EPRI Field Guide For Boiler Tube Failures

ELECTRIC POWER
RESEARCH INSTITUTE
Field Guide: Boiler Tube Failure

1017471
Field Guide: Boiler Tube Failure
1017471
Final Report, December 2009
EPRI Project Managers

B. Carson
K. Coleman
ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE
3420 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304-1338 PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94303-0813 USA
800.313.3774 650.855.2121 askepri@epri.com www.epri.com
Product Description Applications, Value, and Use
Tube failures occur in new and old units; in units that cycle and those that
In conventional and combined-cycle plants, boiler tube failures (BTFs) have
operate under baseload conditions; in supercritical, once-through, and
been the main availability problem for as long as reliable statistics have
drum units; and in units burning every sort of combustible material. The
been kept for each generating source. The three volumes of the Electric
information and comprehensive approach presented will help organizations
Power Research Institute (EPRI) report Boiler and Heat Recovery Steam
to approach and achieve world-class performance.
Generator Tube Failures: Theory and Practice (1012757) present an in-
depth discussion of the various BTF and degradation mechanisms, providing EPRI Perspective
plant owners and operators with the technical basis to address tube failures Worldwide, EPRIs comprehensive BTF reduction program, integrated with the
and create permanent solutions. This field guide is based on the content cycle chemistry improvement program, has been applied to more than 70
of Boiler and Heat Recovery Steam Generator Tube Failures: Theory and organizations since 1977. A similar program was initiated in 2002 to reduce
Practice. heat recovery steam generator tube failures. This field guide makes the most
essential practical information learned from these two programs available to
Results and Findings plant owners and operators in the form of a convenient pocket reference.
Tube failures emanate from poor initial design, poor operation and maintenance,
harsh fireside and cycle chemistry environments, and lack of management Approach
support for comprehensive reduction programs. A total of 35 tube failure This field guide was developed from the content of Boiler and Heat
mechanisms affecting conventional fossil plants are described in this field guide. Recovery Steam Generator Tube Failures: Theory and Practice (1012757).
Challenges and Objectives Keywords
Most BTFs have been repeat failures, indicating that the return to service of a Contributing causes
unit has historically been more important than understanding the failure. This Failures
field guide provides guidance on identifying and addressing the mechanism Fossil plants
and contributing causes of each tube failure to help eliminate repeat failures. Tubes
vii
Acknowledgments Individual Organization Country
R. Anderson Competitive Power U.S.A.
The technical content of this field guide was obtained in its entirety from D. Aspden Consultant South Africa
Boiler and Heat Recovery Steam Generator Tube Failures: Theory and W. Bakker Consultant U.S.A.
Practice, Volume 1, Fundamentals, Volume 2, Water Touched Tubes, and M. Ball Consultant U.K.
Volume 3, Steam Touched Tubes (EPRI report 1012757). The technical staff D. Blood E-ON UK U.K.
at Altran Solutions worked to reorganize the data in these three volumes K. Coleman EPRI U.S.A.
and present it in a compact and practical format that would be convenient J. Drennen Drennen Engineering U.S.A.
for field use. D. Gandy EPRI U.S.A.
Most important, this field guide would not be possible without the authors, A. Howell Xcel Energy U.S.A.
editors, and technical contributors of EPRI report 1012757. Their names D. Hubbard AEP U.S.A.
are listed as presented in the original document. P. James E-ON UK U.K.
R. Lynch Detroit Edison U.S.A.
D. OConnor EPRI U.S.A.
J. Parker Structural Integrity Canada
S. Paterson Aptech Engineering Services U.S.A.
K. Shields EPRI U.S.A.
J. Stallings EPRI U.S.A.
R. Tilley EPRI U.S.A.
S. Walker EPRI U.S.A.
I. Wright Oak Ridge National Laboratory U.S.A.
viii
Contents
1. Introduction....................................................................... 1 4. Water-Touched Tubes........................................................... 9
Background............................................................................ 2 Screening Table for Water-Touched Boiler Tube
Purpose................................................................................. 2 Failures (Chapter 2).......................................................... 10
Scope.................................................................................... 2 Corrosion Fatigue (Chapter 19).............................................. 17
Fly Ash Erosion (Chapter 21).................................................. 26
2. Fundamentals of Field Inspection.......................................... 3 Hydrogen Damage (Chapter 22)............................................ 35
Safety.................................................................................... 4 Acid Phosphate Corrosion (Chapter 23)................................... 45
Tools...................................................................................... 4 Caustic Gouging (Chapter 24)............................................... 54
Foreign Material Exclusion....................................................... 5 Waterwall Fireside Corrosion (Chapter 25).............................. 64
Where to Look........................................................................ 5 Thermal Fatigue in Waterwalls (Chapter 26)............................ 77
What to Look for..................................................................... 5 Thermal Fatigue of Economizer Header Tubes (Chapter 27)....... 87
Documentation........................................................................ 6 Thermal-Mechanical and Vibration-Induced Fatigue in
Trending................................................................................ 6 Water-Touched Tubes (Chapter 28)..................................... 90
Just Look Around..................................................................... 6 Thermal Fatigue Caused by Water Blowing (Chapter 29)........... 93
Flow-Accelerated Corrosion in Economizer Inlet Header
Tubing (Chapter 32)......................................................... 96
3. Tube Failure Mechanisms..................................................... 7
Sootblower Erosion in Water-Touched Tubes (Chapter 33)........ 103
Short-Term Overheating in Waterwall Or Evaporator
Tubing (Chapter 34)....................................................... 105
ix
Low Temperature Creep Cracking (Chapter 35)...................... 109 Thermal-Mechanical and Vibration-Induced Fatigue in
Chemical Cleaning Damage: Waterwalls (Chapter 36)........... 112 Steam-Touched Tubes (Chapter 52)................................... 180
Pitting in Water-Touched Tubes (Chapter 37)........................... 116 Rubbing/Fretting (Chapter 57)............................................. 184
Coal Particulate Erosion (Chapter 38).................................... 119 Pitting in Steam-Touched Tubes (Chapter 58)........................... 186
Falling Slag (Chapter 40)..................................................... 121 Graphitization (Chapter 59)................................................. 188
Acid Dewpoint Corrosion (Chapter 41).................................. 124 Chemical Cleaning Damage in SH/RH Tubes (Chapter 60)...... 191
Maintenance Damage (Chapter 61)...................................... 193
5. Steam-Touched Tubes.............................................. 127 Material and Manufacturing Flaws (Chapter 62)..................... 194
Welding Defects (Chapter 63).............................................. 196
Screening Table for Steam-Touched Boiler Failures BTF Issues in Bubbling Bed FBCs (Chapter 64)........................ 199
(Chapter 2)................................................................... 128 BTF Issues in Circulating Bed FBCs (Chapter 65)..................... 203
Longterm Overheating/Creep in SH/RH Tubes (Chapter 44).... 134 BTF Issues in Waste-To-Energy Units (Chapter 66).................... 206
Fireside Corrosion in SH/RH Tubes (Chapter 45).................... 144
SH/RH Fireside Corrosion (Chapter 46)................................. 153
Dissimilar Metal Weld Failures (Chapter 47)........................... 159
Short-Term Overheating in SH/RH Tubing (Chapter 48)........... 165
Stress Corrosion Cracking in Steam-Touched Tubes
(Chapter 49)................................................................. 171
Sootblower Erosion in SH/RH Tubes (Chapter 50)................... 176
Explosive Cleaning Damage in SH/RH (Chapter 51)............... 178
x
1. Introduction
1
1. INTRODUCTION
Introduction
Background In no case should the information presented in this field guide be used to the
exclusion of established and applicable codes, standards, plant procedures,
Relatively simple materials are designed and constructed to function and criteria. This includes the notification of responsible personnel at your
effectively as boiler tubes under high temperature and high pressure plant for investigation of degradation that may be noted.
conditions. The tubes are subject to potential degradation by a variety or
mechanical and thermal stresses and potential environmental attack on both
the fluid- and fire-/gas-side of the tube.
Purpose
The purpose of this field guide is to provide a practical and convenient
If there are no breakdowns from the original design conditions, water- presentation of information on the degradation mechanisms producing
touched tubes such as waterwall and economizer tubes are designed for BTFs, contributing causes of the degradation, appropriate mitigating actions
and should have essentially infinite life. The case for steam-touched tubes to remove or reduce the effect of the contributing causes, and possible
such as superheater (SH)and reheater (RH) tubes is somewhat different. ramifications and implications of the degradation or failure on other parts
These tubes are affected by the inevitability of creep-limited lifetime, of the unit.
although lifetimes in excess of 200,000 operating hours are achievable.
Unfortunately, boiler tube failures (BTFs) and cycle chemistry corrosion and Scope
deposition problems in fossil steam plants remain significant and pervasive, This field guide addresses water-touched and steam-touched tubes in
leading causes of availability and performance losses worldwide. conventional boilers. It presents information that can be used to implement
This field guide provides a description of the mechanism producing the the following three-step approach to reducing tube failures:
failure, identifies the contributing causes of the degradation, presents Understand the failure.
immediate actions that can be taken to remove or reduce the effect of
the contributing causes, and addresses the potential ramifications or Identify the contributing causes.
implications to other parts of the boiler unit. Develop long-term mitigating actions or solutions.
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2. Fundamentals of Field Inspection
2. FUNDAMENTALS OF 3
FIELD INSPECTION
Fundamentals of Field Inspection
Boiler tubes are normally inspected on a routine basis during scheduled Make others aware of your intents and whereabouts. Check in with the
maintenance outages and overhauls. Less frequently, they are scrutinized control room as required.
when the plant is forced to shut down due to suspected component Work in teamshave a work buddy or assistant.
failure or degraded performance (catastrophic failures result in a level of
Follow confined space protocols for required attendants, ventilation, air
examination beyond the scope of this field guide).
quality, and egress.
In some cases, inspections may be constrained by schedule. You may Reconnoiter the area in which you will be working for physical hazards
be given a limited time window in which to complete your inspection. To (e.g., energized equipment and shock hazards, hot equipment or
make the most effective use of your time, review equipment drawings and structures, projecting equipment or structures that you might bump into,
documents, previous inspection reports, work orders, and other boiler operating equipment, potential fall or trip locations).
history data prior to the inspection. In addition, there may be potential
hazards to deal with, especially when working in a confined space. Pre-job Use proper climbing equipment (ladders and scaffolds) and safety harnesses.
briefings are useful in ensuring effective and safe inspections. Tools
Safety Effective and timely inspections require proper tools. Make sure you have
everything you need before starting your walkdown. The following is a list
Typically, tube inspections are conducted when the boiler is shutdown and of tools and equipment to be considered:
cooled. However, safety is still a paramount consideration. Obey your
respective plant safety rules and procedures. Remember that in the field, Bright flashlight or other light source. Some inspectors combine their use
so much of your safety depends on awareness of your environment and with helmet-mounted lights.
common sense. Use both. Comply with the following safety rules: Camera. LCD cameras with telephoto capabilities are ideal for this use.
Wear proper personal protective equipment (PPEs)clothing, hard hats, gloves, Note that most of your photos will require the use of a flashmake sure
safety boots, eye protection, and filtration masks or breathing equipment. your batteries are charged and bring extra batteries if necessary.
Hearing protection may be necessary even though the plant is down. Inspection mirrortelescoping handles and pivots are preferred.
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Material sampling toolsscraper, pocket knife, screwdriver, putty knife, Where to Look
along with bags or containers.
During operation, inspections are typically limited to external areas and review
Tape measure and magnetic ruler for photo scales.
of operational data including temperatures, flows, and water levels. External
Magnets for distinguishing between carbon steel and stainless steel. inspections should include, among others, piping arrangements and drains,
Hammer. supports, boiler walls, access ports, and instrumentation lines. Inspections
Marking pen (e.g., Sharpies, paint pensfollow plant rules for their use on during a shutdown should include all areas of the boiler or HRSG including,
equipment). Marking pens can also be used to label sample bags or containers. among others, crawl spaces, penthouses, access lanes, fire boxes, drums,
headers, tubes, piping, supports, hangers, expansion joints, and ducting.
Small level and plumb bob.
Small clipboard or field bookdont forget your pen. What to Look for
Audio recording device (e.g., digital voice recorder or microcassette recorder) optional. In inspecting boiler or HRSG interiors for tube degradation, you should look
Video recorder. for indicators of the following:
Foreign Material Exclusion Plugging
Foreign materials left in the boilers by careless inspectors have the potential Pitting
to cause more damage faster than degradation itself. Be careful not to lose Leaks
equipment that could plug or otherwise damage components. Also remember Wastage
that finding and extracting dropped items can be costly and time-consuming. Cracks
Bring only the tools that are necessary into the immediate inspection area. Blisters and bulges
Secure loose items. Use lanyards when necessary. Corrosion
Make sure equipment caps (e.g., lens caps, battery covers) are secured. Overheating
Conduct pre- and post-inspection inventories of equipment. Misalignment or displacement (out of position)
2. FUNDAMENTALS OF 5
FIELD INSPECTION
Fundamentals of Field Inspection
Documentation Sketches that map the location of degradation and degradation indications
Written notes that describe the general condition, observed degradation
All noteworthy degradation or indications of degradation should be quantified
indications, and specific degradation
and mapped. Where photographic or videotape documentation is used, care
should be taken to include a location reference. A tape measure or magnetic ruler Trending
should be included in the visual record for comparison to illustrate relative size.
Trending of quantitative and qualitative data is a powerful tool in predicting
Locations of cracks and crack tips may be noted with a marking pen in
degradation rates and component service life. It is also very important in
order to be more visible in the photograph.
planning repairs, maintenance, and mitigation. Ensure that your inspection
Where small samples have been obtained for metallurgical or chemical and resulting documentation revisits previously inspected areas in order to
analysis, record the locations from where the samples were obtained ascertain degradation rates.
and make sure there is a unique corresponding identifier on the sample
container. Photograph the location from which the sample was obtained. Just Look Around
Failed headers or tube sections that have been replaced should be treated While the emphasis of the inspections is on boiler or HRSG tube degradation, it always
as documentation. Do not throw them away summarily! They provide the helps to look around for indications of other problems with the boiler. For example:
best evidence of the cause of failure or mechanism of degradation.
Records should include the following: Damaged or missing baffles
Areas of flame impingement
Measurements such as size, location, and population of cracks, pits,
blisters, or other indications of material degradation Damaged piping penetration seals
Color photographs or videotape of the general condition, observed Degraded condition of access door
degradation indications, and specific degradation Damaged or bent pipe supports and hangers
Cracked or spalling concrete support
Missing bolts, nuts, washers
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3. Tube Failure Mechanisms
3. TUBE FAILURE MECHANISMS 7

Tube Failure Mechanisms
Tube failures are produced by a number of degradation mechanisms. The occurrence of one mechanism rather than another is dependent upon a variety
of factors ranging from tube material to operating conditions to time in service. Understanding the degradation mechanism producing a tube failure,
recognizing the contributing causes of the degradation, and implementing appropriate mitigating actions are key steps to developing an effective failure
reduction program.
The information provided in the following sections of the field guide is grouped by water-touched and steam-touched tubes and then organized by the
degradation mechanism within each group. Each degradation mechanism section is organized as follows:
Description of the degradation mechanism supplemented with photographs and/or sketches to illustrate the mechanism
Identification of the contributing causes of the degradation
Discussion of mitigating actions that can be taken to remove or reduce the effect of the contributing causes
Identification of potential ramifications and implications on other unit components
When appropriate, tables and charts are used to present the information.
Chapter numbers provided at the beginning of the description of each degradation mechanism refer to the corresponding chapter in EPRI report 1012757.
The user of this guide is encouraged to review the referenced chapter for additional detailed information.
Various citations are made in this field guide, typically in figure captions, to a reference source. Please refer to the References section in the corresponding
chapter of EPRI report 1012757 for the specifc source reference indicated in the respective citation.
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4. Water-Touched Tubes
4. WATER-TOUCHED TUBES 9
Water-Touched Tubes
Screening Table for Water-Touched Boiler Tube Failures (Chapter 2)

The following table provides information that can be used to perfrom an initial screening of a boiler tube failure to identify a likely degradation mechanism
that may have contributed to the failure. The table also includes a reference to the applicable chapter in EPRI report 1012757 for more information on the
respective degradation mechanism.
Table 2-1
Screening Table for Water-Touched Boiler Tube Failures
Typical Fracture Other Likely Macroscopic and Typical Locations Possible Chapter in
Surface Appearance Metallographic Features Mechanism Volume 2
Thick-Edged Fracture
Surface
Thick-edged or large window Multi-array, multiple, transgranular cracks that Near attachments, particularly where high restraint Corrosion Fatigue 19
blowout (pinhole leak or initiate on the inside of the tube; cracks often stresses can develop.
circular cracking is also associated with corrosion pits or other surface Near or associated with bends,particularly neutral
possible) discontinuities. axis.
Generally initiates on cold side of the tube, but can
be fireside.
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Table 2-1 (continued)
Thick-edged, leak or window Internal damage: gouging, wall thinning; tube High heat flux areas; hot side of tube; horizontal or Hydrogen Damage 22
blowout deposits. inclined tubing; pad welds; locations with local flow
disruptions such as upstream of weld, backing ring, or
other discontinuities.
Thick-edged Multiple, parallel cracks on the outside tube Maximum heat flux locations; fireside of waterwall Waterwall Thermal Fatigue 26
surface or on membrane; sharp, V-shaped tubing or membranes between tubes Cracking
oxide coated cracks; wall thinning from external
surface when found with fireside corrosion. Can
occur on weld overlays.
Thick-edged, leak or crack First sign as pinhole leak at toe of stub weld; Economizer inlet header stub tubes nearest the Thermal Fatigue in 27
multiple, longitudinal, transgranular cracks; feedwater inlet. Economizer Inlet Headers
borehole cracking.
Water-Touched Tubes

Thick-edged Outside surface initiated, intergranular crack Predominant in tube bends, particularly at intrados on Low Temperature Creep 35
growth with significant microfissuring aligned outside surface, and other locations subject to high Cracking
parallel with the main crack and significant residual, forming, or service stresses.
secondary cracking; evidence of grain
boundary creep cavitation and creep voids.
Thick-edged Transgranular cracking, OD-initiated and Near attachments, particularly solid or jammed sliding Thermal-Mechanical Fatigue 28
associated with tubing (at tube bends - attachments; at bends in tubing.
longitudinal or attachments - transverse) or
headers (particularly at the ends).
Thick-edged Damage to outside tube surface - multiple, Waterwalls cleaned with water blowers (lances or Water Blower 29
closely spaced circumferential cracks, although cannons). Thermal Fatigue
longitudinal cracks may also form; crazing
pattern; no wastage.
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Thin-Edged
Fracture Surface
Thin-edged, longitudinal, Polishing of tube outside surface; very localized Near side and rear walls; near economizer banks; near Fly Ash Erosion 21
cod-or fish-mouth damage, wastage flats. plugged or fouled passages; where previous baffles have
been installed; driven by high local velocities.
Thin-edged, leak or split Internal damage: gouging, wall thinning; tube As for hydrogen damage. Acid Phosphate Corrosion 23
deposits.
Thin-edged, leak or split Internal damage: gouging, wall thinning; tube As for hydrogen damage. Caustic Gouging 24
deposits.
Thin-edged, long fish-mouth External wastage; probably affecting a number Areas with locally substoichiometric environment; side Fireside Corrosion (coal-fired 25
of tubes; maximum wastage at crown facing and rear walls near burners; highest heat flux areas. units)
flame (maybe flame impingement); damage
extending in 120 arc around tube; hard On units with low NOX burners and SOFAs, the
deposits on tube outside surface. corrosion is usually maximum just above the burners.
Water-Touched Tubes

