EDUC.

PRINCIPLE OF TEACHING

Theories of Learning

While the process of learning is generally complex it is not entirely unpredictable. Throughout
recorded history, learning has played an important role in cultures around the world and has been the
subject of formal studyespecially since the European Renaissance of the 14th 17thcenturies
(Aspinwall, 1912; Compayre & Payne, 1899; Cubberley, 1904, 1920, 1922; Curoe, 1921; Graves,
1909, 1910, 1913; Monroe, 1905; Norton, 1909; Painter, 1917; Parker, 1912; Quick, 1890; Seeley,
1899; Shoup, 1891).

Over the past 125 years or so the study of learning has been approached from a variety of
perspectives, some of the most prominent being (a) behavioral (observable performance), (b)
cognitive (operational constructs, memory structures, and mental processes), (c) constructive
(construction of mental representations by the learner rather than the teacher), (d) human (the learner
as a whole person), and (e) social (the learner as a member of society). From these various
approaches to the study of learning have emerged theories of learning, theories of instruction,
theories of instructional design, and methods of teaching (see for example: Bower & Hilgard, 1981;
Driscoll, 2000; Gredler, 2009; Mowrer & Klein, 2001; Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009; C. M. Reigeluth,
1983, 1999; C. M. Reigeluth, 1999; and Saettler, 1990).

The Impact of Learning Theory on Instructional Design

Each of these approaches and their ensuing theories has made an important contribution toward
a better understanding of what it means to learn and the process by which learning takes place. Each
theory is based on different assumptions, but each has offered a unique and valuable perspective.
With all that has been done thus far, one might reasonably question the need for any additional work
toward an improved conception of learning. Such a question, however, overlooks the apparent gap
between theory and practice (Christensen & Osguthorpe, 2004; South, 2008; Yanchar, South,
Williams, & Allen, 2008; Yanchar & South, in press). Theories of learning seem to have relatively
limited impact on the design of instruction. Perhaps a new way of thinking about learning theory itself
might help to close this gap.

According to a survey conducted by Christensen and Osguthorpe (2004) only fifty percent of
instructional designers regularly use theories when making instructional-strategy decisions. For those
that do, the common practice seems to be one of eclectically drawing on methods and strategies from
multiple theories of learning (Christensen & Osguthorpe, 2004; C. M. Reigeluth, 1999; Visscher-
Voerman & Gustafson, 2004; B. G. Wilson, 1995, 1999; Yanchar et al., 2008; Yanchar & South, in
press). One problem with this instructional design practice of informed eclecticism is that in the act
of repurposing and combining fragments of multiple theories, instructional designers may be
haphazardly generating new theories on the fly in a rather undisciplined manner. This is not to say
that all ad hoc theories produced by eclectic assembly are necessarily flawed, but that may be true in
some cases since the combination of two instructional techniques from contradictory theories could
lead to the dilution of the efficacy of both, if neither one were given the emphasis and structure
needed for it to create its intended effect (Yanchar & South, in press, p. 13).

Of even greater concern than the assumptive and structural integrity of the various theories taken
in piecemeal amalgamation is the efficacy of the instruction that is produced on such a
foundation.[1] In my own experience, I have found that many instructional products, and many
classroom methods and activities, are generally not effective per semeaning that without a
significant independent effort made by the student, the learning objectives are not met. The student
who succeeds does so, in large part, because of the amount of time he or she spends outside of
class or by referencing instructional materials other than those provided. This observation is
consistent with the field experience of David Merrill, one of the most prominent and influential
scholars in the field of instructional design today, who said, A week does not go by that I dont have
the opportunity to review products that DO NOT TEACH (Merrill, 1997, p. 1). So, while eclectic
reference to learning theory appears to be a dominant trend in instructional design, it does not seem
to be the most effective approach. Perhaps there is a better alternative.

A Shift toward Principles

When contemplating the issues in ones own field, it is often useful to consider how similar issues
have been addressed in other fields. This apparent trend of eclectic borrowing, copying, or
assemblyin the maturation of a new discipline and the evolution of theoretical models and
methodshas also been an issue in two fields closely associated with the field of instructional
design: clinical psychology and language teaching. Suggestions from respected scholars in each of
these disciplines provide insight on how both researchers and practitioners might advance the field of
instructional design to close the gap between theory and practice and to increase the effectiveness of
instructional products produced by instructional designers.

In commenting on the practice of copying and borrowing of theories in American psychology in

the mid1900s, Kelly (1963) suggested that instead of poking about in the neighbors backyards for
methodological windfalls we should start abstracting the scientific principles that are beginning to
emerge from our experiences (p. 23). He further advised that we should examine a variety of
scientific theories, not to find one that can be copied concretely, but to discover common principles
that can be applied to the building of brand new theories (p. 23)theories that are especially
designed to fit the realm of events we wish to account for. To understand the direction of the present
study, please note that Kellys suggestion is not a push toward the practice of eclecticism, but rather
toward the establishment of principles that might be applied in a very disciplined way.

In the field of language teaching, Kumaravadivelu (1994, 2003) described a shift away from the
conventional concept of method toward a post method condition that motivates a search for an
open-ended, coherent framework based on current theoretical, empirical, and pedagogical insights
that will enable teachers to theorize from practice and practice what they theorize (p. 27). He
suggested a framework of macro strategies derived from theoretical, empirical, and pedagogical
knowledge related to L2 [second language] learning/teaching (p. 32). His call is a move toward
principled pragmatism.

The shift toward frameworks and principles in language teaching has also been pursued by others
in the field. For example, Rod Ellis (2005) reviewed results from a variety of second language
acquisition studies in order to identify general principles for language pedagogy. This effort resulted in
the identification of ten specific principles to serve as the basis for instructed language learning.
Another scholar, H. D. Brown (2001, 2007) summarized a history that hasin a very simplified
viewbeen a search for the one correct or best method of teaching. This search has been
described as changing winds and shifting sands (Marckwardt, 1972), a rally to banners and
bandwagons (Close, 1977), a pendulum swinging back and forth (Mitchell & Vidal, 2001, p. 26),
and a major river, constantly flowing, fed by many sources of water (p.27). H.D. Brown (2001) noted
that by the 1980s the profession of language teaching had learned to be cautiously eclectic in
making enlightened choices of teaching practices that were solidly grounded (p. 39), but suggests
that this enlightened practice should be guided by overarching principles of second language
learning (p. 54) upon which language teaching should be based.

