nf = .. Nc =
Fuel: We Ke = ......... Dust: (1-x) Wd Kd =...
We Ne =.. (1-x) Wd Nd =.......
Dust: x Wd Kd =... Exit gas: =
x Wd Nd =......
Total: =.. Total: =...
Exit gas concentrations are calculated by the difference to make the two sides equal.
3600
R = revolutions per hour =
r
Peripheral speed
100pD
cm/s = 0,02778RpD =
r
where
D = kiln diameter (m)
86
kWh/ton clinker:
kW = 0,7457 hp
h/mo = Total hours per month unit in operation
kWh/mo = (h/mo)(kW)
kWh / mo
kWh/ton linker =
monthly clinker production
The graph shown here can serve as a guideline to indicate it a given clinker
composition has the tendency to form heavy coating and rings or if coating formation would
be difficult. Clinkers that fall outside the shaded areas in their relationship between the silica
ratio and the lime saturation factor tend to be either difficult or easy coating in nature
depending on which side of the shaded area they are located. Clinker compositions that are
located within the shaded area of this graph are considered acceptable from a coating
formation viewpoint.
14.01 The exit gas temperature on a kiln is 285 C when a water spray rate of 0,19 kg
water/kg clinker is used. Exit gas rate, dry, is 2,31 kg gas/clinker and the water temperature is
35 C. What is the exit gas temperature of the uncooled gases?
T1 285 = 236
T1 = 521 C (ans.)
87
14.02 A kiln has the following characteristics:
length: 125m, diameter: 4,5m, kiln speed: 68 rph, slope: 0,0417 m/m.
What is the theoretical residence time of the feed in this kiln?
(11,4)(125)
T = = 112 min (ans)
(68))0,0417)
Chapter 15
Note:
Dr1 = tg1 tf2
Dr2 = tg2 tf1
There are three different methods commonly used to express the chain angle. To avoid
confusion, we propose new terms for each in order to make a distinction between them.
n -1
Q = 360
p
88
b) Exterior chain angle
Definition: The exterior angle formed between the straight line (connecting the two
attachment holes of the chain) and the perpendicular to the kiln axis. This angle, is calculated
by using the result of (a) and proceeding in the following manner:
1. A = e sin 1/2Q
2. B = (m 1) h
A
3. tan f =
B
4. exterior angle = f + 90
l3
f = 360
pf
A distinction must be made here between the total moisture given to the kiln and the
evaporation done in the chain system.
abc
RT = (tons/h or kg/h)
1- c
89
ab(c - z )
RS = (tons/h or kg/h)
1- c + z
Rs
Y = 100
RT
f2
VT = l1p ( ft 3 or m 3 )
2
l1
K = 100
g
l1 = h (number of rows)
j
H = ( ft 2 / ft 3 or m 2 / m 3 )
p (0,5f) l1
2
90
15.09 Specific Chain System Performance Factors
d
F = (kg chains/h kg H2O)
RS
41,67d
W = (kg chains/daily metric ton cl.)
a
Rs
Es = (kg H2O/h m3)
ST
Rs
Ev = (kg H2O/h m3)
VT
QT
QSp = (kcal/m2)
j
A chain system design method is herein proposed that takes into account the amount
of thermal work expressed and the amount of heat made available in the system.
GUIDELINES
Feed Percent moisture after chains
Poor nodulizing 6 10 percent
Medium nodulizing strength 3 7 percent
Good nodulizing strength 0 - 4 percent
91
2186,24
ax = = .. short tons/h
893Q + 1100
This formula was developed by the author to show the theoretical threshold output rate
for forced firing of the kiln. Forced firing is defined as that output rate at which excessive
dust losses occur in the kiln as a result of the gas velocity exceeding 30 ft/s downstream of the
chain system. Please note that only English systems of units are employed in this and all
successive steps. For example, use only MBtu/short ton of clinker for Q in the above
formula.
tg2 = oF
For optimum fuel efficiency, it is desirable to set this temperature as low as possible
without causing condensation in the precipitator. If the temperature, at which condensation
takes place, is known, the target should be set 50oF higher. For example, when it is known
that condensation occurs at a kiln exit gas temperature of 350oF the target for tg2 should be set
at 450oF.
This empirical formula was developed by the author to obtain an approximate value
for the heat entering the chain system.
This formula was developed by the author to give an approximate value for the heat
leaving the kiln at the feed end.
QD
x =
QT
Find QT in 15.08.
The value for x must be close to unity, i.e., 0,90 1,10. When this value is outside
of this range, return to step 1 and adjust any of the variables such as z, a, c, e, tg2, or b to bring
this value in line with the above given range.
92
Any adjustment in the variables causes the specific heat consumption of the kiln to
change. To select the appropriate value for Q, the following guidelines can be used:
(If several of these factors are changed, the sum total changes in Q applies.)
QD 10 6
Ach = - AW = ..ft2
Dt 1 - Dt 2
f
Dt
In 1
Dt 2
If z = 0 0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04 0,05 0,06 0,07 0,08 0,09 0,10 0,11 0,12
f = 2,6 3,9 3,7 3,9 4,0 4,1 4,3 4,8 5,5 6,1 6,6 6,7 6,8
(Note: When dust is insufflated, adjust f upward by using a z value 0,05 higher than
actual, i.e., if z = 0,01, use f = 4,3 instead of f = 2,9)
Ach
Dch = = ft2/ft3
A(length of chain system)
Guidelines:
93
15.11 Kiln Chain Data-Round Links
Type steel Link size Weight lb/ft Surface in2/ft Volume in3/ft
MS 1 x 3 5/8 11,25 155,0 38,75
MS 1x3 12,0 162,7 40,68
SS 7/8 x 3 8,85 137,0 29,97
MS x3 6,28 116,6 21,86
SS x3 6,04 116,6 21,86
MS x 2 3/4 6,20 114,8 21,53
MS 5/8 x 2 1/2 4,56 98,1 15,33
Section A B C D E F Total
Length of section
Type of Chain System
Number of Rows
Chains per Row
Type of Chain Links
Length per Chain
Weight per unit length of chain
Surface area per unit length chain
TOTAL CHAIN WEIGHT
TOTAL CHAIN SURFACE AREA
CHAIN DENSITY (ft2/ft3 or m2/m3)
94
Distance between rings .# holes per ring .Rathole height .Distance feed end to chains ..
Chapter 16
KILN REFRACTORY
On the North American continent, rotary kiln blocks, arches, and wedges are the most
common refractory shapes used to line rotary kilns. In countries using the metric system
of units, VDZ and ISO shapes are used. The following data will familiarize the reader with
the dimensional differences between these shapes. It is important to note that dimension a,
i.e., the back cord, is the face of the refractory that is in contact with the kiln shell. All shapes
are installed so that the given dimension l forms a parallel line to the kiln axis. Dimension
h indicates the lining thickness.
Rotary kiln
block (RKB) Arches Wedges
95
VDZ shapes ISO shapes
Note: VDZ and ISO shapes are usually manufactured for 160, 180, 200, 225, and
250 mm thick linings (h).
Outside the United States, it is customary to use two different shapes of bricks with
different backcords (a) to complete a full circle of the kiln circumference. Experience has
shown that this produces a superior fit of the refractory to the shell particularly when the kiln
shell is slightly out of round.
12dp 12dp
n = n =
a + 0,059 a + 0,039
ISO shapes have a uniform back cord of 103 mm. With an expansion insert of 1 mm,
the cord length becomes 104 mm which is equivalent to p/3, explaining the reason
for identifying these shapes by this nomenclature. With p a constant in the brick back cord
and the circumference of the kiln shell, the calculation for the number of bricks required
per circle becomes simple:
96
where D: internal kiln shell diameter (m)
Example: How many bricks are required in ISO shapes to complete a circle on a 4,8 m
diameter kiln?
Answer: (33,33)(4,8) = 160 pieces.
97
P A R T III
GRINDING
98
Chapter 17
Formulas for study of the grinding mill and circuit are given. To simplify the
engineers task, all the formulas are presented in the form of work sheets that can be used in
the course of the mill investigation. At the conclusion, a summary sheet is also given to
compile all the significant results of this study.
