Plant Reproduction

Differentiation of Plants Reproduction

Sexual reproduction Asexual reproduction

Parent Usually involves two unisexual One parent
parents (male and female)
or hermaphrodites.
Gamete Specialised reproductive cells Specialised reproductive cells are not
need to be formed. That is, formed.
male and female gametes
unite to form a zygote
following fertilisation.
Meiosis A special kind of cell division that There is no union of nucleus of the
must take place at some specialised reproductive cells.
stage of the life cycle of an Meiosis need not take place
organism that reproduces during the life cycle of organisms
sexually. that reproduce asexually.
Progeny Progeny will not be identical to Progeny is genetically identical to its
the parents. This is due to parent. Except in situations
variations that occur during where mutations may have taken
the formation of gametes place in the somatic cells.
(gametogenesis). Apart
from this, the union of
gametes from two different
parents will produce
variable genotype in the
progeny.
Incidence Occurs in many animals and Usually happens in plants, prokaryotes
plants. and mosses.
Advantag Produces progeny that is not Process is faster and the necessity for
e identical to the parents. two parents does not arise.
Sexual reproduction

In flowering plants, flower is the reproductive part of a plant. Most flowers have both
male and female reproductive organs. A typical flower has four
whorls calyx (sepals), corolla (petals), androecium (stamens) and gynoecium (carpels)
(Fig. 29.12). The androecium and gynoecium are directly concerned with sexual
reproduction.

Fig. 29.12 Parts of a flower

The androecium is the male part of the flower. It consists of stamens. Each stamen has
anther and a filament. Each anther possesses many pollen grains, which are the male
gametes in pollen sacs.

Gynoecium is the female reproductive part of a flower. The female part contained in this
whorl is called pistil. Each pistil consists of three parts—an upper flat stigma, a medial,
long, cylindrical style, and a lower, swollen ovary.
• The stigma receives pollen grains during pollination.
• The style bears the stigma at a suitable position to receive the pollen grains.
• The ovary contains ovules that are found attached to the placenta. Ovules are the
structures in which embryo sacs develop, and mature into seeds after fertilization.

The arrangement of ovules in the ovary is called placentation.

Asexual Reproduction in Plants

Asexual reproduction in flowering plants is common. Many different seed plants utilize
one of a number of different methods of this form of reproduction. There are several
reasons why seed plants may find this form of reproduction advantageous. If the
environment has been stable for many generations, variability may not be as essential
to the survival of the species. Asexual reproduction which is not as complex and
requires far less energy, would be preferable. When colonizing a new area, finding a
mate for sexual reproduction may be difficult or impossible. If the environment is
particularly harsh, the more delicate or susceptible organs or stages of sexual
reproduction may not be able to survive. Many plants which inhabit such areas as
deserts or arctic tundra only reproduce asexually.

Formation of spores

Spores are produced asexually by many types of plants. For the plants that
demonstrate alternation of generation, spores form the resting or dormant stage and the
distribution between the sporophyte generation and gametophyte generation. In plants
that demonstrate alternation of generations, spores are formed from the sporophytes
through meiosis. Hence the spores are haploid, like the spores that are formed from the
sporophyte stage in mosses and ferns. In plant species such as algae and mould that
do not demonstrate alternation of generations, spores are formed asexually through
mitosis to ensure species survival Daughter plants that are identical to the parent are
produced.

Vegetative reproduction

Vegetative reproduction in plants involves the separation of a multicellular part of a tree

from the parent tree. The multicellular part is formed through the budding process. The
part that is formed is known as bud nodes which can be separated from the parent tree
and later develop to become a completely new tree.

Natural vegetative reproduction has several advantages and disadvantages. The

following are some advantages.
 • It does not require help from external agents such as inserts and wind for
pollination and dispersal.

• Food for the daughter plant is found in the vegetative form allowing the bud
nodes to develop easily and quickly to become young trees.

• Each daughter tree is identicial to the parent tree in all respects. Thus, through
this reproductive method, the advantageous properties of the parent tree can be
passed down directly to the new generation.