Thin-edged rupture Erosion, wall thinning from inside; continuous Economizer inlet header stub tubes nearest to point of Flow-Accelerated Corrosion 32
scallop or orange peel appearance. feedwater inlet.
Thin-edged, fish-mouth Wastage flats on tube external surface at 45 Circular pattern around wall blowers. Sootblower Erosion 33
around tube from sootblower direction, little or no ash
on tube surface.
Generally thin-edged Often shows signs of tube bulging or fish-mouth Highest heat flux locations above locations such as the Short-Term Overheating 34
appearance; real keys will be transformation site of a tube or orifice blockage or in horizontal tubing
products in microstructure. May also be thick- where a downcomer steam slug can occur.
edged under certain circumstances.
Thin-edged External wall thinning and wastage, little or no Tubes near replaceable wear liners in cyclone burners; Coal Particle Erosion 38
surface ash; location should be key. throat or quarl region of burners.
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Thin-edged External erosion or mechanical impact damage Sloping wall tubes and/or ash hopper near bottom. Falling Slag Damage 40
features.
Thin-edged External, thinned or missing external oxide; Low temperature areas of economizer. Acid Dewpoint Corrosion 41
final failure typically thin-edged, transgranular
and ductile; presence of sulfur in ash deposits
remaining on tube.
Pinhole Damage
Pitting Internal tube surface damage; distinctive aspect Locations where boiler water can stagnate during unit Chemical Cleaning Damage 36 or 37
ratio of damage - deep relative to area; partial shutdown (pitting). or Pitting
or total (through-wall) dissolution of the tube
wall metal may be observed.
Water-Touched Tubes

Miscellaneous
Damage Types
Depends on underlying cause Usually obvious from type of damage and Maintenance Damage Chap. 61,
correspondence to past maintenance activity. Volume 3
Depends on defect Materials Flaws Chap. 62,

Volume 3
Usually thick-edged Care required to separate weld defects from Welding Flaws Chap. 63,
another problem located at a weld. Volume 3
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Corrosion Fatigue (Chapter 19)
Description
Macro Features
Initiation from the inside (water side) of the tube
Typical development is on the cold side of the tube, but it can develop on
the fire-side of the tube.
Cracks can be oriented longitudinally with respect to the tube axis, that
is, normal to the predominant stress field, which in the typical case are
tensile hoop stresses.
Cracks also can be circumferential or any direction that is normal to the
major applied stress.
Figure 19-4
Cracks can occur along or near the neutral axis of tube bends,
Thick-edged failure by corrosion fatigue (Type iii).
particularly tight hairpin bends.
Cracks are multi-array, that is, there usually will be a number of parallel Source: TR-100455 V4, 1993
cracks rather than a single crack found where there is corrosion fatigue
damage. Micro Features
Can be initiated from pits or other surface discontinuities such as tube Multiple, transgranular cracks
extrusion marks.
Cracks usually wide
Not specifically related to presence of weld defects
Cracks usually oxide filled and blunt tipped
Crack profiles usually irregular
Signs of discontinuous growth, re-initiations (beach marking)
Water-Touched Tubes
Figure 19-9
Schematic showing the general features of corrosion fatigue cracks.
Source: Moles, 1980
Figure 19-31
Radiograph clearly showing the presence of corrosion fatigue cracks at a
tube/lower windbox connection.
ELECTRIC POWER
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Figure 19-10a, Figure 19-10b
Cross-sections of corrosion fatigue cracks showing typical features: oxide
coating of the fracture surface, corrosion within the crack, wide crack mouths
and tip, a transgranular fracture path, and oxide bulges down the crack length.
Source: TR-102433, 1993
Water-Touched Tubes
Contributing Causes/Susceptible Components Figure 19-32

Pad weld repair showing renewed
Excessive stresses/strains caused by the following: corrosion fatigue crack growth
Thermal expansion/contraction under transient operating conditions Source: TR-100455 V4, 1993
Changing boiler pressure
Subcooling in natural circulation boilers
Water wall tube strain can occur at scallop bar attachments, buckstay
attachments, windbox casing attachments.
Economizer tube strain can occur at tube bends and weld heat affected
zones.
Physical strain cracks protective magnetite oxide layer on ID.
Fresh base metal beneath oxide layer cracking is exposed to corrosive
environment, that is, water on ID of the tube.
Poor water chemistry can increase corrosion:
Low pH
High levels of dissolved oxygen
High levels of contaminates such as chlorides and sulfur Over aggressive or improper chemical cleaning.
pH variation has a more significant effect than variations in chloride or Corrosion fatigue most often occurs in subcritical units, but can occur in
sulfur concentrations. supercritical units.
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Table 19-4
Actions to Confirm and Immediate Actions and Solutions
Major Root Causes Actions to Confirm Immediate Actions and Solutions

All Root Causes Use the Influence Diagram method to screen for highly
susceptible units, and locations within a unit and to highlight
likely worst root causes.
Excessive strains/stresses
Subcooling (cooling water stratification) in natural Perform NDE and selective sampling to see if cracking has Replace damaged tubes in-kind only if a system emergency
circulation boilers initiated at suspect locations and to size cracks. exists for the unit.
Field test with thermocouples and strain gauges to evaluate Do not pad weld corrosion fatigue leaks (pinholes).
levels of strain developed during all operating regimes,
including all transients.
Perform global and local finite element stress analysis using
as-built configuration and field measured strains and
temperatures.
Subcooling (cooling water stratification) in natural Review operating records. Same as above.
circulation boilers Thermocouple top and bottom of the downcomers to monitor DT
as function of shutdown time.
Strain gauge to confirm.
Water-Touched Tubes


Environmental Factors
Poor water chemistry Review water chemistry logs and practices, with particular Same as above.
emphasis on pH reductions during shutdown and early
startup.
Estimate the severity of the environment using the
environmental parameter for the Influence Diagram.
Evaluate timing of environmental contributors at various
strain levels. Use NDE or selectively sample tubes to
determine whether pitting or corrosion fatigue damage has
begun.
Overly aggressive or improper chemical cleaning Review chemical cleaning procedures, and correlate chemical Same as above, plus revise chemical cleaning procedures, as
cleaning with corrosion fatigue failures. required
Perform NDE and/or selectively sample at-risk tubes.
Improper boiler shutdown and/or layup procedures Determine whether a comprehensive boiler shutdown Optimize shutdown, layup procedures.
procedure is used.
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Unit operation Review operating records to determine operating hours Modify operating procedures to reduce
and boiler transients (hot, warm, and cold startups as well thermal strains.
as shutdowns and forced cools). Is the boiler regularly force
cooled?
Plot failure history against unit operating conditions.
Field test with thermocouples and strain gauges and perform
finite element analysis to confirm.
Water-Touched Tubes
Figure 19-34
Influence diagram for corrosion fatigue in waterwall tubes. The lines E1E4
represent the results of the environment parameter evaluation. Line E1 is
approximately equivalent to operating with EPRI guidelines or better.
Decreasing water chemistry is represented by E2E4. Conditions to the right of
a particular environment line indicate a high risk for corrosion fatigue or
confirm that corrosion fatigue has already occurred. Conditions to the left of a Figure 19-36
given environment line indicate a lower risk of corrosion fatigue. Strain gauge and thermocouple monitoring locations on a buckstay
attachment detail.
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Source: EPRI TC/Set-Aside Project on Corrosion Fatigue
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Table 19-6
Potential Ramifications
Corrosion Fatigue Aspect Alert for Other Cycle Components

Problems with boiler water or feedwater chemistry control. Potential for boiler tube damage by other mechanisms such as acid phosphate corrosion,
if underlying problem is phosphate hideout, or hydrogen damage such as via condenser
leakage.
Potential for carryover in steam to reheater and turbine.
Excessive or overly aggressive chemical cleans. Potential for boiler tube damage by other mechanisms.
Inadequate or improper shutdown procedures. Potential for boiler tube damage by other mechanisms such as pitting.
Water-Touched Tubes
Fly Ash Erosion (Chapter 21)

Description
Usually very localized.
Characterized by burnishing or polishing of affected tube surfaces facing the gas flow.
Heavy black polishing is first indication of impingement erosion.
Qualitatively, light polishing removes only the paint or scale.
Formation of fresh rust on tubes only a few hours after boiler washing is a distinctive feature of advanced erosion that has removed the protective scale.
As erosion becomes more severe, the tubes begin to thin, flattened areas develop, and eventually the internal pressure leads to tube rupture.

Examples of erosion damaged boiler tubing that led to wall thinning and final failures by rupture.
Source: TR-102432, 1994
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Figure 21-3
Example of extensive damage to shields caused by fly ash erosion.
Source: J. Drennen
Water-Touched Tubes
Contributing Causes/Susceptible Components

For a constant ash loading, increasing particulate velocity from ~18.3 m/sec (~60 ft/sec) to ~27.4 m/sec (90 ft/sec) can triple the rate of fly ash
erosion.
At a constant velocity, doubling the ash loading will double the erosion rate.
Table 21-3
Fly Ash Composition Affects the Erosion Rate
Controllable* Factors Constant* Factors
Fuel and fly ash composition Temperature profile
Gas flow rate Pressure part arrangement
Ash flux Tube material properties

Mode of operation Target shape
Boiler design characteristics (during design process) Angle of impingement
* Controllable factors include those that can be changed during the design process or by operating choices; constant factors are those that are not likely to change without fundamental
modifications once the boiler is built.
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Table 21-1
Typical Locations for Fly Ash Erosion
Economizer / Superheater / Reheater
Leading edges of all tubes Roof and back wall
All pendant SH/RH surfaces, especially bottom bends at exit from furnace nose to rear pass Rear pass RH/SH and economizer; tube bends (all rows) adjacent to back wall of rear pass
At top of rear pass Tube rows adjacent to side walls of rear pass
Staggered tube bank configurations (economizer); sides of tubes in accessible top rows and Staggered tube bank configurations (economizer); sides of tubes in accessible top rows and
often of tubes in middle of the tube bank. often of tubes in middle of the tube bank.
Rear pass SH/RH and economizer; tube bends (all rows) adjacent to back wall of rear pass Near tube bank stiffeners (wrapper tubes in pendant banks; antivibration bars in horizontal
banks)
Finned tubes (economizer); at base of fins Tubes immediately after open areas in tube bank
Adjacent to sootblower runs
Water-Touched Tubes
Table 21-1 (continued) Figure 21-5

Typical Locations for Fly Ash Erosion Typical boiler locations where fly ash
erosion can occur.
Waterwalls
Top of rear wall where gases change direction to rear pass
Where misalignment or ash plugging of pendant tubes occurs near waterwall.
Waterwall circuits in the back pass, especially the following:

(i) those forming dividing walls
(ii) those that protrude into flow
(iii) those that bend around openings
Around wall blowers
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Table 21-4

Excessive local velocities
Excessive (nonuniform) local gas flows: geometry Compare locations of failure to those typical of fly ash Change problem geometries, such as replacing staggered tube
(design) causes erosion. rows with in-line tubes in the economizer.
Eliminate other root causes as primary factor.
Excessive (non-uniform) local gas flows: Visual inspection in areas near erosion problem for obvious Repair, replace, align damaged components.
Maintenance causes distortions, misalignments, etc.
- Distortion or misalignment of tubing rows
- Misalignment or loss of gas flow guides and
baffles
Excessive (nonuniform) local gas flows: Apply CAVT. Changes in unit operation such as reducing load or lowering
Operational causes excess air, but economic penalties are high.
- Operating above the continuous design rating
- Operating above design excess air flow
- Fan or air heater imbalance leading
to nonuniform gas flows
Water-Touched Tubes


Increased Particle Loading
Increase in particle loading: fuel causes Evaluate ash and erosive material content of fuel from an Apply CAVT to determine extent of problem; design and install
erosivity index and/or use a coal quality impact modeling flow modifications (local diffusion screens and distribution screens);
tool to assess the economic impact. Compare to design coal. confirm efficacy with CAVT retest.
Evaluate whether changes in fuel handling or blending are Fuel and fuel handling changes may be considered to reduce
evident. the amount of ash and erosive minerals.
Change to fuel with lower ash content.
Wash or blend coal.
Apply indices and/or use a coal quality impact modeling tool
to assess economic impact.
Increase in erosive particle loading: sootblower Review sootblower operating procedures and confirm Institute intelligent sootblowing.
operation or maintenance causes that equipment is properly functioning, such as at proper
temperatures.
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Other Root Causes
Palliative shields and baffles, usually punched plates Review history of fly ash erosion, prior repairs, and Remove prior modifications.
or solid baffles that were misapplied previously relationship to current damage. Apply CAVT to determine the extent of the problem; design and
install flow modification (local diffusion screens and distribution
screens); confirm efficacy with CAVT retest
Inappropriate material; improperly or poorly applied Review prior maintenance activities to document such palliative Temporary pad weld, spray coating, or shielding may be used.
coating techniques. These are not recommended for the long term as they will most
likely lead to continual repairs.
Water-Touched Tubes
Potential ramifications include the possibility of redirecting the flow of air or

ash to other locations, thereby causing a new problem area.
Figure 21-11
Erosion locations on a side elevation
drawing, also showing subsequent
application of distribution and
diffusing screens.
Source: TR-102432, 1994
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Hydrogen Damage (Chapter 22)
Description
Macro Features
Gouged areas; thick deposits
Thick-edged, often window opening failure appearance
Brittle failure
Oxide growth under stress leads to thick, multilayer scale (alternating
layers of porous and dense magnetite), which may be missing as a result
of failure incident
Very rapid: can be >10 mm/yr (>0.39 in/yr). Failures can occur within
six months.
Micro Features
Intergranular microfissures in base tube material linking to form cracks.
Multilaminated, non-protective oxide sometimes containing chloride at
scale/metal interface.
Decarburization gradually spreads across tube wall from ID.
Figure 22-1
Typical multilaminated magnetite scale and subsurface microcracking
associated with hydrogen damage in a conventional waterwall.
Source: J. Hickey, ESB Ireland
Water-Touched Tubes
Figure 22-8
Hydrogen damage window opening and thick-edged failure. It occurred just
downstream of a butt weld. (Flow is right to left).
Source: D.E. Hendrix
Figure 22-2
Hydrogen damaged tube showing thick-edged final fracture. Note that there
was a tube bend just out of view of the photograph.
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Table 22-2
Location/Tube Condition
Locations where the water/fluid flow adjacent to the tube wall is disrupted
Welded joints and welding processes

(i) welded joints with backing rings
(ii) poor repair welds including pad welds, canoe pieces, or window welds
(iii) poor weld overlay (penetrating to the inside surface)
(iv) weld overlay on relatively thin wall that, because of high heat input, results in waviness on the tube ID
Locations with existing internal deposits caused by

(i) a deposition mechanism
(ii) deposits left from improper chemical cleaning
(iii) locally high heat flux/transfer
(iv) locally high steam quality
Geometric features
(i) bend around burners or openings
(ii) sharp changes of direction (such as the nose of the furnace)
(iii) tubes bending off lower headers and drums
Water-Touched Tubes

Locations with a high heat flux/transfer
Locations where boiling first initiates
Locations with thermal-hydraulic flow disruptions
Locations with local very high steam quality
Locations with horizontal or inclined tubing heated from above or below (roof tubes)
Localized overheating of the tubes (fireside conditions)
Flame impingement
Burner misalignment
Operating conditions such as overfiring or underfiring, gas channeling, or inadequate circulation rates
Major change in fuel source, such as higher Btu value coal, dual firing with gas, changeover to oil, or gas firing where heat flux increases
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Through-wall thick-edged cracking caused by hydrogen damage. Note this
thick-edged leak is downstream of the line of butt welds.
Water-Touched Tubes

Deposits and hydrogen damage associated with backing rings in conventional waterwall tubing. Flow is right to left.
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Table 22-3

Excessive DepositsAll Causes Analyze results from chemistry monitors with particular Perform internal tube assessment (typically using videoprobes).
emphasis on levels of Fe and Cu in the feedwater. Remove tube samples for analysis.
Perform selective tube sampling for deposit measurement.
Check the efficacy of chemical cleaning.
Flow disruption: Examine boiler and maintenance history for evidence of As above.
Weld backing bar/ring potential flow disruption sites.
Poor weld geometry, pad welds, canoe piece Take and examine tube samples for distinctive bathtub ring
repairs, etc. deposits.
Weld overlay on tube OD Perform circulation testing.
Deposits
Locally high heat flux or steam quality
Bends or sharp changes in tube direction
Horizontal or near horizontal tubing
Local regions of DNB
Fireside conditions: Inspect furnace wall for evidence of flame impingement. Adjust burners, etc.
Flame impingement Check burner operation for possible direct flame impingement. Address combustion conditions.
Burner misalignment Measure heat flux at selected locations
Change in heat flux patterns following
installation of low NOX burners
Major change in fuel source
Water-Touched Tubes


Acidic ContaminationAll Causes Evaluate cation conductivity and/or sodium in the hotwell or at Depending upon severity, initiate established procedures for unit
the condensate pump discharge. shutdown and chemically clean, as needed.
Condenser leaks: minor but occurring over an Review chemistry control logs to determine if, and when, Depending upon severity, initiate established procedures for unit
extended period impurities were excessive. Particularly important is boiler water shutdown and chemically clean, as needed.
cation conductivity.
Condenser leaks: major ingress, generally one serious Confirm from chemistry control logs, especially the extent and Immediate shutdown of unit, confirm pH depression, and
event depth of pH depression in boiler water. chemically clean.
Water treatment plant or condensate polisher Evaluate results from and reliability of monitoring and alarm Remove unit from service and chemically clean; clean up water
regeneration chemical upset leading to low pH condition systems, particularly for cation conductivity chemistry.
Improper use of low level phosphate treatments Review cation conductivity, boiler water chloride control Make sure that appropriate chloride control curves are chosen.
curves, and levels resulting from current choice of chemistry Make sure that operators understand where to operate for the
and its implementation particular chemistry chosen.
Errors in chemical cleaning process Review chemistry logs during cleaning and rinsing. Depending upon severity, initiate established procedures for unit
Borescope/videoprobe examination to check the efficacy of the shutdown and reclean as needed.
chemical cleaning.
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Figure 22-11
Typical locations of hydrogen damage in conventional
units. Figure 22-17
Schematic of the ultrasonic velocity change technique to detect hydrogen
damage.
Source: Lamping, 1991
Water-Touched Tubes
Table 22-5
Hydrogen Damage Aspect Alert for Other Cycle Components Actions Indicated
Waterwall deposits indicate high feedwater corrosion Poor feedwater chemistry control (probably iron levels at the Implement stricter cycle chemistry control program, core level of
products economizer inlet are > 2 ppb) instrumentation, etc.
High Cu levels in deposits might indicate Cu deposition in HP turbine Develop monitoring program to optimize feedwater chemistry.
Excessive waterwall deposits Potential BTF by overheating and creep Sampling to determine nature and extent of deposit problem.
Apply guidelines for chemical cleaning.
Geometric boiler water flow disruptions Potential for excessive deposit buildup Remove pad welds and other improper repairs.
Tube failures by overheating Identify and remove other sources for flow disruption.
Contaminant ingress Corrosion of other cycle parts: turbine, SH/RH Inspect susceptible components; sample steam and/or material in
susceptible locations for indications of damage.
Careful examination of cycle chemistry monitors to characterize
extent of problem.
Contamination by improper chemical cleaning Potential for problems throughout cycle Inspect for problems and carefully monitor chemistry on return to service.
Establish proper chemical cleaning processes.
Fireside problems (flame impingement, burner Possible BTF by fireside corrosion of waterwall tubing Inspect and adjust as required.
alignment, major fuel change) Possible BTF by overheating
Possible thermal fatigue cracking on waterwalls
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Acid Phosphate Corrosion (Chapter 23)
Description
Table 23-1
Characteristics and Appearance of Acid Phosphate Corrosion
Characteristic Appearance
Features of failure Gouged areas; thick, adherent deposits.
Ductile, thin-edged, or pinhole failure.
Effect on oxide and characteristic deposit Caustic concentrates at base of deposit and leads to dissolution of protective oxide via
fluxing.
Deposit usually contains distinctive crystals of sodium ferroate and/or sodium ferroite.
Key microstructural features Material removal only; no microstructural changes in tube steel.
No protective oxide layer.
Distinctive metal removal usually filled with adherent deposit.
Attack rate Rapid: up to 2 mm/yr (0.08 in./yr).
Water-Touched Tubes
Figure 23-1
Example of acid phosphate corrosion showing tube gouging. Tube is from a
400 MW boiler with an 18.2 MPa (2640 psig) drum pressure. The severely
corroded region was approximately 2.5 cm x 10 cm (1 in. x 4 in.) in extent. The
stepped pattern on this ribbed tube is typical of that which occurs by dryout.
Figure 23-2
ELECTRIC POWER Acid phosphate corrosion damage. The railroad track pattern of corrosion is
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indicative of local steam blanketing.
46
Table 23-2
Welded joints and welding processes, such as the following:

