Acoustic waves

The propagation of mechanical perturbation gives rise to acoustic waves. The mediums elastic
properties cause the local compressions and rarefactions to be passed along the medium. The
perturbation will propagate away from its source. The velocity is the propagation rate of this
perturbation.

Fig: Sound propagation in a wave-guide.

The observation locations are related to the observation times as follows

xn xn-1 = c (tn tn-1), n=1,2, 3...
where x-observation location, t-observation time.

An elastic material is required for the acoustic wave to propagate, since it is mechanical wave.
The mechanical properties of the medium determine the propagation speed of acoustic waves.
The acoustic wave is characterized by propagation speed and acoustic pressure (average
hydrostatic pressure). Hydrophones are marine equivalents of microphones and are essentially
pressure transducers. In the narrow frequency band under quiet conditions, the background
pressure noise can be in tens of micro Pascal (Pa), whereas the higher power sources produce a
pressure noise, as high as 1012 Pa.

The speed of propagation of acoustic wave in sea water is close to 1500m/s, and the density of
sea water is around 1030 kg m-3. In the marine sediments, speed is in the range of 1500m/s to
2000m/s and the density in the range of 1200 kg m-3 to 2000 kg m-3.

After understanding these basics about the sound propagation, it is imperative to gain insight
about the acoustic sound speed profile in the sea, to understand different noises.

Speed Profiles
Fig: Deep and shallow water sound profiles.
Bathythermographs (BT) or expendable thermographs are often used to measure sound speed
profiles. The calculation of speed of sound involves assuming a value for salinity of water and
the mapping of depth to a pressure value. Modern methods also account for conductivity giving
accurate estimate of salinity. The speed of sound increases with temperature, depth, salinity. The
suns energy is almost absorbed completely by the first 20 meters of water from the surface. Sea
waves cause mixing (frequency translation) and this energy from waves is distributed
downwards. An isothermal layer called the mixed layer or surface duct is created if the height of
the wave is significant. This layer tends to trap the acoustic waves. Below this layer is the
thermocline region where the temperature declines steadily. Main and seasonal thermoclines are
the two sub-regions in this region. The main thermocline remains almost unchanged annually,
whereas the seasonal thermoclines vary from month to month significantly. The thermocline
begins below the surface layer and extends down to a few kilometers. The above figure shows
deep and shallow water sound profiles. The upper portion of the deep sound speed profile is
lower in the winter and moves higher in the summer due to the temperature change. 90% of
oceans water is below thermocline. [textbook] The bottom ocean temperature is between 0 to 30
Celsius. Ocean water freezes at -1.940 C assuming average salinity of 35 parts per thousand
(ppt). To get accurate estimates of various critical parameters of the oceans water, there are
several programs designed to

1. Obtain and regulate input data of various types including satellite remote sensed
information.
2. Use satellite data to improve meteorological temperature and salinity data.
3. Combine in situ measurements with a primary guess field to produce a finest guess of the
current conditions in the ocean.
4. Provide a makeshift prediction of the ocean, including currents and waves.

Frequency
Acoustic signals are not instantaneous perturbations, but maintained vibrations, characterized by
a frequency. The elasticity modulus is related to pressure and volume variations as
1 -1
= [ /]

The main constraints on the frequencies usable for a particular application are:
the attenuation of sound waves in water, restricting the maximum usable range;
for a given transmitted power, the size of the sound sources increases with frequency;
 the three-dimensional selectivity related to the directivity of the acoustic sources and
receivers, refining (for a given transducer size) as frequency increases;
the acoustic reaction of the target, depending on frequency- a target will reflect less
energy as its dimensions are small compared to the acoustic wavelength.