The following are disadvantages of vegetative reproduction.

• The absence of any mechanisms for dispersal can cause an overcrowded

situation to arise. This may result in competition to obtain sunlight and food.

• As the daughter trees are identical to the parent trees, there is a high probability
that the daughter trees may not be able to adapt to environmental changes that
frequently occur.

• Vegetative reproduction by natural methods

This type of vegetative reproduction can involve roots, stem or leaves. Some
common modes of vegetative reproduction are given below.

I) By roots

The roots of sweet potato and mint bear adventitious buds. When these roots
are planted in the soil, new plants are produced.

ii) By stem

In many plants the stem develops buds on it. The part of the stem that bears
buds serves as an organ for vegetative multiplication.
Pollination

Pollination is the process of moving pollen (male gametophyte) from the anther to a
receptive stigma.

If the pollen and stigma are from the same flower it is self pollination. Usually cross
pollination occurs because it insures variation in the offspring, a distinct evolutionary
advantage.

A plant and its pollinator are adapted to one another. They have a mutualistic
relationship in which each benefit that the plants uses its pollinator ensures that cross
pollination takes place and the pollinator use plant as a source of food. This mutualistic
relationship came about through the process of coevolution that is, the co-dependency
of the plant and the pollinator is the result of suitable changes in the structure and the
function of each. The evidence for coevolution is observational. For example, floral
coloring and odor are suited to sense perceptions of the pollinator; the mouthparts of
the pollinator are suited to the structure of the flower; the type of food provided is suited
to the nutritional needs of the pollinator; and the pollinator forages at the time of day that
specific flowers are open. The following are examples of such coevolution.

Since self pollination is not advantageous a number of factors help prevent it such as:

• position of the anthers relative to the stigma

• shape of petals (bilateral symmetry)
• timing of pollen or egg production
• physiological incompatibilities including dioecious species. This may involve a
separation of the male and female parts of a flower into separate imperfect
flowers on the same plant or on entirely separate dioecious plants.

Flowers have coevolved with insects for millions of years so many characteristics of
flowers -- shape, color, nectar, and odor -- are designed to attract pollinators (not to be
beautiful in the eyes of humans).

The variety of pollinators attracted to flowers includes: bats and moths (night), and
butterflies, beetles, and flies (day).

A high degree of specialization frequently occurs between a specific flowering plant and
its pollinators. In extreme cases a flower may be pollinated by a single species of insect
or bird. Certain orchids have evolved to look like and even smell like a female wasp.
The male wasps frantically compete for this female simulacrum and in so doing
pollinates each flower it visits.

Another example of a very close mutualistic symbiosis occurs between the yucca flower
and the pronuba moth. Neither can survive without the other.
Grasses and gymnosperms --plants which lack attractive flowers-- make millions of
pollen grains which --when released-- are light enough to float on a breeze from plant to
plant. Only one pollen grain in a thousand may land in an appropriate place.

Wind pollination

Wind pollination is a testament to how far angiosperms and gymnosperms have gone in
reducing their reliance on external moisture for reproduction. It is also important to note
how many pollen grains end up unfulfilled and buried in sediment.

Since their hard outer wall can be fossilized pollen gives the paleontologist an important
window into the environmental conditions of ancient ecosystems.

Bee- Pollinated Flowers

There are 20,000 known species of bees that pollinate flowers. The best-known
pollinators are the honeybees. Bee eyes see a spectrum of light that is different from the
spectrum seen by humans. The bees’ visible spectrum is shifted so they do not see red
wavelengths but do see ultraviolet wavelengths. Bee-pollinated flowers are usually
brightly colored and are predominantly blue or yellow; they are not entirely red. They
may also have ultraviolet shadings called nectar guides, which highlight the portion of
the flower that contains the reproductive structures. The mouthparts of bees are fused
into a long tube contain a tongue. This tube is an adaptation for sucking up nectar
provided by the plant, usually at the base of the flower.