Separator
Type: Size: ..
Motor: .
Mill drive
Type: .
Motor:
1 compartment 2 compartment
Diameter
Length
Volume
size weight Size weight
BALL
CHARGE
Total
99
Chapter 18 and 19
Data needed
CALCULATIONS
42,306
Cs = 1/ 2
= . rpm
D1
N
So = 100 = percent
sc
100
19.03 Ratio: Free Height to Mill Diameter
H1
For 1 compartment: r1 = =
D1
H2
For 2 compartment: r2 = = .
D1
2
D
vm = p 1 L = . m3
2
First, determine the central angle (q) for each compartment by using the formula:
C1,2,3
sin1/2Q =
D1
1 compartment q1 = ............
1 compartment q2 = ............
2
D
A = p 1 = .. m2
2
C1 (r - H 1)
1 compartment: A1 = 0,0087270Q1 r 2 - = .
2
C 2 (r - H 2 )
2 compartment: A2 = 0,0087270Q 2 r 2 - = ..
2
A1
1 compartment: L1 = = . percent
A
A2
2 compartment: L2 = = . percent
A
Average: lx = . percent
D1
Note: for the above calculations,
2
101
19.06 Bulk Volume of Ball Charge
vb = vmlx = .. m3
In this chapter data on the mills ball charge is given. Since this data refers usually to
the initial load of the mill, the following formula can be used to calculate the weight of the
charge based on the bulk volume occupied
vb = 4565vb = kg
(find vb in 19.06)
1000W1 R
wf = = kg
60
wb
r2 = = .
wf
Definition: The work (kWh/t) required to reduce one metric ton of a material from
theoretical infinite size to 80% passing 100 microns.
The result applies to wet grinding in closed circuit.
479,51
wi = 0 ,91
kWh/t
G HG
or
17,64
wi = 0 ,82
G AC
For dry grinding in closed circuit, multiply wi by 1,3333. For open circuit grinding,
dry or wet, multiply wi by 1,2. When no Hardgrove grind ability ratings are available for a
given material to be ground, use the Work Index guide lines given in Chapter 20, Section
20.01.
102
19.11 Power Required
To grind a material from any feed size to any product size, the power required for
grinding can be calculated from the equation given for Bonds Third Theory of Comminution.
10wl 10 wl
w = 1/ 2
- 1/ 2
1,1023 = . kWh/t
U 1 U3
When the product 80% passing size is less than 70 microns, the result (w) above must
be multiplied by the factor f.
U 1 + 10,3
f = = .
1,145U1
thus, fw = . kWh/t
1,732 EI cos F
kW = =
1000
kW (hours operation)
kWh/tactual = = ..
tons material ground
kWh / t actual
we = 100 = . percent
w
W1 ( B p - BF )
se = = .specific surface per kWh
kW
(find kW in 19.12)
103
19.16 Mill Size Ratio
L
r3 = = .
D1
vm
sv = = . m3/hp
P
(find vm in 19.04).
WT ( f p - f r )
w3 = = . tph
fs - fr
c
w3 = l + 1WT = tph
100
f p ( fs - fr )
se = 100 = . percent
f s (f p - f r )
f p - fa
cl = 100 = .. percent
fm - fr
Note that
cl
f r 100 + f p
fs =
cl
+1
100
104
If
fp than fs
f p - fs
cl = 100 = . percent
fs - fr
If
fp than fs
fs - fr
cl = 100 = .. percent
fr - fs
1/ 2
U w s
1/ 2
B = 20,8545 1 i 1/ 2 = mm
200c s D
1
1/ 3
U
1/ 2
sw1
B = 20,85 1 = mm
K c D 1/ 2
s 1
where
K = 350 for wet grinding
= 300 for dry grinding
105
RESULTS OF GRINDING MILL STUDY
Solution:
100,00
r2 = = 11,3 (ans)
8854
19.11 linker of 80 percent passing 3/8 in. has to be ground to a specific surface Blaine
of 3200 cm2/g. what is the power required (kWh/t) to do this grinding work?
106
Solution:
From the table given in 20.04, 3200 Blaine = 80% - 40,2m hence U1 = 40,2. From
the table given in 20.05, 3/8 in. = 9510 m hence U3 = 9510. From guidelines given
in 20.01, clinker, w1 = 13,49.
10(13,49) 10(13,49
w = - = 19,89 kWh/t
40,21/2 95101 / 2
40,2 + 10,3
f = = 1,097
1,145(40,2)
19.20 What is the circulating load when a given mill shows the following fineness
passing the 325 sieve:
product, fp = 92 percent
separator feed, fs = 54 percent
reject, fr = 32 percent
Since
fp is bigger than fs,
92 - 54
cs = 100 173 % (ans)
54 - 32
19.21 What is the largest ball diameter required (mm) for a mill whose critical speed
is 21.15 rpm when clinker has to be ground to 80% passing 40 m sieve. The mill
diameter is 4.0 m and the specific gravity of clinker equals 3,15.
1/ 2
1/ 2
20,300 (40)(14,87) 3,15
B 20,8545 = 8,76 mm (ans)
B 200(21,15) 4 12
107
CHAPTER 20
g kWh/t
Clinker 3,09 13,49 14,87
Kiln feed 2,67 19,57 11,65
Clay 2,23 7,10 7,83
Coal 1,63 11,37 12,53
Gypsum rock 2,69 8,16 8,99
Limestone 2,68 10,18 11,22
Shale 2,58 16,40 18,07
Silica sand 2,65 16,46 19,14
Sand stone 2,68 11,53 12,71
Slag 2,93 15,76 17,37
Blast furnace slag 2,39 12,16 13,40
mm 100 90 80 60 50 40
inches 4,5 4 3,5 3 2,5 2 1,5
4,5 23
100 4 31 23
90 3,5 18 34 24
80 3 15 21 38 31
60 2,5 7 12 20,5 39 34
50 2 3,8 6,5 11,5 19 43 40
40 1,5 1,7 2,5 4,5 8 17 45 51
30 1 0,5 1 1,5 3 6 15 49
Total % 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Mill output when other materials than clinker are ground in the same mill:
108
20.04 Approximate 80 Percent Passing Size in Microns
The approximate value can be calculated from the specific surface Blain as follow:
2
20,300 20,300
log x = 2 log = log
B B
2
20,300
A80 = mm
B
Blaine 80 percent
2600 61,0
2800 52,6
3000 45,8
3100 42,9
3200 40,2
3300 37,8
3400 35,6
3500 33,6
3600 31,8
3700 30,1
3800 28,5
3900 27,1
4000 25,8
4100 24,5
4200 23,4
4400 21,3
4600 19,5
4800 17,9
5000 16,5
5500 13,6
6000 11,4
109
20.05 Screen Size Conversion to Micron Size
a) U. S standard sieves
Screen Microns
400 37
325 44
270 53
230 63
200 74
170 88
140 105
120 125
100 149
80 177
70 210
60 250
50 297
45 354
40 420
35 500
30 595
25 707
18 1000
10 2000
in. 6350
5/16 8000
3/8 9510
7/16 11200
12700
5/8 16000
19000
7/8 22600
1.0 25400
1 1/3 32000
1 38100
2.0 50800
110
IS.O International Standard Sieves
Grams
mix 1 mix 2 mix 3
Cement 940 930 920
Graded standard sand 470 470 470
Standard sand 470 470 470
Gypsum - 10 20
Calculation
a
G = 48 + d 0,24
a-b
where
G = optimum SO3
a = average strength both rounds of mix 2 mix 1
b = average strength both rounds of mix 3 mix 2
d = SO3 in test cement
111
20.07 Calculations Related to Gypsum
a-c
x = 100
b
where
x = percent gypsum to be addend to clinker
a = desired percent SO3 in cement
b = percent SO3 in gypsum
c = percent SO3 in clinker
sv = pS
where
sv = surface area (cm2/cm3)
S = specific surface (cm2/g)
p = specific gravity
This formula applies to the cooling of gases as well as the cooling of solids
ws (T1 - T2 )
h =
(100 - t 2 ) + 538,9 f
where
h = water rate needed, (kg/h)
w = material or gas rate, (kg/h)
s = specific heat of gas or material
T1 = initial gas or material temperature uncooled, (oC)
T2 = desired gas or material temperature after cooling, (oC)
t2 = water temperature, (oC)
f = percent water evaporated (decimal)
112
Chapter 21
C = A + DB
C
E +
A+B
rB
F =
C
60v
G =
1000
H = GEF
1000H
I =
M
I
K =
10
S = 38r(2,0 log I50) / 1,5 + 0,75 log I7,5 = log I10 + log I15 + log I45 9,5 log I50
where
113
I7,5 , I10, I50 = micro ammeter reading, mA, corresponding to particle
diameters 7,5 , 10, , 50m.