(ii) poor repair welds, including pad welds, canoe pieces, or window welds
(iii) poor weld overlay (penetrating to the inside surface)
(iv) weld overlay on relatively thin wall that, because of high heat input, results in waviness on the tube ID
Locations with existing internal deposits caused by the following:

Geometric features, including the following:

(i) bends around burners or openings
Water-Touched Tubes

Flame impingement
Burner misalignment
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Figure 23-11
Typical boiler locations where acid phosphate corrosion
can occur in conventional units.
Figure 23-3
Acid phosphate corrosion gouging showing concentric bathtub rings. The fact
that these rings are visible on the sides of the tube up to the mid-diameter
indicates that at some point steam blanketing encompassed the upper half of
the tube. Gouging and a pinhole leak occurred within the concentric rings.
Water-Touched Tubes
Table 23-3

Flow disruption, including the following: Examine boiler and maintenance history for evidence of As above.
Poor weld geometry, pad welds, Take and examine samples for distinctive bathtub ring deposits.
canoe piece repairs, etc. Perform circulation testing.
Weld overlay on tube OD
Deposits
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Fireside conditions, including the following: Inspect furnace wall for evidence of flame impingement. Adjust burners, etc.
Flame impingement Check burner operation for possible direct flame Address combustion conditions.
Burner misalignment impingement.
Change in heat flux patterns following Measure heat flux at selected locations.
installation of low NOX burners
Phosphate Concentration Evaluate boiler water; black boiler water samples are an Depending upon severity, initiate established procedures for
indication that severe corrosion is taking place over large unit shutdown and chemical clean, as needed.
areas of the waterwall.
Use of improper cycle chemistry controls, particularly Determine if boiler has a persistent problem with phosphate As above.
chasing phosphate hideout by using monosodium hideout: review plant chemistry control logs, on-line cycle
and/or an excess of di-sodium phosphate chemistry records, chemical additions to the boiler, and/
or alarms.
Review phosphate control additions; tabulate monthly usage of
mono- and di-sodium phosphate for at least the past two years.
Perform metallurgical analysis to confirm nature of deposits.
Water-Touched Tubes
Table 23-5
Acid Phosphate Corrosion Aspect Alert for Other Cycle Components Actions Indicated
Waterwall deposits indicate high feedwater corrosion Poor feedwater chemistry control (probably iron levels at the Implement stricter cycle chemistry control program,
products economizer inlet are >2 ppb) instrumentation, etc.
High Cu levels in deposits might indicate Cu deposition in HP Develop monitoring program to optimize feedwater chemistry.
turbine
Excessive deposits Potential BTF by overheating and creep Perform sampling to determine nature and extent of deposit
problem.
Geometric boiler water flow disruptions Potential for excessive deposit buildup Remove pad welds and other improper repairs.
Phosphate hideout Only a control problem by itself; however, chasing the hideout Optimize phosphate treatment without
problem through the use of mono- and/or an excess of di- excessive use of phosphate additions.
sodium phosphate can lead to excess phosphate throughout
the boiler with possible carryover into the turbine.
If associated with pH decreases during a startup, then there is
a possibility of increasing corrosion fatigue.
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Table 23-2
Acid Phosphate Corrosion Aspect Alert for Other Cycle Components Actions Indicated
Excessive phosphate in steam Possibility for transport and deposit in SH/RH and turbine Check steam chemistry and carryover.
Fireside problems (flame impingement, burner Possible BTF by fireside corrosion of waterwall tubing. Inspect and adjust as required.
alignment, major fuel change) Possible BTF by overheating.
Possible thermal fatigue cracking on waterwalls
Figure 23-9
Acid phosphate corrosion damage. The railroad trackpattern of corrosion
is indicative of local steam blanketing.
Water-Touched Tubes
Caustic Gouging (Chapter 24)

Description
Table 24-1
Characteristics and Appearance of Caustic Gouging
Characteristic Appearance
Features of failure Gouged areas; thick, adherent deposits.
Ductile, thin-edged, or pinhole failure.
Effect on oxide and characteristic deposit Caustic concentrates at base of deposit and leads to dissolution of protective oxide via
fluxing.
Deposit usually contains distinctive crystals of sodium ferroate and/or sodium ferroite.
Key microstructural features Material removal only; no microstructural changes in tube steel.
No protective oxide layer.
Distinctive metal removal usually filled with adherent deposit.
Attack rate Rapid: up to 2 mm/yr (0.08 in./yr).
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Figure 24-2
Cross-section through the thick, layered deposit shown
in figure at left.
Source: TR-102433, 1993
Figure 24-10
Cross-section through the failed tube showing the internal attack that
occurred. The following figures show detail of the thick deposit and scale at the
failure location.
Water-Touched Tubes
Table 24-2
Welded joints and welding processes, including the following:

(ii) poor repair welds, including pad welds, canoe pieces, or window welds
(iii) weld overlay on relatively thin wall that, because of high heat input, results in waviness on the tube ID
Locations with existing internal deposits caused by the following:

Geometric features, including the following:

(i) bend around burners or openings
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Flame impingement
Burner misalignment
Water-Touched Tubes
Figure 24-3
Needle-shaped crystals in the deposits. Figure 24-1
Source: TR-102433, 1993 Thick deposits and gouged tube metal on the downstream side of a weld. A
large amount of copper is deposited, and the deposit is laminated.
ELECTRIC POWER Source: TR-102433, 1993
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Table 24-3

Flow disruption caused by the following: Examine boiler and maintenance history for evidence of As above.
Poor weld geometry, pad welds,canoe piece Take and examine samples for distinctive bathtub ring deposits.
repairs, etc. Perform circulation testing.
Weld overlay on tube OD
Deposits
Fireside conditions, including the following: Inspect furnace wall for evidence of flame impingement. Adjust burners, etc.
Flame impingement Check burner operation for possible direct flame impingement. Address combustion conditions.
Burner misalignment Measure heat flux at selected locations.
Change in heat flux patterns
following installation of low NOX burners
Water-Touched Tubes


Sources of Caustic ConcentrationAll Causes Depending upon severity, initiate established procedures for
unit shutdown and chemical clean, as needed.
Elevated caustic level over time (units on caustic Review plant chemistry control logs, on-line cycle chemistry As above, plus reduce levels of NaOH addition to Caustic
treatment) records, or instrumentation alarms. Treatment Guidelines
Excessive caustic addition to units on AVT Review plant chemistry control logs, on-line cycle chemistry As above, plus:
records, or instrumentation alarms. Use blowdown more effectively to minimize NaOH additions.
Investigate the need to use NaOH on startups. The optimum
approach is to remove the reason that NaOH is added
(perhaps air in leakage)
Excessive caustic addition to contro phosphate As above. As above. plus set-up optimum phosphate continuum with
treatment <1 ppm NaOH treatment control range
Water treatment plant upset leading to high pH condition Check/confirm operation and records of regeneration of water Shut down unit, remove excess sodium hydroxide, flush unit a
(regeneration of condensate polishers or makeup water treatment plant equipment. number of times until water is within specification, then
ion exchange resins, for example) investigate the need to chemically clean unit.
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Figure 24-5
Typical boiler locations where caustic gouging can
occur in conventional units.
Figure 24-8
Schematic of caustic gouging beneath a region of heavy deposition.
Depending on the rate of corrosion, there may be a layer of protective
Fe3O4 beneath the concentrated NaOH.
Water-Touched Tubes
Table 24-5
Caustic Gouging Aspect Alert for Other Cycle Components Actions Indicated
Waterwall deposits indicate high feedwater corrosion Poor feedwater chemistry control (probably iron levels at the Implement stricter cycle chemistry control program and
products. economizer inlet are >10 ppb) instrumentation.
High Cu levels in deposits might indicate Cu deposition in HP Develop monitoring program to optimize feedwater chemistry.
turbine
Excessive deposits. Potential BTF by overheating and creep Perform sampling to determine nature and extent of deposit
problem.
Geometric boiler water flow disruptions. Potential for excessive deposit buildup Remove pad welds and other improper repairs.
Elevated caustic level over a long period (units on Potential for carryover into steam; damage to austenitic SHs Consider additional sodium monitoring for feedwater, boiler
caustic treatment). and to turbine. water, and steam.
Ensure that steam limits for sodium (2 ppb) are not exceeded.
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Caustic Gouging Aspect Alert for Other Cycle Components Actions Indicated
Excessive caustic additions in units on AVT. Same as above Consider additional monitoring and alarms to prevent
recurrence.
Investigate the need to add NaOH during startup.
Excessive caustic additions in units on Same as above Consider additional monitoring and alarms to prevent
phosphate treatment. recurrence.
Ingress from water treatment plant deficiency Same as above Check/confirm operation of condensate polishers and ion
exchange resins of makeup water.
Fireside problems (flame impingement, burner Possible BTF by fireside corrosion of waterwall tubing. Inspect and adjust as required.
alignment, major fuel change Possible overheating tube failures
Water-Touched Tubes
Waterwall Fireside Corrosion (Chapter 25)

Description
Large loss of wall thickness (wastage) on fireside of tube.
Maximum attack usually at the crown of the tube facing the flame encompassing approximately 120 degrees of tube circumference.
Longitudinal cracking may be evident.
Hard, fired inner-layer deposits on tube with loosely bonded ash on outer layers.
Removing deposits reveals tube surface grooving similar to alligator hide.
Final failure occurs when remaining wall thickness is unable to withstand hoop stress.
Final failure usually manifested as longitudinal thin-eged cracks.
Has occurred in a significant number of boilers retrofitted with low-NOx sytems that employ overfire air (OFA) ports.
Waterwall corrosion is most severe in super critical boilers burning relatively high sulfur coal, but subcritical boilers and boilers firing low sulfur coals are
not immune.
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Figure 25-1
Typical appearance of damage caused by waterwall fireside corrosion.
Figure 25-2
Cross-section through a tube affected by severe fireside corrosion showing
significant wall loss.
Water-Touched Tubes
Table 25-1
Summary of Factors Affecting Waterwall Corrosion in Boilers Staged with Low NOx Combustion Systems
Sources: TR-111155, 1998; Bakker, 2004; Bakker, 2003; Kung, 2000; Bakker, 2002
Main factors FeS and alkali chlorides in deposits and CO and HCl in the flue gas are the main factors increasing waterwall wastage rates.
FeS deposition FeS deposition increases with increased staging, thus increasing both wastage rates and the area affected by corrosion.
Effect of amount of FeS Corrosion rates increase rapidly with increasing FeS content up to 20%; at higher FeS levels, wastage rates increase further, but at a
lower rate.
Effect of amount of Cl Corrosion rates increase rapidly with increasing chloride content up to 2%. At higher chloride levels, wastage rates increase further,
but at a slower rate.
Effect of stoichiometry FeS deposits form under reducing conditions but decompose under subsequent oxidizing conditions to produce very corrosive species.
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Summary of Factors Affecting Waterwall Corrosion in Boilers Staged with Low NOx Combustion Systems
Sources: TR-111155, 1998; Bakker, 2004; Bakker, 2003; Kung, 2000; Bakker, 2002
Reducing conditions needed Reducing conditions are needed for FeS and alkali chloride deposition.
Temperature effect Both FeS and alkali chlorides are less stable at higher temperatures, with little or no deposition occurring above 900C (1652F).
Thus FeS and chloride deposition decrease with increasing deposit thickness. Chlorides, and to a lesser extent FeS, will deposit only on
bare or nearly bare tubes under high heat absorption conditions.
Effect of HCl in the flue gas HCl in the flue gas increases corrosion rates. The rate of increase is proportional to the amount of chloride in the deposit. Without
chloride in the deposits, the effect of HCl in the flue gas is minimized.
Role of H2S Corrosion caused by H2S in the flue gas cannot be neglected, but is generally less than 0.5 mm/yr (20 mils/yr) for supercritical
boilers. Modeling studies have indicated that measures to reduce FeS deposition may also reduce H2S levels near the furnace wall
Water-Touched Tubes
Figure 25-3
The general structure of the corrosion scale formed Figure 25-5
on a furnace waterwall tube under fireside Sample of highly corroded tube showing wall loss
corrosion conditions, which are usually related to a and fireside surface appearance. Note the rounded
reducing environment. Scale thickness is Figure 25-4 pits on the surface.
approximately 0.25 mm (0.01 in.). Grooving of the tubes external surface, known as
alligator hide, associated with oil and coal-ash
Adapted from Cutler, 1978
corrosion. The fireside oxide scale and ash deposit
were removed by glass bead blasting.
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Table 25-2

All causes of fireside corrosion Collect and evaluate samples of fireside scale/ash to determine Choose repair strategy based on the severity of the corrosion
concentration, patterns, and melting points of elements and rate and extent.
compounds n present.
Use corrosion probes to monitor wastage.
Substoichiometric (reducing) Monitor for levels of O2, CO, H2S, and HCl along damaged or As above.
EnvironmentAll Causes susceptible locations.
Field testing to detect combustion conditions in susceptible areas
with waterwall deposition probes to collect deposits.
Establish a combustion fluid dynamics model and use the
model to evaluate potential improvements in combustion
parameters.
Water-Touched Tubes


Use of low NOX combustion systems with OFA Collect and evaluate samples of fireside scale/ash to determine As above.
concentration, patterns, and melting points of elements and
compounds present.
Use corrosion probes to monitor wastage.
Monitor for levels of O2, CO, H2S, and HCl along damaged or
susceptible locations.
Poorly adjusted or worn burners Visual examination to detect localized flame impingement. Adjust burners to prevent flame impingement.
Monitor for change in furnace slagging conditions. Use waterwall
deposition probe, as needed.
Improper air/fuel mixing Improper air/fuel mixing. Choose repair strategy based on the severity of the corrosion
rate and extent.
Deposition of carbon rich deposit Use visual and metallographic analysis to determine whether As above, plus adjust mill classification.
carbon particle impingement is occurring.
Analyze coal fineness.
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Overheated Tubes All Causes Measure tube crown temperatures directly by installing
chordal thermocoupled tubes.
Evaluate tube microstructure.
Excessive heat absorption rates Measure heat absorption rates with flux domes in areas
experiencing corrosion.
Flame impingement Examine flame patterns within the furnace. Examine flame patterns within the furnace.
Excessive buildup of waterside deposits,such as ripple Excessive buildup of waterside deposits, such as ripple magnetite Chemically clean waterwalls.
magnetite (this should occur only on boilers where (this should occur only on boilers where the feedwater treatment
the feedwater treatment has not been changed to has not been changed to oxidizing AVT (O) or oxygenated
oxidizing AVT (O) or oxygenated treatment). treatment).
Flow restrictions of tubes Examine failure records for evidence of conditions such as
short term overheating failures of the tubes.
Determine whether past buildups of deposits were sufficiently
severe so as to cause extensive areas of flow restriction.
Water-Touched Tubes


Excessive sootblowing Review sootblowing procedures
Coal composition and/or changes Review of the coal and coal ash chemistry (proximate and
ultimate analyses and ash chemistry) for the coals currently
being used and that were used prior to the occurrence of
the fireside corrosion.
Perform an analysis of the scales being formed.
Presence of pyrite and distribution of Review of the coal and coal ash chemistry (proximate and Adjust mills to decrease grind size.
pyrite size in coal grinds ultimate analyses and ash chemistry) for the coals currently
being used and that were used prior to the occurrence of
the fireside corrosion.
Perform an analysis of the scales being formed.
Determine coal fineness.
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Presence of chlorine in coal Collect and evaluate samples of fireside scale/ash to
determine whether Cl is appearing in scale layers,
particularly the scale/metal interface)
Review the coal and coal ash chemistry (proximate and
ultimate analyses and ash chemistry) for the coals currently being
used and that were used prior to the occurrence of the fireside
corrosion.
Determine coal fineness.
Operating changes such as load change that result in Monitor for levels O2, CO, H2S, and HCl along damaged or
alternating between locally oxidizing and reducing susceptible locations as a function of various load conditions.
conditions Establish a combustion fluid dynamics model and use the
model to evaluate various operating regimes.
Water-Touched Tubes
Figure 25-6
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Table 25-4
Waterwalls Fireside Alert for Other Cycle Components Actions Indicated

Corrosion Aspect
Corrosive coal or coal blend Potential for SH/RH fireside corrosion. Mitigate negative aspects of coal composition if possible by
Potential for back-end corrosion. fuel switch, blending, or washing.
Poor combustion conditions Low unit efficiency. Combustion adjustments to improve unit efficiency.
Poor mill performance. Correct mill performance
Combustion is delayed and occurring in the convective
passes, which could lead to corrosion of SH/RH surfaces.
Tube overheating by thick internal deposits or ripple Overheating in tubes. Chemically clean unit if necessary.
magnetite Alert of poor feedwater treatment or controls. Implement program to clean up and ensure proper cycle
chemistry
Water-Touched Tubes
Figure 25-7
Strategies for preventing repeat failures by waterwall fireside corrosion in
coal-fired plants.
Note: The circled numbers are used to identify options for the discussions
presented in EPRI report 1012757, and no ranking of the possible solutions is
thus implied.
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Thermal Fatigue in Waterwalls (Chapter 26)
Description
Macro Features
Multiple parallel circumferential cracks in waterwalls of coalfired supercritical units.
Cracking in weld overlays on waterwall in areas of severe fireside corrosion.
Crack density can be approximately 2040 cracks per inch of tube length, but adjacent cracks can be of different lengths.
Ripple magnetite scale on waterside (tube ID).
Thick ID oxide that causes tube OD temperature to rise.
Cracking on tube ID in the thick oxide in some cases.
Micro Features
Cracking is primarily transgranular.
Sulfur and small amount of intergranular sulfidation at crack tip.
Water-Touched Tubes
Figure 26-1
Circumferentially cracked waterwall tubes from an 800 MW supercritical boiler.
Source: TR-104442, 1995 Figure 26-2
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Thermal fatigue cracking through a 622 weld overlay and into the base tube
(T11).
78
Figure 26-4 Figure 26-7
Cross-section showing the Appearance of thick internal oxide common in recent cases of thermal
typical appearance of fatigue. The left hand photograph shows the ID of the tube on the
Figure 26-5
cracking: sharp-pointed furnace side, and the arrows indicate the extent of oxide was 0.14 mm
Closeup of typical cracking indicating the
features and the oxide (dark) (5.5 mils). The right hand photograph shows the ID of the tube on the
appearance at the crack tip and presence of a minor
and sulfide (light) corrosion casing side with an oxide layer (shown by the arrows) of 0.25 mm
amount of intergranular sulfidation at the tip. The
products. (1 mil) thickness.
right of the two photographs is of etched material.
Source: TR-104442, 1995 Source: TR-104442, 1995
Water-Touched Tubes