Bee flowers are delicately sweet and fragrant to advertise that nectar is present.
The nectar guides often point to a narrow floral tube large enough for the bee’ s feeding
apparatus but too small for other insects to reach the nectar. Bees also collect pollen as
food for their larvae. Pollen clings to the hairy body of a bee, and the bees also gather it
by means of bristles on their legs. They then store the pollen in the pollen baskets on
third pair of legs. Bee-pollinated flowers are sturdy and irregular in shape because they
often have a landing platform where the bee can alight.
The landing platform requires the bees to brush up against the
anther and stigma as it moves towards the floral tube to feed. One type of orchid,
Ophrys, has evoled a unique adaption. The flower resembles a female wasp, and when
the male of that species attempts to copulate with the flower, the wasp receives pollen.

Moth-and Butterfly-Pollinated Flowers

Contrasting moth-and butterfly-pollinated flowers emphasizes the close adaption

between pollinator and flower. Both moths and butterflies have long, thin, hollow
proboscis, but they differ in order characteristics. Moths usually feed at night and have a
well-developed
sense of smell.
The flowers they
visit are visible at
night because
they are lightly
shaded (white,
pale yellow, or pink), and they have strong, sweet perfume, which helps attract moths.
Moths hover when they feed, and their flowers have deep tube with open margins that
allow the hovering moths to reach the nectar with long proboscis. Butterflies are active
in the daytime and have good vision but a week sense of smell. Their flowers have
bright colors-even red because butterflies can see the colour red-but the flowers tend to
be odourless. Unable to hover, butterflies need a place to land. Flowers that are visited
by butterflies often have flat landing platforms. Composite flowers (composed of a
compact head of numerous individual flowers) are especially favoured by butterflies.
Each flower has a long, slender floral tube, accessible to the long, thin butterfly
proboscis.
Bird-and Bat- Pollinated Flowers

In North America, the most well-known bird pollinators are the hummingbirds. These
tiny animals have good eyesight but do not have a well-developed sense of smell. Like
moths, they hover when they feed. Typical flowers pollinated by hummingbirds are red,
with a slender floral tube and margins that are curved back and out of the way. And
although they produce copious amounts of nectar, the flowers have little odor. As a
hummingbirds feeds on nectar with its long, thin beak, its head comes into contact with
the stamens and pistil.

Bats are adapted to gathering food in various ways, including feeding on the
nectar and pollen of plants. Bats are nocturnal and have an acute sense of smell. Those
that are pollinators also have keen vision and a long, extensible, bristly tongue.
Typically, bat-pollinated flowers open only at night and are light-colored or white. They
have a strong, musty smell similar to the odor that bats produce to attract one another.
The flowers are generally large and sturdy and are able to hold up when a bat inserts
part of its head to reach nectar. While the bat is at the flower, its head is dusted with
pollen.

Seed dispersal

This reduces competition between the parent plant and the seeds. It reduces
overcrowding. It provides opportunities to spread the plant to new localities. Some
plants use the fruit to enable dispersal while other plants use the seed only. Can you
think of three examples each of plants that use fruit dispersal and seed dispersal?
There are at least four types of seed dispersal. These are wind dispersal, animal
dispersal, self- dispersal and water dispersal.

Type of dispersal

Water Dispersal

Fruits which float such as those of the water lily and the coconut palm are carried by
water.

Coconuts can travel for thousands of kilometres across seas and oceans.

The original coconut palms on South Sea islands grew from fruits which were carried
there from the mainland by ocean currents.

Mangroves in the swamp regions of countries such as Thailand are another example.

Explosions Dispersal

Some plants have pods that explode when ripe and shoot out the seeds.

Lupins, gorse and broom scatter their seeds in this way.

Pea and bean plants also keep their seeds in a pod. When the seeds are ripe and the
pod has dried, the pod bursts open and the peas and beans are scattered.

Animal Dispersal

Some plants have juicy fruit that animals like to eat.

The animal eats the fruit but only the juicy part is digested.

The stones and pips pass through the animal's digestive system and are excreted to
form new plants. This can be far away from the parent plant.

