Lecture - 1

Lecture 1: Surveying classification - principles - errors - scope of

surveying in forestry
Definition
Surveying
Surveying is the art and science of determining the relative position of various points
or station on the surface of the earth by measuring the horizontal distance, angles and
taking details of these points and by preparing a map or plan to any suitable scale. Thus, in
this discipline, the measurements are taken only in the horizontal plane.
Levelling
Levelling is the art of determining the relative vertical distances of different points on
the earth surface. Thus, in this discipline, the measurements are taken only in the vertical
plane.
Object of surveying
The aim of surveying is to prepare a map or plan to show the relative positions of
the objects on the surface of the earth. The map or plan is drawn to some suitable scale. It
shows the natural features of a country, such as towns, villages, roads, railways, rivers etc.
Maps may also include details of different engineering features such as building, road,
railways, dams, canals etc.
Uses of surveying
1. To prepare a topographical map which shows hills, valleys, rivers, forests, villages,
towns, forest etc. of a country.
2. To prepare a cadastral map which shows the boundaries of fields, plots, houses, and
other properties.
3. To prepare an engineering map which shows the positions of engineering works such
as building, roads, railways, dams, canals etc.
4. To prepare a contour map to know the topography of the area to find out the
possible site for roads, railways, bridges etc.
5. To prepare a military map showing the road and railway communications with
different parts of a country.
6. To prepare a geological map showing areas including underground resources.
7. To prepare an archaeological map including places where ancient relies exist.

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Classification of surveying
A. Primary classification
Surveying is primarily classified as
1. Plane surveying
2. Geodetic surveying
1. Plane surveying
We know that the shape of the earth is a globe or spherical. Thus, the surface is
obviously curved. But in plane surveying the earth surface is considered as a plane surface.
The curvature of earth surface is ignored. In such surveying, a line joining any two points is
considered to be straight. The triangle formed by any three points is considered as a plane
triangle. The angle of triangle is considered as plane angle. Plane surveying is conducted
by state agencies like the irrigation department, railway department, etc. plane surveying is
carried out for a small area of less than 250 km2.
2. Geodetic surveying
The earth surface is considered as a curved surface. The curvature of earth surface
is taken in account. The line joining any two points is considered to be curve. The triangle
formed by any three points is considered as a spherical triangle. The angle of triangle is
considered as spherical angle. Geodetic surveying is conducted by the survey of India
department, and is carried out for a large area of greater than 250 km2.
B. Secondary classification
Classification based on Instrument
1. Chain Survey: This is the simplest type of surveying in which only linear
measurements are made with a chain or a tape.
2. Compass Survey: In compass survey, the angles are measured with the help of a
magnetic compass.
3. Chain and Compass survey: In this survey linear measurements are made with a chain
or a tape and angular measurements with a compass.
4. Plane table Survey: It is graphical method of surveying in which field works and
plotting both are done simultaneously.
5. Theodolite Survey: In theodolite survey, the horizontal angles are measured with a
theodolite more precisely than compass and the linear measurements are made with
a chain or a tape.
6. Tacheometry Survey: A special type of theodolite known as tacheometer is used to
determine horizontal and vertical distance indirectly.

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7. Levelling Survey: This type of survey is used to determine the vertical distances
indirectly.
EDM Survey: In this type of survey, all measurements are made with the help of EDM
instrument.
Classification based on Methods
1. Triangulation: Triangulation is a basic method of surveying. When the area to be
survey is large, triangulation is adopted.
2. Traversing: A traverse is a circuit of survey lines. It may be open or closed. When the
linear measurements are done with a chain and a tape and the directions or horizontal
angles are measured with a compass or a theodolite respectively, the survey is called
traversing.
Classification based on Purposes
1. Geological Survey: In this both surface and subsurface surveying are conducted to
locate different minerals and rocks.
2. Mine Survey: Mine survey include both surface and underground surveys. It is
conducted for the exploration of mineral deposits and to guide tunneling and other
operations associated with mining.
3. Archaeological Survey: It is conducted to locate relics of antiquity, civilization,
kingdoms, forts, temples, etc.
4. Military Survey: It has a very important and critical application in the military. Aerial
surveys are conducted for this purpose.
Classification based on Nature of Field
1. Land Survey: Land survey is done on land to prepare plans and maps of a given area.
2. Hydrographic Survey: This survey is conducted on or near the body of water such as
lake, river, coastal area.
3. Astronomic Survey: The surveys are conducted for the determination of latitudes,
longitudes, azimuths, local time, etc.
4. Aerial Survey: An aerial survey is conducted from aircraft. Aerial cameras take
photographs of the surface of the earth in overlapping strips of land.
General principle of surveying
The general principles of surveying are given below:
To work from the whole to the part
To locate a new station by at least two measurement (linear or angular) from fixed
reference points.