Similar cracking can occur on waterwalls of subcritical units where water Typical areas of supercritical
cannon is used to remove the ash.Most susceptible locations are areas of: waterwall thermal fatigue.
slag buildup and shedding, wall blower quenching, high heat fluxes, and
flame impingement. Source: Plumley, 1991
Figure 26-10
Location of thermal fatigue cracking relative to the
position of the fireball.
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Table 26-1

All causes Compile needed background information and review. Determine the distribution of thermal fatigue damage and plot
Conduct NDE of cracked locations. similar to that shown in Figure 26-9.
Use metallurgical evaluation to determine which root cause(s) Institute appropriate repairs or replacements.
appears most likely (see details below).
Establish a monitoring program to determine the time in
operating space in which thermal transients are occurring.
Perform detailed stress/strain FEA analysis to determine peak
surface strain ranges for each type of operating transient.
High Initial Waterwall Tube Temperatures
Thick weld overlays Measure total tube metal thickness, including weld overlay, Apply thinner layers of protection or alternates.
and correlate to locations of thermal fatigue damage.
Measure tube temperatures at susceptible locations using
chordal thermocouples.
Higher heat fluxes Measure heat flux at selected locations. Address combustion conditions.
Perform boiler modeling to evaluate unit furnace
temperatures and the effect on waterwall circulation.
Water-Touched Tubes


Flame impingement Inspect furnace waterwall slag patterns for evidence of flame Adjust burners, etc.
impingement. Compare heat flux patterns.
Monitor the flame profile and extent of flame impingement.
Install a number of heat flux meters at representative
locations and compare results with CFD heat flux map of
waterwalls.
Increasing Waterwall Tube Temperatures

Over Time
Internal deposits, including ripple magnetite, thick Analyze tube samples and deposits, specifically to determine Perform chemical cleaning if indicated by level of deposits that
oxide layers, ormfeedwater corrosion products the presence of rippled magnetite, thick oxide layers, or has formed. Plot pressure drop before and after.
corrosion products. This should include chemical and Perform chemical cleaning of thick (steamlike) oxides.
metallurgical examination.
Evaluate unit pressure drop.
Evaluate unit chemical cleaning frequency and records.
Evaluate cycle chemistry, including monitoring records, to
determine the cause of ripple magnetite or feedwater
corrosion product deposits.
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Reduced internal tube flow rates Consider installation of anubar flow meters into selected Evaluate/correct fluid flow and/or orifice design across load
tubes and pressures taps to measure steam quality, range.
fluid velocity, and pressure drop over a wide range
of operating conditions.
Conduct a flow hydrodynamics analysis to check for fluid
flow to waterwall panels.
Check orifice design and operation across load range
Formation of external oxides and deposits Evaluate unit slagging patterns to determine if excessive Temperature monitoring to determine frequency of slag
deposits are accumulating and, in areas of thermal fatigue shedding.
damage, make heat flux measurements.
Frequent severe thermal transients Analyze tube and fluid temperature transients to determine Monitoring of temperature and heat flux to identify time in
effective midwall and tube crown temperatures. operating space when thermal transients occur.
Review plant records for indications of the source of the
problem.
Natural or forced slag removal, including slag Set up a monitoring program. Perform periodic testing of sootblowers to ensure proper function
shedding and sootblowing Evaluate the slagging and fouling characteristics of the unit of the water removal system.
in conjunction with the thermal monitoring to determine the
frequency of thermal transients and their extent.
Evaluate sootblower operation and maintenance to determine
whether excessive conditions or too frequent operation have
occurred. Relate thermal transients to sootblowing.
Water-Touched Tubes


Application of water blowing (cannons) or improper Use instrumented tube/panel and measured thermal transients Perform periodic testing of sootblowers to ensure proper function
sootblowing along with thermal analysis to estimate local stresses created of the water removal system.
within the wall and at the crown. With the predicted
local stresses and frequency of blowing operations, the life of
the tubes can be predicted by fatigue analysis.
Perform visual examination to detect extent of problem and
identify any obvious deficiencies in the operation or
maintenance of the equipment.
Application of water blowing (cannons) or improper Evaluate sootblower or water cannon operation and
sootblowing (continued) maintenance to determine whether condensate introduced into the
sootblower media is causing excessive thermal shock to tubes.
Perform calibration and testing to measure key parameters such
as heat flux or temperature as a function of travel and sequence
times.
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Flame instabilities Monitor the flame profile and extent of flame impingement Adjust burners, etc.
using a tube/instrumented panel. Compare heat flux patterns.
Unit operations, including the following: Review unit operating records for conditions outlined above to Modify operating regimes in conjunction with results from
Forced fan cooling identify potential sources of excessive cyclic stresses. instrumented tube/panel.
Rapid startups Monitor temperatures and strains during all unit transients
Initial firing using instrumentation.
Frequent load cycling
Furnace pressure cycles in balanced-draft unit
Fireside Environment Collect and perform chemical and thermogravimetric

evaluations of the fireside scale/ash to determine
concentration, patterns, and melting characteristics and
corrosivity of elements and compounds present.
Review Chapter 25 for actions to evaluate the various root
causes
Effect of Susceptible Site Review locations of cracking and correlate to obvious

geometric conditions or material degradation. Review
waterwall attachment details.
Water-Touched Tubes
Table 26-2
Waterwalls Thermal Fatigue Aspect Alert for Other Cycle Components Actions Indicated
High levels of feedwater corrosion products Flow-accelerated corrosion (FAC) and/or corrosion may be Need to develop an optimized cycle chemistry control program,
occurring in the feedwater system: in the feedwater heaters, preferably by instituting oxygenated treatment but consisting at a
deaerators, piping, or at the economizer inlet. minimum of periodic chemical cleaning and optimizing feedwater
Corrosion products have probably deposited in other treatment.
locations, such as the boiler feed pump and at boiler
orifices. The latter could lead to BTF by overheating.
Figure 26-19
Close-up view of cleaned area of a tube with thermal fatigue cracks showing the
radiographic crack indications, their visual crack mouth appearance, and the
measured crack depth. Note that a longitudinal saw cut was made through the
tube.
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Thermal Fatigue of Economizer Header Tubes Micro Features
(Chapter 27) Straight transgranular cracks filled with oxides
Longitudinal cracking propagating radially from ID to OD of stub tube
Description
Macro Features
Initiated on ID of stub tube at stress concentrations associated with Worst damage usually found in tubes closest to the feedwater inlet
borehole and tube attachment to header
First indication often pinhole leak in toe of stub tube to header weld on
Multiple longitudinal cracks on tube ID the tube side
Figure 27-1
Cross-section through economizer inlet header and tubes showing stub tube
Figure 27-2 leak location and typical longitudinal pattern of cracking in the tube and
Damage developed from a tube penetration in an economizer inlet header. header bore.
4. WATER-TOUCHED TUBES Source: Dooley, 1981 87
Water-Touched Tubes
Table 27-2

For all root causes Perform metallurgical analysis of removed
tube sample to confirm orientation, initiation
sites,and extent of cracking. Ensure that
damage is in fact thermally induced and not
either flexibility induced or caused by FAC.
Unit operations that Install thermocouples and measure through- Confirm mechanism.
introduce large DT wall thermal gradients during all operating Inspect to determine the extent of damage (fiber
excursions through the wall periods, including feedwater flow, drum optic is the usual first approach).
of the header top-up, and during shutdown. For minor damage, replace tube, modify operating Figure 27-3
procedures, and institute long-term monitoring.
For major damage, replace header, modify
Typical thermal fatigue cracking morphology.
operating procedures, and institute long-term Note regular spacing of cracks and that they
monitoring. become thinner and straighter with
propagation.
Stress concentrations Evaluate inspection data indicating Possible header redesign to lower stress
locations of damage. concentrations and stress levels caused by
temperature differentials (when replacing
header).
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Implications will mostly be confined to the economizer inlet header
If pitting in the tubes, caused by poor shutdown conditions, was a
contributor to flaw initation and growth, then other economizer regions
may be at risk for pitting damage
Figure 27-7
Inspection methods and areas
to be inspected. (MP)
magnetic particle inspection,
(DP) dye penetrant inspection.
Source: GS-5949, 1989 Figure 27-6
Schematic of typical thermocouple locations on the economizer inlet header.
Thermocouple locations are designated by a letter (S, F, R) followed by an
identifying number.
Source: GS-5949
Water-Touched Tubes
Thermal-Mechanical and Vibration-Induced Micro Features include the following:

Fatigue in Water-Touched Tubes (Chapter 28) Predominately straight transgranular cracks.
Cracking may be intergranular when occurring in creep-damaged materials.
Description Depending on service conditions, the cracks may be filled with oxides.
Macro Features include the following:
Thick-edged failures.
Circumferential cracking initiated on OD.
Appearance of beach marks is typical, but they may be obliterated by oxidation.
Figure 28-1
Fatigue failure of a wall tube from a once-through boiler. The tube is a finned
tube and forms part of a manhole door opening. The failure initiated on the OD
of the tube at the toe of the fin/tube weld. The tube is shown here with the fin
removed by mechanical grinding to allow removal from the boiler.
Figure 28-2
Source: J. Hickey, Irish Electricity Supply Board Micrograph taken through the crack showing transgranular cracking typical of
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fatigue.
90 Source: J. Hickey, Irish Electricity Supply Board
Contributing Causes/Susceptible Components The locations are often associated with welds, particularly where
Typical locations for fatigue failure include: the weld or condition of the attachment does not allow for thermal
expansion, including the end of membrane of water wall tubing at either
Attachments, particularly solid attachments or jammed sliding attachments
the lower slope region near the ash hopper or at the top of the rear wall
Bends in tubing at the entrance of the near gas passage, and tie bars, K bars, or beams
Economizer inlet header
Figure 28-4
Three possible locations for tubing-related fatigue
failures in tight 180 bends.

Typical spacers or sliding supports where fatigue in Schematic illustrating failures caused by inflexibility
water-touched tubing can occur. to the movement between header and waterwall.
Water-Touched Tubes
Table 28-2

Excessive strains caused by constraint of thermal Visual examination for distortion or bending in adjacent tubes. Identify similar damaged locations.
expansion. Strain gauging of suspect locations to evaluate strains during unit Repair/replace affected tubes.
starts and cycling operation.
LVDT measurements to monitor the relative movement of the
header/tube during transients.
Poor design and/or manufacture giving rise to Strain gauging to measure actual strains experienced at the As above.
excessive mechanical stresses local area during operation.
For tight, hairpin bends, determine whether residual stresses
are high.
Vibration (flue-gas-induced) by direct flow or vortex Metallurgical examination to confirm high cycle fatigue. As above.
shedding.
None for this mechanism
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Thermal Fatigue Caused by Water Blowing Figure 29-1
Typical appearance of the
(Chapter 29) waterwall tube thermal
fatigue cracks caused by
Description water blowing.
Macro Features
Closely spaced multiple circumferential cracks on tube OD
Thick-edged failures with no metal wastage
Micro Features
Straight transgranular cracks filled with oxides
Longitudinal cracking propagating radially from ID to OD of stub tube
Water-Touched Tubes

Damage is usually found in waterwall tubes cleaned with water blowers. Carbon steel tubes (e.g., SA 21- A1) are much more susceptible than low
chromium alloy (e.g., SA 213 T-2).
Figure 29-2
Close-up of damage showing portions with exclusively water cannon damage
and portions of the tube that were affected by normal circumferential thermal
fatigue and water-cannon-induced thermal fatigue. Figure 29-3
Surface appearance of cracking (right hand portion of tube shown in figure to
left).
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Table 29-1
Excessive Operation of Water Blowers Perform visual examination to determine location and Evaluate the extent of cracking.
Operation is too frequent. obvious maintenance shortcomings or blower problems. Execute the applicable repairs or replacements.
Progression velocities are too slow. Perform calibration and testing to measure key parameters Avoid the use of temporary measures such as pad welding,
Flow volumes too large. such as heat flux or temperature as a function of travel and shielding, and/or coatings unless they are absolutely required
Maintenance or blower problems. sequence times to get the unit to the next scheduled outage.
Perform thermal, stress, and fatigue crack growth rate Repair blower inadequacies or maintenance shortcomings.
analyses. Adjust progression velocity of blower.
Figure 29-4 Potential Ramifications

Microscopic view of typical None for this mechanism
water-cannon-induced thermal
fatigue cracks. Features
indicated include surface
initiation, circumferential
orientation, narrow v-shape,
oxide-coated, and generally
straight- sided cracks with some
minor side branching in the
deeper cracks.
[1 mil = 0.0254 mm].
Water-Touched Tubes
Flow-Accelerated Corrosion in Economizer Two-phase FAC is more wavy or scalloped and may sometimes appear as
tiger stripes (alternate bands of rapid FAC and slow or nonexistent FAC).
Inlet Header Tubing (Chapter 32) Although FAC-damaged areas may appear to have no protective
magnetite layer, it is always present. FAC is the dissolution and removal
Description of the magnetite layer and not removal of the tube wall metal.
Macro Features
Micro Features
Localized to a particular area of the system, but the damaged area may
affect an entire component, e.g., elbow, tee, etc., and can extend for FAC preferentially attacks the pearlite colonies in the tube wall
more than one pipe diameter. microstructure and sometimes of the welds.
Causes wall thinning in carbon steel tubing exposed to flowing water
(single phase) or wet steam (two phase); water must be present, i.e., FAC Figure 32-2
will not occur in dry steam or superheated steam regions of the system. Typical surface appearance of FAC. The feedwater
flow was from bottom to top.
FAC occurs when the protective magnetite iron oxide layer on the tube
wall is dissolved. The magnetite becomes thinner and less protective,
resulting in a higher corrosion rate. When the oxide formation and
dissolution rates become equal, a stable corrosion rate is maintained.
Continued corrosion of the tube reduces the tube wall thickness until it is too thin
to withstand normal system operating pressures and fails by ductile overload.
Single-phase FAC damage typically exhibits an orange peel appearance
and may also exhibit chevrons or horseshoes toward the extremities of
the damage (in areas of slower FAC damage).
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Table 32-2
Distinguishing Features of the Common Damage Mechanisms in Economizer Inlet Headers
Characteristic Flow-Accelerated Corrosion

Location on header Near feedwater inlet.
Location in tube attachment weld area Long-term monitoring and alarm of through-Anywhere along the first 10-12 cm (4-5 in.) from
the header inlet.
Nature of damage Wastage with an -orange peel appearance of internal tube surface.
Generally FAC is not visible along the header bore or on header ID.
Damage morphology Generalized corrosion, orange peel appearance typical on tube ID.
Initiation site ID initiated.
Orientation of the damage In the middle of the largest gouge on the ID.
Water-Touched Tubes
Figure 32-4
Cross-section through the economizer inlet header and tubes showing locations of FAC in the
tubes. The tube bore shows the orange peel appearance. This FAC peaks after a distance of about
2.55 cm (~12 in.) into the tube.
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Table
Factor Effect on Flow-Accelerated Corrosion (FAC)

Oxidizing-reducing potential (ORD) As ORP becomes more reducing (negative), possibility of FAC will increase.
pH of the water (at the hot operating temperatures) Generally, a higher pH will reduce FAC; an alkaline pH with a positive ORD will minimize FAC.
Temperature FAC occurs over range of 100C to 250C (212F to 482F) but tends to peak in the range of
150C to 180C (300F to 350F).
Velocity Under laminar flow, magnetite growth at the oxide/steel interface matches the dissolution
rate, and the corrosion rate is stable. Under turbulent and higher velocity conditions, the flow
disrupts the boundary layer and the magnetite growth cannot match the flow- accelerated
dissolution, exfoliation, and spallation, and FAC occurs.
Mass transfer Local mass transfer coefficient addresses transport of material (essentially magnetite) from
surface to bulk flow and is dependent in a complex manner on fluid velocity and viscosity, flow
geometry, temperature, and tube surface roughness. Mass transfer is a strong factor with an
exponent of approximately 3.
Geometry FAC is more common at points of hydrodynamic disturbance.
Alloy composition Even trace amounts of chromium (and copper and molybdenum) can significantly reduce the
solubility of magnetite and therefore FAC. A chromium concentration as low as 0.1 weight
percent in carbon steel can significantly reduce FAC.
Water-Touched Tubes
Table 32-1
Survey Results of FAC Incidents in Fossil Plants in 2006 (2003, 2000, and 1997)
Locations of FAC Percentage Reporting

FAC any location 70% (60%, 60%, 40%)
Economizer inlet tubing* 23% (25%, 22%)
Heater drain lines*+ 65% (52%, 32%, 10%)

Piping around BFP* 20% (25%, 16%)
Tubesheet/tubes in HP heaters* 10% (11%, 12%)
Piping to economizer inlet header* 18% (35%, 11%)

Deaerator shell* 43% (14%, 11%)
Shell side of LP heaters* 13% (7%)
Figure 32-3
Notes: *indicates single-phase FAC +indicates two-phase FAC
Cross-section of the failed tube shown in figure on left. Note the almost
complete absence of protective magnetite on the inside surface.
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Table 32-3
Reducing conditions (single-phase FAC) Review chemistry records and monitoring systems for (i) ORP Visual examination and UT thickness measurements in
<-300 mV or (ii) dissolved oxygen levels approaching 1 ppb susceptible areas.
or less and the presence of a reducing agent. Replace severely thinned tubes with 1.25% Cr material.
Figure 32-11
Economizer inlet tube removed from a conventional fossil unit that had
previously experienced FAC damage. This drum unit was converted from
Figure 32-1 reducing AVT (with a reducing agent) to an oxidizing AVT. As a result, and as
Appearance of an economizer inlet tube that failed by FAC. The weld is the can be seen here, the protective magnetite, previously lacking, has been
header nipple weld about 5 cm (~2 in.) from the header. The orange peel restored. Importantly, no further loss of wall thickness occurred after operating
appearance of FAC is clearly visible. on the oxidizing AVT for a year.
Water-Touched Tubes
Figure 32-12 Table 32-4

Road map of activities for FAC Resistance of Commonly Used Replacement Alloys Compiled in
controlling FAC. (TR-106611 R1, 1998) based on (Ducreux, 1982; ANSI B31.1, 1990)
Source: 1008082, Alloy Rate (Carbon Nominal Composition
2005 Steel)/Rate (Alloy) (Chromium and
Molybdenum only)
Carbon Steel 1 0; 0
A213 Grade T11 or P11 39 * 1.25% Cr; 0.5% Mo
A213 Grade T22 or P22 76 * 2.25% Cr; 1% Mo
Type 304 ** > 250 18% C
Notes:
* These values were determined using the nominal alloy content. ** Type 304 not permitted
in water-wetted applications for an ASME Section I design.
FAC is a unit-wide problem. Discovery of a problem in one part of the unit must
trigger the initiation of a unit-wide program.
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Sootblower Erosion in Water-Touched Tubes Contributing Causes/Susceptible Components
Typical failure locations are in a circular pattern around wall blowers;
(Chapter 33) corner effects are important.
Description Entrainment of ash in sootblower medium will abrade tube wall surface
Wall thinning caused by external tube surface wastage. and remove metal.
Little or no ash deposits or protective oxide on the tube. Introduction of wet steam in place of normal superheated steam in the
sootblower can greatly increase the amount of ash loading in the medium
Thermal fatigue cracking may be present if there is water in the first steam and accelerate erosion.
flow from the sootblower.
Refer to Fly Ash Erosion (Chapter 21) for more discussion of the effects of
Erosion pattern will be angled to the tubes from the direction of the blow. fly ash impacting tube surfaces.
Appearance of fresh rust on the tube surface only a few hours after boiler
washing, indicating protective oxide has been removed from the tube
surface. Potential Ramifications
If erosion is rapid, failure may be thin-edged, pinhole shaped, or a long, None for this mechanism.
thin blowout.