This table has been developed to simplify the physical testers task in calculating the
specific surface of the sample. The table should be copied and posted on or near the
turbidimeter.
LOGARITHMS OF MICROAMMETER READINGS
0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9
8,0 0,903 0,908 0,914 0,919 0,924 0,929 0,934 0,940 0,944 0,949
9,0 0,054 0,959 0,964 0,968 0,973 0,978 0,982 0,987 0,991 0,996
10,0 1,000 1,004 1,009 1,013 1,017 1,021 1,025 1,029 1,033 1,037
11,0 1,041 1,045 1,049 1,053 1,057 1,061 1,064 1,068 1,072 1,076
12,0 1,079 1,083 1,086 1,090 1,093 1,097 1,100 1,104 1,107 1,111
13,0 1,114 1,117 1,121 1,124 1,127 1,130 1,134 1,137 1,140 1,143
14,0 1,146 1,149 1,152 1,155 1,158 1,161 1,164 1,167 1,170 1,173
15,0 1,176 1,179 1,182 1,185 1,188 1,190 1,193 1,196 1,199 1,201
16,0 1,204 1,207 1,210 1,212 1,215 1,217 1,220 1,223 1,225 1,228
17,0 1,230 1,233 1,236 1,238 1,241 1,243 1,246 1,248 1,250 1,253
18,0 1,255 1,258 1,260 1,262 1,265 1,267 1,270 1,272 1,274 1,276
19,0 1,279 1,281 1,283 1,286 1,288 1,290 1,292 1,294 1,297 1,299
20,0 1,301 1,303 1,305 1,307 1,310 1,312 1,314 1,316 1,318 1,320
21,0 1,322 1,324 1,326 1,328 1,330 1,332 1,334 1,336 1,338 1,340
22,0 1,342 1,344 1,346 1,348 1,350 1,352 1,354 1,356 1,358 1,360
23,0 1,362 1,364 1,365 1,367 1,269 1,371 1,373 1,375 1,377 1,378
24,0 1,380 1,382 1,384 1,386 1,388 1,389 1,391 1,393 1,394 1,396
24,0 1,398 1,400 1,401 1,403 1,405 1,407 1,408 1,410 1,412 1,413
26,0 1,415 1,417 1,418 1,420 1,422 1,423 1,425 1,427 1,428 1,430
27,0 1,431 1,433 1,435 1,436 1,438 1,440 1,441 1,443 1,444 1,446
28,0 1,447 1,449 1,450 1,452 1,453 1,455 1,456 1,458 1,459 1,461
The turbidimeter test data can be used to calculate the particle size distribution
of a cement sample. For a detailed description of the calculations refer to the Appendix
of the specification ASTM 115, Part 9. The work sheet below can be used in the
computation of this particle size distribution.
Percent by weight
fraction cummulative
Log I45 - Log I50 = .. x 47,5 = .
Log I40 - Log I45 = .. x 42,5 = .
Log I35 - Log I40 = .. x 37,5 = .
Log I30 - Log I35 = .. x 32,5 = .
Log I25 - Log I30 = .. x 27,5 = .
Log I20 - Log I25 = .. x 22,5 = .
Log I15 - Log I20 = .. x 17,5 = .
Log I10 - Log I15 = .. x 12,5 = .
Log I7,5 - Log I10 = .. x 8,8 = .
2,00 - log7,5 = ...x 3,8
114
total xt = .
r
F = =
total x
21.03 Determine the specific surface and the particle size distribution of the
cement sample given below. The microammeter readings from the turbidimeter are
shown in the first column under I.
Subtotal: 90,5
1,001 F = = 9,76
9,272
1,500
11,728 9,5LogI50 =
-9,890
1,838
38(90,5)(2,0 - 1,041
S =
1,838
S = 1794 = 1790 cm2/g
115
PART IV
ENGINEERING FORMULAS
116
Chapter 22
STEAM ENGINEERING
2730 393,670
log p = 6,1007 - +
T TxT
where:
p = absolute pressure (psi + 14,7)
T = absolute temperature (F + 460)
2730 393,670
log p = 6,1007 - + = 1,4363
705 705 x 705
p = 27,31 psi (absolute) (ans.)
117
22.03 Enthalpy
a) Enthalpy of liquid
to change 1 kg water from 0oC to boil = 100 kcal.
c) Enthalpy of fusion
to change 1 kg of ice to water = 80 Btus
Saturated steam shows the same temperature as the water during evaporation.
Superheated steam is defined as the condition where all the water has evaporated and the
steam temperature has been raised.
Tw
v = 0,591 - 0,135w
p
Q = 0,48[T 10,27(P)1/4] + 857,2
where
v = volume of steam (ft3)
T = absolute temperature (oF + 460)
p = absolute pressure (psi + 14,7)
w = weight of steam (lb)
P = pressure of steam (lb/ ft3)
Q = Btus required
Example: a) What volume does 1 lb of steam occupy at 14,6 psiabs. and 480oF?
(940)(1)
v = 0,591 - (0,135)(1) = 37,91 ft3 (ans.)
14,6
c) What Mount of heat is required to produce 1 lb of steam At 450oF and 2100 lb/ft3
pressure?
118
22.04 Properties of Steam
Temperature p vg hg
(oC) (atm.) (m3/kg (kcal)
0 0,00602 206,39 597,7
4 0,00828 152,57 599,6
10 0,01212 106,33 602,1
16 0,01744 75,33 604,4
21 0,0247 54,18 606,8
27 0,0345 39,52 609,2
32 0,0475 29,22 611,6
38 0,0646 21,87 614,0
49 0,1152 12,69 618,7
60 0,1966 7,68 623,3
71 0,3226 4,83 627,9
82 0,5110 3,14 632,3
93 0,7843 2,10 636,6
100 1,000 1,67 639,1
116 1,699 1,02 644,7
127 2,4108 0,73 648,5
138 3,348 0,54 652,1
149 4,560 0,404 655,4
160 6,10 0,307 658,4
171 8,03 0,237 661,2
182 10,41 0,185 663,6
193 13,32 0,146 665,6
203 16,83 0,116 667,2
232 28,76 0,169 669,2
119
Chapter 23
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
E2
P = = I2R = EI
R
E2 P E
R = = 2 =
P I I
P
E = (PR)1/2 = = IR
I
P P1/ 2 E
I = = 1/2
=
E R R
I = current (amps)
E = electromotive force (volts)
R = resistance (ohms)
P = power (watts)
R1 = R1 + R2 + + Rn
E1 = It R1
E2 = It R2
Et = E1 + E2 + + En
P1 = It2R1
P2 = It2R2
Pt = I t + E t
= P1 + P2 + + Pn
Rt = total resistance
Et = total EM force
Pt = total power
120
Et Et
I1 = and I2 =
R1 R2
It = I1 + I2 + .+In
R1 R2 ....Rn
Rt =
R 1 + R2 + ..... + Rn
It = total current
Notes; When converting AC to DC voltage, the average voltage, Ea, is used in the
calculation. The characteristic curve for current is the same as for voltage. i.e., replace the
above signs E with I to obtain the values for current. For AC circuit calculations, effective
voltage and effective current are used. Most AC measuring instruments show effective
voltages and currents.
Cycle frequencies are expressed in terms of cycles per second (cps) and hertz both of
which have the same meaning. In other words, if an AC has 60 hz or 60 cps, one complete
cycle takes 1/60 of a second.
c) Inductance
Unit: henry
xL = 2pfL
where
xL = inductive reactance (ohms)
f = frequency (hz)
L = inductance (henry)
121
d) Capacitance
Unit: farad
Q
C =
E
KA
C1 = 0,2248
(1,0 x 10 6 )d
where
C = capacitance (microfarads)
K = dielectric constant
A = effective area of plates (in.2)
d = thickness of dielectric (in.)
C1 = capacitance (farads)
Q = charge (coulombs)
E = electromotive force (volts)
e) Generator
Vt = E internal RI
1
W1 = Vt I
efficiency
f) Motor
Vt = E + internal RI
W = (efficiency) VtI
g) Impedance
E
Z =
I
For an RL (resistance-reactance capacitance circuit):
Z = R2 + xL2
Z = R2 + xC2
h) Capacitive reactance
1
xc =
2pfC 1
122
C1 = capacitance (farads)
E = electromotive force (volts)
f = frequency (hz)
I = current (amps)
R = resistance (ohms)
xL = inductive reactance (ohms)
xc = capacitive reactance (ohms)
Vt = terminal voltage
W = mechanical power output
Wl = mechanical power consumption
Z = impedance (ohms)
a) Direct current
b)
hp746
A =
V(eff)
VA
kW =
1000
1000kW
A =
V
VA(eff )
hp =
746
hp746
A =
V(eff)PF
(kV - a )1000
A =
V
AV
kV a =
1000
kW 1000
A =
(V)PF
AVPF
kW =
1000
123
AV (eff ) PF
hp =
746
746hp
A =
2V(eff)PF
kW 1000
A =
2VPF
(kV - a )1000
A =
2V
VA2PF
kW =
1000
VA2(eff ) PF
hp =
746
2VA
kV a =
1000
746hp
A =
1,73V(eff)PF
1000(kV - a )
A =
1,73V
1,73VA
kV a =
1000
kW 1000
A =
1,73VPF
1,73VAPF
kw =
1000
VA(eff )1,73PF
hp =
746
124
PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS
hence
I = (0,707)(95) = 67,2 A (ans.)
(350)(75)(1,73)
kW = = 42,2 kW (ans.)
1000
d) The terminal voltage on an AC motor is 220 V, the current is 1,33 A and the
mechanical power output is stated as 175 W. What is the efficiency of his motor?
175
efficiency = = 0,598 = 0,60 (ans.)
(220)(1,33)
125
Chapter 24
FAN ENGINEERING
Q1 n1 Q2 n2
= n2 = n1 Q2 = Q1
Q2 n2 Q1 n1
1 2 1
Q1 p 2 Q p 2
= 1 p2 = p1 2 Q2 = Q1 2
Q2 p2 Q1 p1
1 3 1
Q1 p 3 Q h 3
= 1 h2 = h1 2 Q2 = Q1 2
Q2 p2 Q1 h1
1 1 2
n2 p p n
= 2
2
n2 = n1 2
2
p2 = p1 2
n1 p1 p1 n1
1 1 3
n2 h 3 h 3 n
= 2 n2 = n1 2 h2 = h1 2
n1 h1 h1 n1
h2 t1 t1
= h2 = h1
h1 t2 t2
p2 t1 t1
= p2 = p1
p1 t2 t2
h2 d2 d2
= h2 = h1
h1 d1 d1
p2 d2 d2
= p2 = p1
p1 d1 d1
Q = flow rate
p = fan static pressure
n = fan speed
h = fan horsepower
t = absolute temp. (F + 460)
d = air density
126
24.02 Total Efficiency of a Fan
0,000157Q ( Ptotal )
efftotal =
h
0,000157Q( Pstatic )
effstatic =
h
144Q ( p 2 - p1)
air hp =
33,00
airhorsepower
shaft hp =
efficiency
For fans operating at the same speed and handling the same gas:
2
Q1 D
= 1
Q2 D2
2
h1 D
= 1
h2 D2
Pstatic = p2 + p1
For all problems, given a fan with the following operating characteristics: flow rate
14,500, horsepower 25, fan speed 940, static pressure 12,0, density of air 0,071.
a) What flow rate is obtained when the horsepower on this fan is increased to 40 hp?
127
b) What fan speed is needed with the same motor to obtain a flow rate of 16,000?
c) What is the fan static pressure when the fan speed is being increased to 1050?
d) What percent less fan horsepower is needed to obtain the same flow rate when the
density of the air is 0,063?
h2 = 25(0,063/0,071) = 22,18
and
[(1,0 (22,18/25,0)] 100 = 11,3 percent (ans.)
Chapter 25
FLUID FLOW
25.01 Viscosity
This is defined as the readiness at which a fluid flows when acted upon by an external
force.
Units:
m = centipoise = 0,01 poise
poise = g/cm/s
m
vk =
p
m
vk =
s
where
p = g/cm3
s = specific gravity
m = centipoise
This is often also referred to as the weight density and it represents the weight of a
fluid per unit volume.
128
25.04 Specific Volume
1
vs =
g/cm 3
where
vs = specific volume (cm3/g)
p1
s =
pw
where
p1 = specific weight of liquid at stated temperature
pw = specific weight of water at standard temperature
141,5
s =
131,5- o API
140
s =
130- o Baume
r
V =
A
R
V=
Ap
RVs
V =
A
r
V = 12732,4
d2
Q
V = 0,2122
d2
129
A = area of pipe m2
R = flow rate kg/s
p = specific weight kg/m3
Ve = specific volume m3/kg
d = diameter of pipe cm
Q = quantity liter/min
This is the atmospheric pressure above zero absolute. Barometric pressure is always
positive.
Note: the kPa (kilopascal) is the official unit accepted in the International System of
units to express pressure.
This is the pressure above atmospheric pressure. When stating gauge pressure of a gas
the plus or minus sign must also be shown to indicate pressure or vacuum.
fLv 2
h1 =
D2 g
pLv 2
DP =
144 D 2 g
where
h1 = loss of static head due to friction and flow (ft)
f = friction factor
L = length of pipe (ft)
v = mean velocity (ft/s)
D = diameter of pipe (internal diameter ft)
g = gravity constant = 32,2
p = specific weight (lb/ft3)
DP = pressure drop (psi)
130
25.12 Friction Factor
64
f =
Rc
64m c
f =
Dvp
64 m
f =
124dvp
f = friction factor
Rc = Reynolds number
mc = viscosity (lb/ft/s)
m = absolute viscosity (centipoise)
D = diameter of pipe, internal diameter (ft)
v = mean velocity
p = density of fluid (lb/ft3)
mLv
DP = 0,000668
d2
The Reynolds number expresses the nature of the flow. When Re lower than 2100 =
laminar flow; when Re higher than 4000 = turbulent flow.
pvD
Re =
gm ' e
Q
Re = 3160
vk d
In fluid flow, the critical velocity is found at a Reynolds numbers of 2000-4000, i.e.,
when the flow changes from laminar to turbulent.
131
25.16 Total Head
144 p V 2
H = z+ + = z + h + hv
p, 2g
144 p
h =
p,
V2
hv =
2g
hl h 2g
k = = l 2
V 2
V
2g
where
H = total head (ft)
z = potential head above reference level, i,e., difference in elevation (ft)
p = pressure (psi gauge)
p, = fluid dencity (lb/ft3)
V = mean velocity (ft/min)
g = gravity constant (32,2)
h = pressure head (ft)
hv = velocity head (ft)
f = friction factor
L = length of pipe
D = diameter of pipe
hl = head loss (see 25.21)
k = resistance coefficient
2 2
V V
z1 + h1 + 1 = zz + h2 + 2 + ht
2g 2g
144DP
hl =
p,
132
25.22 Flow Coefficient of Valves
29,9d 2
Cv = 1
2
k
1
62,4 2
Q = Cv DP
p,
2
p, Q
DP =
62,4 C v
z = elevation head
h = pressure head
hl = pressure loss
V = mean velocity
Cv = flow coefficient for valves
d = diameter, (in.)
k = resistance coefficient of valve
Q = quantity (gal/min)
DP = pressure drop (psi)
p, = density (lb/ft3)
Q1 = Av
Note: Q can also be expressed in ft3/min but v must then be expressed in ft/min.
Q1 = quantity (ft3/s)
A = area (ft2)
v = mean velocity (ft/s)
v1 A2
=
v2 A1
133
25.27 Potential Energy for Fluids
Ee = Wz
Ep = Wh
W 'v 2
Ev =
2g
Et = Ee + Ep + Ev
Et = total energy
Ee = energy due to elevation (ft- lb)
Ep = energy due to pressure
Ev = kinetic energy (ft-lb)
W = weight of mass (lb)
Pe = Wz
Pp = Wh
WV 2
Pv =
2g
Pt = Pe + Pp + Pv
Pt
hp =
550
Q = CA(2ghl)1/2
Q = CA[(2g144DP)/p]1/2
134
25.31 Flow Coefficient
Cd
C = 1
d
4
2
1 - o
d 1
1
h 2
Q = 19,65d2 l
k
k = resistance coefficient
d = diameter of pipe, internal diameter (ft)
q = flow rate (ft3/s)
L = length of crest
ho = weir head
g = constant (32,2)
1
2 ,5
0,31h o (2 g ) 2
q =
tan f
135
25.35 Gas Flow Measurements
For accurate measurements, the sample ports should be located from one half to two
duct diameters upstream and two to eight duct diameters downstream from disturbances such
as bends, reductions, and others.
To cover equal areas in a circular stack or duct and thus obtain an accurate traverse,
the following table can be used to locate individual points in the traverse.
Example: When a 12-point traverse has to be make on a stack having an inside wall
diameter of 72 inches, where must the fourth traverse point be located?
136
25.36 Pitot Tube Measurements
Dp 1 / 2
V = 1096,7( )
d
where
BAR
d = 1,325
t + 460
Q = AV
Note: When the pressure of the gas is 29,92 in. Hg and the density equal to air
then:
V = 174[Dp(t + 460)]1/2
V = velocity (fpm)
Dp = differential pressure (in. H2O)
d = gas density (lb/ft3)
BAR = absolute pressure inside duct ( in. Hg)
t = gas temperature (oF)
Q = flow rate (cfm)
A = duct cross section (ft2)
The S-Tube operates on the same principle as the pitot tube but is primarily used to
measure gases that contain dust particles which would have the tendency to plug a pitot tube.
To use the S-tube, the tube factor (cs) has to be known or be determined by calibration.
Normally, cs = 0,85 0,90. The velocity is calculated by the following formula where Dp
and J have the same meaning as in the preceding formula.
V = cs 1096,7(Dp/d)1/2
In cases where only approximate flow rate determinations are required, a one-point
reading of the differential pressure can be made in the center of a circular duct. However, the
calculated velocity (V) has to be multiplied by a factor of 0,91 to obtain the approximate
average velocity in the duct.
273 mmGg
Nm3 = m3(act) ( )( )
T + 273 760
T + 273 760
m3(act) = Nm3 ( )( )
273 mmHg
137
where
Nm3 = volume at standard condition (0oC, sea level)
T = temperature of gas (oC)
In small diameter pipes, an orifice plate is usually more convenient employed than a
pitot tube to measure flow rates.
Rules to follow
d
than 0,7
D
m than 0,02 D
x1 = 2,5 D
x2 = 8,0 D
For gases other than air, use the formula given in 25.30. The flow coefficient (co) can
be found in the following table.
Values for co
V = velocity (fpm)
p = differential pressure (in. H2O)
t = temperature of air (oF)
A1 = area of pipe (ft2)
A2 = area of orifice (ft2)
138
25.41 Ventury Meters
For only
V = 174 cv [ Dp(t + 460)]1/2
where
1
2
1
cv = 0,98 2
1 - A2
A1
V = velocity (fpm)
p = differential pressure (in. H2O)
t = temperature (oF)
A1 = area of pipe at D(ft2)
A2 = area of throat (ft2)
Chapter 26
HEAT TRANSFER
Symbols used:
A = cross-sectional area m2
A1 = area at right angle to direction of heat flow m2
ac = surface area in contact with the gas
c = specific heat kcal/kgoC
cg = specific heat of gas kcal/kgoC
cs = specific heat of solid kcal/kgoC
d = distance m
D = inside diameter of pipe (ft)
dQ
= quantity of heat transferred per unit time
dq
dt
= rate of temperature change with distance In the direction the heat flow
dx
d = heat transfer coefficient
I = intensity of radiation (cal/s cm2
k = coefficient of thermal conductivity
139
k1 = natural convection coefficient
Q = quantity of heat (kcal)
Qq = quantity of heat transferred in unit time
Q1 = quantity of heat received
Qr = quantity of heat radiated
t1 = initial temperature (C)
t2 = final temperature (C)
T = absolute temperature (Kelvin)
Dr1 = least temperature difference
Dr2 = largest temperature difference
tg = temperature of the gas
ts = temperature of the solid
w = weight of body
wg = weight of gas
ws = weight of solid
x = emissivity factor
Xa = area factor
y = Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 0,174 x 10-8
m = absolute viscosity (lb/ft h)
o = constant = 1,36 x 10-12
Q = time
Q = cw(t2 t1)
26.02 Conduction
This is defined as the transfer of heat within a substance or from one substance to
another while they are in contact with each other.
kA
Q = (t2 t1)
d
Fouriers law
dQ dt
= -kA1
dq dx
26.03 Convection
This is defined as the transfer of heat by the motion of the particles of the heated
substance itself. Convection occurs only in liquids and gases by circulation.
Q = k1A(t2 t1)
26.04 Radiation
This is defined as the transfer of heat from one body to another without the two being
in contact with each other.
140
Qr
Q1 =
d2
Stefan-Boltzman law
This law expresses the relationship between the intensity of radiation and the
absolute temperature of the body. For a black body
I = oT4
Hq = ya(To)4
Hq = 0,174o(To/100)4
H = 0,174 x o(To/100)4
Note: A perfect black body is the best emitter of radiant energy. In other words,
x = 1,0. For all others substances, x = bigger than 0 and lower than 1.
1
Xt =
1 1
+ -1
x1 x2
A1t1 + A2 t 2 + ....... + An t n
MRT =
A 1 + A2 + ...... + An
Dt 2 - Dt1
LMTD = 0,434
Dt
log( 2 )
Dt1
141
26.05 Nusselt Number (Nu)
hD
Nu =
k2
Cpm
Pr =
k2
Gas to a solid
o 5 o
F = ( C + 32)
9
o 5 o
C = ( F 32)
9
Absolute temperatures
Ranking = oF + 459,6
Kelvin = oC + 273
142
Chapter 27
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
GASES
These well known laws apply to the English as well as the metric system of units.
P1V1 = P2V2
P1V1
P2 =
V2
P1V1
V2 =
P2
T1V2 = T2V1
T2V1
V2 =
T1
T1V2
T2 =
V1
T1V2P2 = T2V1P1
P = absolute pressure
V = volume
T = absolute temperature (K = oC + 273)
PV
R = = constant
T
R = gas constant
R = 0,0821 liter-atm/oK
R = 0,73 ft3-atm/oR lb-mole
R = 1544 ft-lb/oR lb-mole
143
For any gas
w
PV = RT
M
P = absolute pressure
V = volume
T = absolute temperature
R = gas constant
w = weight gas
M = molecular weight
A mole of any substance contains the same number of molecules. Equal volumes of all
gases under the same temperature and pressure conditions contain the same number of
molecules:
w1 M
= 1
w2 M2
w = weight (g)
M = molecular weight
PM
d =
(1000)(0,0821)T
At 0oC, 1 atm.
d = density (g/cm3)
do = normal density (g/liter)
P = absolute pressure (atm)
T = absolute temperature (K)
R = gas constant
v = volume (liter)
144
27.07 Molecular Weight of Gases
T1 P2
d2 = d 1
T2 P1
PM
d =
RT
27.09 Moles
mole = w/M
mole fraction = moles/total moles
mole percent = (mole fraction) 100
T2 P1
V2 = V1 ( )( )
T1 P2
T1 P2
V1 = V2 ( )( )
T2 P1
SOLUTIONS
This is defined as the number of grams of solute per 100 grams of solvent.
Example: 14 grams of salt dissolved in 100 grams of water fives 114 gram of
solution. Thus,
In many instances, the weight of solute is expressed also in terms of the volume of
solution ,e.g., 14 grams of salt per liter of solution.
This is defined as the number of gram molecules (moles) of solute per total number of
moles contained in the solution.
Example: 14 grams of NaCl (sodium chloride) are dissolved in 100 grams of water.
(Note: molecular weight of NaCl = 58,46 and water = 18,02). Thus,
145
14
for NaCl, = 0,239 moles
58,46
100
for water, = 5,549 moles
18,02
The total number of moles In solution = 0,239 + 5,549 = 5,788. Hence the mole
fraction of the solut eis
0,239
= 0,0413 (ans.)
5,788
140
= 2,395 molal
58,46
SOLIDS
atomicweig htofelement
percent = (100)
molecular weight of compound
(2)(55,85)
percent = (100) = 69,94 percent (ans.)
159,7
146
Example: What percent of calcium oxide are contained in calcium carbonate?
56,08
percent = (100) = 56,029 (ans.)
100,09
Calculations involving weight and mixture problems can best be solved by writing the
problem in the form of a chemical equation as shown in the following example.
Example: How much oxide, CAO, and how much sulfur trioxide, SO3, is required to
produce 168 kg of calcium sulfate, CaSO4?
Solution:
1. kg of CaO needed:
56,08 136,14
= , x1 = 69,20 (ans)
x1 168
2. kg of SO3 needed:
80,06 136,14
= , x2 = 98,80 (ans)
x2 168
Chapter 28
PHYSICS
m1m2
F = g
d2
where
F = gravitational force
m1, m2 = mass of bodies
d = distance between the centers of gravity of the two bodies
147
g = gravitational constant = 981 cm/s2
The absolute unit is the dyne which expresses the force that produces acceleration, i.e.,
a change in momentum on a body at rest or in motion.
F1 F2
=
a1 a2
F = force
a = acceleration
m = mass
F
a =
m
Mass expresses the quantity of matter. The metric unit for mass is the gram.
F
m =
a
Weight is defined as the force with which a body is attracted toward the earth
w = mg
W = Fs
Work is expressed as the product of the force acting on a body and the distance the
body has moved against the resistance.
28.06 Power
W
P =
t
148
joules
watts =
seconds
This is defined as the heat required to raise the temperature of one gram-mole of a gas
one degree Celsius.
cp = cv + R
cv = (3/2)R (for monatomic gases only).
where
cp = molecular heat at constant pressure
cv = molecular heat at constant temperature
R = gas constant = 1,988 cal/oK
m = xasa + xbsb +
m = Ms
where
This is defined as the heat required to obtain a change of state without a temperature
change in the substance. Latent heat of fusion is expressed in either cal/mol, cal/g.
Example
This is defined as the heat required to change a substance from a liquid to a gaseous
state without a change in temperature. This is also known as the enthalpy of evaporation.
Example
149
28.11 Heat of Formation and Reaction
This is defined as the heat units absorbed or evolved in a chemical reaction to form
one mole of a substance.
AB + CD = AC + BD + h
A + B = AB + a, etc.,
then
AB + CD = AC + BD a b + c + d
and
h = c + d (a + b)
where
A,B,C = compounds weight
a,b,c = heat of formation
h = heat of reaction
28.12.1Joule Equivalent
kcal
J =
426,9
where
J = joule equivalent (kg/m)
w1c1t1 + w2 c 2 t 2 + .....
Tfinal =
w 1c1 + w2 c 2 + ......
pf = p1 + p2 + p3 +
wf = w1 + w2 + w3 +
cv = w1cv1 + w2cv2 +
cp = w1cp1 + w2cp2 +
Vf = V1 + V2 + V3 +
150
p1V1 + p 2V2 + ....... p1V1 + p 2V2
Taf = =
p1V1 p 2V2 RW
+ + ......
Ta1 Ta 2
c = specific heat
cp = specific heat at constant pressure
cv = specific heat at constant volume
P,p = pressure
w = weight
V,v = volume
Ta = absolute temperature
Taf = final absolute temperature
t = temperature
tf = final temperature
R = gas constant (m-kg/f/kg/oC)
This is defined as the ratio of the force required to move one body over the other to the
total force pressing the two bodies together.
F
k =
Ft
L = Fd
where
L = torque (dyne-cm)
F = force that produces rotation about center (dyne), and
d = perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force to the axis (cm).
151
Chapter 29
PSYCHROMETRY
p = p - AP(t t)
where
A = 6,60 x 10-4 (1 + 0,00115 t) when oC and mm Hg are used.
100 p
relative humidity =
px
When the partial pressure of water vapor at a dated temperature equals the saturation
pressure of water vapor at the same temperature, the air is saturated, i.e., the dew point has
been reached.
q
hs = h + (T - Ts )
970,2
152
29.05 Properties of Air and Water Vapor
at 1 atmosphere
Temperature Dry air Water vapor Vapor pressure
o 3
C kg/m kg/m3 atm.
0 1,293 0,804 0,0061
1,1 1,288 0,801 0,0065
2,2 1,283 0,798 0,0071
3,3 1,277 0,795 0,0077
4,4 1,272 0,791 0,0083
5,6 1,267 0,788 0,0089
6,7 1,262 0,785 0,0097
7,8 1,258 0,782 0,0104
8,9 1,251 0,779 0,0112
10,0 1,248 0,775 0,0121
11,1 1,243 0,772 0,0131
12,2 1,239 0,771 0,0140
13,3 1,234 0,767 0,0151
14,4 1,229 0,764 0,0162
15,6 1,224 0,761 0,0174
16,7 1,219 0,758 0,0187
17,8 1,214 0,756 0,0201
18,9 1,210 0,753 0,0215
20,0 1,205 0,750 0,0231
21,1 1,200 0,747 0,0247
22,2 1,195 0,745 0,0267
23,3 1,190 0,742 0,0283
24,4 1,187 0,739 0,0302
25,6 1,182 0,735 0,0323
26,7 1,177 0,734 0,0345
27,8 1,173 0,731 0,0368
28,9 1,169 0,727 0,0393
30,0 1,165 0,726 0,0419
31,1 1,160 0,723 0,0446
32,2 1,157 0,721 0,0475
33,3 1,152 0,718 0,0506
34,4 1,149 0,714 0,0538
35,6 1,144 0,713 0,0572
36,7 1,139 0,710 0,0608
37,8 1,136 0,708 0,0646
38,9 1,131 0,705 0,0686
40,0 1,128 0,703 0,0729
41,1 1,123 0,700 0,0772
42,2 1,120 0,698 0,0819
43,3 1,115 0,695 0,0886
44,4 1,112 0,694 0,0919
45,5 1,109 0,690 0,0973
46,7 1,104 0,689 0,1030
153
PART V
154
Chapter 30
Formulas used to determinate the particulate emission rate are given. They apply to
tests performed with a dry gas meter. For details of the testing procedures, the reader is
advised to refer to Standard Performance for Stationary Sources, Federal Register,
Dec.23,1971.
30.03 Calculations
P
Pm = Pb - ( o ) = in.Hg
13,6
w
Vv = 1,415 ( ) = ft3
Pm
b) Percent moisture in flow gas
155
Vv
Mf = = percent ( expressed as a decimal)
Vv + Vm
CO 2
CO2 = 44(1- Mf) = .
100
O2
O2 = 32(1- Mf) = .
100
N2
N2 = 28(1- Mf) = .
100
H2O = 18Mf = .
Mw = Total = .
Mw
Gd = = .
28,95
29,92Ts 1 / 2
Vs = 2,9Fs ( ) x (Dpavg)1/2 = ft/s
Ps Gd
Qs = VsA60 = .ACFM
MVm = Vv + Vm = ..ft3
Pm Ts
MVs = MVm ( )( ) = . ft3
Ps 530
Pm
MVstd = Vm( ) = .DSCF
20,92
156
h)Grain loading
D
Grains/ACF = 15,43 ( ) = .
MVs
D
Grain/DSCF = 15,43 ( ) = .
MVstd
i) Emission rate
60
lb/h = DQs ( )454 = .
MVs
305,6 MVs
percent iso = = . percent
Vs td 2
Chapter 31
157
31.02 Conversion Factors for Emission Rates
Multiply by to obtain
g/s 3,6 kg/h
g/s 86,4 kg/day
kg/h 0,27778 g/s
Chapter 32
a) Evaporation rate
WM
R = 2000
1- M
where
M = mi - mo
b) Dryer volume
V = 0,7854 D2L
R
sv =
V
158
d) Specific heat consumption
Q
sh =
R
20,56 L
t =
SND
The specific gravity of the slurry can be obtained directly from the table given in 3.01
or, when the specific gravity of the dry solids is not 2.70, can be calculated by the following
formula:
100s d
sg =
(100 - M f ) + M f s d
b) In 3.04 a formula is given that users the pulp density of the slurry as a variable.
Another formula that is useful:
WWa 0,2
Q =
(100 - M f ) s g
c) Power required for pumping
Qht s g
hp =
3960p e me
0,9 y
Ff =
sgd
Note: Use 0,85 if y is not known.
159
d = internal pipe diameter (in.)
a) Elevator capacity
Vv e fd
C = 1,8
s
Note: f = normally 0,45 to 0,65
C (33 + h sin Q
hp = 1,1
760w
C = capacity (tph)
V = bucket volume (ft3)
ve = elevator velocity (fps)
s = bucket spacing (ft)
f = bucket load factor
d = bulk density of material (lb/ ft3)
w = bucket width (ft)
h = height of elevator (ft, sprocket to sprocket)
Q = angle of inclination
a) Conveyor capacity
60
C = Avdr.
2000
Note: A = 0,09r2
hp = 0,57967 (C)1/3
160
32.05 Screw Conveyors
C = 0,005625 ADnkd
k, performance factor
conveyor length (ft) k
10 0,995
20 0,98
30 0,97
40 0,96
50 0,945
60 0,93
70 0,92
80 0,91
90 0,895
100 0,88
b) Horsepower required
C C sin Q
hp = (L +30) ( +- )1,1
582 270
Dn
H = ( 1 )2
1900
b) Horsepower required to pump water
QHs
hp =
3960 e
161
32.07 Storage Tanks
Q = 7,481 D2HI
b) Contents in cones
V = 0,3333 R2h
C = 2,49367 R2h
c) Compressed air receivers
The minimum size receiver to be used is
dp i
vmin =
p o + 14,7
C = 1,8 whskd
k, performance factor
Drag chain length (ft) k
20 0,995
40 0,978
60 0,963
80 0,946
100 0,930
120 0,914
140 0,898
160 0,882
180 0,866
200 0,850
b) Horsepower required
L + 16,4 ( g + 0,8kwm )n C sin Q
hp = ( )[ ] +-
3,3 132 270
162
C = capacity (tph)
w = width of conveyor (ft)
h = depth of material (ft)
s = drag chain speed (ft/s)
k = performance factor
d = bulk density of material conveyed (lb/ft3)
L = length of conveyor
g = weight of chain (lb/ft)
wm = weight of material in drag chain (lb/ft)
n = drag chain speed (ft/s)
Q = angle of inclination
Q = fdlwjna 0,8
FACTOR f
Corrugated plates
Type of rock f
Normal 3,05 x 10-5
Screened 2,54 x 10-5
large 2,07 x 10-5
Smooth plates
Type of rock f
Normal 4,14 x 10-5
Screened 3,64 x 10-5
large 3,12 x 10-5
Correction factor a
Jaw angle (o) 26 24 22 20 18
a 1,0 1,06 1,12 1,18 1,24
b) Horsepower required
hp = 0,1w2s
Q = capacity (tph)
f = factor (see table)
d = density (lb/ft3)
l = length of discharge opening (in.)
w = width of discharge opening (in.)
n = strokes per min
a = correction factor for jaw angle
163
hp = motor size required
w2 = width of swing jaw (in.)
s = maximum feed size (in.)
a) Theoretical draft
1 1
dt = 0,256hPB -
Ta + 460 Ts + 460
c) Draft loss
Ts + 460 W 2 0,022h
dl = 0,0942 ( 4
)( ) (1+ )
D 100,0 D
dnat. = dt - dl
where
dt = theoretical draft (in. H2O)
dl = draft loss ( in. H2O)
h = stack height (ft)
PB = barometric pressure (in. Hg)
Ta = ambient air temperature (oF)
Ts = average stack temperature (oF)
D = diameter of stack (ft)
W = gas flow rate (lb/h)
164
P A R T VI
APPENDIX
165
Section A
MATHEMATICS
ALGEBRA
A1.01 Exponents
(am)(an) = am+n
(am)n = am n
(am)(bm) = (ab)m
am
= a m -n
an
n
an a
=
bn b
a1 / 2 = a
a1 / 3 = 3
a
a1 / 4 = 4
a
a1 / k = k
a
a3/ 2 = a3
1
a -n =
an
A1.02 Fractions
a c ac
=
b b b
a c ac
* =
b d bd
a c ad a d
= = *
b d bc b c
166
A1.03 Radicals
( a)
n
n
= a
n
an = a
n
a n
b= n
ab
n
a a
= n
n
b b
A1.04 Factoring
ax + ay = a(x +y)
a2 b2 = (a + b)(a- b)
a2 + 2ab + b2 = (a + b)2
a2 2ab + b2 = (a b)2
a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 ab + b2)
a3 b3 = (a b)(a2 + ab + b2)
167
A1.06 Logarithms
x
log x - log y = log
y
log an = n log a
n 1
log x = log x
n
1
loga b =
log b a
logbNn = n logb N
A1.07 Determinants
ax + by + cz = d
ex + fy + gz = h
ix + jy + kz = l
Solutions
168
A1.08 Quadratic Equation
ax2 + bx +c = 0
- b b 2 - 4ac
x =
2
If
b2 4ac is 0, the roots are real and unequal
169
A1.10 Power and Roots
x X2 X3 x 3
x
1 1 1 1,000 1,000
2 4 8 1,414 1,260
3 9 27 1,732 1,442
4 16 64 2,000 1,587
5 25 125 2,236 1,710
6 36 216 2,449 1,817
7 49 343 2,646 1,913
8 64 512 2,828 2,000
9 81 729 3,000 2,080
10 100 1000 3,162 2,154
11 121 1331 3,317 2,224
12 144 1728 3,464 2,289
13 169 2197 3,606 2,351
14 196 2744 3,742 2,410
15 225 3375 3,873 2,466
16 256 4096 4,000 2,520
17 289 4913 4,123 2,571
18 324 5832 4,243 2,621
19 361 6859 4,359 2,668
20 400 8000 4,472 2,714
21 441 9261 4,583 2,759
22 484 10648 4,690 2,802
23 529 12167 4,796 2,844
24 576 13824 4,899 2,884
25 625 15625 5,000 2,924
26 676 17576 5,099 2,962
27 729 19683 5,196 3,000
28 784 21952 5,291 3,037
29 841 24389 5,385 3,072
30 900 27000 5,477 3,107
31 961 29791 5,568 3,141
32 1024 32768 5,657 3,175
33 1089 35937 5,745 3,208
34 1156 39304 5,831 3,240
35 1225 42875 5,916 3,271
36 1296 46656 6,000 3,303
37 1369 50653 6,083 3,332
38 1144 54872 6,164 3,362
39 1521 59319 6,245 3,391
40 1600 64000 6,325 3,420
41 1681 68921 6,403 3,448
42 1764 74088 6,481 3,476
43 1849 79507 6,557 3,503
44 1936 85184 6,633 3,530
45 2025 91125 6,708 3,557
46 2116 97336 6,782 3,583
47 2209 103823 6,856 3,609
48 2304 110592 6,928 3,634
49 2401 117649 7,000 3,659
50 2500 125000 7,071 3,684
170
A1.11 Fractions and Decimal Equivalents
TRIGONOMETRY
a c
sin A = csc A =
c a
b c
cos A = sec A =
c b
a b
tan A = cot A =
b a
1
sin A =
csc A
171
1
cos A =
sec A
sin A
tan A =
cos A
cos A
cot A =
sin A
sin2 A + cos2 A = 1
sec2 A = 1 + tan2 A
csc2 A = 1 + cot2 A
1
1 - cos A 2
sin A =
2
1
1 - cos A 2
tan A =
1 + cos A
a+b+c
s =
2
172
Law of Sines
a b c
= =
sin A sin B sin C
Law of Cosines
a2 = b2 + c2 2bc cos A
b2 = a2 + c2 2ac cos B
c2 = a2 + b2 2ab cos C
Law of Tangents
tan 1 / 2( A - B) a-b
= where a b
tan 1/2(A + B) a+b
tan 1 / 2( B - C ) b-c
= where b c
tan 1/2(B + C) b+c
tan 1 / 2( A - C ) a-c
= where a c
tan 1/2(A + C) a+c
Newtons Formula
c a+b
=
sin 1/2 C cos 1 / 2( A - B)
1
( s - a)( s - b)(s - c ) 2
s
tan 1/2A =
(s - a )
1
( s - a)( s - b)(s - c ) 2
s
tan 1/2B =
(s - b )
1
( s - a)( s - b)(s - c ) 2
s
tan 1/2C =
(s - c )
173
SOLUTIONS OF TRIANGLES
Given Use
One side and two angles Law of sines
Two sides and an angle opposite one of them Law of sines
Two sides and their included angle Law of tangents
Three sides Tangent of half angles
Area
a 2 sin B sin C
A =
2 sin A
a 2 sin A sin C
A =
2 sin B
a 2 sin B sin B
A =
2 sin C
A = bc sin A
A = ac sin B
A = ab sin C
STATISTICS
When calculating the standard deviation of a population larger than 30 use the formula
1
( x - x ) 2 + ( x 2 - x ) 2 + ..... + ( x n - x ) 2 2
s = 1
n
For samples whose total number is less than 30, (n 30) use
1
( x - x ) 2 + ( x 2 - x ) 2 + ..... + ( x n - x ) 2 2
s = 1
n -1
174
A3.02 Variance
s
cv = 100
x
( x1 - x ) 2 + ( x 2 - x ) 2 + ..... + ( x n - x ) 2
o 2
=
n
Gm = ( x1 x 2 .......x n ) n
To determine the corelations between two variables solve the simultanous equations
for a and b
x = n + x 2b
xy = xa + x b 2
where x and y are the values of the plotted variables and n = the number of samples.
After these values have been found, the best line to fit the plotted points (least square
equation) becomes:
Y = a + bx
(a y + b xy ) - y y
1/ 2
r =
y 2 _ y y
175
where
Y =
y
n
When r approaches unity, there is a good correlation, when is approaches zero, there
exists too wide a scatter to obtain a correlation.
s = standard deviation
x = mean
x1, x2 = individual observations
n = total number of observations
a2 = variance of the samples
p = relative frequency
FINANCES
Sn = Fer n
where
Sn = value after n years due to compouding interest rate r
F = initial amount invested
Example: What is the value after 21 years when $1250 is invested at a compound
interest rate of 5,5 percent?
C = I+D
C = RE
C = P+D
where
176
A4.03 After Tax Profit
P = (100 t)(R E)
where
I -L
D =
n
where
D = straight line depreciation
I = initial investment value
L = expected salvage value at end of useful life
n = expected useful life
Example: An office copier is being purchased for a cost of $5800. Its useful life is
expected to be six years; after these six years its salvage value is estimated at $1350. What is
the annual depreciation on this copier when the straight line depreciation on this copier when
the straight line depreciation method is used?
5800 - 1350
D = = 741,67 (ans)
6
2( I - d c )
D =
n
where
D = double-declining balance depreciation
I = initial investment value
dc = cumulative depreciation charged in previous years
n = useful life
177
A4.06 Sum-of-Years Digit Depreciation
2(n - y + 1)
D =
n(n + 1)
where
D = sum-of-years digit depreciation
n = useful life
y = consecutive number of years from start of investment to year where D
applies.
This factor is used to estimate the costs to replace an old by a new identical unit.
0,6
a
Cf = C o
b
where
Cf = new costs
Co = old costs
a = new capacity
b = old capacity
Q = pe-r n
kn
r
Q = p 1 -
k
where
Q = final value
p = initial value when new
r = rate of annual depreciation (decimal)
n = number of years
k = number of time per year depreciation is figured
178
A4.10 Simple Compound Interest
Pv = P(I + i)n
I
P = Pv
(I + i) n
( I + i) n - I
sumn = R
i
where
sumn = worth after n years
R = annual payment
( I + i) n - I
percent or equal value = R n
i ( I + i)
179
A4.13 Compound Interest Factors (I + i)n
180
A4.14 Discouted Cash Flow Factors
DCF
Year 10 percent 25 percent 40 percent
0 1,000 1,000 1,000
1 0,952 0,885 0,824
2 0,861 0,689 0,553
3 0,779 0,532 0,370
4 0,705 0,418 0,248
5 0,638 0,326 0,166
6 0,577 0,254 0,112
7 0,522 0,197 0,075
8 0,473 0,154 0,050
9 0,428 0,119 0,034
10 0,387 0,092 0,023
11 0,350 0,073 0,015
12 0,317 0,057 0,010
13 0,287 0,044 0,007
14 0,259 0,034 0,005
15 0,235 0,027 0,003
16 0,212 0,021 0,002
17 0,192 0,016 0,001
18 0,184 0,013 0,001
19 0,157 0,010 0,001
20 0,142 0,008 -
This type of calculation is used to determine the value of an account after n years
when an annual deposit of l| is made to the account.
(l + i ) n - l
Sn = (l)(l + i)n + z
i
where
Sn = value of account after n years
l = initial capital invested i account
i = interest rate (expressed as a decimal)
n = number of years
z = annual deposit into account
Example: What is the account balance after 15 years when the initial deposit is
$150 000 , na annual amount of $240,00 is deposited, and the account pays 5,5% compound
interest?
(1 + 0,055)15 - 1
Sn = (1500)(1 + 0,055)15 + 240
0,055
Sn = 8726,79 (ans.)
181
SAFETY FORMULAS
n(1,0 x 10 6 )
f =
h
Accident frequency rate is defined in terms of number of accsidents per milion man-
hours worked.
f = frequency rate
n = number of accsidents during period under investigation
h = number of man-hours worked during the same period
Accident severity rate is defined in terms of the number of days lost due to accidents
per 1000 man-hours worked.
1000d
s =
d
where
s = severity rate (days lost/ 1000 man-hours)
d = days lost in period
h = total man-hours worked in same period
100 f
percent frequency =
f std.
100s
percent severity =
s std.
where fstr. and sstr. are the frequency and severity rates of other groups performing
similar duties.
182
PLANE AND SOLID GEOMETRY
Plane Figures
A6.01 Rectangle
area = ab
A6.02 Parallelogram
area = ab
A6.03 Triangle
Let x = 0,5(b + c + d)
then
183
A6.04 Circle
circumstance = pD
= 2pr
area = 0,25pD2
= pr2
0,25c 2 + h 2
r =
2h
c = 2[h(D h)]1/2
= 2r sin Q
h = r (r2 0,25c2)1/2
Q
s = pD
360
= 0,01745rQ
area = 0,5 rs
area = 0,008727 r2Q
184
A.07 Circular Ring
A6.08 Ellipse
area 0,25pAa
A5.09 Parabola
area = 0,6667 ha
185
A6.10 Polygon
area = 0,5psr
areas
n area
5 1,7205s2
6 2,5981s2
7 3,6339s2
8 4,8264s2
9 6,1818s2
A6.11 Trapezoid
A6.12 Catenary
y = a cos hx
Solids
186
A6.13 Cube
volume = a3
surface area = 6a2
A6.14 Cylinder
volume = 0,7854D2h
surface area = pDh (without end surface)
= pD(0,5D + h) (end surface included)
A6.15 Pyramid
187
A6.16 Cone
A6.18 Sphere
volume = 0,5236D3
surface area = pD2
188
A6.19 Segment of a Sphere
c 2 + 4h 2 h
volume = ph 2 -
8h 3
A6.21 Torus
volume = 0,25(p2d2D)
surface = Dp2d
189