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1. According to the first principle, the whole area is first enclosed by main stations (i.e.
controlling stations) and main survey lines (i.e. controlling lines). The area is divided
into a number of parts by forming well-conditioned triangles. A nearly equilateral
triangle is considered the best well-conditioned triangle. The main survey lines are
measured very accurately with a standard chain. Then the sides of the triangles are
measured. The purpose of this process of working is to prevent accumulation of error.
During this procedure, if there is any error in the measurement of any side of a
triangle then it will not affect the whole work. The errors can always be detected and
eliminated.
But, if the reverse process (i.e. from the part to the whole) is followed then the minor
errors in the measurement will be magnified in the process of expansion and a stage
will come when these errors will become absolutely uncontrollable.
2. According to the second principle, the new stations should always be fixed by at least
two measurements (linear or angular) from fixed reference points. Linear
measurements refer to the magnetic bearing or horizontal angle taken by a prismatic
compass or theodolite. In chain surveying, the positions of main stations and
directions of main survey lines are fixed by tie lines and check lines.
Surveying Errors
Errors in surveying may arise from three main sources:
1. Instrumental: Surveying error may arise due to imperfection or faulty adjustment of the
instrument with which measurement is being taken. For example, a tape may be too long or
an angle measuring instrument may be out of adjustment. Such errors are known as
instrumental errors.
2. Personal: Error may also arise due to want of perfection of human sight in observing
and of touch in manipulating instruments. For example, an error may be there in taking the
level reading or reading and angle on the circle of a theodolite. Such errors are known as
personal errors.
3. Natural: Error in surveying may also be due to variations in natural phenomena such as
temperature, humidity, gravity, wind, refraction and magnetic declination. If they are not
properly observed while taking measurements, the results will be incorrect. For example, a
tape may be 20 meters at 200C but its length will change if the field temperature is different.

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Types of Surveying Errors

Ordinary errors in surveying met with in all classes of survey work may be classified as:
1. Mistakes
2. Accidental errors
3. Systematic or cumulative errors
4. Compensating errors
1. Mistakes: Mistakes are errors which arise from inattention, inexperience, carelessness
and poor judgment or confusion in the mind of the observer. They do not follow any
mathematical rule (law of probability) and may be large or small, positive or negative. They
cannot be measured. However, they can be detected by repeating the whole operation. If a
mistake is undetected, it produces a serious effect upon the final result. Hence, every value
to be recorded in the field must be checked by some independent field observation. The
following are the examples of mistakes:
Erroneous recording, e.g. writing 69 in place of 96
Counting 8 for 3
Forgetting once chain length
Making mistakes in using a calculator
2. Accidental Errors: Surveying errors can occur due to unavoidable circumstances like
variations in atmospheric conditions which are entirely beyond the control of the observer.
Errors in surveying due to imperfection in measuring instruments and even imperfection of
eyesight fall in this category. They may be positive and may change sign. They cannot be
accounted for.
3. Systematic or Cumulative Errors: A systematic or cumulative error is an error that,
under the same conditions, will always be of the same size and sign. A systematic error
always follows some definite mathematical or physical law and correction can be determined
and applied. Such errors are of constant character and are regarded as positive or negative
according as they make the result great or small. Their effect is, therefore, cumulative. For
example, if a tape is P cm short and if it is stretched N times, the total error in the
measurement of the length will be PN cm.
The systematic errors may arise due to (i) variations of temperature, humidity,
pressure, current velocity, curvature, refraction, etc. and (ii) faulty setting or improper
leveling of any instrument and personal vision of an individual. The following are the
examples:
Faulty alignment of a line
An instrument is not leveled properly

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An instrument is not adjusted properly

If undetected, systematic errors are very serious. Therefore, (1) all surveying equipment
must be designed and used so that, whenever possible, systematic errors will be
automatically eliminated, and (2) all systematic errors that cannot be surely eliminated by
this means must be evaluated and their relationship to the conditions that cause them must
be determined.
4. Compensating Errors: This type or surveying error tends to occur in both directions,
i.e. the error may sometimes tend to be positive and sometimes negative thereby
compensating each other. They tend sometimes in on direction and sometimes in the other,
i.e. they are equally likely to make the apparent result large or small. The following are a
few examples:
The discrepancy between chain and tape measurements when both are used simultaneously
Inaccuracy in marking chain lengths on the ground
Inaccurate centering
Inaccurate bisection of an object
They obey the laws of chance and therefore, must be handled according to the
mathematical laws of probability.
Scope of surveying in forestry.
1. Location of forests, their distribution and area: A map of forests in general and by
functional classification in particular is required. In the productive forests, maps of
forest areas by forest types, by productivity of sites and by maturity classes, etc are
necessary to assess the yield of forests.
2. Growing stock in the production forests: Inventory of trees by species and by
diameter classes is required. These aids in estimating volume by location so that
management plans could be drawn or industrial plan may be prepared.
3. Information about various factors affecting production: The information on site,
diameter and height, increment, age, timber quality and also about areas where new
forests could be raised is necessary.
4. Forest cover mapping: It is carried out either by visual interpretation or digital
interpretation method. In India Forest Survey of India monitors and map countrys
forest cover on biennial basis. The forest vegetation is further categorized into dense
forest, open forest, mangrove, scrub etc. On the basis of use of satellite data
different images are taken and all images are mosaiced and vegetation map at
different level is prepared.
5. Assessment of change in forest cover

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6. Forest density determination

7. Detection of density change
8. Forest fire mapping
9. Habitat evaluation
10. Land degradation mapping
11. Soil resource mapping and land use cover
12. Watershed management
13. It helps in laying out forest roads and other engineering works.
14. Soil resource mapping and land use cover

FSI 201 Forest Surveying (1+1)