Water-Touched Tubes
Table 33-1

Improper Maintenance of Sootblowers such as: Use visual examination to determine location and obvious Evaluate the extent of wall thinning and erosion damage to
Incorrect setting and confirmation of blowing maintenance shortcomings or blower problems. determine whether repairs or replacements are required.
temperature (insufficient superheat) Measure key parameters such as: Execute the applicable repairs or replacements.
Improper operation and maintenance of moisture Blowing temperature and pressure. Avoid the use of temporary measures such as pad welding,
traps Operation of moisture traps. shielding, and/or coatings unless they are absolutely required
Misalignment of sootblower to get the unit to the next scheduled outage.
Repair sootblower inadequacies or maintenance shortcomings.
Improper Operation of Sootblowers such as: As above, plus measure key operating parameters such as As above.
Condensate in blowing media checking travel and sequence times.
Excessive sootblowing pressures
Improper location of sootblower
Malfunction of sootblower
Excessive sootblowing
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Short-Term Overheating in Waterwall or Evaporator Tubing (Chapter 34)
Table 34-1
Distinguishing Features of the Three Levels of Short-Term Overheating for Waterwall and Evaporator Materials
Type of Overheating Temperature Range Fracture Surface Extent of Tube Swelling

Subcritical short-term overheating > Design Thin-lipped, fish-mouth Considerable
< Lower critical temperature, A1
Intercritical short-term overheating Between the lower critical temperature, A1 Thin-lipped, fish-mouth Considerable
and the upper critical temperature, A3
Upper critical short-term overheating Upper critical temperature, A3 Thick-lipped, fish-mouth Little
Transgranular void formation by power law Ferrite and spheroidized pearlite or bainite. Near that of original hardness
creep
Transgranular or mixed inter- and transgranular Ferrite, transformational products (pearlite, Variable, with hardness near
void formation by power law creep bainite, and/or martensite). Some spheroidized transformation products being above
pearlite or bainite may also be present. the original
Inter- or transgranular creep fracture Near rupture, transformational products Above original
(pearlite, bainite, and/ or martensite). Some
ferrite may also be present.

Water-Touched Tubes

Typical Locations for Short-Term Overheating Typical locations in conventional
boilers where short-term overheating
Failures usually do not occur where the interruption of tube flow occurs but in waterwalls can occur.
in the higher (or highest) heat flux zone above.
Failure locations might therefore include the following:
Above places where flow has been partially or completed blocked by
prior maintenance activities, such as: in tubes where weld repairs have
been performed and weld spatter has been left in the tube or where tools
or repair materials have been left in tubing
Above those orifices in lower waterwalls where blockage or restricted
flow results from deposition of feedwater corrosion products across the
orifice
Locations, such as horizontal tubing, that are affected when a slug of
steam comes down the downcomer from the steam drum
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Table 34-4

Partial blockage caused by maintenance activities: Check flows through tubes and/or for signs of obvious Institute repair and replacement as required.
Tools left in tubes blockage in tubes or lower headers.
Poor maintenance practices, particularly improperly Review repair records to see whether the tube circuit was
executed weld repairs such as where weld spatter recently repaired.
is allowed to fall into a tube
Plugging of waterwall orifices by feedwater corrosion Inspect orifices in other lower waterwall areas for evidence of Clean orifices.
products blockage. Institute repair and replacement as required.
Check records of pressure drop across boiler circulation
pumps.
Poor control of drum level Review operating records, including drum level control. Institute repair and replacement as required.
Check drum internals and operation.
Loss of coolant because of upstream tube failure Review past BTF locations in relation to current problem. Institute repair and replacement as required.

Water-Touched Tubes
Table 34-5
Water-Touched Tube Short- Alert for Other Cycle Components Actions Indicated
Term Overheating Aspect
Orifice deposits may indicate high levels of Poor feedwater chemistry control (probably iron levels at the Implement stricter cycle chemistry control program and
feedwater corrosion products. economizer inlet are > 10 ppb and/or Cu levels are instrumentation. See Chapter 8, Volume 1.
> 5 ppb). Develop monitoring program to optimize feedwater chemistry.
On high drum pressure units (> 17 MPa [2400 psi]), high Cu See Chapter 8, Volume 1.
levels in deposits might indicate Cu deposition in HP turbine.
Excessive deposits. Potential BTF by overheating and creep. Perform sampling to determine nature and extent of deposit
problem.
Apply guidelines for chemical cleaning. See Chapter 9,
Volume 1.
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Low-Temperature Creep Cracking Thick-edged failure.
Tend to tunnel inside the tube wall, i.e., their true size will be larger than
(Chapter 35) inferred by the exposed length on the tube surface.
Description Micro Features
Macro Features Predominately intergranular cracking with micro-fissuring aligned parallel
Typically initiates in high stress locations, notably the outside surface of with the main crack and significant secondary cracking.
tube bends. For higher stress and lower hardness, the cracking also may be
Circumferential cracks are common, but longitudinal cracks also have transgranular.
been observed on economizer bends in conventional units. Cracking will generally display evidence of grain boundary cavitation
and formation of creep voids.
Low temperature creep in the 135 bend of a Micrograph of section through cracking.
reheater tube. Indicative of low-temperature creep damage are
Source: Hickey, 1995 the intergranular fracture, associated secondary
cracking, grain boundary creep cavitation, and
creep voids in the tube material.
Source: Hickey, 1995

Water-Touched Tubes

Elevated stress loading, including high residual stresses from cold
forming, enhanced membrane stresses caused by pipe ovality at bends,
and high service stresses.
Elevated hardness of the tube material.
As a rule of thumb, bends with ovality greater than 8% or hardness
greater than 220-240 HV are considered to be at the greatest risk.
Figure 35-3
Cross-section through a failed reheater tube showing ovality in excess of 8%.
ELECTRIC POWER Source: Hickey, 1995
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Table
High residual stress Perform an in situ hardness test All affected tube bends should be replaced.
High service stress Measure distortion (ovality) in susceptible locations.
High metal hardness Measure residual stresses. This action may not be definitive as
relaxation during service or removal of the tube from the
boiler may have lowered initial stresses.

Water-Touched Tubes
Chemical Cleaning Damage: Waterwalls (Chapter 36)

Description
Generalized corrosion of affected tube surfaces.
Affected surface can appear as localized jagged, rough,
straight-sided, or undercut pits or as generalized wall
thinning that can occur around the entire tube
circumference.
Figure 36-1
Internal surface of a failed tube exhibiting a rough pitted and scalloped
appearance typical of acid cleaning corrosion. (MAG: 1.2X)
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Source: TR-102433, 1993
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Cross-sections of a`pitted region revealing straight-sided and undercut pit morphologies associated with acid cleaning corrosion. Note also the absence of
deposits within the pits, also characteristic of chemical cleaning corrosion.
Source: TR-102433, 1993

Water-Touched Tubes

Improper operations of the chemical cleaning process, including the following:
Use of inappropriate cleaning solvent
Excessively strong acid concentration
Excessively long cleaning times
Too high a temperature
Failure to neutralize, drain, and rinse after cleaning
There is a concern for volatile carryover. In conventional units, the chemical carries over and inadvertently cleans the superheater. These steam circuits are
not rinsed; therefore, the material removed by the inadvertent chemical cleaning remains in the tubes and can cause deposits and blockage that result in
short-term overheating and tube failure.
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Table
Use of an inappropriate cleaning solvent. Review of chemical cleaning procedures, chemical pumping Repairing or replacing the damaged tubes
Excessively strong acid concentration. systems, and chemical control logs. Items of particular concern Immediate chemical cleaning followed by proper neutralizing
Excessively long cleaning times. are those listed above, which would lead to significant damage. and rinsing
Too high a temperature. Review of cycle chemistry monitoring records to detect a pH
Failure to neutralize, drain, and rinse after depression on startup of the unit after cleaning, indicating improper
cleaning. rinsing of acid from the unit.
Failure to monitor Fe levels during the cleaning. Sampling of affected tubes to allow examination of the inside surface
Fe levels were monitored but did not for evidence of generalized corrosion. Part of an optimized procedure
level out during the cleaning. for chemical cleaning will be sampling of selected tubes to confirm the
Breakdown of inhibitors as a result of efficacy of the cleaning process. These samples can be used to
temperature excursions. determine whether excessive damage has accumulated. Wall thickness
measurements can provide a quick screening as to whether excessive
tube corrosion has occurred.

Water-Touched Tubes
Pitting in Water-Touched Tubes (Chapter 37)

Description
Pitting is associated with exposure to stagnant, oxygen-
saturated water formed during shutdown.
Pits can be numerous and closely spaced or isolated.
Pits usually covered with caps of corrosion product
(tubercles or nodules).
Pits may undercut the tube surface.
Figure 37-1
Pitting in a carbon steel economizer tube. Pits are covered with caps of
corrosion products (arrow). (MAG: 1.6X)
Source: TR-102433, 1993
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Figure 37-2
Cross-section through a pit showing corrosion product cap and corrosion
products in the pit.
Source: TR-102433, 1993 Figure 37-9
Pitting on waterwall tube hot side caused by acid phosphate corrosion.

Water-Touched Tubes

In conventional units, pitting typically occurs where boiler waste stagnates in the tubes during shutdown and/or layup.
In HRSG units, pitting occurs in any component that is intentionally maintained wet during idle periods or that is intended to be dry but is subject to
incomplete draining or condensation accumulation. Horizontal tubes are particularly susceptible.
Improper shutdown/layup procedures also can lead to problems in other areas, such as feed water heaters, condenser, and turbine.
Table 37-1

Accumulation of stagnant, oxygenated water with no Analyze corrosion products in and around pits, specifically looking Identify damaged locations.
protective environment during shutdown for presence of hematite. Replace affected tubes.
Perform critical evaluation of shutdownprocedures and of unit Revise shutdown/layup procedures.
condition during shutdown.
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Coal Particulate Erosion (Chapter 38)
Description
Wear of surfaces where resistant liners or refractory coatings no longer perform their function.
Failure occurs where the remaining tube wall is insufficient to withstand the normal operating stresses.
Features include wall thinning, external wastage flats, little or no surface ash, a shallow layer of surface hardening caused by the particle impact, and in
some case, grooving of the tube surface.

In cyclone burners, impact of the coal particles entrained in the high velocity combustion air can wear out resistant liners and refractory coatings and
erode the subsequently exposed tube surfaces.
Particularly in front- or rear-fired burners, impact of the coal stream, before ignition, erodes the tubes in the throat or quarl region.
None are identified in the report

Water-Touched Tubes
Table
In cyclone burners, wear of replacable liners Visual examination of refractory coatings and wear-resistant Periodic program of inspection and replacement of wear-
near end of burner and wear of refractories liners resistant liners and refractory coatings
covering waterwall tubes Adjustment of secondary and tertiary air dampers
In front- or rear-fired burners, direct impingment
of coal stream before ignition in the throat
or quarl regions
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Falling Slag (Chapter 40)
Description
If erosion is the form of damage, tube wastage occurs on a progressive
basis, leading to a thin-edged ductile failure when the remaining tube wall is
insufficient to contain service stresses.
In the form of mechanical damage, impacts can cause breakage of tubes
and supports.

Sloping wall tubes and/or the ash hopper.
Typically, the heaviest damage tends to occur in the first 0.91.2 m
(34 feet) along each end of the furnace bottom opening.
Ash falling from superheater pendents can cause damage to tubes near
the center of the boiler.
Figure 40-1
Distribution of falling ash along furnace hopper opening. The higher
concentrations of falling ash through the first 0.9 to 1.2 m (3 to 4 ft) at each end
of the bottom opening result in significant fireside wall thinning.
Source: Combustion Engineering, Inc.

Water-Touched Tubes
Table 40-1
Falling slag: all causes Perform visual inspection of superheater pendents and boiler Lower boiler load to cause partial freezing and shedding of slag
waterwalls. Determine location of damage on slope tubes and or deposits.
ash hopper.
Correlate extent of damage with variations in coal quality and
boiler operating conditions.
Obtain coal and slag samples for testing.
Perform probe studies to determine the slag potential as a
function of time.
Deposition and sloughing of deposits on pendent Evaluate boiler FEGT and changes in fouling. Lower FEGT by keeping waterwalls and economizer clean
superheaters Examine the morphology of deposits. through optimized sootblowing.
Determine the extent of clays in the coal. Install retractable blowers just below the leading edge of the
pendents.
Inject refractory additives to freeze deposits and cause them to
slough off before becoming too large.
Inject modifying agent to melt deposits before they become hard.
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Deposition and sloughing of deposits from Check mill performance. Service or adjust mills.
waterwalls Inspect boiler condition (tilts, alignment, oxygen levels, etc.). Perform boiler operational checks
Confirm presence of popcorn ash.
Evaluate coal and slag samples.
Distinguish between boiler operation causes and coal quality
causes.
Perform thermoequilibrium modeling.
None for this mechanism.

Water-Touched Tubes
Acid Dewpoint Corrosion (Chapter 41) Contributing Causes/Susceptible Components

Acid dewpoint corrosion will occur in locations where the following
Description occur:
The normal fireside oxide scale will typically be thin or absent in the The boiler metal temperatures are below the acid dewpoint, allowing
affected regions.
condensation to form on the metal surface.
The corroded surface of the tube, after removing fire-side deposits, if any,
will have a gouged or orange peel appearance. Flue gas temperatures are below the acid dewpoint, allowing
The final failure will be over pressurization caused be wall thinning; the condensation to form on the fly ash particle.
fracture will appear thin-edged, transgranular, and ductile. Oil-fired, stoker-fired, and cyclone-burner-fired (coal) boilers are more
The presence of sulfur in ash deposits remaining on the tube is likely likely to experience acid dewpoint corrosion; these types of units produce
because the attack is typically by sulfuric acid. A white layer of iron less fly ash, a product that acts to neutralize any acid formed.
sulfate may be present at the tube to deposit interface.
Figure 41-2
Influence of fuel type and sulfur in fuel on the minimum design tube metal
temperatures to avoid dewpoint corrosion.
Source: Steam, 1972
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Table 41-1
For all root causes Examine affected areas for wall thinning (UT thickness testing).
Make the necessary tube repairs.
Economizer tube temperatures below the acid Measure economizer temperatures and compare to calculated
dewpoint or measured acid dewpoint.
High acid dewpoint caused by fuel or operating Evaluate dewpoint or measure with deposition probes and
choices relate to operating and fuel parameters.
Local air in leakage Examine for localized wastage patterns.
All downstream components such as ductwork, air heaters, flue gas cleaning equipment, and stack are at risk for extensive corrosion damage.

5. Steam-Touched Tubes
5. STEAM-TOUCHED TUBES 127

Steam-Touched Tubes
Screening Table for Steam-Touched Boiler Tube Failures (Chapter 2)

The following table provides information that can be used to perfrom an initial screening of a boiler tube failure to identify a likely degradation mechanism
that may have contributed to the failure. The table also includes a reference to the applicable chapter in EPRI report 1012757 for more information on the
respective dergardation mechanism.
Table 2-2
Thick-Edged Fracture
Surface
Thick-edged Outside surface initiated, intergranular crack Predominant in lower temperature regions in tube Low temperature creep Chap. 35 Volume 2
growth with significant microfissuring aligned bends, particularly at intrados on outside surface, and cracking
parallel with the main crack and significant other locations subject to high residual, forming, or
secondary cracking; evidence of grain service stresses.
boundary creep cavitation and creep voids.
Found in the lower temperature regions of the reheater
and in primary superheater.
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Thick-edged In ferritic materials, thick, internal oxide Highest temperature locations: near material transitions, Long-term Overheating 44
scales cracked longitudinally (alligator hide where there is a variation in gas-touched length, in or just (Creep)
appearance); potentially external wastage beyond cavities, in the final leg of tubing just prior to the
typically at 10 oclock and 2 oclock positions; outlet header.
generally longitudinal (axial) orientation; damage
on heated side of tube; microstructural damage by
overheat and intergranular or transgranular creep.
Also longitudinal cracking on austenitic tubing.
Thick-edged, leak Usually fusion line cracking at or near the At dissimilar metal welds (transitions between ferritic and Dissimilar Metal Weld Failure 47
heat-affected zone on low alloy side of weld, austenitic materials)
circumferential orientation.
Thick-edged (may manifest Cracking is transgranular or intergranular Bends and straight tubing with low spots; points with Stress Corrosion Cracking 49
as a pinhole) usually with significant branching; initiation the highest concentration of contaminants; high-stress
can be at ID (most common) or on OD, locations are particularly susceptible at bends, welds,
circumferential or longitudinal orientation; tube attachments, supports, or spacers
may involve blowout of window-type pieces.
Sometimes around attachments to SH or RH
tubing.

Steam-Touched Tubes

Thick-edged Typically straight, transgranular cracking, OD Tubing-related failures associated with attachments or Fatigue 52
initiated and associated with tubing (at tube bends bends in tubing; header-related generally at ends of
or attachments) or headers (particularly at the header
ends).
Thick-edged, leak May have helical fracture path; most commonly Low temperature regions of the SH/RH; adjacent to Graphitization 59
in HAZ of C or C-Mo steel tubes, although may weld fusion line at heat- affected zone most common
also be remote from weld; key is microstructure
appearance of graphite particles or nodules.
Thick-edged Brittle fracture; typically ID initiating cracks. Locations where explosive cleaning has been used Explosive Cleaning Damage 51
Thin-Edged Fracture
Surface
Thin-edged (unless creep- External polishing of tube surface; very Most prominent in backpass regions; bends near to Fly ash Erosion Chap. 21 Volume 2
assisted) localized damage. walls
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Thin-edged External damage; wastage at 10 and 2 oclock Highest temperature tubes: leading tubes, near Fireside Corrosion (coal-fired 45
(fluegas at 12 oclock); longitudinal cracking; transitions, tubes out of alignment, tubes around radiant units and oil-fired units) (Coal-fired
perhaps alligator hide appearance; real key to cavities units)
identification will be the presence of low-melting- 46
point ash in external deposits. (Oil-fired units)
Thin-edged Often shows signs of tube bulging or fish- Most commonly near bottom bends in vertical loops of Short-Term Overheating 48
mouth appearance, longitudinal orientation. SH/RH; outlet legs, and near material transitions
Thin-edged, pinhole or thin Wall thinning caused by external wastage flats First tubes in from wall entrance of retractable blowers; Sootblower Erosion 50
longitudinal blowout around tube from sootblower direction; little or tubes in direct path of retractable blowers
no ash deposits on tube.
Thin-edged External damage; obvious metal-to-metal Rubbing/Fretting 57

contact on tube surface.