Blackberry, cherry and apple seeds are dispersed in this way.

Birds also like to eat fruit and they help to disperse seeds to other areas through their
droppings.

Mistletoe has sticky fruits which are attractive to birds. The sticky seeds stick to the
bird's beak. They then rub their beaks clean on the bark of trees. The sticky seeds are
left on the bark to grow into new mistletoe plants - mistletoe is a parasitic plant.
Squirrels collect nuts like acorns and bury them for winter food, but they often forget
where they have buried them and these grow into new trees.

Some fruits like that of the burdock plant have seeds with hooks.

These catch on the fur of animals and are carried away.

Wind Dispersal
Some seeds are carried to a new place by the wind. These seeds are very light.

The seeds of the orchid are almost as fine as dust.

Many have hairy growths which act like little parachutes and carry the seeds far away
from the parent plant.

The seeds of the dandelion are carried by the wind.

The seeds of the thistle are also carried away by the wind.

Both the dandelion and the thistle have hairy growths at the top of the seed to carry the
seeds far away from the parent plant.

These seeds are also very light in weight.

Have you ever heard the saying

"As light as a thistle down "?

Well this is where it comes from.

The fruits of the sycamore have winged seeds and these are also carried away by the
wind.

The wind causes the ripe fruits of the poppy to sway.

This causes the seeds to fall out.

The seeds are very light and are carried away on the wind.

Preparation of Plant Specimens for Deposit as Herbarium Vouchers

INTRODUCTION
A voucher herbarium specimen is a pressed plant sample deposited for future
reference. It supports research work and may be examined to verify the identity of the
specific plant used in a study. A voucher specimen must be deposited in a recognized
herbarium committed to long-term maintenance.

Why is voucher material needed? Plant classification is constantly changing. Shifts in

species alignments and groupings are made as new evidence comes to light.
Identifications are subject to change. Vouchers specimens help cross-reference these
changes to previous research.

PRESSING AND DRYING PLANT SPECIMENS

Specimens are pressed in a plant press, which consists of a wooden frame (for rigidity),
corrugated cardboard ventilators (to allow air to flow through the press), blotter paper (to
absorb moisture), and folded newspaper (to contain the plant material). The plant press
is tightened using straps with buckles or bolts with wing nuts. The objective of pressing
plants is to extract moisture in the shortest period of time, while preserving the
morphological integrity of the plant, and to yield material that can be readily mounted on
herbarium paper (an acid-free cardstock) for long-term storage.

In order to fit on a standard herbarium sheet, a plant specimen should be pressed flat to
no more than 11 X 16 inches. If the specimen will not fit those dimensions, it may be
folded or cut into sections. Multiples of smaller plants may be pressed together in order
to provide ample material for mounting and study. Small loose pieces, such as seeds,
may need to be placed in a small paper packet inside of the newspaper. Large fruits or
bulbs are often cut in half lengthwise or in slices prior to pressing. In order to insure
rapid and thorough drying, extremely succulent materials such as cactus stems may
need to be sliced open and some of the fleshy interior scraped out. Each specimen
should consist of a stem with attached leaves and, if at all possible, flowers and/or fruits.
The roots of herbaceous plants should also be included. In the case of very large trees,
shrubs, or vines, pieces should be selected to illustrate to the greatest extent possible
the overall characteristics of the plant and the range of variation in flowers, leaves, and
other structures. Each collection, i.e. gathering of a plant specimen, should be assigned
a collection number. Data for each collection should be entered in a field notebook (see
discussion of label data below). If ample material is available, a minimum of three
specimens should be pressed for each collection, especially if collecting in a region
where the flora is poorly known. This will help facilitate the identification of the plants
through the distribution of specimens to various herbaria and researchers. An ethical
collector will insure that his/her collecting activities do not pose a significant threat to the
survival of endangered species or habitats.

Care should be taken to make good specimens. Pressing material immediately upon
collection results in the best specimens. Samples that are allowed to wilt prior to
pressing will generally produce inferior specimens. Plants should be carefully arranged
as they are placed in the press to maximize preservation of diagnostic features. Leaves,
flowers, and fruits should be spread out so that they do not overlap and can be
observed from different perspectives. The collection number should be clearly written on
the outside of the newspaper containing each plant specimen. The plant press must be
kept tight; this prevents shrinkage and wrinkling of the plant material and yields
specimens that are easier to mount securely on herbarium paper. The pressed plants
must also be thoroughly dried prior to storage and mounting. Best results are obtained
with the use of an electric drier that holds the presses and provides steady bottom heat
between 95 and 113 (e.g., see Blanco et al., 2006). A low ambient humidity and good
airflow around and through the presses also insures rapid and thorough drying of plant
material. As the specimens dry, it may be necessary to further tighten the straps on the
press to minimize shrinkage and wrinkling. Rapid drying promotes the best retention of
plant color, but excessively high temperatures or long drying periods can result in
blackened, discolored, and brittle specimens.

Mounting and storage of specimens require a considerable financial commitment in the

form of archival materials, labor, and storage cabinets. Herbaria have the prerogative
not to accept specimens if the cost of labor/materials for processing is excessive or if
the quality of specimens or accompanying data is unsatisfactory. Due to differences in
mounting methodologies and materials, most herbaria prefer not to accept already
mounted specimens. Because plant classification is generally based on the morphology
of flowers and fruits, in most cases sterile (non-flowering or -fruiting) specimens will not
be accepted.

IDENTIFICATION OF PLANT SPECIMENS

The identification of plant specimens requires a considerable amount of time and effort.
It is important to find out what research is being or has been done on the flora of the
region where you are working. A thorough literature review and consultation with
herbarium personnel will give you a good basis for starting the identification process.

The identification of unknown plant material is accomplished with the use of

dichotomous keys; published plant descriptions, illustrations and photographs; and
comparison with properly identified herbarium specimens. A microscope is essential for
the observation of many diagnostic features.

Regulations pertaining to collecting plants vary from country to country and state to
state, so it is important for you to make official contacts well in advance. It is customary
and may be required to deposit one full set of specimens in a herbarium in the host
state or country. A local herbarium is the ideal place to begin your quest for
identifications, as its collection may be the most comprehensive for the region. It may be
possible to arrange to identify your plants and receive assistance from staff members at
this institution. But, one must realize that the identification of even relatively common
plants may be time-consuming. Most institutions run on tight budgets and do not have
staff available to assist or supervise visitors. Even if you are not able to identify your
plants to species, you may be able to roughly group them by family or genus. This will
allow you to seek experts in specific plant groups who may be willing to look at
specimens in their purview. Experts in the flora you are working with may be interested
in your collections and willing to give assistance. Your collections may, in fact, be
helpful to their projects.

When submitting a plant specimen for identification, it is critical that the sample includes
flowers and/or fruits and a portion of the stem with at least several leaves attached.
Information of the plant's growth habit, size, and the habitat where it is found (as well as
any other features of the plant that may not be apparent from the sample, such as plant
color or fragrance) often assist in the identification process. When submitting photos for
identification include a general include full-frame close-ups of foliage as well as flowers
or fruits. Be sure each photo includes a scale in the form of a ruler or coin. The photos
should be accompanied by the same descriptive information provided with a pressed
plant sample.

HERBARIUM SPECIMEN LABELS

A plant specimen is incomplete without label data. Label data is a form of field data and
must be accurate. The following are important elements:

Scientific name: genus, species, authority, infraspecific information

Determiner of the scientific name: the name of the person who identified the plant

Detailed location; the location is used by researchers on several levels:

for general mapping to region, county or province;

for detailed mapping, as in GIS computer applications;

to physically locate the plant(s) in order to obtain further research material. The location
should consist of: country, state or province, county or municipality and a description of
the location in reference to roads, road junctions, mile markers and distances from cities
and/or towns. Latitude and longitude, section, township and range, and elevation may
also be helpful. A location taken with a Global Positioning System (GPS) is a desirable
complement to the locality description. GPS coordinates MUST include a datum!

Habitat: the type of plant community where the plant is growing and, if known, other
plants growing in association

Plant habit: describes the form of the plant (tree, shrub, vine, herb) and its height.
Examples: tree, ca. 50 ft. tall. sprawling herb

Frequency: is the plant rare, occasional, frequent or common?

Plant description: describe characteristics of the plant which may be lost upon drying,
such as flower/fruit color and fragrance, leaf orientation and aroma

Collector name: it is recommended that the collector be consistent and use their full first
name, middle initial (or full name) and full last name.

Other collectors (*see label examples note below) present with the collector

Collection number: a sequential straightforward numbering system (1,2, 3, ...) is

preferable.

Date of collection: a format with the month spelled out or abbreviated and 4 digit year
will prevent confusion. E.g., 3 May 2003, not 3/5/03 or 5/3/03.

MOUNTING HERBARIUM SPECIMENS

Mounting is the process of affixing a dried pressed plant and its label to a sheet of
heavy paper. This provides physical support that allows the specimen to be handled
and stored with a minimum of damage.

Prior to attachment, the specimen and its label are laid out on the paper to allow
maximum observation of diagnostic (usually reproductive) features as well as the range
of variation in vegetative structures, including both sides of the leaves. Plants are
generally positioned in a life-like arrangement (that is, with roots or lower stem toward
the bottom of the sheet and flowers toward the top). When laying out the plant, be sure
to leave space on the sheet for the specimen label, annotation labels, and institutional
accession seal. A paper envelope or packet should also be attached to the sheet to
contain any fragments of the specimen that break off over time. Once the optimum
arrangement of the specimen has been determined, it is attached to the sheet using a
combination of glue and strips of gummed linen cloth tape. Glue is used sparingly to
attach the larger portions of the plant, such as stems, large leaves, and fruits. Gummed
linen mounting strips are then applied to reinforce portions of the plant that might be
torn loose as the specimen is used. Large or bulky items may need to be sewn onto the
sheet with a sturdy linen thread. The objective is to secure the specimen firmly to the
mounting paper, while leaving some pieces of the plant loose enough to be removed if
necessary. Excessive applications of glue that embed flowers and seeds on the sheet
may make it impossible to observe diagnostic features or to remove samples, thus
rendering the specimen useless for scientific study. The best way to learn proper
mounting procedures is through hands-on training and practice with a variety of plant
specimens. Because herbarium specimens are intended for long-term study and
storage, it is critical that that all supplies used for mounting be both durable and
archival. Archival denotes materials that are free of acids and other compounds that
may cause them or the specimen to degrade or discolor over time. Consequently, the
mounting paper, label paper, packet paper, ink, glue, mounting strips, and storage
folders should all be acid free and designed for long-term stability.

Reflection

After I have completed the task given, I found that I have learnt many things
about plants, from basic plant cells, reproduction, pollination, seed dispersal, seed
germination and its stem and roots structure. Due to doing this task, I focused mainly on
plants reproduction, pollination seed dispersal and the most important is the process to
do the herbarium.

At the same time as I was doing this task, I found some strength in myself. My
strength is success in searching for relevant material concerning this task. I found those
materials and pictures of flowers by surf the internet. I also for materials my STPM
reference books and also some notes from the lecturers by that given from last time
semester one to semester three course. Moreover, plants I preserved are around my
hostel. I have also taken some pictures of plants showing asexual reproduction from the
market. Before I left for B.I.G camp, I checked my whole preserved plant, and change
the new newspaper to make the plants in good condition.

I also found some weakness in myself. One of them is that I cannot find some
scientific names of certain plants and how they reproduce. After putting some effort into
searching, I still can’t find it.

As a conclusion, if I have a chance to redo the task given, I’ll borrow more book
from library early than other people because sometime the book I need has been
borrow by other person and put more effort into doing this task to finding more detail
about plants reproduction, pollinating agents and seed dispersal.