Inspired in part by the shift toward principles in the fields of psychology and language teaching, I
believe that the identification of common principles found in existing theories of learning, as well as
those that emerge from experience, may be an important step toward closing the divide between
practice and theory. A framework of common principles of learning would be of great benefit to both
instructional designers and educational practitioners. Instead of repurposing and combining popular
theories for uses they were not specifically designed for, effective instruction could be developed
based on principles that embody the meaningful substrate underlying the theories. Empowered with
such a foundation, instructional designers would be free to focus their time and effort on creating
good instruction.

The Purpose of this Study

The purpose of this study was to identify fundamental and universal principles of learning that are
either explicitly stated or implicitly assumed in the theoretical foundations of learning that most
commonly influence instructional design today: behavioral, cognitive, constructive, human, and social.

The identification of principles to guide instructional design practice has already begun with
Merrills work to identify first principles of instruction (2002a; 2007; 2009). Going beyond a mere
statement of the theory, he has provided excellent, concrete examples that show how those principles
can be applied in practice (2002b; 2002c; 2006; 2008a; 2008b; 2008c; 2009). Merrill characterizes his
principles as relating to creating learning environments and products rather than describing how
learners acquire knowledge and skill from these environments or products (Merrill, 2002a, p. 1). In
contrast with Merrills principles of instruction, the principles to be identified in the present study are
principles of learning. Principles of learning do not compete with principles of instruction, but are
complementary to them, and may help explain the reasoning behind some of Merrills principles,
providing further insight into why they are effective.

Note that use of the two adjectives fundamental and universal is specific and is intended to
establish a very clear objective for this study. Fundamental principles are those that have a critical
influence on learningthat is basic, vital principles upon which successful learning
depends. Universal principles are those that might reasonably be construed to apply broadly to many
different types of learning, including: changes in behavior, the acquisition of factual and conceptual
knowledge, the mastery of complex motor skills, the development of intellectual capacity, and even
changes in attitudes, desires, or beliefs.

Although a rational argument will be made to support claims of fundamentality and universality for
the principles identified, I recognize that no such argument can ever be complete, and that the
resulting ideas from this study will be, at best, tentative. Accepting this limitation, these two attributes
together will serve as the criteria by which principles of learning will be identified from the theories
reviewed. The justification for adopting these two particular attributes is that principles that meet, or at
least have the clear potential of meeting, both criteria will provide the greatest utility in understanding
the nature of learning in a variety of situations. The resulting principles will be analogous to the basic
methods Reigeluth (1999) described when he distinguished them from variable methods (p. 20).
When Merrill (2002a) compared his own principles of instruction to Reigeluths basic methods, he
clarified the difference between basic and variable methods as follows:

A principle (basic method) is a relationship that is always true under appropriate conditions
regardless of program or practice (variable methods). A practice is a specific instructional activity. A
program is an approach consisting of a set of prescribed practices. Practices always implement or fail
to implement underlying principles whether these principles are specified or not. A given instructional
approach may only emphasize the implementation of one or more of these instructional principles.

The same relation of Merrills principles to Reigeluths basic methods also applies to the present
study. Principles of learning that are fundamental and universal, by definition, should hold true
regardless of the method, practice, approach or program within in which they are applied. Principles
that do not appear to be absolutely essential to learning, or principles that apply only to a localized
learning situation or only to a specific type of learning, are not the end goal of this study. The
expected result of the present study is a list of descriptive principles of learning that will assist
instructional designers and educational practitioners with understanding or analyzing learning in, and
preparing instruction for, many different contexts.

Overview of Chapters

This chapter has described a gap between existing theories of learning and their use in applied
instructional design. Following the lead of efforts that have been made in the fields of clinical
psychology and language teaching to address similar problems, an alternative principle-based
approach to learning theory has been suggested as a possible solution to close this gap. The purpose
for the present study has been defined as a search for universal and fundamental principles of
learning that apply to all types of learning. Chapter two describes the method used to pursue this
goal. In chapter three, 35 theories of learning that were selected for review and analysis are
summarized. Chapter four reports on the themes identified. These themes are then organized into a
coherent conceptual framework of learning in chapter five. In chapter six, concluding remarks are
made, including: a review of what has been accomplished in the present study, limitations of the
study, and directions for future application and research, building on the contribution of knowledge
made by this study.

The goal of the seven principles is to prepare the student to deal with the real world.

Principle 1: Encourage contact between students and faculty.

Building rapport with students is very important. The contact between students and teachers are vital
to the students' success. One of the main reasons students leave school is the feeling of isolation that
they experience. The concern shown will help students get through difficult times and keep working.
Faculty have many avenues to follow to open up the lines of communication.

For the regular classroom:

Invite students to visit outside of class.

Know your students by name.
Help students with problems in their extracurricular activities.
Personalize feedback on student assignments.
Attend student events.
Advise students regarding academic courses and career opportunities.
Seek out students you feel are having a problem with the course or are frequently absent.
Encourage students to present their views and participate in class discussions.
Have regular office hours.
Help students to work with other faculty. Let them know of options, research, etc. of other faculty.
Share personal experiences and values.
 Use the one-minute paper at the end of class to get feedback on what the student is learning and
how well they are learning it.
Talk to students on a personal level and learn about their educational and career goals.

For distance and online courses:

Try computer conferencing.

Use list serves.
Clearly communicate your email response policy.
Encourage e-mail correspondence and discussion forum use, especially beneficial for those that
are shy or are from different cultures because it allows them a different avenue of communication
that might be more comfortable.
"Chat time" online with faculty (at various times, scheduled weekly).
Use pictures of faculty/students.
Visit the distance sites, if possible.
Have an on-site support person.
Maintain eye contact with camera and local students.
Arrange for group work at a distance site.

Principle in action:

A York College (PA) professor has incorporated an invitation in the syllabus to encourage contact
during office hours: "You are encouraged to stop in during office hours to talk about any problems
or suggestions you may have concerning the course; about careers (especially graduate school or
the benefits of majoring or minoring in (Insert your course here); or just about things in general. If
you want to talk to me and find the schedule hours to be inconvenient, feel free to schedule an
appointment."
Faculty at St. Norbert College, Wisconsin, use electronic mail discussion groups. Many instructors
find that the students are more willing to participate in a written discussion than to speak up in
class. The instructor monitors the discussions and participates along with the students, adding
personal perspectives and ideas to those of the students.
The Residential College of Winona State University has implemented a "living-and-learn"
environment to encourage student and faculty interaction. It is located 12 blocks from the main
campus and houses 400 students in large, mostly single rooms. Academic activities at the
Residential College include freshman seminars, sophomore common reading seminars, and an
in-resident program with notable scholars or artists participating with students in a variety of
experiences. Residential College faculty are located there and hold office hours. The interaction
between students and faculty are enhanced because of the increased interaction.

Technology, like e-mail, computer conferencing, and the World Wide Web/Internet, now gives more
opportunities for students and faculty to converse. It is efficient, convenient, and protected. It allows
more privacy so that students are able to discuss more openly without fear that other students are
going to hear. E-mail also gives student more time to think about what they want to say. With these
new alternatives to face-to-face communication, interaction from more students should increase
within the classroom.

Principle 2: Develop reciprocity and cooperation among students.

When students are encouraged to work as a team, more learning takes place. Characteristics of good
learning are collaborative and social, not competitive and isolated. Working together improves
thinking and understanding.

For the regular classroom:

Use cooperative learning groups

Have students participate in activities that encourage them to get to know one another.
Encourage students to join at least one organization on campus.
Assign group projects and presentations
Utilize peer tutoring.
Encourage students to participate in groups when preparing for exams and working on
assignments.
Distribute performance criteria to students is that each person's grade is independent of those
achieved by others.
Encourage students from different races and cultures to share their viewpoints on topics shared in
class.

For distance and online courses:

Use chat sites and discussion forums for student-to-student communication.

Set up teams to interact through e-mail or phone bridges with enough people at each site.
Encourage students to respond to each other's work by posting it on the internet.
Have a question and answer time online.
Use teleconferencing for idea sharing.
Encourage online discussion groups that require interaction.
Work on group projects through phone and e-mail.
Team-teach courses.
Include an "ice-breaker" activity to allow students to share their interest and to learn about others.

Principle in action:

Students in communication courses at Miami University develop a group "code of conduct" to help
facilitate cooperative learning. A sample code is given out as a model. The sample code includes:
respect each other, criticize ideas instead of people, listen actively, seek to understand before
being understood, contribute to group discussion, keep an open mind, share responsibility, and
attend all meetings. Students are encouraged to customize the code to address other shared
concerns the group may have. Students refer to the code after each class or group session to
assess their performance and identify areas for improvement.
At Naugatuck Valley Community-Technical College, students are tested both individually and
collaboratively. Students are given a test date but are not told in which fashion they will be tested.
Group tests are highly structured and a unanimous decision must be reached for the answer. The
collaborative testing method helps students experience a sensitivity for diversity and others' point
of view; develop and refine skills in persuasion, listening, and reading; and share responsibility
and accountability. This method also reduces test anxiety among students.
In a first-year composition class at University of Minnesota students videotape themselves
discussing apprehensions before taking the course, their feelings when they received their papers
back, and what they learned from the class. Next quarter, the video is shown to new students in
 the course to show that the feelings they are experiencing are shared by others and helps
motivate them to succeed.

Cooperative learning has several benefits. Students care more about their learning because of the
interdependent nature of the process. Retention is higher because there is a social and intellectual
aspect on the content material. Students also find the method more enjoyable because there is no
competition placed upon them. Cooperation, not competition, is more effective in promoting student
learning.

Principle 3: Encourage active learning.

Learning is an active process. Students are not able to learn much by only sitting in classes listening
to teachers, memorizing pre-packaged assignments, and churning out answers. They must be able to
talk about what they are learning, write about it, relate it to past experiences, and apply it to their daily
lives. Students need to make learning a part of themselves.

For the regular classroom:

Ask students to relate what they are learning to something in real life.
Use journaling.
Give students concrete, real-life situations to analyze.
Encourage students to suggest new reading, projects, or course activities.
Ask students to present their work to the class.
Use of simulation software to run "what-if" scenarios allows students to manipulate variables and
circumstances.
Practice role modeling and use web-based case studies to practice new thinking skills.
Encourage students to challenge your ideas, the ideas of other students, or those ideas presented
in readings or other course materials in a respectful matter.
Set up problem solving activities in small groups and have each group discuss their solutions with
the class.

For distance and online courses:

Allow flexibility in choosing material so that it is more meaningful to the learner (e.g. students
choose their own topic, project format, etc.).
Have an interactive web page.
Debate on-line.
Present students work for other students to review.
Talk about what students are learning by creating a learning group through e-mail, telephone, chat
room, or conferencing.
Use e-mail for group problem solving.

Principle in action:

At Iowa State University, history students interview prominent historical individuals during a press
conference. After the press conferences, students work in groups identifying the main ideas and
creating headlines and news articles that highlight those ideas.
 Structured journal writing is a major part of several classes at Lesley College. Each journal entry
has two parts: the first paragraph emphasizes points for recall and retention; the second part
emphasizes application of the content to the student's life experience and observation.
An education professor at the University of Wisconsin-LaCrosse has created a hypothetical school
system, complete with administration, teachers, pupils, and families. The goal is to help the
students learn the legal aspects of special education. During the semester, the students take on
all roles as they participate in legal cases involving students with disabilities. Students gain an
understanding of the law as it applies to special education and students with disabilities, and they
develop a human understanding of the human side of the cases.

Promoting active learning in higher education is a struggle because of the learning background that
many students come to classes with. This is due to the fact that the norm in our nation's secondary
schools has been to promote passive learning. A large amount of information needs to be covered
with not enough time, so teachers resort to lecture in order to economize their time to cover as much
material as possible. Students progress from topic to topic with no real understanding of the content
and how it relates to their life. Effective learning is active learning. The concept of active learning has
been applied to curriculum design, internship programs, community service, laboratory science
instruction, musical and speech performance, seminar classes, undergraduate research, peer
teaching, and computer-assisted learning. The common thread between all these events is to
stimulate students to think about how they as well as what they are learning and to take more
responsibility for their own education.

Principle 4: Give prompt feedback.

By knowing what you know and do not know gives a focus to learning. In order for students to benefit
from courses, they need appropriate feedback on their performance. When starting out, students
need help in evaluating their current knowledge and capabilities. Within the classroom, students need
frequent opportunities to perform and receive suggestions for improvement. Throughout their time in
college and especially at the end of their college career, students need chances to reflect on what
they have learned, what they still need to know, and how to assess themselves.

For the regular classroom:

Follow-up presentations with a five minute period for students to write down what they have
learned in class.
Provide informative comments that show the students' errors and give suggestions on how they
can improve.
Discuss the results of class assignments and exams with the class and individual students.
Vary assessment techniques (tests, papers, journaling, quizzes).
Offer on-line testing, software simulations, and web-based programs that provide instantaneous
feedback.
Have question and answer sessions.
Use audio and/or video recordings to assess performances.
Return grades for assignments, projects, and tests within one week.

For distance and online courses:

 E-mail gives instant feedback instead of waiting for the next lesson.
Use on-line testing, software simulations, and web-based programs that provide instantaneous
feedback.
Monitor bulletin boards regularly and give specific information feedback to students.
Use pre-class and post-class assessments.
Schedule a chat group where you, the instructor are present. Use it as a question and answer
session when appropriate.
Send acknowledgment e-mails when you receive a students work.
Post answer keys after receiving assignment from all students.
Use of hyperlinks within text to provide feedback to questions raised within the text.

Principle in action:

At the University of Scranton, a management professor, used computer scored multiple choice
tests and quizzes which allowed the professor to have the tests graded during the break that
followed the test or quiz. The students immediately received their results and were able to discuss
the exam in detail. Students were able to understand the material better through the class
discussion that occurred after the test.
Hollins College students taking the Critical Thinking course submit two copies of their papers. The
second paper is critiqued by another student.
Faculty at Winona State University in the Communication Studies Department have to evaluate as
many as 30 speeches a day. They developed a system of codes for the most common comments
on speeches. These codes were programmed into a computer program and instructors were able
to listen to the speech and type in the codes for the appropriate comments. This gave extra time
to make specific comments on the individual speech and also gave students complete and prompt
feedback on the entire speech.

The importance of feedback is so obvious that it is often taken for granted during the teaching and
learning process. It is a simple yet powerful tool to aid in the learning process. Feedback is any
means to inform a learner of their accomplishments and areas needing improvement. There are
several different forms that feedback can take. They are oral, written, computer displayed, and from
any of the interactions that occur in group learning. What is important is that the learner is informed
and can associate the feedback with a specific response.

Principle 5: Emphasize time on task.

Learning needs time and energy. Efficient time-management skills are critical for students. By
allowing realistic amounts of time, effective learning for students and effective teaching for faculty are
able to occur. The way the institution defines time expectations for students, faculty, administrators,
and other staff, can create the basis for high performance from everyone.

For the regular classroom:

Expect students to complete their assignments promptly.

Clearly communicate to your students the minimum amount of time they should spend preparing
for class and working on assignments.
Help students set challenging goals for their own learning.
Have realistic expectations (don't expect 10 papers in 10 weeks).
 Encourage students to prepare in advance for oral presentations.
Explain to your students the consequences of non-attendance.
Meet with students who fall behind to discuss their study habits, schedules, and other
commitments.
Be careful that time on task is real learning, not busy work.
Do not use technology for technology's sake. It must be relevant and useful to the topic.
Have progressive deadlines for projects and assignments.
Teach time management.
Discussion topics from class posted in a discussion group on the web .

For distance and online courses:

Understand that there will be problems with the distance and technology along the way.
Identify key concepts and how those will be taught. Given the amount of time, decide what
realistically can be covered.
Each distance class should involve some kind of achievement expectation that is laid out at the
beginning of the course. Assign some content for out of class time.
Give up the illusion of doing it all as you might in a regular classroom.
Vary the types of interaction. In creating an interactive environment, it can be overwhelming to the
students and teacher if the types of interaction required are too time consuming.
Consider both in and out of class time.
Make sure you know what your goals are and that the learners understand them as well.
Have regular discussions that require participation.

Principle in action:

At Fort Lewis College in Colorado they have an "Innovative Month". Students are offered a series
of five week summer domestic and foreign travel experiences that help them relate what they
learned in the classroom to real life. The groups are limited to eight to fifteen students pre faculty
member. Examples of Innovative programs include, "Management in Action", "Native American
Schools", and "Music and Theater in England".
At Lower Columbia College, the Integrative Studies Program is a block of 15 to 18 credit hours,
organized around a theme. Students enroll in "traditional" courses, ut must enroll in the full block.
This lets the faculty reorganize the day from the traditional fifty minute classes to include whatever
schedule of lectures, seminars, conferences, and discussion groups needed to achieve learning
objectives for that week.
Wake Forest University teaches time management and study skills in their Learning Assistance
Program and in the Learning to Learn class. Through a counseling/teaching model in the Learning
Assistance Program, students are individually encouraged to learn and develop strategies to
improve their academic performance. In the Learning to Learn Course, first and second year
students study learning theory with emphasis on demonstrating how good time management and
appropriate study skills positively affect outcome.

An easy assumption to make would be that students would be more successful if they spent more
time studying. It makes sense but it over simplifies the principle of time on task. Student achievement
is not simply a matter of the amount of time spent working on a task. Even though learning and
development require time, it is an error to disregard how much time is available and how well the time
is spent. Time on task is more complicated than one might assume.

Principle 6: Communicate high expectations.

Expect more and you will get it. The poorly prepared, those unwilling to exert themselves, and the
bright and motivated all need high expectations. Expecting students to perform well becomes a self-
fulfilling prophecy when teachers and institutions hold high standards and make extra efforts.

For the regular classroom:

Give a detailed syllabus with assignments, due dates, and a grading rubric.
Encourage students to excel at the work they do.
Give students positive reinforcement for doing outstanding work.
Encourage students to work hard in class.
Tell students that everyone works at different levels and they should strive to put forth their best
effort, regardless of what level it is.
Help students set challenging goals for their own learning.
Publicly acknowledge excellent student performance.
Revise courses when needed so students remain challenged.
Work individually with students who are struggling to encourage them to stay motivated.
Encourage students to do their best instead of focusing on grades.

For distance and online courses:

Give a detailed syllabus with assignments, due dates, and a grading rubric.
Call attention to excellent work in bulletin board postings or class list serves.
Show examples of your expectations with previous students' work.
Publish student work.
Provide corrective feedback. State what you did and did not like.
Be a role model to students. Model the behavior and expectations that you expect from students.
Expect students to participate.
Try to make assignments interesting and relevant to create interest.
Ask students to comment on what they are doing.
Suggest extra resources that support key points.

Principle in action:

At Bellevue University (Nebraska), students in the Introductory Psychology course are given a
guide for answering essay questions on their syllabus. The suggestions are designed to provide
direction to answering a broadly stated essay question. Three exams are given throughout the
course. The list of suggestions as well as the essay question are included on the first two exams.
On the final exam, only the essay question is given. Students are allowed to practice their writing
skills until the assistance is no longer needed.
In order to understand how students at SUNY-Plattsburgh learn and develop and how the school
can help them to do so, students are required to take the College Outcomes Measures Project
 examination of the American College Testing Program (ACT COMP) as freshmen and again at
the end of their sophomore year.
Clayton State College requires students to exhibit seven different writing styles. Several levels of
proficiency are present for each of the seven criteria. All students must pass writing assessments
on four different occasions.

Although it is often only discussed at the instructional level, high expectations also includes the
students' performance and behavior inside and outside the classroom. College and universities
expect students to meet their high expectations for performance in the classroom, but also expect a
personal and professional commitment to values and ethics. They include the discipline to set goals
and stick with them, an awareness and appreciation of the diversity of society, and a philosophy of
service to others.

Principle 7: Respect diverse talents and ways of learning.

There are many different ways to learn and no two people learn the same way. Students bring
different talents and learning styles to the classroom. Students that excel in the seminar room may be
all thumbs in the lab or art studio and vice versa. Students need the opportunity to show their talents
and learn in ways that work for them. Then, they can be guided into new ways of learning that are not
as easy for them.

For the regular classroom:

Use Web technologies to allow students to pick and choose learning experiences that fits the way
they learn.
Encourage students to speak up when they do not understand.
Use diverse teaching activities and techniques to address a broad range of students.
Select readings and design activities related to the background of students.
Provide extra material or activities for students who lack essential background knowledge or skills.
Integrate new knowledge about women, minorities, and other under-represented populations into
your courses.
Use learning contracts and other activities to provide students with learning alternatives for your
courses.
Encourage students from different races and cultures to share their viewpoints on topic discussed
in class.
Use collaborative teaching and learning techniques and pair students so they compliment each
other's abilities.
Give students a problem to solve that has multiple solutions. Guide them with clues and
examples.
Consider field trips.
Be familiar with Howard Gardner's research on multiple intelligences.

For distance and online courses:

Encourage students to express diverse points of view in discussions.

Create learning activities filled with real-life examples and diverse perspectives.
Provide Saturday lab experiences by contracting with local high schools or community colleges.
Some CD-Roms are available that offer a simulated lab.
 Balance classroom activities for all styles (some books, some hands on, some visual).
Explain theory from a practical approach first then add the structural approach.

Principle in Action:

Realizing that students can interpret exam questions in different ways, students at Georgia State
University in the nursing program are given the chance to modify multiple choice exam questions
that they find confusing. This student input lessens test anxiety and gives the student an
opportunity to demonstrate what they know.
Western Washington University's Fairhaven College has a cluster college with an interdisciplinary
curriculum and an emphasis is place on student-centerd approaches to teaching and learning.
At Kalamazoo College, the K Plan gives students an on and off campus study that allows them to
spend a significant amount of their time in college on career-development internships, foreign
study, and individualized projects.

The meaning of diversity is very clear from effective institutions. They embrace diversity and
systematically foster it. This respect for diversity should play a central part in university decisions, be
apparent in the services and resources available to students and resources available to students, be
a feature of every academic program, and practiced in every classroom..

The Learning Process

Nature of Learning- It is an integrated, ongoing process occurring within an individual, enabling him
to meet specific aims, fulfill his needs and interests, and cope with the living process.
Phases of the learning Process
1. Unfreezing the learner is prepared to consider changes in knowledge, skills, attitudes and
behavior
2. Problem diagnosis the forces which support the need for change and the forces working
against the need for change are identified and presented.
3. Goal Setting statement of desired changes in knowledge, skills, attitudes and behavior.
4. New Behavior The individual learns and practices those never knowledge, skills, attitudes and
behavior which are desired.
5. Unfreezing The never learnings have been found to be beneficial and are assimilated into the
individuals ongoing framework of knowledge, skills, attitudes and behavior.
Characteristics of Learning
1. Learning is developmental
2. Learning is interactive
3. Learning is basic
Basic Principles in the Teaching-Learning Process
1. Motivation
- An individual needs to be motivated to learn
- Excessive motivation is less effective than moderate motivation
- Intrinsic motivation is preferable to extrinsic motivation
Principles on Motivating Learners
1. Goal setting is an important motivational aspect of learning.
2. Successful experiences are effective motivators for learning
3. Feedback about ones progress can be an effective motivation.
4. Considering learners interest is important in classroom learning.
5. Reward rather than punishment is a better motivator for learning.
6. Meaningful materials and tasks serve as good motivators.
7. Teachers expectations of the learners performance influence the latters achievement.

2. Reinforcement - Learning is strengthened either by rewards or punishment.

3. Exercise/Practice [what is learned in order to remember]
- In fixing skills, distributed practice is more advantageous than mass practice.
- Thorndikes law of exercise states that constant repetition of a response strengthens its connection
with the stimulus and disuse of a response weakens it.
Educational practices that exemplify this principles: drill, review and examination [to be made an
integral part of teaching and learning]
4. Participation
- Learners are actively involved in activities they select and plan.
- Learning by doing is important
5. Meaningfulness
- Activities and materials used by the teacher are meaningful when these are related to the needs and
goals of the learners.
6. Feedback
- Information about performance, mistakes and success assist the teacher in planning instruction and
motivates learners in pursuing the activities.
7. Individual Differences
- Every individual is unique
- Good teaching is based on the psychology of learning
- Provisions are made to meet individual differences
- Readiness to learn varies among learners
8. Challenge
- Learning is facilitated when the learner is challenged by activities characterized by high level skills
he/she is capable of
- Learner should be stimulated to think and reason.
9. Variety
- Learners attention is sustained by varying styles of stimuli
- Provide learning experiences or situations that will ensure understanding
- Expose learners to alternative models used by other individual so they can refine and modify their
personal learning style so that these can be employed more effectively.
10. Socialization
- Learners learn a great deal from each other.
Behavior Learning Theories
1. Classical Conditioning Theory [Ivan Pavlov] - Learning occurs by pairing a neutral stimulus with
a stimulus that automatically elicits a response until the originally neutral stimulus come to elicit the
 same response given to the unconditioned stimulus.
- Learning/ behavior is a result of two stimuli being presented at the same time.
2. Connectionism Theory
- Learning is the formation of connections or bonds between stimuli or responses.
- The Law of Effects states that if an act is followed by a satisfying result/outcome, it is more likely to
be repeated in a similar situation.
- If an act result in an unfavorable result/outcome it is less likely to be repeated.
3. Operant Conditioning Theory
- Learning occurs when the individual makes desired responses because he is rewarded for doi9ng
so and he avoids undesired response because he is not rewarded or punished for making a desired
response.
- Learning is controlled by consequences/conditions that follow a behavior and affect the frequency of
future behavior.

Principles in Behavioral Learning Theories

1. Consequence

- Behavior changes depending on its immediate consequence

- Reinforcer is any consequence that strengthens or increases frequency of behavior.
- Premack Principle
- linking less desired to more desired activities e.g. work on your assignment first so you can go and
play.
- Other types of reinforcers:
Primary reinforcers Secondary reinforcers
Positive reinforcers Negative reinforcers
Intrinsic reinforcers Extrinsic reinforcers
- Punished are consequences that weaken behavior
Types:
1. Presentation punishment
2. Removal punishment or Time Out

2. Immediacy of Consequences
- Consequence/s that follow a behavior closely in time affect behavior than delayed consequence/s.
e.g. immediate feedback increases its informational value.
3. Shaping is reinforcing learners behavior gradually until the desired behavior is realized
4. Extinction
- Behavior decreases when reinforcement is removed.
Application of Behavioral Learning Theories in Teaching
1. Provide a positive classroom environment.
2. Help students to be successful.
3. Present particular anxiety-arousing tasks slowly and gradually while learners are happy and
relaxed.
4. Provide more practice of behavior.
5. Reinforce desirable behaviors.
6. Different things have different reinforcing effects to different learners.
7. When the baseline level of a desired behavior is low, gradually shape the behavior overtime by
reinforcing the desired behavior.
 8. Use continuous reinforcement to help students acquire a new response.
9. When students generalize inappropriately, help them learn to discriminate among stimuli that
require different response.
10. Avoid inadvertent reinforcement of undesirable behavior.
Social Learning Theories
Concepts:
- Learning occurs by observing others
- Behavior is directed toward particular goals that people have set for themselves
- Behavior eventually becomes self-regulated
Observational, Modeling and Initiation Learning Theory
- Imitation learning occurs when one person attentively observes another behavior with the intention
of trying to act in a similar manner
- Modeling is the teachers behavior that corresponds to the learners initiative learning

Classification of Models
1. Real life exemplified by teachers, parents, etc.
2. Symbolic exemplified by oral or written symbols
3. Representational exemplified by audio-visual means.

Principles in Social Learning Theory

1. Vicarious Learning an individual learns from observing the consequences of others behaviors.
2. Self-regulation people observe their own behavior, judge it against their own standards and
reinforce or punish themselves.
Application of Bonduras Theory
- Model desirable behavior.
- Make sure that students are paying attention and thinking of/about the model.
- Provide descriptive labels for models.
- Make sure the learners are physically capable of doing what you ask.
- Mechanism to help students remember the behavior should be provided.
- Modeling undesirable behavior should be avoided.
- Learners should be exposed to a variety of exemplary lines and symbols.
Cognitive Learning Theories
Concepts:
- Learning theories that are related to processes that go on within the mind of learners involve:
recognizing, knowing, remembering and using knowledge
- Learning is an integral process that may or may not result in behavior change.
- Individuals are likely involved in their own learning
- Individuals are selective about the things they possess and learn

1. Information Processing learning Theory [Alkinson & Shiffrin]

- cognitive theory of learning that describes the processing storage and retrieval of knowledge from
the mind

Components of the Memory Register:

A. Sensory register holds memories linked to the senses
B. Short-term or working memory stores facts and generalized knowledge in the form of schemas.
C. Procedural memory stores knowledge of how to do things

2. Cumulative Learning Theory [Gagne]

- A cognitive theory of learning which states that learning occurs as the individual develops high
levels skills that build successively on lower skills.
3. Meaningful Learning Theory
- Learning occurs by relating newly acquired information to what is already known.

- Dimensions of learning:
A. The way by which the knowledge to be learned is made available to the learner.
B. The way by which the learner incorporates new information into the existing knowledge.

- Conditions of Meaningful Learning

Meaningful learning sets the attitude that one can make sense out of the information to be
learned.
Relevant prior knowledge contains information to which a new idea can be related.
Organization finding connections among the various pieces of information one needs to learn.
Elaboration expanding on new information based on what one already knows.
Visual imagery forming a mental picture of information

Principles of cognitive Learning Theories

- Transfer - Overlearning
- Retention - Meaningfulness
- Practice - Schema
- Automatically

Application of Principles to Classroom Situations:

- Teacher should make sure that students are paying attention.
- It must be remembered that students can process only so much information at a time.
- Learners must know what material is most important to learn.
- The same information should be presented in more than one form.
- Focus on an in-depth understanding of key ideas.
- Learners must be shown how new materials related to what they already know.
- Organize the information to be presented.
- Students should be encourage to elaborate on class material.

Constructivist Theories of Learning

Concept:
- Learners must individually discover and transform complex information.
- Learners check new information against old rules and revise rules when they no longer work.

Principles of Constructivist learning theory (Slavin)

1.Learning is - a natural process of pursuing personally meaningful goals
- a process of discovering and constructing meaning from information and experience filtered through
each individual unique perceptions, thoughts and feelings.
2. The learner -
- seeks to create meaningful and coherent representations of knowledge regardless of the quantity
and quality of data available.
- organizes information in ways that associate and link new information with existing knowledge in
uniquely meaningful ways.
3. Employ higher order strategies for thinking about thinking.
4. Facilitate creative and critical thinking and development of expertise.
5. The depth and breadth of information processed and what and how much is learned is
influenced by-
1. self-awareness and beliefs about personal competence and ability
2. clarity and saliency of personal values interests and goals.
3. Personal expectations of success or failure
4. Emotion and general states of mind
5. Motivation to learn
2. Individuals are naturally curious and enjoy learning in the absence of intense cognitions and
emotions.
3. Curiosity, creativity and higher order thinking processes are stimulated by relevant authentic learning
tasks of optimal difficulty, challenges and novelty for each student.
4. Learners development is a function of unique, genetic and environmental factors.
5. Learning is facilitated by social instruction and communication with others in a variety of flexible
diverse and adoptive instructional settings.
6. Learning and self-esteem are heightened when individuals are in respectful and caring relationships
with others who see their potential/s, genuinely appreciate their unique talents and accepts them as
individuals.
7. Learners differ in their preferences for learning work, strategies and unique capabilities in particular
areas.
8. Personal thoughts, beliefs and understandings resulting from prior learning and unique inter relations
become each individuals basis for constructing reality and interpreting life experiences.

Applications of constructivist learning Theories

1. Emphasize generative learning, questioning or inquiry strategies and other meta cognitive skills.
2. Use discovery self-learning, curiosity and creative problem solving.
3. Use scaffolding to assist learners at critical points in their learning.
4. Create a culture of thinking in the classroom.
5. Arrange for cooperative learning structure that reward both group and individual effort and
improvement.
Principles in Teaching The Different Types of Learning Outcomes.
1. Principles in Teaching Factual information
A. Principle of Organization
- Organize material into appropriate learning units of thought and meaningful associations.
- Use advance organizers to establish a transition from old to new information.
B. Principle of Practice
- Help learners develop methods of evaluating their own response.

2. Principle in Teaching Concepts and Principles

Concept essentially an idea or an understanding of what a thing is. It is organized information about
the properties of one or more things.
Principle the relationship among two or more concepts.

Classification of principles
1. Cause and effect if-then relationship
2. Probability- prediction on actual sense
3. Correlation prediction based on wide range of phenomena
4. Axioms rules

Instance of concepts are:

Positive specific example of a concept
Negative non-examples of a concept

Characteristics of concepts are:

Defining characteristics present in all examples
Correlational characteristics present in many positive instances of concepts but not essential for
concept understanding.
Irrelevant characteristics totally unrelated to qualifications for concept membership.

Principles and in Teaching Concepts

A. Principle of Concept Attributes

Applications:
- Help children identify the critical attributes.
- Arrange instructional activities so that students can directly observe instances of the concept.
- Use adequate examples and non-examples in which attributes of the concept stands out.
B. Principle of Correct Language for Concept Application:
- Teach the relevant names associated with both concept and attributes.
C. Principle of Sequence
Applications:
- Present a larger number of instances of one concept.
- Present combination of positive and negative instances of the concept rather than all positive or all
negative instances.
- Present instances of concepts simultaneously rather than successively.
- Proceed from simple to complex examples by reducing the number of attributes and gradually
increasing them.
- Proceed from concrete to abstract.
D. Principle of Guided Discovery
Applications:
- Present real and meaningful problems.
- Guide the learners in gathering information.
- Provide a responsive environment in which learners get accurate feedback promptly.
E. Principle of Applications
Applications:
- Utilize learners experiences.
- Provide opportunities for observation of related situations.
- Provide like-like situations for application of concepts.
F. Principles of Independent Evaluation
Applications:
- Create an attitude of seeking and searching.
- Assist learners in finding ways and means of evaluating not only their concepts but also their
methods of evaluating them.

Problem-Solving Skills
Concepts:
Problem felt difficulty or a question for which a solution may be found only by a process of thinking.
Reasoning productive thinking in which previous experiences are organized or combined in new
ways to solve a problem.
Problem-Solving occurs when there is an abstraction of some sort to the attainment of an objective.

Principles in Teaching Problem-solving Skills

A. Principles of Variety
- Expressing oneself by figural, verbal, physical means is essential for the production of novel forms
of ideas.
Applications:
- Encourage divergent production and expression in different media
- Develop a continuing program for developing creative abilities
- Display creative behavior. Set an example of curiosity and inquiry.
B. Principle of Success
- Experiencing success in creative efforts is associated with a high level of creative expression.
Applications:
- Reward creative efforts
- Respect unusual questions
- Respect imaginative, creative ideas
Psychomotor Learning

Principles in Learning Psychomotor Skills

A. Principle of Attention
- Attending to the characteristics of the skill and assessing ones own related abilities facilitate the
learning of the skill.
Application:
- Analyze the skills in terms of learner abilities and developmental level.
B. Principle of Observing
- Observing and imitating a model facilities initial learning of skills movements.
C. Principle of Guidance
- Guide initial responses verbally and physically
D. Principle of Practice
- Practicing undesirable conditions, facilitates the learning of skills through eliminating errors and
strengthening and refining correct response and form.
E. Principle of Feedback
- Securing feedback facilitates skill learning through providing knowledge or result.
F. Principle of Self-Evaluation
- Encourage independent evaluation
- Learners discuss and analyze their own performances

Affective Learning
Concepts:
- Affective involves emotions or expressions of feelings rather than thought.
- Affective Learning consist or responses acquired as one evaluates the meaning of an idea, object,
person or events in terms of his view of the world.

Principles on Developing Attitudes and Values

A. Principle of Attention
- Recognizing an attitude facilitates learning.
Applications:
- Identify and list the attitudes and values to be taught.
- Define the terminal behavior your want the students to achieve.

B. Principles of Observation
Applications:
- Provide exemplary models
- Examine instructional materials carefully in terms of attitudes and values presented.
- Set a good example.
C. Principle of Positive Attitude
- Feeling pleasantly about person, event or object influences ones attitude toward it.
Applications:
- Provide for pleasant emotional experiences
- Show warmth and enthusiasm toward students
- Keep personal prejudices under control
- Demonstrate interest in subject matter
- Make possible for each student to experience success

D. Principle of getting Information

- Getting information about a person, event of object influences ones attitude toward it.
Applications:
- Extend informative experiences
- Provide direct experiences
- Provide group lectures, discussions and reading assignments

E. Principle of Interacting
- Interacting in primary groups influences initial attitude learning and promotes later commitment to
group help.
Applications:
- Use group techniques to facilitate commitment.
- Encourage group decision-making.

F. Principle of Practice
- Practicing an attitude provides for stable organization.
Applications:
- Arrange for appropriate practice context.
- As an exemplary model, the teacher should manifest a lively and favorable interest in the students.
- Confirm responses with verbal statements, positive remarks, approving nod or smile.

Desirable Conditions for Learning:

1. Motivation
2. Transfer of Learning
- occurs when whatever is learned in one situation is used in a new or different situation.

Types of Transfer:

a. Lateral Transfer the individual is able to perform a novel task of about the same level.
b. Vertical Transfer the individual is able to learn/perform more advanced/complex skills.
Theories
a. Formal discipline theory memory, reason, will and imagination could be strengthen through
practice.
b. Identical elements theory facts, skills, and methods present in the original learning situation must
be present in new learning.
c. Generalization theory explains the use of principles in new situations.
d. Transportation theory understanding of the relationships among facts, processes and principles
become the bases of transfer.

Principles of Transfer
- attaining concepts and principles and developing abilities facilitate vertical and lateral transfer
- applying newly acquired concepts, principles and abilities increase retention and transfer
Instructional Planning

- Instructional planning or teacher planning is basically decision-making.

- Planning is deciding what and how a teacher wants his/her students to learn.
- Planning is a personal process, therefore, no two teachers will construct the same plans.
- Instructional planning then, is the process of sorting, selecting, balancing and synthesizing
information from many sources in order to design instructional experiences that will assist learners in
attaining the goals and objectives that will meet their needs.

Principles of Instructional Planning

1. Need-Oriented 9. success
2. Relevance 10. Clarity
3. Congruence 11. Variety
4. Motivation 12. Coordination
5. Unity 13. Cooperative Planning
6. Integration 14. Flexibility
7. Experienced-based 15. Balance
8. Individualism 16. Economy

Types of Plans (often used by teacher)

1. Course Plan
- is a long ranged plan
- provides the general framework within which the work of the quarter and year will be carried out.
2. Unit Plan
- clarifies what content will be taught and by what learning experiences during a specific period of
time.
It Uses:
1. It enables teachers to plan experiences in advance to meet different objectives
2. It helps teachers anticipate problems that may arise.
3. The Daily Lesson Plan
a. refers to each day plan which has to do with the specific part of the unit to be dealt with during a
given class period.
b. covers a small part of a larger experience extending over days.
Types of Daily lesson Plan
1. Detailed
2. Semi-detailed
3. Brief
Essential Elements of a Good Daily Lesson Plan
The daily lesson plan should:
1. indicate a clear understanding of the aims to be achieved;
2. definitely correlate the new lesson to the previous work of the course;
3. provide for the selection and organization of subject matter, materials and activities;
4. indicate the application of appropriate teaching procedures to the lesson;
5. provide the proper evaluation of success in the realization of the aims and objectives;
6. project todays lesson into tomorrows situation;
7. contain provision to meet individual differences
8. have provision for review or drill
9. include the assignment for the students
Basic Parts of a daily lesson Plan
1. Specific Objectives
2. Subject Matter
3. Materials to be used
4. Procedure
A. Preparatory Activity
B. Developmental Activity
C. Concluding Activity
Instructional Objectives
Importance:
- help the teacher focus on what students should learn or develop at the end of the lesson;
- help students know what is expected of the lesson;
- help teacher plan for teaching and organize instruction. (to identify what to teach and how to teach)
Components of Specific Objectives
1. Behavior or performance
2. Condition
3. Proficiency level or criterion
Classification of Learning in Three domains
1. Cognitive Domain
2. Affective domain
3. Psychomotor Domain
Motivation
What it is the key to learning. And teaching
- something teachers have to inspire students with;
- something teachers have to keep from extinguishing
- is a number of ideas that direct an individual to act or do something
- the desire to approach or avoid something
- statement of desires, goals, likes, dislikes, wants and fears
- energizes, directs and sustains behavior.
- a process which belongs to the learner, in which energies produced by needs are expanded in the
direction of goals.

Factors That Determine Motivation of School Learning

- the learners purpose/intent to learn
- the learners self-concept and self-confidence
- the learners level of aspiration
- the learners knowledge and appraisal of how well he is doing in relation to this goals.
Types of Motivation
1. Intrinsic an internal stimulus to learning
Motives are thoughts, feelings or conditions that cause one to act.
Common forms of Intrinsic Motivation
- desire for knowledge
- desire to explore
- desire to construct
2. Extrinsic Motivation is an external stimulus to learning activity.
Incentive is a stimulus that gives rise to a motive.

Important Points concerning Motivation

- the learner must be motivated before learning takes place
- motivation should be made an integral part of teaching and learning processes.
- motives and incentives are potent factors in motivation
- motivation is more effective if positive stimulation in the form of praise or rewards is given
- competition and rivalry are often used as drives to stimulate learning
- continuous motivation is essential in developing concentration of attention
- motivation is important, not only as an energizer and director of learning, but as a habit.
- motivation is more important, not only as an energizer and director of learning, but as a habit.
- motivation is more effective if it is based on immediate goals rather than on remote goals or
objective
- motivation is effective if it is self-initiated
- motivation is effective if it employs a variety of motivational devices and techniques and a variety of
instructional materials
School Discipline
Every phase of school management is closely related to school discipline. A well-ordered classroom
is likely to be free from disciplinary problems.
Discipline is associated with wholesome class conduct
- always connected with a goal
- maybe thought of as an organization of ones impulses for the attainment of a goal
- is the process or result of directing or subordinating immediate wishes, impulses, desires or
interests for the sake of an ideal.
- means preparing boys and girls for life in a democratic society
How to Improve Classroom Discipline
1. formulate objectives in terms of behavioral changes desired.
2. Structure the classroom so as to make it conducive to mental health.
3. Provide interesting activities for the learners.
4. make use of personality and personal influence and maintain proper personal attitude.
5. Build-up a school spirit.
6. Confer with the pupil.
7. Stimulate group responsibility.
8. Correct attitude on the part of the teacher.
9. provide proper routine.
 SOC SCI.3

The Constitution of the Philippines (Filipino: Saligang Batas ng Pilipinas) is the constitution or
supreme law of the Republic of the Philippines. Its final draft was completed by the
Constitutional Commission on October 12, 1986 and was ratified by a nationwide plebiscite on
February 2, 1987.

Political Science is the systematic study of the state and government.

T h e w o r d political is derived from the Greek word polis, meaning a city, or what today
would be thee uivalent of a sovereign state. The wordscience comes from the !atin wordscire
, to know.
"Political science is a social science discipline concerned with the study of the
state,nation, government, and politics and policies of government. #ristotle defined it as the study
of the state. $t deals e%tensively with the theory and practice of politics, and the analysis of
politicalsystems, political behavior, and political culture.