Steam-Touched Tubes

Pinhole Damage
Pitting Internal tube surface damage; distinctive aspect For pitting: Tubes where condensate can form and Chemical Cleaning Damage 58 or 60
ratio of damage - deep relative to area; partial or remain during shutdown: bottoms of pendant loops on or Pitting
total (through-wall) dissolution of the tube wall metal either SH or RH, low points in sagging horizontal tubes
may be observed.
Various Other
Damage Types
Depends on the underlying Usually obvious from type of damage and Maintenance Damage 61
cause correspondence to past maintenance activity.
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Depends on defect Materials Flaws 62
Usually thick-edged or Care required to separate weld defects from another Welding Flaws 63
pinholes problem located at a weld.
Thin-Edged Fracture
Thin-edged (unless creep- External polishing of tube surface; very Most prominent in backpass regions; bends near to Fly ash Erosion Chap. 21 Volume 2
assisted) localized damage. walls

Steam-Touched Tubes
Long-Term Overheating/Creep in SH/RH Tubes (Chapter 44)

Description
Macro Features
Failures are generally longitudinal (axial to tube) and located on the heated side of the tube.
Generally a thick-edged failure corresponding to low ductility.
Reheater tube failures in conventional boilers tend to look more ductile than superheater tube failures due to thinner-walled materials.
Primary evidence of overheat of SH/RH tubes is thickened external scales with Y-shaped grooves that give the appearance of alligator hide.
In ferritic tube materials, particularly in T91 material, indicators include thickened internal oxide scales and longitudinal cracks.
Micro Features
Ferritic tubes will exhibit a spheroidized microstructure and creep cavities in the immediate vicinity of the rupture or the part-through-wall cracks.
Austenitic stainless steels will exhibit sigma phase microstructure and grain boundary creep cavities (microvoids).
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Typical appearance of a tube failure by LTOC with axially oriented thick-edged Typical appearance of an LTOC failure in a reheat tube.
crack.

Water-Touched Tubes

Locations susceptible to longterm overheating/creep include the following:
Near material changes such as in the middle of at tube circuit just before
the change to a higher grade material
Where there is a variation in the gas-touched length among tubes of the
same material
In the final leg of tubing just before the outlet header, where steam
temperatures are the highest
Tubing nearest to the flue gas inlet, especially for supplementally fired
units
ELECTRIC POWER
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136 Example of alligator hide appearance of a tube subject to LTOC.
Figure 44-8
Figure 44-6 Typical grain boundary creep cavitation/
Figure 44-5 Example of spheroidized microstructure and creep microcracking at and adjacent to a crack.
Example of wastage flats on a tube subject to LTOC. cavitation associated with a long-term overheating/ Source: J. Hickey, Irish Electricity Supply Board
creep failure in 2 Cr - 1 Mo material (MAG: 500X,
Nital etch).
Source: 1004503, 2002

Steam-Touched Tubes
Table 44-4
All causes of overheating Review SH/RH circuit material diagrams, calculate and plot GTL Make local repairs as appropriate.
as a function of steam and metal temperatures; plot positions of Perform selective sampling and/or ultrasonic measurement to
failures. determine extent of problem.
Direct measurement of temperatures by thermocouples, Perform remaining life estimate of affected tubes (Chapter 14).
especially on new units, prior to there being enough oxide to
measure. This is a proactive approach.
Indirect estimation of temperature by steamside oxide scale
thickness measurements.
Metallurgical analysis of tube structure,especially for
austenitics, and oxide thickness and morphology of
selected tube samples.
Visual examination for evidence of slag buildup, laning, bowed,
or misaligned tubes acting as leading tubes.
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Initial Design and/or Material Choice Perform GTL analysis. As above.
Original alloy choice and extent inadequate for Review temperature data from thermocouples installed in vestibule or
actual operating temperatures. across the header.
Inadequate heat treatment of original alloy.
Tubes at failure location have gas-touched lengths
(GTL) longer than design estimate and/or row-to-
row variation in gas-touched length.
Side-to-side or local gas temperature differences.
Radiant cavity heating effects.
Lead tube/wrapper tube material not resistant
enough to temperature.
Buildup of Steamside Oxide Scale Review SH/RH circuit material diagrams, calculate and plot GTL as a
function of steam and metal temperatures; plot positions of failures.
Direct measurement of temperatures by thermocouples, especially
on new units prior to there being enough oxide to measure. This is a
proactive approach
Indirect estimation of temperature by steamside oxide scale
thickness measurements.
Metallurgical analysis of tube structure,especially for austenitics, and
oxide thickness and morphology of selected tube samples.

Steam-Touched Tubes

Restricted Steam Flow due to Chemical or Other Selective sampling of suspect locations to verify whether local Clean out tubes and remove source of blockages.
Deposits, Scale, Debris, etc. blockage is leading to excessive temperatures.
(This can cause short-term overheating as well see

Chapter 48).
Operating Conditions or Changes in Operation Perform metallographic analysis to determine if the tube is Make local repairs as appropriate.
overheated or carburized due to delayed combustion. Perform selective sampling and/or ultrasonic measurement to
determine extent of problem.
Perform remaining life estimate of affected tubes.
See long-term action.
Previous similar problems in adjacent SH/RH Check temperature distribution through the circuit by As above.
performing analysis of GTL and measured temperatures.

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Combustion conditions Metallographic analysis. As above, plus:
Excessive flue gas temperature Monitor gas temperatures with pyrometers or infrared Restore boiler design (or optimized) conditions.
Displaced fireball instruments.
Delayed combustion
Periodic overfiring or uneven firing of fuel burners
Blockage or Laning of Boiler Gas Passages Can be recognized using cold air velocity technique.
Visual examination to identify local flow blockages.
Thinned Tube Wall NDE evaluation to determine the wall thickness. Check short-term actions for wastage mechanisms: fireside
Wrong wall thickness tube installed. If another mechanism is suspected, initiate actions to confirm corrosion (Chapters 45 and 46), sootblower erosion (Chapter
Tube wall thinned by a wastage mechanism, such as their involvement. 50), or fly ash erosion (Chapter 21).
sootblower erosion or fly ash erosion.

Steam-Touched Tubes
Table 44-6
Long-Term Overheating Alert for Other Cycle Components Actions Indicated

Aspect
Tube overheating as evidenced by buildup of internal Potential for exfoliation of oxide from ferritic materials, which Chemical cleaning of SH/RH sections.
oxide scale can carry over into turbine sections. Monitoring plan to assess the severity of oxide buildup in
Exfoliating scale from austenitic materials can lead to tube affected tubes, including UT inspection for direct measurement
blockage and failures by short-term overheating (see Chapter of oxide scale and tube sampling to confirm type and extent of
48). scale.
Tube overheating as evidenced by buildup of internal SH/RH tubes are more susceptible to damage from fireside Correct cause of overheating if possible; upgrade to more
oxide scale corrosion if coal is corrosive. resistance materials as required.
Total redesign of the superheater or reheater May change absorption patterns through the SH/RH sections Check temperatures in the redesigned section and other
and may increase temperatures in other circuits. sections.
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Figure 44-9
Schematic representation of steamside oxide thickness versus tube wastage
(wall loss). Such a plot can be used to distinguish between long-term
overheating/creep and fireside corrosion mechanisms. [1 in. = 25.4 mm].
Source: TR-102433, 1993

Steam-Touched Tubes
Fireside Corrosion in SH/RH Tubes (Chapter 45)

Description
Typically, multilayered fireside scale and ash deposits that are generally tightly bound to tubes at room temperatures and will typically consist of three
layers
1. A hard, brittle, and porous outer layer, which makes up the bulk of the deposit and has a composition similar to that of boiler fly ash.
2. A white intermediate layer consisting of compounds of complex alkali sulfates, including alkali iron trisulfates. When this layer has a chalky
consistency, corrosion has been found to be mild or nonexistent; when fused and semi-glossy, corrosion has been found to be severe.
3. A black, glossy inner layer, composed primarily of oxides, sulfates, and sulfides of iron.
Tube wastage will often be evident and manifested as flat spots on the tube at the 10 oclock and 2 oclock positions (12 oclock is the upstream
position).
Fireside corrosion damage will be primarily distinguished from long-term overheating by the presence of low melting point ash compounds.
Greatest wall loss will generally be seen in tubes that have been operated at the highest temperatures over a period of time.
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Figure 45-2
Figure 45-1
Tube sample exhibiting fireside corrosion. Note the presence of multilayered
Schematic representation of fireside corrosion development for superheaters
scale along with wastage flats at the 10 and 2 oclock positions of the tubes
and reheaters involving a molten intermediate layer (alkalis, sulfates). This case
circumference.
shows maximum wastage at the 10 and 2 oclock positions.
Source: TR-102433, 1993

Steam-Touched Tubes

Corrosion will generally be the worst in the highest temperature locations. Parts at highest risk therefore include the following:
Leading sides of all tubes in pendant platens, especially hottest (leading) tubes and steam outlet tubes.
Tubes out of alignment that act as leading tubes.
Tubes in the outlet (final) sections towards the header, because these are at the highest temperatures.
Just prior to a change of material, e.g., in T22 just prior to the austenitic material, as the lower Cr content. material may be operating above its design point.
Wrapper tubes.
Tubes that surround a radiant cavity (i.e., they may pick up more heat).
At bottom bends of platens, especially those facing the fireball.
Tubes with a longer GTL. (GTL is the distance measured along the tube circuit from the inlet header to the point of corrosion. See long-term overheating,
Chapter 44.)
Spacers and uncooled hangers and the fins and studs on tubes.
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Figure 45-6
Typical locations where fireside corrosion can
occur.
Figure 45-3
Two tube sample segments showing fireside corrosion. The left shows the ash
pattern as removed; the right shows the tube with the ash removed. On this
segment, the 12 oclock position shows a smooth contour typical of a fluxing
fireside corrosion reaction, and the 10 and 2 oclock positions show alligator
hide, here indicative of long-term overheating/creep.

Steam-Touched Tubes
Table 45-2
For all root causes of fireside corrosion Collect and evaluate ash and deposits to identify presence of Choose repair strategy based on severity of corrosion rate.
low melting point constituents, particularly alkali iron trisulfates. Implement long-term actions in conjunction with on-going
Use corrosion probes to monitor deposit compositions and program of remaining life assessment and monitoring.
wastage.
Use NDE measures (typically UT) to identify wall thinning.
Influence of overheating of tubes (These root causes Measure steamside oxide thicknesses and evaluate whether As above.
will only increase the corrosion rate, not initiate it, overheating has occurred.
unless there is a corrosive coal) Perform selective tube sampling and metallurgical analysis to confirm
steamside oxide and wall thickness.
Monitor temperatures using thermocouples installed across the SH/
RH outlet legs in vestibule to identify hottest platens across the boiler
Poor initial design: choice of material Evaluate temperatures across the element (via thermocouple As above; primary emphasis on upgrading to a more resistant
or steamside oxide measurements) to determine if sections material.
particularly near material changes are running too hot.

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Poor initial design: extra gas-touched Evaluate temperatures across the element (via thermocouple As above
length or steamside oxide measurements) to determine if sections
particularly near material changes are running too hot. See
discussion of gas-touched length in Chapter 44 for long-term
overheating.
Internal oxide growth which occurs during operation Measure oxide scale thickness and use selective sampling to c As in primary list above (repairs followed by long-term strategy)
onfirm the results. plus chemical cleaning of steamside scale.
High temperature laning Monitor temperatures. As in primary list above (repairs followed by long-term strategy).
Consider the use of the cold air velocity technique. See
Chapter 21, Volume 2, on fly
ash erosion for a discussion of the technique.
Tube misalignment (out of bank) Visual examination. Realign tubes; implement ongoing program of remaining life
assessment and monitoring.
Operational problems when coal type is changed Evaluate whether operating procedures such as sootblowing can
be economically changed to protect SH/RH tubes.
Rapid startups causing reheater to reach temperature Check startup probe and that initial gas is limited to 1000F Modify startup procedures if feasible.
before full steam flow (538C) prior to RH flow.

Steam-Touched Tubes

Root Causes Related to Fuel Factors Evaluate coal composition using corrosivity index. As in primary list above (repairs, followed by long-term actions).
Use of, or change to, fuel with corrosive ash, Analysis for low melting point of ash components using probes.
particularly those with high S, Na, K, or Cl Analysis of metallurgical cross-sections, particularly for Cl, S,
C, Na, and K.
Install continuous readout corrosion sensors if unit switches
coal or uses spot market coal
Root Causes Related to Combustion Choose repair strategy based on severity of corrosion rate.
Implement long-term actions from choices in Figure 45-12 in
conjunction with ongoing program of remaining life assessment
and monitoring
Use of low NOX combustion systems Monitor for levels of O2, CO, H2S, and HCl along damaged or As above, plus:
susceptible locations. Increase combustion air to avoid reducing conditions (however
Establish a combustion fluid dynamics model and use the model to may increase corrosion by other mechanisms, and may
evaluate potential improvements in combustion parameters. adversely affect NOX control).
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Major Root Causes Actions to Confirm Immediate Actions and

Solutions
Use of startup oil, which coats Check for unburnt
the tube and leads to tube startup oil deposits on
carburization tubes.
Excess of unburnt or partially Perform metallurgical Adjust mills to decrease

burnt particles leading to an examination, including grind size.
increase in carburization evaluating carbides, and Increase combustion air to
check for phase avoid reducing conditions
transformations. (however, this may increase
Perform microhardness t corrosion by other
traverses. mechanisms and may
Evaluate carbon profile adversely affect NOX control).
if necessary. Decrease amount of
Check for ferromagnetic sootblowing to help keep
response. oxide layer intact (by
decreasing thermal changes to
tube surface).
Figure 45-11
The linear dependence of corrosion rate on coal chlorine content for UK coals
F = (C x 1.8) + 32) and austenitic steels. 50 nm/hr is approximately 18 mils/yr. Superheater
1nm = 0.00004mils corrosion as a function of coal chlorine content.
1mil = 0.025nm
Source: Gibb, 1983
Steam-Touched Tubes
Table 45-2
Aspect of SH/RH Alert for Other Cycle Actions Indicated

Fireside Corrosion Components
Corrosive coal Potential for waterwall Develop a fireside testing program
fireside corrosion using guidance such as
Potential for back-end provided in the fireside testing
corrosion guidelines (CS-5552, 1988).
Investigate coal changes with
Vista Fuel Quality Impact Model
(Vista, 2006) or equivalent,
including economics evaluation.
Mitigate negative aspects of coal
composition if possible by fuel
switch, blending, or washing
Poor combustion Low unit efficiency Combustion adjustments to

conditions Poor mill performance improve unit efficiency. See
guidance in (CS-5552, 1988).
Correct mill performance.
Figure 45-4
Grooving of the tubes external surface, known as alligator hide, here associated
with coal ash corrosion. The fireside oxide scale and ash deposit have been
removed by glass bead blasting.
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SH/RH Fireside Corrosion (Chapter 46)
Description
The tube will usually be coated with multilayered fireside scale and ash
deposits that typically consist of two layers:
1. A hard, brittle, and porous outer layer, which may have alternating
dark/black/blue and light bands
2. A black, glossy inner layer. If this layer is glassy or shows signs of
having been molten against the tube metal, then a very fast corrosion
rate has probably occurred. The absence of a layer of protective
oxide adjacent to the tube surface is indicative of the fastest corrosion
rates.
Tube wastage will often be evident and manifested as undulations and
unevenness of the tube surface.
Fireside corrosion damage will be primarily distinguished from long-term
overheating by the presence of low melting point ash compounds.
Greatest wall loss will generally be seen in tubes that have been operated Figure 46-1
at the highest temperatures over a period of time.
General appearance of a 9% Cr final superheater tube containing fireside
corrosion deposits (top of the figure) in an oil-fired boiler after 50,000 hours of
service. The bottom of the figure shows a section of tubing having been acid
cleaned to remove the deposits, and the ring section taken through the
cleaned section shows the general appearance of tube wastage on the outside
surface.
Source: J. Hickey, Irish Electricity Supply Board
Steam-Touched Tubes

Corrosion will generally be the worst in the highest temperature locations.
Parts at highest risk therefore include the following:
Leading sides of all tubes in pendant platens, especially hottest (leading)
tubes and steam outlet tubes.
Tubes out of alignment that act as leading tubes.
Tubes in the outlet (final) sections towards the header, because these are at
the highest temperatures.
Just prior to a change of material, e.g., in T22 just prior to the austenitic
material, as the lower Cr content. material may be operating above its
design point.
Wrapper tubes.
Figure 46-4
Tubes that surround a radiant cavity (i.e., they may pick up more heat).
Typical boiler locations where oil ash fireside
At bottom bends of platens, especially those facing the fireball. corrosion can occur.
Tubes with a longer GTL. (GTL is the distance measured along the tube
circuit from the inlet header to the point of corrosion. See long-term
overheating, Chapter 44.)
Spacers and uncooled hangers and the fins and studs on tubes.
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Table 46-5
For All Root Causes of Fireside Corrosion Ash and deposit analysis to identify presence of low melting Choose repair strategy based on severity of corrosion rate.
point constituents, particularly vanadium/vanadium- Implement long-term actions in conjunction with ongoing
sodium and sodium sulfate complexes. program of remaining life assessment and monitoring.
NDE measures (typically UT) to identify wall thinning and
steamside oxide scale buildup.
Oil Composition Monitor oil corrosiveness using corrosion or deposition probes. As above, plus:
Analyze ash deposits. Ongoing consideration of the use of Mg-based additives.
Overheating of Tube
Excessive temperatures caused by steamside oxide NDE of steamside oxide thicknesses. Choose repair strategy based on severity of corrosion rate.
buildup Selective tube sampling and metallurgical analysis to confirm Implement long-term strategy in conjunction with ongoing
steamside oxide and wall thickness. program of remaining life assessment and monitoring.
Monitoring of thermocouples installed across the SH/RH outlet Institute periodic chemical cleaning.
legs in vestibule to identify hottest platens across the boiler.

Steam-Touched Tubes


Excessive temperatures as caused by For high temperature laning: monitor temperatures as in (g) Modify operation to correct the specific problem.
operating conditions, such as the following: above and consider the use of the cold air velocity technique Implement long-term strategy in conjunction with ongoing
High temperature laning of gases (CAVT). Details of the latter can be found in Chapter 21, program of remaining life assessment and monitoring.
Changes in absorption patterns between furnace Volume 1 on fly ash erosion.
and convection sections For reheater overtemperature during start sequences: check
RH overheating because of rapid startups the startup probe and limit temperatures to 538C (1000F)
Tube misalignments prior to RH flow.
Visual inspection can be used to detect tube misalignments.
Operating Factors
Operation with high levels of excess oxygen and/or Check operating logs for typical excess oxygen levels. Modify operating procedures, if economically feasible to reduce
periods of very low excess oxygen levels of excess oxygen.
Implement long-term strategy in conjunction with ongoing
program of remaining life assessment and monitoring.
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Poor sootblowing operations Check sootblowing frequency, effectiveness, and superheat Evaluate whether operating procedures such as sootblowing can
level of blowing medium. be economically changed to protect SH/RH tubes.
Implement long-term strategy in conjunction with ongoing
program of remaining life assessment and monitoring.
Excess of unburnt or partially burnt Particles leading to Perform metallurgical examination, including evaluating carbides, Increase combustion air to avoid reducing conditions (however,
an increase in carburization and check for phase transformations. may increase corrosion by other mechanisms, and may adversely
Perform microhardness traverses. affect NOX control).
If necessary, evaluate carbon profile. Decrease amount of sootblowing to help keep oxide layer intact
Check for ferromagnetic response. (by decreasing thermal changes to tube surface).

Steam-Touched Tubes
Table 46-8
SH/RH Fireside Corrosion Aspect Alert for Other Cycle Components Actions Indicated
Use of additives Mg-based additives can coat the waterwalls of the furnace and Monitor unit for signs of detrimental effects of additives.
cause a reflection of heat into the convective passes. This could
lead in turn to higher temperatures for SH and/or RH tubes
and an increase in boiler tube failures by long-term
overheating (see Chapter 44).
Additives can also cause increased erosion of burner
components and additive transport lines.
Tube overheating because of excessive steamside Potential for additional tube failures by longterm overheating Chemically clean unit if necessary
oxide mechanism.
Exfoliation of scale with subsequent carryover into turbine
could lead to solid particle erosion.
Exfoliation could lead to tube blockage and additional SH/RH
failures by a short-term overheating mechanism (Chapter 48).
Total redesign of the superheater or Would change absorption patterns through the SH/RH Check temperatures in the redesigned and other areas.
reheater sections and may increase temperatures in other sections.
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Dissimilar Metal Weld Failures (Chapter 47)
Description
Macro Features
Thick-edged fractures with signs of low ductility.
Circumferential cracking in the ferritic material.
Located near a dissimilar metal weld.
Formation of an oxide notch on the outside surface of the
tube in the ferritic material.
Flat, featureless fracture surface (typical of induction welds).
Cracking following fusion line (typical of fusion welds).
Failures may be associated with bent tubes or other signs
of overstressing
Figure 47-1
Typical appearance of a cracked dissimilar metal weld.

Steam-Touched Tubes
Table 47-2
Distinguishing Features (Microscopic) of Failures in Fe-Based Stainless Steel and Ni-Base Filler Metals of DMW
Characteristic Iron-Base Stainless Steel Filler Metal Nickel-Base Filler Metal

Location of cracking within HAZ (generally) Along prior austenite grain boundaries approximately 12 Immediately along weld interface associated with carbide
grain diameters from fusion line precipitation and creep cavitation
Carbide morphology Generally Type II Generally Type I
Nature of carbide Diffuse array of smaller carbides Planar array of globular carbides
Do carbides encourage interfacial growth? No Yes
Creep voids associated with this carbide type? No Yes
Carbon activity gradient of filler with ferritic material? Higher than for Ni-base fillers Lower than Fe-base fillers
Thermal expansion with ferritic materials Along prior austenite grain boundaries approximately 12 Immediately along weld interface associated with carbide
grain diameters from fusion line precipitation and creep cavitation
Time to final failure Generally Type II Generally Type I
Note: Induction-welded DMW will have similar properties to those listed for Fe-based fusion welds above.
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Figure 47-2
Typical cross-sectional appearance of a dissimilar Figure 47-4
metal weld failure after longtime boiler service. This Detailed metallographic appearance of cracking
example is a DMW with stainless steel filler metal. along the weld fusion line associated with a line of
Note the oxide notch on the OD and the carbides. This is typically observed in dissimilar
intergranular cracking adjacent to the weld line. Figure 47-3 metal welds made with nickel-base filler metals.
Further detail of the intergranular creep cracking
Source: TR-102433, 1993
adjacent to a pressure weld. Note that the cracking
is oriented normal to the hoop stress.
Source: D. French

Steam-Touched Tubes

Dissimilar metal welds (DMW) between ferritic steels and austenitic stainless steels.
Welds made by induction process have properties similar to those for fusion welding with austenitic filler.
DMW are more suceptible to failure than like material welds due to the following differences:
Thermal expansion
Creep behavior of the joined materials
Local metallurgical cchanges at the low alloy to weld metal interface
DMW are located in the superheater, reheater, vestibule, and penthouse regions of the boiler.
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Table 47-4

Excessive tube stresses such as caused by improper Visual examination of the unit to determine whether there are Determine the extent of damage through (i) visual examination
initial design or improper tube supports suspect locations or evidence of a problem such as bent tubes, to detect adjacent locations with obvious signs of distress, (ii)
Locating the DMW near the roof, furnace wall, or warpage of tubes, misalignment, or missing or broken specialized radiography, (iii) oxide scale measurements and
other fixed points or near to the header supports. analysis, and (iv) selective sampling as required for confirmation.
Weld placement in the middle of a long span Perform a stress analysis of suspect locations. Piping stress Repair damaged locations using either a shop welded
Inadequate allowance for thermal expansion codes can be used to determine both primary and secondary dutchman (preferred) or in situ weld repair with nickel-base
Support failures or slag accumulation leading to stresses. filler metal.
constraint of thermal expansion Implement additional weld changes: (i) optimize weld geometry,
(ii) make welds in vertical runs not horizontal runs of tubing, and
(iii) avoid post-weld heat treatment
Excessive local tube temperatures Conduct a GTL analysis up to the DMW. As above.
Tube temperatures above those anticipated in the Review of available vestibule thermocouple data for indications
design of overheating.
Variation across the SH/RH Perform oxide scale thickness evaluation, including ultrasonic
measurement, and analysis of results.
Changes in unit operation Review operating records with an eye toward conditions that As above.
To increased unit cycling may have increased either tube stresses or temperatures.
Change of fuel causing increased tube
temperatures
Redesign of adjacent SH/RH that results in higher
tube service temperature

Steam-Touched Tubes

Initial fabrication defects Metallographic samples should be used to evaluate whether As above.
initial weld defects, such as incomplete fusion or lack of
penetration, are a contributing cause.
Table 47-5
DMW Aspect Alert for Other Cycle Components Actions Indicated

Tubes are being subjected to temperatures in excess of Possibility of additional tube failures by mechanisms such as Evaluate sources of overheating and determine what control
those that were expected by the design. long-term overheating/creep (Chapter 44) or fireside measures are possible to prevent future failures.
corrosion (Chapter 45 or 46) Consider installation of additional thermocouples or instituting
periodic oxide scale surveys via UT to monitor tube
temperature progression.
Redesign of SH/RH has changed absorption pattern Potential for overheating in other sections, which might Ensure that the locations of DMW are known and that the
within convective pass. include a DMW ramifications to them by any redesign of an adjacent SH/RH
section are known.
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Short-Term Overheating in SH/RH Tubing (Chapter 48)
Description
Macro Features
Visual appearance can be misleading.
Tube swelling and fish-mouth rupture are much less distinct than observed in non-finned tubes.
Typically a thin-edged, ductile final failure.
Failures can appear as pinhole leaks.
Micro Features
Fracture mode will typically be transgranular creep.
If the short-term overheating temperature is less than the lower critical temperature of the metal (subcritical), the microstructure wil exhibit ferrite and
moderate to severely spheroidized carbides in ferritic tubing. In HRSGs without auxillary firing, only subcritical short-term overheating is possible.
Overheating at temperatures above the lower critical temperature but less than the upper critical temperature (intercritical) will be indicated by transformation of
the orignal pearlite, bainite, or martensite to austenite. Localized regions of transformation products indciate flame impingement or localized fluid side deposits.
Gradulal change in microstructure indicates inadequate fluid flow or other causes were active.
Supercritical overheating (temperature greater than upper critical temperature) will cause essentially the entire microstructure to transform to austenite

Steam-Touched Tubes

Locations susceptible to short-term overheating include:
Tubing downstream of bends and other locations where exfoliated debris,
condensate, etc. can accumulate and cause a blockage
Tubing nearest to the gas inlet, especially for supplementally fired units
Figure 48-2
Fish-mouth appearance typical of failures by short-term overheating.
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Table 48-2
Tube Blockage Caused by Exfoliated Oxide in SH Remove damaged tube to confirm source of blockage. NDE to determine blocked tubes.
tubes Metallurgical examination may be required. See Chapter 12, Removal of bends with blockages.
Volume 1, for an overview of such techniques. Blow out debris and replace tubes or, if solid, remove bends and
Examine for signs of exfoliation in unit, such as outbreaks of replace tubing.
SPE in the turbine. An interim solution can be to change operating procedures to
Perform NDE, such as radiography, for other locations of limit temperature transients if the problem is exfoliation in
similar blockage. austenitic material; especially important is to minimize forced or
For austenitic materials, a hand-held magnet will detect spalled rapid cooldowns.
oxide in bends. Increase frequency of cooldowns so as to trigger more frequent
exfoliations of less quantity of material (for units that run for long
periods of time without shutdown).
Maintenance-Induced Short- Term

Overheating in SH or RH
Improper chemical cleaning: Remove damaged tube to confirm source of blockage. As above for tube blockages, plus:
Of SH/RH: poor flushing procedures left deposits Metallurgical examination may be required. See Chapter 12, Clean out tubes and remove source of blockages
in bends. Volume 1, for an overview of such techniques.
Of waterwalls: volatility of chemicals getting into Review chemical cleaning procedures. See Chapter 9,
SH circuits or poor backfilling of SH. Volume 1, for additional discussion.

Steam-Touched Tubes

Improper repairs, miscellaneous maintenance Review repair records and correlate to locations of failures. Replace tubing.
shortcomings
Operation-Induced Short-Term
Overheating in SH or RH
Improper shutdown and startup of unit (condensate Check thermocouples in outlet; determine whether tubes are Replace tubing.
collection in SH/RH bends running cold because of no flow.
Review shutdown procedures; determine whether proper
procedures have been employed to boil out any condensate.
Overfiring when a top feedwater heater is out of Review operating logs of feedwater heater operation and Replace tubing and perform NDE of adjacent areas.
service service.
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Figure 48-4
Bottom bend and debris causing blockage in a conventional unit.
Source: Austra Electric, Australia

Steam-Touched Tubes
Table 48-3
Short-Term Overheating Aspect Alert for Other Cycle Components Actions Indicated
Presence of thick and exfoliating oxide Potential for solid particle erosion damage to begin in turbine Chemical cleaning of boiler. See Chapter 9, Volume 1.
components. Remnant life assessment using oxide technique.
Potential for long-term overheating of SH/RH tubes and loss of
tube life.
Figure 48-10
Appearance of thick-section fish-mouth failure in Type 304 superheater tube.
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Stress Corrosion Cracking in Steam-Touched Contributing Causes/Susceptible Components
More often occurs in austenitic stainless steels.
Tubes (Chapter 49) Typical locations are those with potential for highest concentration of
Description contaminants, such as bends and low spots in straight tubing where
condensate can form during shutdown.
Macro Features
High stress locations, such as bends, welds, tube attachments, supports
Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) fractures are typically thick-edged, brittle or spacers, and near welds where a change of thickness occurs are
failures. susceptible.
May ofter involve blowout of small window-type pieces.
May be a pinhole leak.
Cracking will form perpendicular to ddominant stress and may have
significant branching.
Can initiate on ID or OD of tube.
Micro Features
Crack propagation can be transgranular or intergranular.
Transgranular cracking often exhibits branching.

Steam-Touched Tubes
Figure 49-1
Cracking of SA-213 Type 304H base material near the edge of a weld backing
bar in a dissimilar metal weld joint. This tube contained through-wall cracks
after a few weeks of service. The corrodent causing the cracking was suspected Figure 49-2
to be a petroleum-based preservative which was not effectively flushed from Intergranular stress corrosion cracking (IGSCC) of an SA-213 Type 304H reheater
the weld backing rings prior to service. tube. Away from the rupture, the IGSCC was limited to the tubes inside surface.
Source: TR-102433, 1993 Carryover of chlorides was believed to have been the corrodent responsible for
the cracking.
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Table 49-1
Influence of environment, mainly contamination from: Analyze steamside fracture surfaces and oxide deposits for Institute repair and replacement as required.
Carryover of chlorides or sulfates from the presence of contaminant species such as chlorides. Clean up sources of contamination, if possible. For example,
chemical cleaning of waterwalls Analyze fireside deposits for indications of aggressive reclean SH/RH circuits if improper flushing of solvents
Boiler water carryover corrodents. is underlying cause.
Volatile carryover of sulfur- Review chemistry records, monitoring records, etc. for
containingcompounds indication of source of contamination. Perform carryover test.
Introduction of high levels of caustic from See main text for additional discussion on this point.
desuperheating or attemperator spray Review recent chemical cleaning operations, either
Condenser cooling water constituents from a waterwalls or SH/RH circuits, for potential sources of
condenser leak contamination.
Fireside contaminants such as polythionic acid Review polisher operation for leakage of chloride and/or
Ingress of flue gas environment into tube through sulfate.
primary failure, especially in RH when vacuum is
drawn

Steam-Touched Tubes

Sulfate and chloride leakage from condensate

polishers
Influence of Excessive Stresses Visual examination for signs of obvious distress, such as broken or Repair any obvious contributors to excess stress levels.
Fabrication/welding/heat treatment residual missing attachments or supports, etc. Ensure that any redesign of supports, etc. will actually lower the
stresses Review manufacturing process details to evaluate whether imposed stress.
Service stresses, especially at attachments and proper heat treatment/annealing procedures were used.
supports Review field welding procedures for details of post-weld heat
treatment.
Influence of Susceptible Material Perform a metallurgical examination to determine whether Consider replacement of material with a stabilized grade of
Tube materials which can sensitize during service sensitization developed in service or was present as a stainless steel.
(Type 300 stainless steels) result of the fabrication process used.
Test the material for baseline susceptibility using ASTM
Standard Practice A262.
Analyze the chemical composition of the failed material to
see if the proper material was used.
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Contamination that has caused SCC in the SH or RH tubes may cause significant damage to other parts of the unit, especially the steam turbine
Figure 49-3
View of the top tubes on the upper bank of the reheater showing the failure,
which was located in an area away from stress concentrations (such as welds or
bends).
Figure 49-4
Closeup view of the damaged location indicating the window-type blowout of
a section of tube.

Steam-Touched Tubes
Sootblower Erosion in SH/RH Tubes Potential Ramifications

(Chapter 50)
Description
Wall thinning caused by external tube surface wastage
Little or no ash deposits or protective oxide on the tube
Appearance of gouges on external tube surface where eddying of the
stream occurs between adjacent tub
Wastage flats on the tube surface from the direction of impact from the
sootblower with severity of wastage decreasing with distance from the
sootblower
Formation of fresh rust only a few hours after boiler washing

Typical failure locations for sootblower erosion in the SH/RH include those
that:
Are the first tubes in from the wall entrance of the retractable blowers.
Are in the direct path of the retractable blowers. Figure 50-1
Superheater tube that failed because of sootblower erosion. Note wastage flats
and absence of ash deposits.
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Table 50-2
Improper Maintenance of Sootblowers such as: Use visual examination to determine location and obvious Evaluate the extent of wall thinning and erosion damage to
Incorrect setting and confirmation of blowing maintenance shortcomings or blower problems. determine whether repairs or replacements are required.
temperature (insufficient superheat) Measure key parameters such as: Execute the applicable repairs or replacements.
Improper operation and maintenance of moisture Blowing temperature and pressure Avoid the use of temporary measures such as pad welding,
traps Operation of moisture traps shielding, and/or coatings unless they are absolutely required to
Misalignment of sootblower get the unit to the next scheduled outage.
Repair sootblower inadequacies or maintenance shortcomings.
Improper Operation of Sootblowers such as: As above, plus measure key operating parameters such as As above.
Condensate in blowing media checking travel and sequence times.
Excessive sootblowing pressures
Improper location of sootblower
Malfunction of sootblower
Excessive sootblowing

Steam-Touched Tubes
Explosive Cleaning Damage in SH/RH (Chapter 51)

Description
Explosive cleaning used in cases of extreme ash deposition on the gas passages of superheater pendent sections.
Explosive impact can induce high strains in the metal leading to immediate brittle fracture failure or to progressive degradation of the base metal
resulting in failure during subsequent cleaning.
May cause exfoliation of tube ID scales that could lead to short-term overheating (Chapter 48).

Recommended that ash deposition problems be resolved prior to reaching point at which explosive cleaning is required.
As a minimum, utilities using explosive cleaning processes need to have specifications in place to detail the allowable practices.
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Figure 51-1
Longitudinal split in the superheat pendent tube.
Figure 51-2
Closeup of the split showing the thick-edged
fracture surface.
Figure 51-3
Cross-section through the leak. No significant wall
thinning or tube deformation was present.

Steam-Touched Tubes
Thermal-Mechanical and Vibration-Induced Failures in bends, particularly U-bends, can be initiated on the intrados,
extrados, or neutral axis.
Fatigue in Steam-Touched Tubes (Chapter 52) Failures in U-bends usually occur in the cooler (below creep temperature)
regions of the primary SH or RH.
Description
Macro Features
Thick-edged failures.
Circumferential cracking initiated on OD.
Appearance of beach marks is typical, but they may be obliterated by oxidation.
Micro Features
Predominately straight transgranular cracks.
Cracking may be intergranular when occurring in creep-damaged materials.
Depending on service conditions, the cracks may be filled with oxides.
Typical locations for fatigue failure include:
Attachments, particularly solid attachments or jammed sliding attachments
Bends in tubing Figure 52-1
Often associated with welds, particularly where the weld or condition of Thermal-mechanical fatigue failure of an SA 213 Type 304H superheater tube.
the attachment does not allow for thermal expansion. The portion of the rupture that is missing was believed to have contained a
welded attachment clip.
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Table 52-1
Excessive strains caused by constraint of thermal Visual examination for distortion or bending in adjacent tubes. Identify similar damaged locations.
expansion. Strain gauging of suspect locations to evaluate strains during Repair/replace affected tubes.
unit starts and cycling operation.
Poor design and/or manufacture giving rise to Strain gauging to measure actual strains experienced at the As above
excessive mechanical stresses. local area during operation.
For tight, hairpin bends, determine whether residual stresses
are high.
Vibration (flue-gas-induced) by direct flow or vortex Metallurgical examination to confirm high cycle fatigue. As above
shedding. Estimate natural and forcing frequencies and confirm by test.
Poor welding, particularly poor geometry of final Visual and microscopic examination of weld quality. As above
joint.
Steam-Touched Tubes
Figure 52-3
Three possible locations for tubing-related fatigue failures in tight 180 bends.
Figure 52-2
Schematic showing typical locations of fatigue failures in steam-touched
tubing.
Source: Dooley, 1983
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Figure 52-5
Schematic illustrating failures due to inflexibility of movement between steam
header and waterwall.
Figure 52-4
Fatigue tube failures caused by differential thermal expansion of element
transfer tubes on a header.
Source: Sylvester, 1978

Steam-Touched Tubes
Rubbing/Fretting (Chapter 57)

Description
Smooth wastage flats on the fireside of the tube; ash and fireside oxide scale may be missing.
Rubbed area may exhibit a concave shape that matches the profile of the adjacent tube.
Occurs where adjacent tubes come into direct metal-to-metal contact. Metal loss results from rubbing/fretting and be accelerated oxidation of the tube
surface where the protective iron oxide is removed by the rubbing/fretting.

Root causes may include (i) misaligned, nonfucntioning, broken, or inadequate tube supports or (ii) misaligned rubbing.
Repair or replace damaged tube.
Repair or replace defective or inadequate supports and correction misalignment.
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Region of a tube surface where rubbing occurred (arrow). Note the smooth Side view of the rubbed area. Note the concave surface formed as a result of
appearance and absence of a fireside scale in this region. (MAG: 1.3X) the rubbing. (MAG: 1.3X)
Source: TR-102433, 1993 Source: TR-102433, 1993

Steam-Touched Tubes
Pitting in Steam-Touched Tubes (Chapter 58)

Description
Pitting is associated with exposure to stagnant, oxygen-saturated water formed during shutdown.
Pits can be numerous and closely spaced or isolated.
Pits usually covered with caps of corrosion product (tubercles or nodules).
Pits may undercut the tube surface.
Figure 58-1, Figure 58-2

Superheater inlet heater drain with a failure at the neutral
axis. The tube was resting flat on a horizontal support at
this location resulting in oxygen-saturated water remaining
in the tube during shutdown periods of the unit. Typical
pitting on the ID surface of the tube is shown at the right.
Source: J. Hickey, Irish Electricity Supply Board
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Pitting occurs in any component that is intended to be dry but is subject to incomplete draining or condensation accumulation, such as the bottoms of
pendent loops.
Improper shutdown/layup procedures also can lead to problems in other areas, such as feedwater heaters, condenser, and turbine.
Table 58-2
Accumulation of stagnant, oxygenated water with no Analyze corrosion products in and around pitting, specifically Identify damaged locations.
protective environment during shutdown looking for presence of hematite. Replace affected tubes.
Perform critical evaluation of shutdown procedures and of unit Revise shutdown/layup procedures.
condition during shutdown. Check logs of chemistry monitoring
during shutdown.
Carryover of (Ca,Na)2SO4 (Drum and once-through Analyze corrosion products, in this case, specifically looking As above, plus:
boilers) for a confirmation of (Ca,Na)2SO4. Execute any obvious mechanical repairs such as damage to
Review drum condition and operation for carryover. drum furniture, sources of air in leakage, etc.
Review steam composition, particularly evaluating for excesses
of Na, SO4, and Cl.

Steam-Touched Tubes
Graphitization (Chapter 59)

Description
Occurs most commonly in the heat affected zones (HAZ) of welds in carbon or carbon molydenum low alloy steel.
Microscopically, the damage is manisfested by brittle fracture along a line of graphite nodules (often termed chain graphitization) that forms along the
HAZ.
Failure is usually circumferential and parallel to the weld, but it can folllow any line of graphite formation.
Thick-edged, brittle failure.

Most prevalent in the low temperature portions of the superheater and reheater
Can occur over long periods of exposure to temperatures in the range of 450700C (~8401290F)
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Figure 59-2
Closeup of graphitization damage.
Figure 59-1
Failures of tubes by graphitization. Note the almost helical nature of the
fractures.

Steam-Touched Tubes
Table
All causes Metallurgical examination on samples removed from service to Replace or repair damaged tubes.
characterize the appearance of graphitization. Identify those similar locations or welds that may also be at risk
Bend testing of removed samples. Since graphitization results given the failures experienced.
in embrittled material, a bend specimen can be used to
determine qualitatively whether significant damage has
accumulated. A 45 bend at failure is taken as indicative of
severe graphitization damage and a 90 bend of mild
damage.
Fracture toughness testing on miniature specimens removed
from suspect locations. A method to remove small
samples from components for fracture testing using miniature
specimens has been developed (McMinn, 1988). These tests
are harder to apply and interpret than bend testing
but provide a more quantitative approach to flaw tolerance.
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Chemical Cleaning Damage in SH/RH Tubes Potential Ramifications
Exfoliation of steamside oxides not loosened and removed by the
(Chapter 60) chemical cleaning process can lead to solid particle erosion (SPE) in the
turbine.
Description
Generalized corrosion of affected tube surfaces. Oxide scale loosened but not removed can cause SPE or tube blockage
when it releases.
Affected surface can appear as localized jagged, rough, straight-sided,
or undercut pits or as generalized wall thinning that can occur around the Potential for SH/RH short-term overheating due to blockage or long-term
entire tube circumference. overheating (creep) if the scale is not removed.

Improper operations of the chemical cleaning process, including:
Use of inappropriate cleaning agent, inhibitor, or other chemical
Excessively strong acid concentration
Excessively long cleaning times
Too high a temperature
Failure to neutralize, drain, and rinse properly after cleaning

Steam-Touched Tubes
Table
Use of an inappropriate cleaning solvent. Review of chemical cleaning procedures,chemical pumping Repairing or replacing the damaged tubes
Excessively strong acid concentration. systems, and chemical control logs. Items of particular concern Immediate chemical cleaning followed by proper neutralizing
Excessively long cleaning times. are those listed above, which would lead to significant and rinsing
Too high a temperature. damage.
Failure to neutralize, drain, and rinse Review of cycle chemistry monitoring records to detect a
after cleaning. pH depression on startup of the unit after cleaning, indicating
Failure to monitor Fe levels during the cleaning. improper rinsing of acid from the unit.
Fe levels were monitored but did not Sampling of affected tubes to allow examination of the inside
level out during the cleaning. surface for evidence of generalized corrosion. Part of an
Breakdown of inhibitors as a result of temperature optimized procedure for chemical cleaning will be sampling
excursions. of selected tubes to confirm the efficacy of the cleaning
process. These samples can be used to determine whether
excessive damage has accumulated. Wall thickness
measurements can provide a quick screening as to whether
excessive tube corrosion has occurred.
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Maintenance Damage (Chapter 61) Quality control measures such as (i) preparation of cleaning procedures
and (ii) training of personnel can minimize the possibility of damage
Description and Contributing Causes occurring during the maintenance procedure.
Tube damage can be introduced during the maintenance activity, mostly as Inspection of tubing following cleaning and testing for integrity, such as with
a result of the maintenance cleaning of the gas side of the tubing. hydrostatic testing, are recommended.
Typical of the damage that can be done to tubing during maintenance
operations are as follows:
Wall thinning by excessive application of high pressure steam, water, or
abrasive slurries used in the cleaning process
Impacts to tubes from projectiles
Damage to tubes by mishandled or improperly applied tools
Damage incurred during a repair

If damage is found immediately following the suspect maintenance, then
the confirmation of root cause is straightforward; it is done by comparing
the tube damage to type of equipment or process used in the recently
completed maintenance. Damage found some time later may take
somewhat more analysis to tie it back to a prior operation.
Figure 61-1
Repair and replacement decisions will depend on the severity of the
damage. Cracks and punctures will require immediate repair. Gouges, Cross-section of a tube near a rupture; deformation was caused by the impact
dents, or thinned tubes should be subjected to a fitness-for-service evaluation of an explosive charge.
on a case-by-case basis. Source: TR-102433, 1993

Steam-Touched Tubes
Material and Manufacturing Flaws (Chapter 62)

Description and Contributing Causes
Examples of material flaws include such possibilities as:
Defects introduced into the tube during its manufacture, fabrication, storage, and/or installation. Such defects might include (CS-3945, 1985):
Forging laps.
Inclusions or laminations in the metal.
Lack of fusion of the welded seams.
Deep tool marks or scores from tube piercing, extrusion, or rolling operations.
Gouges, punctures, corrosion, or impact dents.
Use of the wrong tube material caused by errors in design, supply, storage, and stockroom exchange or issue.
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Examples of manufacturing flaws include the following:
Fabrication lap - may include such features as orientation in the tubes
forming direction rather than perpendicular to the tube service stress,
decarburization and/or inclusions along the lap surface, branching, and
secondary laps along the tube length. Stress corrosion cracking of U-bends
caused by inadequate heat treatment - Excessive residual stresses originating
from manufacturing of u-bends in SH wrapper tubes made of Type 347 H led
to failures by stress corrosion cracking. The solution annealing heat treatment
was inadequate for completely relieving the tensile stresses that originated in
the bending process.
Unfused membrane weld - during manufacture, if the process leaves
unfused material between the fin and tube surface, small initial cracks
are introduced by the lack-of-fusion or introduced into the martensitic
heat-affected zone during lifting of the panels during manufacture. These
cracks propagate in service and result in a window pane failure where
the failure occurs along the membrane line. The affected tube areas are
large and can result in a significant release of water or steam on final Figure 62-5
rupture. The problem is overcome by using full penetration fusion welds.
Materials flaws can be introduced by the original fabrication process. Here an
electric resistance weld used to join a tube to a membrane results in a lack of
fusion region. Subsequent handling during manufacture can introduce cracks
in the weld heat-affected zone (HAZ), which has a martensitic zone.
Source: Flatley, 1995

Steam-Touched Tubes
Welding Defects (Chapter 63)

Table 63-1
Welding Practices as Contributors to Various Tube Failures
Welding/Repair Practice/Problem Potential Tube Failure
Weld spatter or cutting debris left in tubes; improperly executed weld repairs that leave Tube blockage leading to short-term overheating failures in SH/RH tubes (Chapter 48)
material in tubes.
Stress riser caused by the toe of a fillet weld or improper geometry to a weld repair. Mechanical fatigue failures near tubing attachments in SH/RH tubes (Chapter 52)
Weld and attachment design can lead to constraint of thermal stresses and is a contributor to Contributor to excessive stresses that can cause mehanical fatigue (Chapter 52)
tube failure.
Improperly executed induction pressure welds between dissimilar metals in SH/RH. Direct cause of dissimilar metal weld failures (Chapter 47)
Welding procedures can lead to sensitization of material, or weld defects act as an initiation Stress corrosion cracking (Chapter 49)
site for stress corrosion cracking
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Generally, planar or sharp defects such as cracks, lamellar tears, lack-of-fusion, and lack-of-penetration are the most likely to grow into cracks and propagate to
final failure, particularly in the high residual stress fields that remain after the welding process.
Often, metallurgical analysis is needed to determine whether a welding problem has been at the root cause of a tube failure. A review of the welding
process, welder qualification records, inspection records, and weld material control reports may also provide an indication about whether a weld process
error is responsible for an observed failure.
Avoiding Weld-Related Damage

Detection of a weld shortcoming, once the joint has been placed in service, is difficult. Avoiding weld failures is therefore mostly preventive.
Solution of welding-defect-induced tube failures will consist of removing the problem areas and re-welding with proper techniques. References for welding
in conventional units (1004701, 2003) have been developed.

Steam-Touched Tubes
Figure 63-2
Example of a poorly
executed pad weld, which
led to tube failure.
Figure 63-1
Example of a pad weld made on a tube with corrosion fatigue; the process
extended the corrosion fatigue crack.
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BTF Issues in Bubbling Bed FBCs (Chapter 64)
Table 64-1
Overview of Boiler Tubing Failure Mechanisms in Bubbling Bed Fluidized-Bed Combustors
Mechanism Prevalence to Date For More Information, Refer to:

Wastage of in-bed tubes Major industry concern; severity highly variable between units; Chapter 64 (this chapter).
mitigation options established
Underdeposit corrosion (internal), Several incidences known, including tube leaks in as short a Discussed in this chapter, see also primary discussions in caustic
particularly caustic gouging and hydrogen damage period as 500 hours of operation gouging (Chapter 24, Volume 2) and acid phosphate corrosion
(Chapter 23, Volume 2).
Fretting Few incidences reported to date Tube rubbing/fretting (Chapter 57).
Corrosion in austenitic tubing of superheaters and None known to date; potential ramification to consider if caustic
reheaters is used
Corrosion fatigue Concern based on knowledge of conventional plant and See chapter on corrosion fatigue (Chapter 19, Volume 2).
similarities with aspects of FBC designs.
Fly ash erosion of convective steam sections A few incidences known in non-coal-fired (agricultural waste) units. Fly ash erosion (Chapter 21, Volume 2).

Steam-Touched Tubes
Figure 64-1
Schematic of a bubbling-bed boiler. Figure 64-2
A horizontal bottom tube from an atmospheric fluidized bed. The tube
Source: J. Makansi, Special Report: Fluidized Bed Boilers, Power,
experienced caustic corrosion at the 12 oclock position due to steam
March 1991. Reproduced with permission.
blanketing and additional heat transfer through the top rib. Tube leaks occurred
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Table 64-2
Mechanism: In-Bed Wastage of FBC Tubes
Susceptible material Visual and UT inspection to determine extent of problem. Upgrade material by armoring.
Upgrade material through chromizing, nitriding, or other surface
protection, alone or in conjunction with armoring.
Fuel factors Evaluate ash and erosive/abrasive content of fuel. Compare to Determine quartz content and assess fuels erosive/abrasive
Excessively hard particles design coal. potential.
Excessively angular or sharp-edged Metallographic analysis of tube deposits and bed materials
particles may provide indicators of key contaminants.
High chlorine content
High alkali contents
Local jetting or flow characteristics that result from Determine whether there has been a change in pressure drop
blockage of air distributor nozzles and/or from across the air distributor plate,or across the bed as a whole
agglomeration of particles in the bed (depends on what instrumentation is used).

Steam-Touched Tubes
Table 64-3
Mechanism: Underdeposit Corrosion in the In-Bed Tubes of FBC Units
Excessive deposits due to steam blanketing Analysis of results from chemistry monitors, mainly for levels of Chemically clean to remove excessive levels of deposits. See
Fe and Cu. guidance in (1003994, 2001) and summary in Chapter 9,
NDE examination and selective sampling of tubes for deposit Volume 1.
measurements.
Check efficacy of chemical cleaning.
Check circulation ratio and confirm that tube flows are outside
regime of DNB.
Perform metallurgical analysis of tube samples to determine
nature and extent of tube deposits.
Underdeposit corrosion: influence of poor water Perform metallurgical examination of damaged tubes, As above, plus:
chemistry particularly to determine composition of deposits. - Move to optimum cycle chemistry as detailed in (1004187,
Contaminated ingress Analyze cycle chemistry data: plant chemistry control logs, 2002; 1004188, 2004)
Use of mono- or di-sodium phosphate on-line cycle chemistry records, chemical additions to boiler,
Use of an excess of caustic and instrumentation alarms.
See appropriate chapters; otherwise there are none for these mechanisms.
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BTF Issues in Circulating Bed FBCs (Chapter 65)
Table 65-1
Overview of Boiler Tubing Failure Mechanisms in Circulating Bed Fluidized-Bed Combustors
Mechanism Prevalence to Date For More Information, Refer to:
Underdeposit corrosion in horizontal tubes of external Some occurrences in external heat exchangers Same mechanism in BFB units; also chapters on underdeposit
heat exchangers or cyclone separators in some corrosion in conventional plants, particularly hydrogen damage
designs (Chapter 22, Volume 2), acid phosphate corrosion (Chapter 23),
and caustic gouging (Chapter 24).
Wastage on waterwall tubes at the refractory lining Most prevalent material loss mechanism Main text in this chapter (Chapter 64).
Fly ash erosion of tubes in convection Has also occurred with agricultural waste-fired units See discussion of fly ash erosion in Chapter 21, Volume 2.
steam sections
Corrosion fatigue Concern based on knowledge of conventional plants and See Chapter 19, Volume 2, on corrosion fatigue.
similarities with aspects of FBC designs, especially if pH
depressions occur in units on phosphate treatment with hideout
and return

Steam-Touched Tubes

Two problems have been found in CFB units that are somewhat different from those in conventional plants:
Erosion/abrasion on waterwall tubes, particularly at the interface between the refractory lining on the lower portions of the bed and the waterwall tube
panels
Wear has, in some cases, been extremely rapid, e.g., maximum loss rates up to 1800 mils per year (5200 nm/hr).
Because the problem is not uniform around the walls, inspections to determine the extent of damage must be as comprehensive as possible.
Corrective/preventive acitons have included (i) applying proprietary coatings, (ii) installing shelves above the refractory interface, (iii) reducing the
angle of the tapered region, and (iv) routing the affected tubes outside of the bed.
Potential for damage to external heat exchangers or in the cyclone separator by mechanisms such as wastage, fretting, and fatigue; a particular concern
is waterside corrosion in CFB units with horizontal tubes in these areas.
The potential for horizontal tubing to develop excessive deposits and for concentration of control chemicals (caustic or phosphates) within the deposits
has been extensively discussed in Chapter 64 on BFB. The mechanism, root causes and actions for preventing the development of underdeposit
corrosion in susceptible CFB locations are identical.
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Figure 65-2
Typical wear pattern on the waterwall
above the refractory lining in
circulating fluidized-bed units.
Source: Stringer, 1991
Figure 65-1
General schematic of a circulating fluidized bed.
Adapted from E. Bretz, Power, 133, No. 3, 1989, p. W-8. Reproduced
with permission.

Steam-Touched Tubes
BTF Issues in Waste-to-Energy Units Steam-Touched Tubes

(Chapter 66) Fireside corrosion caused by low-melting-point chlorides and sulfates*
Fireside corrosion by combustion gases*
Description and Contributing Causes Erosion from excessive sootblowing required by slagging of superheater
Fuel composition in waste-to-energy (WTE) units has a major impact on tubes*
the nature and extent of tube failures. Fouling that results in flow-channeling, high local velocities, and
High levels of chlorine (from PVC and NaCl), as well as alkalis such subsequently to excessive erosion rates*
as Pb, Zn and Sn can lead to formation of aggressively corrosive low Flame impingement from furnace in older units with short furnace zones
melting point compounds.
Pitting (external) from aqueous corrosion during unit downtime
Non-optimal (either oxidizing or substoichiometric) combustion conditions
caused by the diverse nature of the fuel exacerbates the fireside corrosion Notes:
problems. Some examples include: 1. * Indicates mechanisms that are specifically discussed in Chapter 66.
Water-Touched Tubes 2. Not all designs have all these problems; some of the problems are also
Waterwall thinning along grate line from mechanical wear/corrosion* specific to older designs, and prevention has been achieved by various
approaches
Mechanical wear from molten aluminum
Wastage from direct flame impingement on waterwalls
Fireside corrosion caused by low-melting-point chlorides and sulfates*
Fireside corrosion by combustion gases*
Erosion caused by high local velocities and carryover of particles
(economizer)*
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Figure 66-3
Failure in a 57 mm (2.25 in.) O.D. furnace wall tube
from an RDF-fired boiler showing localized thinning
caused by fireside corrosion.
Source: TR-103658, 1994
Figure 66-1
Schematic of a waste-to-energy combustor
illustrating the typical areas that experience boiler
tube failures.
Figure 66-2
Source: Wright, 1995
Waterwall tubes from a waste-fired boiler showing
thinning from fireside corrosion.
Source: TR-103658, 1994

EPRI Field Guide For Boiler Tube Failures

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ELECTRIC POWER

Field Guide: Boiler Tube Failure

Final Report, December 2009

EPRI Project Managers

3. TUBE FAILURE MECHANISMS 7

Screening Table for Water-Touched Boiler Tube Failures (Chapter 2)

Table 2-1 (continued)

Table 2-1 (continued)

Table 2-1 (continued)

Depends on defect Materials Flaws Chap. 62,

Contributing Causes/Susceptible Components Figure 19-32

Major Root Causes Actions to Confirm Immediate Actions and Solutions

Table 19-4 (continued)

Major Root Causes Actions to Confirm Immediate Actions and Solutions

Major Root Causes Actions to Confirm Immediate Actions and Solutions

Corrosion Fatigue Aspect Alert for Other Cycle Components

Fly Ash Erosion (Chapter 21)

Figure 21-1a, Figure 21-1b

Contributing Causes/Susceptible Components

Controllable* Factors Constant* Factors

Fuel and fly ash composition Temperature profile

Gas flow rate Pressure part arrangement

Ash flux Tube material properties

Economizer / Superheater / Reheater

Leading edges of all tubes Roof and back wall

Adjacent to sootblower runs

Table 21-1 (continued) Figure 21-5

Top of rear wall where gases change direction to rear pass

Where misalignment or ash plugging of pendant tubes occurs near waterwall.

Waterwall circuits in the back pass, especially the following:

Around wall blowers

Major Root Causes Actions to Confirm Immediate Actions and Solutions

Table 21-4 (continued)

Major Root Causes Actions to Confirm Immediate Actions and Solutions

Major Root Causes Actions to Confirm Immediate Actions and Solutions

Potential ramifications include the possibility of redirecting the flow of air or

Welded joints and welding processes

Locations with existing internal deposits caused by

Table 22-2 (continued)

Locations with a high heat flux/transfer

Locations where boiling first initiates

Locations with thermal-hydraulic flow disruptions

Locations with local very high steam quality

Figure 22-4a, Figure 22-4b

Major Root Causes Actions to Confirm Immediate Actions and Solutions

Table 22-3 (continued)

Major Root Causes Actions to Confirm Immediate Actions and Solutions

Source: Lamping, 1991

Attack rate Rapid: up to 2 mm/yr (0.08 in./yr).

Welded joints and welding processes, such as the following:

Locations with existing internal deposits caused by the following:

Geometric features, including the following:

Table 23-2 (continued)

Locations where boiling first initiates

Locations with thermal-hydraulic flow disruptions

Locations with local very high steam quality

Localized overheating of the tubes (fireside conditions)

Major Root Causes Actions to Confirm Immediate Actions and Solutions

Major Root Causes Actions to Confirm Immediate Actions and Solutions

Caustic Gouging (Chapter 24)

Welded joints and welding processes, including the following:

Locations with existing internal deposits caused by the following:

Geometric features, including the following: