Chapter 1

Introduction: Personal Observations and Perspectives

Most westerners are familiar with Zen Buddhism. Although D.T. Suzukis writings
popularized that order of Buddhist thought in America, Suzuki also had deep interest in Shin
Buddhism and made significant contributions to its study. As you well know, Shin Buddhism
is based on the teachings of Shinran (1173-1263), one of the Kamakura Buddhist leaders who
brought new force and depth to Buddhism 800 years ago in Japan. The center from which this
spiritual movement emanated was ancient Kyoto, and the monasteries on nearby Mt. Hiei.

At the age of 29, after 20 years of strenuous Tendai Buddhist practice and discipline, Shinran
walked out of the monastic life and down into Kyoto, impelled by a sense of utter failure and a
desperate urgency to find a meaning in his life with which he could come to terms with life
itself, and with death. In the considerable number of his writings that have survived, Shinran
speaks to modern man across the bridge of eight centuries. He speaks of the problem of
alienation and the barricades of self-deception built by the ego, of fear and loneliness and
anxieties. He speaks in a new dimension of good and evil and ourselves. His Shinshu
teachings afford a fresh perspective of existential meaning and spiritual depth.

Jean Paul Sartre, the prophet of modern existentialism, ends in despair, accepting life as
absurd. Shinran began with despair, accepted his own absurdity, and his own capacity for self-
deception and evil. He found existential meaning and consequent spiritual breadth and depth
in Amida Buddha. Amida (or Amitabha, Amitayus), is a symbol in the Pure Land Mahayana
Buddhist tradition of the Buddha of limitless life and light who spiritually frees and affirms
life as it is (without the ego barriers of self-deception) and embraces all life with universal
compassion.

Generally speaking, I am a follower of the philosophy expressed in Herman Hesses

Siddartha. Ultimately, we all must learn for ourselves. Some people may help us along the
way, but the task is really ours alone as is also indicated in the stark existential perspective
of Shinran, when he declared to his questioners: It is up to you to decide. Buddhism has the
ideal of the zenchishiki, the good friend who instructs, and it is as the good friend in this
analysis of Shinran, Shinshu and the problems of contemporary life and religion, that I wish to
pool my thoughts and experiences with those which you, the reader, bring to this study. I
hope, in the following chapters, to think along with you concerning how we may understand
Shinshus contribution to the modern world and, more specifically, how Shinrans
interpretation of Buddhism can be made meaningful despite the centuries that intervene
between our lives and his.

There is a difference in the way I, as a convert, approach Shinran. Some may have been raised
in the Honganji (Shinshu) tradition since childhood, in Japan, in Hawaii, in Canada, on the
U.S. Mainland or in South America. Converts such as myself now have Shinshu groups also in
London, Berlin, Brussels, Salzburg, Budapest, Paris, in areas of Switzerland and in Poland.

In my case, I virtually stumbled on Shinran, as if by accident, while I was a deeply committed

Christian of the fundamentalist type, and preparing to become a missionary in Japan. All my
life I had considered Christianity the unique and only true religion. However, that
understanding was shattered as the result of a chance situation in Tokyo during the occupation
period following the end of World War II. I was then teaching English by preaching in a
church. When I spoke of the Christian idea of Grace, the Christian minister interpreted this by
referring to Amida. I had never heard of Amida, and I did not know sufficient Japanese to
inquire. The minister could not speak enough English to clarify the comparison, or to explain
the concept of Amida to me. I was shocked and asked him how anything else could be like
Christianity, but I had to wait years to work out this problem. It later became the basis for my
doctoral study of Shin Buddhism which was published in 1965 under the title Shinrans
Gospel of Pure Grace. (Eventually, my inquiries into the teaching resulted in my personal
commitment and the writing of this study.)

That initial meeting with Shinran in 1946 was also related to personal problems in my life. I
was undergoing a developing sense of failure in my religious life and was really quite
hypocritical. As a known Christian, indeed as a Christian theological student and, later, a
Christian minister, I had to maintain a front with which I was increasingly disenchanted. It is a
complicated story from my childhood, but traditional Christianity tends to inculcate guilt in
various ways, despite the affirmation that one is saved and accepted by God. Consequently, an
individual may form deep self-hatreds, while yet throwing himself or herself more deeply into
religion. As I became more broadly educated in the post-war years, I had the opportunity to
acquire a knowledge of the Japanese language, to study Shinrans writings in their original
form and to come to know many devoted Shinshu people. In this process, I was able to
formulate a more positive understanding of life than I had had previously. I thus became a
convert to Shinrans teaching and this fact will, I feel, account for some differences in my
attitude and perspective, from the attitude and perspective of the Shin Buddhist who has
inherited his faith as a result of family nurture.

Generally, those who inherit a tradition accept the given religious institution as satisfactory
and meaningful for their lives. An inherited tradition is like a pair of old and comfortable
shoes. The religion is intertwined with family and social community and, as a result, there is
usually less tendency to question or even to try to really understand what is given.

The convert, however, tends to focus on the vitalizing experience of the personal encounter
with the teaching. It is not part of ones family or community. The individual must stand alone
justifying to oneself the decisions that have been made. Consequently, ones interest lies more
in the life and experience of the founder who originally set the teaching in motion, than in the
institution which was founded to preserve that teaching. (Of course, without the institution the
teaching might not be preserved.)

Converts are not necessarily anti-institutional, but the motivating force for their involvement
with the institution derives from a deeply personal commitment made on the basis of the
enlightenment given to the person by the teaching. Sometimes, there is a wide gap between the
attitudes of the convert and the members born into the tradition. It is a crucial difference for a
person such as myself, who has found a new truth, when confronted by a member who has
inherited an old truth.

As a convert, I anticipate that members understand and take a stand on the basis of the
teaching. Traditional devotees acknowledge and honor the teaching, but may not feel impelled
to explore it more deeply. They tend to take for granted what excites the person such as myself
in the discovery of Shinshu. As a convert, also, I place my focus on Shinran the person, the
teacher, the Buddhist. As a result of my own study, I feel close to him in my imagination. I
have sometimes tried to visualize what he must have been like in his manner of speech and
attitudes. I feel close to him because he experienced a sense of personal failure and frustration
which I, in my own way, have experienced. Just as he identified with Yuiembo (his disciple
who wrote Tannisho) I believe he would have identified with me in my plight. I feel close to
him, because he was a convert in the deepest sense, in breaking with an age-old tradition of
Buddhist discipline and thought in order to realize his own personal understanding of
Buddhism. It is in this area of my interpretation that I experience some difficulty with
traditional members of Shin Buddhism who believe that they give the essence of Shinrans
view by declaring that he was merely a faithful disciple of Honen. (Or are merely content
with the traditional round of observances and institutional activities, frequently unrelated to
the study of the teachings.)

It is true that Shinran relied on Pure Land tradition and exalted his master Honen, but he was
not at all a slave of that tradition. Rather, he was creative and independent in his use of
tradition to point to deeper dimensions unexplored by earlier teachers. Guided by his own
experience in religious endeavor and practice, and by Honens teachings, he went on to forge a
new tradition or, as Prof. Kenko Futaba has written, he opened new horizons in Buddhism.

Radical means going to the root. It also means redirecting insight. In both ways, Shinran was a
radical in the deepest and best sense of the word. Yet, I have heard people in Honganji assert
that there is nothing radical about Shinran. This view reveals itself in their understanding of
the meaning of religious life when decisions have to be made concerning the future of the
temple.

Some years ago, there was a Shinshu slogan in Hawaii, Let us ask Shinran. I believe we
should not be asking traditional questions in the hope of getting traditional answers. We must
allow Shinran to speak for himself out of his life and the teaching which grew from it. Drawing
on his spirit, we should attempt to open new horizons. Though slogans can generally be trite
and empty, we could hope that the slogan for another year, On this foundation a new
dream, might in the future be nearer to a reality than what has been the case with slogans in
the past.

In any case, trite or real, these slogans express the confidence that Shinran has something to
say which is meaningful for our time. They also suggest that we are prepared to follow his
lead. Shinran becomes the warrant or authority for the position we take in life. Further, when
we focus on Shinran, it is not merely the words he spoke on which we focus, but on his whole
life. In contemporary thought there has developed a great interest in the concept of story.
Every life is a story. Our lives and actions tell a story of the values, convictions, and attitudes
we have. The story is important because it involves a plot, a theme, or a direction which gives
a sense of wholeness to life.

It is significant that myths which tell of the basic values of a community are in story form.
Rather than our lives being merely a disjointed series of unrelated events, the story concept
implies they are all related and hold together. Shinrans life is intermingled with legend.
However, there are sufficient indications from the reality he expresses in his writings, that the
theme of his life was the realization of compassion and a deep abiding concern for the masses
who, like himself, had no hope of achieving Buddhist ideals by following the traditional paths
of discipline and purification. In this study, I shall approach Shinrans life as story from an
existential perspective, that same perspective from which I view religion as a whole.

Existentialism is generally understood to focus on concrete individual existence. The concrete

individual is faced with the daily necessity of deciding what is important for his or her life and
what values are primary in making judgments affecting oneself and others. To live existentially
is to develop an understanding of oneself as a center of value and a focus of reality which
radiates out to others. We are limited, but there is a core of freedom which makes us human.
Even in an extreme situation a person can choose ones attitude can even choose death, an
existential choice illuminated in Victor Frankls Mans Search for Meaning.

Basically, existentialism is the experience of liberation from the domination of circumstance,

whether physical, social, moral or spiritual. Rather than experiencing oneself in a self-
conscious manner, one becomes self-aware. I use the word self-conscious in the distinct sense
of being dominated, controlled by external pressures, a condition whose external signs are
embarrassment and shame. One may visualize oneself as a cog or tool or pawn of reality. It is a
sense of powerlessness.

To become self-aware means to see oneself as an extension of reality into the world with the
potential of joining with others to communicate and realize ones deepest ideals and
aspirations. To live existentially or authentically is also to grasp clearly ones limitations,
weaknesses, and imperfections. It involves the tension of realizing ones powers while yet
knowing ones weaknesses, a tension Shinran acutely describes in Tannisho, chapter 4,
where he discusses the two types of compassion.

Shinran distinguishes self-powered compassion from that of Amida, the compassion of Other
Power or Pure Land compassion. In Tannisho, likewise, Shinrans existential awareness also
appears in the discussion on karma with Yuiembo in chapter 13. Shinrans existential
perspective, as it emerges in Tannisho, helps us to understand the limitations of our lives
while, at the same time, attunes us to a power (reality) which lifts our vision beyond those
limitations. As I see it, the existential approach to religion involves a life strategy. It means to
have a foothold, a standpoint, to take a stand within the stream of life. We may compare it with
an individual crossing a stream, and seeking out the rocks on which he may place his foot to
negotiate the swift current.
In Pure Land Buddhist tradition, the tradition of Honen and Shinran, the type of decision and
resoluteness involved in authentic existence is indicated in Shan Taos (Zendo) story of the
White Path which is frequently told in our temples. The individual confronting the many
challenges of existence must launch out with faith and decisiveness to tread the White Path,
the thin line which always separates us from meaning or chaos.

In such a situation one takes responsibility for ones own existence. Whatever meaning there is
in life and the world, for yourself and others, ultimately rests with you. This has been the
Buddhist message from the beginning when, more than 2,500 years ago, Buddha urged his
disciples to be lamps unto themselves, and not to take refuge in others. His was a call to self-
responsibility, not selfishness.

The Pure Land tradition, including Shinrans teachings, is generally viewed as other-worldly
and relating little to concerns of this life. Over the years, memorials and funerals became the
main activities of the religious community. In Japan, it is today tagged as Funeral Buddhism.
However, close inspection of Shinrans teaching shows him to be more concerned with ones
living in this world once faith is established and ones future destiny is secure. In order to
uncover the essence of Shinrans teaching for our time, a considerable amount of the
traditional perspective must be revised, and the misimpression of Funeral Buddhism
discarded.

To understand Shinshu, to revise the traditional perspective of Shinran and comprehend its
essential relevance to our time, I offer five points to consider in approaching the subject of
religion, and of religious traditions.First,I am a believer in history. Everything must be seen in
its relation to history and the context from which it emerges.Second,I am also a believer in
concrete, personal existence as the central issue of religion and thought. Whatever abstract
ideal or theory we accept must have its roots and relationship in our immediate experience of
life. Third, I believe in metaphysical and philosophical thinking. Metaphysics attempts to
clarify the mystery of existence. It is never complete, but open. Even though few questions
have final solutions, it is necessary to question and explore. It has been said that the
unexamined life is not worth living. Fourth, to me, religion means openness, sharing,
compassion, love, justice, and community. To be open does not mean to be apathetic or
uncritical. Sharing does not mean squandering. Compassion and love are not sentimental
emotions, but fundamental life values. Justice is not legalism; community does not require
conformity.Fifth,as I believe it was in the life of Shinran, tradition should be a stepping stone
to deeper insight and experience, and not a barrier to growth. Tradition should not become
ingrown, but it should be out-growing as it correlates to the ongoing times. Although we
modify a quote of Dr. Radhakrishnan concerning Hinduism, we should consider Buddhism in
the following way: Buddhism is a movement, not a position; a process, not a result; a
growingtradition, not a fixed revelation. [1]

The method I employ in the process of studying religion, and the process I shall use in the
following sessions on Shinshu, is to try to discover the principle of thought which lies behind
an incident or teaching. This principle should then be considered in relation to the Buddhist
tradition which lies in the background. The traditional Buddhist view may reinforce or
contrast with the principle. We may then proceed, after placing it in its proper context, to relate
it to the world of our experience. In relating the principle to our own time, we apply the
principle of extension. This is the Buddhist idea of egifuemon which means not to be bound
to the strict letter, or literal interpretation of Buddhism. Such a process of reinterpretation at
work will be evident in our discussion of the concept of Nembutsu in later chapters.

By extension we mean to apply a teaching to an area that has not previously been considered
as relating to that teaching. To do this, it is important to maintain the consistency of a tradition
within itself. In this, the concept of honi, or original intent, is implicit. Despite differences
between himself and earlier Pure Land Tradition, Shinran is thought to maintain the original
intention or idea of universal salvation of that tradition. Shinrans reformulation of Pure Land
teaching beyond his predecessors is also represented in the distinction of Tradition (dento) and
Personal Insight (kosho).

Pure Land teaching has traditionally been viewed as an individualistic religion of salvation in
another world. It was originally promoted, however, as a teaching which was correlated to the
times and to the nature of being (jikiso). This original intent was carried out by Shinran.
Similarly in our day, we may apply the teaching socially, as well as individually, in order to
correlate it to the demands of our own age. As Shinran did in his lifetime, we may analyze it
for its guidance in issues of present-day life.

It has always been a principle of Buddhism that the Dharma the body of the teachings that
is viewed as the vehicle of insight into the truth corresponds to the needs of beings. This is
the principle behind the compassionate doctrine and method of hoben, or upaya, the device of
tactfulness or as it has sometimes been paradoxically described the lie that tells the truth.

The necessity for religion to be relevant to human needs and concerns is not a new emphasis in
Buddhism, but in countering the tendency of institutionalization to divorce itself from
existential relevance, this Buddhist principle should be recovered as a way to face problems,
rather than avoid them.

Buddhisms comprehensive approach to existence is symbolized in the concept of 84,000

dharmas. This enormous figure is meant to show that every possibility of human perspective
is already a part of Buddhism. No idea is to be rejected, so far as it is true, merely because it
may not have been taught earlier. This is a criticism Mahayana Buddhism had to face in stories
of conflict with conservative monks in the Lotus Sutra. Confucius also was described as a
person who knew how to bring the new out of the old. This is the role of the teacher. He does
not wipe out the past and make his own system. Instead, he contemplates the resources of the
past and brings to light new approaches and perspectives. This to me is what Shinran
accomplished. I, of course, am not Buddha or Confucius or Shinran, but my task is the same.
We must canvass the possibilities and we must seek out the new way.

Religion must be involved with contemporary human problems, but in canvassing the past to
seek new ways for the present, we cannot expect religion to give detailed solutions to the
many issues that confront us. Some people reject religion because they do not find the answers
they desire there. But, to me, what religion provides is an angle of view, basic principles and
values, as well as an understanding of human nature and relationships which can contribute to
our contemporary considerations. Religion conditions our attitudes and relations to people,
which may make solutions to particular problems more easily achieved. It is all this, in
Shinrans teachings and in his life story that open horizons of existential relevance to our
modern world. Shinshu gives us a point to stand on that is a dynamic process, a movement,
not a static position in Buddhism. Rather it is a tradition that continues to evolve and grow, to
attract people such as myself. Before we explore Shinshus relevance more deeply, there is the
question of just what is the contemporary religious situation of the world in which you and I
live.

Bibliography

Cogley, John: Religion in a Secular Age

Frankl, Victor: Mans Search for Meaning

Hesse, Hermann: Siddartha

Study Help

Two Rivers and the White Path

The parable of Two Rivers and the White Path depicts the process by which one is received
into the Pure Land of Amida Buddha.

A traveler, who was heading west to meet an old friend, came upon two rivers, a river of fire
and a river of water.

They were very deep and dangerous and it seemed impossible to cross them. Then he found a
white path between them, but the path was narrow and it was alternately covered by burning
flames and splashing water.

He was at a loss, and it was worse since wild animals and robbers were drawing close to him.
He was driven to the point where there was no choice but to walk through the white path.

When he was about to proceed, he heard a voice from behind, Do not fear. Go ahead! Then,
there was another voice from beyond the path, Cross the path for your life! He also heard
the voice of robbers, Do not go. It is too dangerous. Remain and be our ally!

He was confused. Then, he again heard a voice from beyond the path, Do not be afraid!
Believe me. I will protect you from falling into the rivers.

Encouraged and guided by the unknown voices, he crossed the path over flames and
splashing water. By the skin of his teeth, he not only escaped death but also realized his wish
to be reunited with his old friend.

The voice from behind was Shakyamuni Buddhas encouragement and the one from beyond
the path was Amida Buddhas guidance. The White Path symbolizes faith or belief.

(Rev. K. Urakami, Selected Sayings of St. Honen, pp. 100-104)

Notes

[1] John Cogley, Religion in a Secular Age, p.43.

Chapter 2

The Contemporary Age

In Buddhist terminology, the word mappo (in Japanese) is used to describe periods of
turmoil and upheaval in society and personal life. It specifically refers to the decline of
Buddhism after Shakyamuni. As Buddhism became more and more embroiled and entangled
in worldly matters, there developed competing factions and interpretations. Mappo, which
means the last age of the Dharma, symbolizes the lack of spiritual depth and vitality in
Buddhism, as well as the world at large, despite the abundance of religious activity.

As existential concept, mappo portrays our inner spiritual condition which is reflected in the
outer world. The essential meaning of this concept is that religion and the age becomes corrupt
because the people within it have not maintained high spiritual values and goals. In terms of
such an essential and existential definition, the reality of mappo in our time is evidenced in the
absurdity, the ambiguity, the alienation, the anxiety, and the aloneness that plagues modern
society.

The absurdity of our mappo world is reflected in the immorality of war and of racism, both of
which have paraded as being morally right. Absurdity is expressed in the easy resort to
violence as a means to solve problems. It is reflected in politicians calling for peace but not
cultivating the means and methods to achieve peace. It is observable in the wide range of
deceptions practiced all through society and particularly so in government. As social thinker
Jacques Ellul has stated, everything is under suspicion.

Contemporary awareness of absurdity and ambiguity and of our mappo condition is

expressed in the aimlessness of youth, in the difficulty they have in discovering clear values on
which to base their lives. Patriotism has been degraded and exploited. History no longer
appears to give direction. In a world technologically linked by commerce and communication,
ideals have been used as cover-ups for exploitation. The problem of values and ethics relative
to issues of abortion or ecology highlight the ambiguities of modern life. The resulting sense of
powerlessness and inner oppression in both the West and the East has stimulated many
religious movements and quasi-religious movements, all of which have as their aim the
provision of meaning and personal significance.

Alienation, another powerful hallmark of mappo, has been eloquently expressed between
social and economic classes, between generations, between sexes and races. This feature of
alienation is probably the most clear and understood of the many features of our age.
However, the deepest alienation, and the most powerful, is that from ones true self. This is the
agonizing sense of alienation that is the result of failing to penetrate and appreciate the
mystery and depth of ones own existence.

Our age attempts to prevent such insight through the blandishment of lures of material
success. Such lures give a false sense of meaning based on the externals of possessions and
distract our attention from the realities of ourselves, robbing our lives of a sense of inner
worth.

Despair becomes our companion and for the overwhelming majority of us, our age can easily
be described as an age of anxiety, personal and social. We have lived each day under the
constant threat of warfare of the most ultimate sort. Indeed, we have lived in such constant
apprehension through decades of social division and threats of violence. Generations of
racism, together with technological advances, have created an underclass which threatens the
stability of society through violence or the varied consequences of economic deprivation and
poverty. These conditions cause us either to feel guilty about our own economic well-being or
to become anxious about our security in society. We are constantly confronted with the loss of
personal meaning in a mass society.

Aloneness even in the midst of company becomes a common experience for hosts of people.
There appears a hollowness in life. Deep relations and commitments are often avoided, though
we yearn for them. Apathy is widespread. Closure into a small intimate group is frequently
chosen as a way of dealing with our loneliness, but even that proves a detour on the existential
path of coming to terms with the reality of ourselves.

All of us have had some familiarity with these traits. We all experience these marks of mappo:
alienation, anxiety and aloneness at some point in our existence as we raise questions
concerning the viability and integrity of our own lives. The ambiguity of our age is
anguishingly visible as we look at the problem of religion which, though it flourishes, gives
rise to the question as to whether it is part of the cause, rather than the cure, for the troubles of
contemporary men and women.

What is the problem of religion today? There are many ways to look at it. It is an intellectual
problem. It is a social problem. It is a spiritual problem. It is another basic indicator, along with
alienation, anxiety, and absurdity, of our times as mappo. The intellectual problem of religion
has deep roots in the development of western culture. In a variety of ways, the intellectual
grounds of religious belief, the unity of faith and reason from which Greek philosophy and the
Judeo-Christian tradition rose, have been eroded. There have been a variety of forces which
have led to the secularization of life and the undermining of the meaning of religion.

Five hundred years ago, while Pure Land Buddhism spread among the people of all classes in
Japan, Copernicus and Galileo reoriented western man from a geocentric perspective to a
heliocentric. Man was no longer the center of the universe, and perhaps no longer the focus of
Gods concern as scripture had taught. Western mans world view thus had to change. Luther,
the great Protestant reformer, dramatized and further contributed to the fragmentation of the
western spiritual community. From Luther onward, the authority of the Pope never totally
recovered from his challenge. Religion became a more individual and private or subjective
affair. Next, Rousseau and the Romantics challenged the exaltation of civilization and
rationality. The happy savage became the ideal. This view further undermined the spiritual
disciplines of the West.

In the 19th century, Darwin dealt a strong blow to the sense of the sacredness of man, the
individual created in the image of God, by confronting that image with scientifically
demonstrable evidence of the theories of evolution and natural selection. Marx with his social
theories showed religion as an exploitive force in the hands of the ruling class. Materialistic
determinism replaced the will of God. And in this same chaotic age of new theories
challenging old ideals, Freud showed that our hopes and dreams, our beliefs and faiths are all
illusions resulting from our relations to our fathers. Religion, now viewed from the Freudian
perspective, was a form of neurosis.

In the 20th century with Einstein, everything became relative to time, place, and perspective.
In one brief century, one long lifespan, all the traditional supports for faith were weakened and
washed away. The successive wars and struggles left individuals with little to hold on to as a
basis for their lives, except the struggle somehow to survive and be happy for themselves
alone. Yet they we survive in a world of interdependence and interrelatedness, our lives
affected by and affecting the lives of others whose faces we may never see, names we may
never know. Whatever our view of religion, and regardless of the contemporary erosion of its
traditional supports, we are every day confronting the spiritual reality of issues and problems
which are shaping our existential reality and the destiny of mankind. Our dilemma is, how can
we retain our humanity against the many assaults on our spirits coming from modern society?

Spiritual reality runs in a deep fragile vein within our consciousness and has hidden roots still
deeper in our subconscious. Nevertheless, the secularization and technological developments
of our age have led to the dehumanization and depersonalization we also sense in the depth of
our beings. Religious faith itself, appears to many people to be obsolete. However, Harvey
Cox, a Christian theologian surveying his own experiences in these terms has commented:

.. ritual and religion are not going to wither away, and that the real issue now is whether
they will be used for mans liberation or to keep him in bondage. [1]

Cox also points out that, in regard to ritual, which is the expression of spiritual awareness and
the experiential dimension of religion:

Man never outgrows rituals, although he certainly uses them for vastly different purposes
and relates to them in ever-changing ways. [2]

I myself believe that it is possible to view the variety of religious movements in these last
decades of the 20th century as the vehicle of mans search for a new self which can transcend
the emptiness of existence felt as a result of the conflicting forces of our mappo era. Robert
Assagioli, a psychotherapist, notes in this connection:

One major reason why the Self is coming back into currency is the tremendous search for self
identity. Formerly an individual took himself so to speak for granted. He accepted himself as
he was, or, more frequently, he identified himself with the group to which he belonged
family, tribe, clan, class, or nation or, if he was religious, with some great Being or God. But in
our time, which may well be a time of total crisis, all these identifications fall away and the
individual is thrown back on himself. This baffles him, he does not know who he is and this is
the chief reason for the widespread existential anguish. [3]

In the effort to get beyond themselves to find the true self, youth particularly have resorted to
a variety of means from the use of drugs to a return to religion and the occult. They have tried
to experience a cosmic consciousness. Assagioli notes:

For these people, the awareness, first of the personal self and then of the Transpersonal Self as
living realities, provides a needed structure that permits a steady gradual ascent. From such
awareness also comes an understanding of the nature of spontaneous or induced experiences,
leading to their assimilation into other parts of the personality. [4]

From this standpoint, true Self-awareness can serve to direct and integrate human energies for
positive, constructive human ends. If the contemporary spiritual protest represents in its
deepest dimensions the apprehension of cosmic self-awareness, it may contribute to a
deepening spiritual understanding by contemporary men and women, despite the variety of
their belief and methods.

Existential anguish may well be the condition for breakthrough to a fresh apprehension of
spiritual reality and its root in our lives. Because of the great diversity and character of
religious movements today, we may be prone to dismiss them as temporary expressions of the
imbalance of the age. However, it is possible that things of great importance may come from
unexpected places. In this connection, I think of the thunder-egg rocks of Oregon in which the
central core is the most beautiful agate, though from the exterior one might think to cast it
away. It is a viable possibility that even the most bizarre religious group may possess a hint of
deeper meaning.

However, the fact that there may be positive meaning in any such religious perspectives
should not make us uncritical in assessing their overall importance as true alternatives for
dealing with the wide range of contemporary problems, for seeing our mappo condition with
clear eyes. The great upsurge of religious involvement today is clearly a protest against the
dehumanization of life which we all experience, and a search for the deeper meaning in life
which is our common hunger. Religious truth, and how it is to be determined among the
multiplicity of visions, claims and experiences, remains the primary problem.

If one listens carefully to many discussions of religion among thoughtful people, one may
observe that the selection of a religion is frequently a matter of taste rather than truth.
Individuals seek groups that already suit their preformed religious sensibilities. There is also
the question as to whether the significance of a religion is fulfilled solely through ones feeling
of satisfaction and happiness, or when the life of the persons around him are concretely
enhanced through a deeper concern and struggle for justice in human relations. In other
words, is religion a purely individual matter, seeking ones own good or is its primary focus
the attainment of good for all, even perhaps at ones own sacrifice?

Mahayana Buddhism placed the emphasis on the latter, though not ignoring the former
entirely. Relating to the issue of the good of others, which is the dominant spiritual principle in
Mahayana Buddhism, we may ask whether it is a direct or indirect benefit to mankind. Is the
good of others believed to come about purely through a religious practice which is not
involved with the lives of those who are needy, or is it brought about through identity with the
sufferings of humanity in relation to its immediate needs? Is religion fulfilled within society or
beyond it? For a great many people today, the ultimate goal of religion in some form or other is
to bring happiness to the individual themselves. However, when we define the goal of religion
as happiness, success, peace of mind or contentment, individuals are tempted to trade their
true selves and freedom for a spurious freedom which relieves them of the need to make
decisions or to involve themselves in human affairs. It is a subtle problem, but the old saying,
Ye shall know the truth and the truth shall make you free, remains a basic issue in religion
today.

The problem of existence is always that of freedom versus security. Many modern groups offer
a freedom by way of submission to a master who assures one of the rightness of his choice and
assumes all the ambiguities of existence for the devotee. There is relief, but not true freedom,
as witness the way in which persons become closed in, split between their minds and their
feelings, accepting dogmatism and uncritical in reflecting on their experience. The diversity of
religious expression makes the problem of truth very difficult. Most would give it up.
However, it is an essential consideration which must be explored if there is to be firm and real
commitment. Commitment implies the truthfulness of that to which we yield ourselves, and
we must reflect on that truthfulness.

Since plurality can blunt the quest for truth, usually as a defensive measure, there is a
tendency to discount and put aside other truth claims as merely interesting. Our age is much
like the period at the end of the Hellenistic Age. Cults of all types then flooded the Roman
Empire, so much so that when the Apostle Paul in the early Christian church preached at Mars
Hill in Athens, where many itinerant religionists discussed their particular cults, he met people
who brushed things off because they were dulled by repetitious novelty.

By contrast, search rather than religious novelty or cultism has characterized the history of
religion in India. From its beginnings there, more than 2,500 years ago, Buddhism has been a
search for truth. It was Gautamas goal to break through the veil of delusion that blinded
humanity to things as they really are. Buddhism is a religion of enlightenment. It is not
capitulation to taste or conformity to mere custom. In its more than two millennia of tradition,
its basic search for truth has provided for a constant renewal and refreshment of that tradition.

Shinrans departure from the tradition of his day was such a force of renewal and refreshment.
Moreover, his contribution to religious insight as he carried out his own search for truth 800
years ago in Japan is still fresh and clear in its illumination of existential meaning and spiritual
reality in this mappo world of our twentieth century.

Religion today has become completely voluntary, losing the many social sanctions of society
and family that enforced adherence. There is no reason to belong to, or support, a movement
where one does not see the essential truth which that faith offers to humanity. To grasp the
depth and relevance of Shinshu today, the place of Shinrans teachings in Buddhism, and the
religious roots of Buddhism itself, must be clearly understood, in the perspective of history
and the development of Mahayana.

Bibliography

Naisbitt, John: Megatrends: Ten New Directions Transforming our Lives

Nishi Honganji Commission on the Promotion of Religious Education, Shinran in the

Contemporary World, pp. 3-38

Smith, Huston: Beyond the Post-Modern Mind

Notes

[1] On Coming of Age in Malvern,Christian Century, August 1, 1973, XC-28, p. 778

[2] Ibid

[3] Robert Assagioli, The Rebirth of the Soul, an interview by Stuart Miller, Intellectual
Digest, August, 1973, p. 10

[4] Ibid
Chapter 3

The Mahayana Background: The Sword of Wisdom

Iconoclasm and Critical Perspective in Buddhism

Shinran Shonin traced his own religious convictions back through his teacher Honen of Japan,
through Shantao (Zendo) a pivotal Chinese Pure Land teacher, to Gautama, Sakyamuni
Buddha, the founder of Buddhism.

In Tannisho, the remarkable religious classic written by Shinrans follower, Yuiembo, this
lineage of Shinrans religious convictions is detailed and quoted as: If Amidas Primal Vow is
true, Sakyamunis teaching cannot be false The passage continues to trace Shinrans roots in
Buddhism by logical steps. If the Buddhas teaching is true, Shan-taos commentaries cannot
be false. If Shan-taos commentaries are true, how can Honens words be empty? If Honens
words are true, what I, Shinran, say cannot be meaningless.

Shinrans teachings are based on Mahayana Buddhism, one of the two paths (the other path
being Theravada Buddhism) that became the main streams of Buddhist tradition after
Gautamas lifetime. Both paths claim to represent the fruition of Gautama Buddhas search for
enlightenment. He had struggled in discipline and meditation to discover the truth of
existence. Although, as a ruler of the Sakya kingdom of northern India, he possessed all the
material benefits the world offered, Gautama rejected his inherited role for the difficulties and
challenge of pursuing truth. Through his strenuous pursuit and unremitting concentration
during nearly seven years, from age 29 until his enlightenment at 35, he patterned the way of
Theravada Buddhism, of discipline and self effort, which became the tradition followed in
Buddhism throughout southeast Asia. Within Mahayana Buddhism, this pattern was called
Hinayana and in the Pure Land stream, it was called the Path of Sages (or Saintly Path).

Through his experience of Enlightenment and his decision to set the wheel of the Law in
motion, Gautama began to preach the Dharma with his first sermon in Deer Park at Sarnath.
For Mahayana Buddhism, Gautama provided the ideal example of the commitment to strive
for the enlightenment of all beings. The Buddha, the Enlightened One, attained an
understanding of existence through which he was able to guide and teach others. Guide and
teach are key words crucial to an understanding of the religious roots of Buddhism. When we
understand those roots, we understand that enlightenment or wisdom means to see through
the delusions and falsities of our lives and being, and confront the reforming and iconoclastic
(idol-smashing) aspects of Buddhism which account for its relevance now, in our own mappo
era. These aspects of understanding the religious roots of Buddhism rarely receive scholarly or
popular attention, though they were perhaps the motivating force of Shinrans break with
tradition.

In Buddhist symbolism there are numerous symbols for the quality of wisdom, which is the
goal of Buddhist faith and practice. Prajna, the Sanskrit term for this wisdom, is sometimes
compared to a magic gem, the magic jewel which clarifies the muddy pool. It is compared to
the Lotus flower which grows in the mud, but flowers in purity. It is described as a gate, also a
stream, a lamp, an eye, a mirror, a cloud. It is the sword which cuts away illusion and it is this
last symbol of prajna which I wish to emphasize here.

Buddhism is frequently, as a result of its social history, regarded as a conservative, system-

maintenance (preserving the status quo) religion. In Asia, for example, it has provided symbols
of legitimation for autocratic regimes. Buddhism is thought by many either within or outside
the tradition to be simply a religion promising happiness or higher forms of material and
personal benefit. Incantations, spells and charms are widely used by many Buddhists. And,
traditionally, Buddhism with its emphasis on karmic resignation and on the transiency of all
that exists, has sometimes been regarded as a sentimental source of consolation in the midst of
a hard life. While it may not be entirely wrong for Buddhism to serve peoples interests and
needs, the problem is that these practices and institutional conservatism obscure what was the
primary aim of Buddhism from its beginnings.

The aim of the teachings and practices of the Buddha at their deepest levels was to break
through the self-deceptions which mankind nurtures in the pursuit of permanence, pleasure,
and possessions. It was an attempt to face realistically the egoism and greed which stimulate
mans aggressions in the world. It was an attempt to break through the false consciousness of
the ego which puts us in bondage to the many exterior competing and conflicting forces
surrounding us. In a very real sense, Buddhism entered the world as a consciousness raising
teaching. It provided a basis for self criticism and, therefore, a way to true liberation and
emancipation from domination by passion. Its iconoclasm was audacious and still is; the
fetters of dogmatism can always be freed by an understanding of Buddhisms basic standpoint
that these fetters too are self deception.

In Mahayana Buddhisms doctrine of the Void, there is no absolute which can be totally
comprehended by our limited minds or with our superficial experience. This perspective has
importance in society as well as in religion. The assumption of an absolute leads to the further
assumption that one embodies or possesses it, and so gains authority over his fellow man. The
doctrine of sunyata, the Void, in Mahayana Buddhism does not give credence or power to
divine revelation or divine right and is the basis on which rejection of the power of the gods
over mans destiny appears in Buddhism. In making contemporary application of this aspect
of Buddhism, we would point out that every vital religion must have within it a self renewing
principle. It must have a basis whereby its own followers may struggle to free the faith from its
rigidity and complacency acquired from long history.

Paul Tillich has called attention to the Protestant Principle derived from the prophets of Israel,
who refused to recognize any absolute other than God himself. To those ancient Israelites, all
finite, historical institutions existed under the judgment of God. In Buddhism, the self
renewing principle is the doctrine of the Void which implies there is no absolute which should
impede progress to Wisdom. As concepts are Void, and nothing has its own self-nature, so all
institutions and religious traditions are Void. While not rejecting institutional and formal
aspects of religion, this perspective enables a community to keep its priorities and emphases in
order, and permits the persons spirit to develop, freely assisted by the community. In effect,
Buddhism was an ancient form of iconoclasm. Buddhism smashes the idol of a fixed, eternal
ego. It smashes the idol of fear and dependence on deities and here note must be made that
Buddha became the teacher of men and gods. Buddhism smashes the idols of magic and
superstition. It smashes the idols of caste and class distinctions (one possible reason for the
attraction of Buddhist monks to socialism in southeast Asia).

Early Buddhism made the first step in the progress to wisdom in the Eightfold Noble Path the
principle of Right Views, to see things as they really are. It also built in the principle of self-
criticism when it emphasized one ought not be attached to heterodox views of eternalism or
nihilism. Thus, we are not even to be dominated by the idols of our own thought!

At first, this self-criticism of knowledge and attachments was directed to the world of direct
experience and objects. Early Buddhism criticized our easy attachments to the physical and
social elements of life, treating them as if they were permanent and the source of our value.
Suffering, in Buddhist terms, was essentially psychological suffering, defined as having to part
with the pleasant and meet with the unpleasant. Parting with the pleasant deceptions of the
physical and social elements of our life, exchanging our hope for immortality and eternity for
the reality of impermanence and transiency, accepting no absolute and realizing the doctrine of
the Void, all this was and still is iconoclastic.
As Buddhist self-criticism and iconoclasm evolved over the centuries, their scope of
application widened. With the appearance of Mahayana Buddhism, the Buddhist critique of
knowledge turned on the thought process itself. It maintained that even our concepts and
distinctions are void, empty and must be discarded if we are to attain true wisdom.
Nagarjunas method of dialectical negation is the most profound expression of this
development in Buddhism. He showed that all concepts are inherently self-contradictory,
hence logical statement does not yield reality. It is no surprise that all Buddhist Mahayana
schools try to trace their lineage through Nagarjuna, because they wished to maintain that self-
critical perspective in their own school. Buddhism is iconoclastic when it even attacks non-
dualism, which may become regarded merely as the opposition of dualism.)

When we look at Buddhism, and then Mahayana Buddhism in particular, we discover that it is
a reforming tradition. It attempted to restore the true spirit of Buddha in various dimensions.
This tendency is particularly evident in the Lotus Sutra which describes the Second Turning of
the Wheel of the Law as Buddha enunciated the universality of salvation in the face of the
pretentions and conceit of the sravakas (hearers, disciples, a follower of ancient Hinayana) and
pratyekabuddhas (individuals who gain enlightenment without a teachers instruction) who at
that time thought they had the whole truth of Buddhism and were complacent. They
symbolize a highly individualistic approach to Buddhism in contrast to the altruistic, social
Mahayana. The two major principles which gave basis for the critical perspective of the Lotus
Sutra and set the direction for Buddhism in China and Japan were the concept of One Vehicle
and that of the Universality of Salvation.

The first principle declares that essentially Buddha had one ultimate teaching, despite the
seemingly various teachings of Buddhism. The principle is given graphic portrayal in the story
of the compassionate father who saves his children by offering them carts to make them come
out from the burning house. Though he promised each child a cart according to his likes, when
they were out, he gave them identical carts of even superior character than what he originally
promised. The principle of one vehicle tests any claim to be the truth of Buddhism. It is
superior and supercedes all lesser ways in Buddhism.

The principle of Universality of Salvation also was a critical principle which became a test for
any assertion of the truth of Buddhism. It correlates to the previous principle because the one
truth is that all beings will attain Buddhahood against those who are satisfied that they alone
had the qualifications for such attainment. Some schools of Buddhism held that evil, low
persons did not have the seeds for Buddhahood.
The spirit of criticism and reform presented in the Lotus Sutra inspired later developments in
Buddhism in China, and then Japan. In China, the Tien-tai (Tendai) school does not appear to
be reforming in the strict sense, but in attempting to systematize Buddhist teaching and to
discover its several themes and principles, the basis for future developments was
accomplished. The Lotus Sutra and its spirit was placed in the central, supreme position. In
Japan, in the face of the corruption of the Nara Buddhist orders, Saicho introduced the Tien-
tai teaching. He struggled to gain permission for the establishment of a true Mahayana
Ordination Platform. It is not without significance that the major Buddhist reformers of the
Kamakura era such as Honen, Shinran, Dogen and Nichiren were initially students of Tendai
(Tien-tai) and absorbed its critical principles.

Chan or Zen Buddhism appeared as a reforming force in the face of the academic, scholastic,
formalist Buddhism of the Tang era in China. During that time, the great Chinese Buddhist
schools were established and many famous monks appeared. However, the abstruse
philosophy of Buddhism baffled the masses and stifled the spirit. The story of Bodhidharmas
arrival and conversation with Emperor Liang Wu-ti sounds the keynote for Zen Buddhisms
critique of religious complacency. When the king asked the monk how much merit he would
receive because of his support of Buddhism in building temples and making offerings, the
monk replied, none, and left to meditate before a wall for nine years. The truth of Buddhism
is not a matter of calculation and reward. This Bodhidharma spirit continued and attained
perhaps its sharpest expression in the declaration of I Hsuan, the founder of the Lin-chi or
Rinzai school:

Seekers of the Way, if you want to achieve the understanding according to the Law, dont be
deceived by others and turn to (your thought) internally or objects externally. Kill anything
that you happen on. Kill a patriarch or an arhat if you happen to meet him. Kill your parents or
relatives if you happen to meet them. Only then can you be free, not bound by material things
and absolutely free and at ease . . . I merely put on clothing and eat meals as usual and pass
my time without doing anything. You people coming from the various directions have all
made up your minds to seek the Buddha, seek the Law . . . Crazy people! If you want to leave
the Three Worlds, where can you go? Buddha and Patriarchs are terms of praise and also
bondage. Do you want to know where the Three Worlds are? They are right in your mind
which is now listening to the Law. [1]
This trend in Zen Buddhism appears also in Japanese Zen with Dogen, who refused to
establish his monastery in the vicinity of political power and also emphasized that a devotee
must transcend Buddhism.

The negotiation of the Way with concentrated effort I now teach makes myriad dharmas exist
in realization, and, by transcending realization practices a total Reality. [2]

Also:

If we cast off the wondrous practice, original realization fills our hands; if we transcend
original realization, wondrous practice permeates our body. [3]

The critical temperament stimulated by Mahayana Buddhism expresses itself in Honen when
he tested each religious action current in his time by the standard of the spirit of Amidas
Original Vow, to work continuously and unceasingly for the enlightenment of all beings
everywhere. Honen concluded that the Nembutsu alone (Namu Amida Butsu the repetition
of the name as an acknowledgment of the power of Amidas Vow) fulfilled the Vows
intention, by being available to all people regardless of their wealth, their intellect, or their
spiritual capacities. Shinran followed in this perspective after six years as Honens disciple,
and went on to declare in his later writings that, in fact, the Original Vow makes no distinction:

As I contemplate the ocean-like Great Faith, I see that it does not choose between the noble
and the mean, the priest and the layman, nor does it discriminate between man and women,
old and young. The amount of sin is not questioned, and the length of practice is not
discussed. It is neither practice nor good, neither abrupt nor gradual, neither meditative
nor non-meditative, neither right meditation nor wrong meditation, neither
contemplative nor non-contemplative, neither while living nor at the end of life, neither
many utterances nor one thought. Faith is the inconceivable, indescribable, and ineffable
Serene Faith. It is like the agada which destroys all poisons. The medicine of the Tathagatas
Vow destroys the poisons of wisdom and ignorance. [4]

The radicalism and iconoclastic implications of these perspectives of Honen and Shinran must
be appreciated against the disciplinary and social background of historic Buddhism. They
clearly break through the crust of tradition and formalism which had restricted the Buddhism
of twelfth century Japan to the elite, to the court society, and through the vehicle of the
Nembutsu, opened Buddhism to the masses as well. Rather than a religion of complacency
and self-satisfaction or status quo, Buddhism is the religion of a restless spirit which always
questions itself as to whether it has reached the depths, has penetrated the final truth.
Buddhism is a subtle awareness of knowing that one has not arrived at the moment one thinks
he has., and it is this subtle, stark awareness that Shinran makes so sharp and clear. Through
this awareness, we can reinterpret the popular Mahayana concept of Higan the other shore
to mean that we must always aspire to the other shore by going beyond, by crossing over.
The sword of wisdom cuts once, decisively, and then continues its process of cutting.

Bibliography

Conze, E: Buddhist Thought in India

Govinda, LA: The Psychological Attitude of Early Buddhist Philosophy

Suzuki, DT: Outlines of Mahayana

Takakusu, J: The Essentials of Buddhist Philosophy

Yamaguchi, S: The Mahayana Way to Buddhahood

Notes

[1] Wing-tsit Chan, Sourcebook in Chinese Philosophy, p. 447-48

[2] Bendowa, trans. by Norman Waddell and Abe Masao, Eastern Buddhist, New Series,
IV, May 1971, p. 129

[3] Ibid p. 144

[4] Ryukoku Translation Series, Kyogyoshinsho, pp. 113-14

Chapter 4

The Mahayana Background:

The Logic of Compassion

The second aspect of our consideration of the Mahayana background of Shinrans teaching is
what I call the Logic of Compassion. Although we cannot go into great detail, I hope to
indicate in this discussion that Shinran stands clearly within the constant effort of Mahayana
Buddhism to plumb the depths of Buddhas compassion, and to constantly widen its embrace.
Through the ages, sensitive, perceptive and courageous persons perceived new angles and
implications in Buddhist teaching by which they expanded the horizons of Mahayana. In such
a fashion, as a result of his own religious experience, Shinran carried the Mahayana tradition
to its deepest understanding of religious existence. Though he differs at points with the
tradition, he carries forward its most profound intention. This is of the most significance in our
comprehension of Shinshu. However, in order to make clear this evolution, we must take a
broad view of the development of Indian and Buddhist religious tradition.

Buddhism began against the background of the emergence of Upanishadic mysticism in

ancient India, roughly during the period 800-600 B.C.E. This ancient mysticism was a spiritual
protest against the religion of the Vedas, which was aristocratic, and based on sacrifice and
magic. It was ancient sacrificial religion catering to an economic elite and imposing an
aristocratic and priestly dominance on all of the people in every caste. However, Upanishadic
mysticism undermined this Vedic social arrangement by relegating sacrifices to a secondary
position, after the cultivation of the spirit to achieve Union with Brahman, their name for the
Absolute, the central force of meaning and power in the Universe. The later rejection of this
sacrificial system gave rise to a doctrine of non-injury or Ahimsa which later became a central
idea in Hindu and, still later, in Buddhist tradition. The mystical tradition in India took various
forms, and there were numerous teachers. In his own time, an age of great search and
experimentation, Gautama Buddha studied under several teachers, and he himself eventually
became a teacher in the same pattern as those others. He never regarded himself as the
founder of a new tradition, but simply as a teacher of reform and radical new insights in the
tradition into which he was born.

Upanishadic mysticism protested the elitism of the aristocratic classes in achieving spiritual
goals, but then fell into an elitism of the spiritual and intellectually competent. So, too, did
Buddhism as time passed. Although the Upanishadic approach to religion was universal, it
was the universality of competency. It was a selective universality, universal in time and place,
but not universal for all kinds of people. A similar pattern befell Buddhism, which in some
schools taught a system of five species of people, among whom were certain types who could
not become Buddhas. This aristocratic and individualistic tendency of early Buddhism can be
observed in the The Dhammapada, from the following verses:

By ones self the evil is done, by ones self one suffers; by ones self evil is left undone; by
ones self one is purified. The pure and the impure stand and fall by themselves; no one can
purify another. [1]

Dr. Suzuki has written concerning Buddhas parting words, where he urges his disciples to be
their own lamps and refuges:

Self power means to be a lamp to yourself, it is the spirit of self reliance and aims at
achieving ones own salvation or enlightenment by the practice of the Eightfold Noble Path or
Six Virtues of Perfection. If this is impossible in one life, the devotee of self power will not relax
his efforts through many lives as was exemplified by the Buddha who underwent many a
rebirth in order to perfect himself for his supreme enlightenment. Recruits for the self-power
school must therefore be endowed with a strong will and high degree of intelligence. Without
intelligence he will not be able to grasp the full significance of the Fourfold Noble Truth, and
an intelligent grasp of this truth is necessary for the sustained exercise of the will-power, which
is essential for the performance of the various items of morality as prescribed by the
Buddha. [2]

This aristocratic, elitist tradition has remained intact in general Buddhism to the present day.
However, within that tradition, from its beginnings, there were compassionate persons who
must have wondered what hope the masses of people could have, if they did not possess the
economic, intellectual, spiritual or moral capacities to fulfill the requirements of ancient
religion. Such compassion found its clearest expression in the Bhagavad Gita and, later, the
sutras of Mahayana Buddhism developed within a long social process during which the
hardening of class and caste distinctions made mobility in Indian society virtually impossible.
Traditional occupations such as hunting, butchering, tanning and the warrior role were
defined as sinful because they involved the taking of life.

In Mahayana Buddhism, in such an environment of social rigidity, numerous features

developed which reflect a trend to absolute universality of enlightenment and liberation. The
Mahayana concepts of Universal Buddha nature, great Bodhisattvas, transfer of merit, hoben
(upaya) and the salvation of evil people and women all pointed to the promise of salvation
and enlightenment even for the lowliest, most incompetent persons. The Lotus Sutra is
perhaps the chief text indicating these teachings.

The trend to complete universality of salvation may be observed in the story of Bodhisattva
Dharmakara in the Larger Pure Land Sutra. The vows he offered all promise that unless all
beings can share in his attainment of enlightenment, he will not accept it for himself alone.

The practical means for sharing the benefits of the works of salvation was the transfer of merit,
a unique teaching in Mahayana. Dr. Suzuki writes:

The doctrine of merit-transference is really one of the significant features of Mahayana

Buddhism and its development marks the start of a new era in the history of Buddhist
philosophy. Before this, the accumulation of merit or the practice of good deeds was something
which exclusively concerned the individual himself; the doer was responsible for all that he
did, good or bad; as long as he was satisfied with the karma of his work, to enjoy happiness or
to suffer disaster was his own business and nothing further was to be said or done about it.
But now we have come to deal with a different state of affairs. We are no more by ourselves
alone, each is not living just for himself, everything is so intimately related that anything done
by anybody is sure to affect others in one way or another. The individualistic Hinayana has
now become the communistic Mahayana. This was really a great turning point in the evolution
of Buddhist thought. [3]

We will note later that Shinran initiated a further step in the evolution of Mahayana
compassion when he carried this doctrine a step further and limited merit transference only to
the work of Amida Buddha.

The concept of upaya, or hoben, commonly called Convenient Means, or Tactful Means, is
another very central doctrine in Mahayana Buddhism and its educational theory. The gist of
this teaching is that the message of Buddha is correlated to the level and capacity of the hearer
and aims to lead the person to enlightenment. As an educational concept, it reflects the deep
compassion of those Mahayana Buddhists who wished to bring the message within every
persons reach. While the bases of universal salvation were present in early Mahayana, they
were mixed with themes of self-realization and self-discipline which later were designated as
self-power. These included such practices as precepts, meditation, copying sutras, making
images, building stupas and sponsoring ceremonies. The great cave temples of India and
China show how ancient people devoted themselves to these efforts. From the most liberating
Shin Buddhist point of view, all of these could be described as hoben, or upaya, as convenient
or tactful means by which the message of Amidas deep and non-discriminating, all embracing
compassion, and of universal salvation or enlightenment through that compassion and the
light of wisdom illuminating it, could be more readily received.

In China, the Pure Land tradition became the major exponent of universal salvation for the
masses, primarily through Tan-Luan (Donran), Tao-cho (Doshaku) and Shan-tao (Zendo) in
the period of North-South dynasties and the Sui-Tang dynasties. The teaching of Tao-sheng
(Dosho) that all beings possess Buddha nature finally became the central thesis of
Chinese Buddhism. It was in Japan, however, that the teaching and spirit of Mahayana
Universal salvation came to full clarity, theoretically and socially. There were a number of
streams by which this teaching reached Japanese society. During the Heian (794-1185) and
Kamakura (1185-1332) eras, the teaching became more prominent. Kuya, the priest of the
market place, and Ryonin taught Yuzu Nembutsu during Heian times. This teaching is
interesting because it declared that we all depend on each other for attaining enlightenment.
This period was a creative, rich period in Mahayana Buddhism, particularly in Japan where
priests like Genshin wrote Ojoyoshu advocating the recitation of Nembutsu.

All the teachers of the Kamakura period appealed to the masses and assured them that
ultimately their salvation was to be realized. The hallmark of this development in Japanese
Buddhism was that no one was to be excluded. In this spirit, Nichiren a contemporary of
Honen and Shinran, and himself the founder of the Nichiren sect is important for his stress
on the stories in the Lotus Sutra of Devadatta and the Dragon girl as illustrative of Buddhas
infinite compassion. According to the Sutra, Devadatta, the symbol of the most evil person
because of his conspiracies against the Buddha, will finally attain Buddhahood. The Dragon
girl illustrates the power of faith. She was instantly transformed to a Buddha when she
believed the Buddhas teaching, despite the limitations of her female nature. In ancient
Buddhism, women were barred from Buddhahood unless they went through many rebirths
and were born as men to follow the discipline.

Honen bears particular mention because in that same general period he gave witness to the
simplicity of his faith in his famous Testimony on One Sheet of Paper, stating:

Those who believe this, though they clearly understand all the teachings Shaka taught
throughout his whole life, should behave themselves like simple-minded folks, who do not
know a single letter, or like ignorant nuns or monks whose faith is implicitly simple. [4]
He also saw, as we have mentioned previously, that salvation had no correlation to social
position. He indicated this in an eloquent passage in the Senchakushu, his work setting forth
the essentials of his teaching. The passage is too lengthy to quote here, but it is one of the most
incisive, critical statements rejecting all forms of elitism. (See Study Help.)

Shinran built on the foundations laid by his teacher, Honen. The experience of Shinran in the
northern and eastern provinces of Japan during his time of exile and his later teaching career
enabled him to give deeper theological interpretation to the meaning of universal compassion.
As we shall see later, one of the most crucial features of his teaching was the reinterpretation of
the breadth and depth of Amida Buddhas transfer of merit on behalf of sentient beings and
the implications which this view had for the nature of religious existence. Because of Amidas
compassion, our salvation is assured in faith and we need not be concerned for our future
destiny. Because of this, religious practice becomes an expression of gratitude, and religion
transforms to concern for others rather than efforts for saving oneself. In practice, in terms of
the life strategies of modern men and women, this gives existential meaning to religious
practice, not as something divorced from life itself but as integral meaning and focus for
everyday living.

Mahayana Buddhism, particularly Shin Buddhism, embodies two trends which are essential in
contemporary religious life. By employing the sword of wisdom, we continually raise
questions concerning our understanding and thought. We cut away illusion to illuminate our
perception of reality. We can never be content that we have solved all problems and have a
monopoly on wisdom. The sword cuts not once, but again and again, deeper and deeper,
helping us to see who and what we really are. In our lives, in this world of dizzying pervasive
and expanding technology, of racial, social, economic and political polarizations, the logic of
compassion should continuously stimulate us to see whether we achieve the broadest possible
views of compassion. Buddhist compassion is not elitist. It is all inclusive and non-
discriminating. We must analyze all our religious actions from the standpoint of the logic of
compassion. Unless truth and compassion the basic essentials of faith are absolutely
comprehensive, they are neither the truth nor real compassion. Their development, in
medieval Japan as Buddhist responses to history, give us an insight into their potential for
relevance in the chaotic mappo times of our own day.

Study Help

Honen: Universality of Amidas Way [5]

In the next place, if we look at it from the standpoint of difficulty and ease, the Nembutsu is
easily practiced, while it is very hard to practice all the other disciplines. For the above reasons
thus briefly stated, we may say that the Nembutsu, being so easily practiced, is of universal
application, while the others being hard to practice, do not suit all cases. And so Amida
seemed to have made his Original Vow the rejection of the hard and the choice of the easy way,
in order to enable all sentient beings, without distinction, to attain birth into the Pure Land. If
the Original Vow required the making of images and the building of pagodas, then the poor
and destitute could have no hope of attaining it. But the fact is that the wealthy and noble are
few in number, whereas the number of the poor and ignoble is extremely large. If the Original
Vow required wisdom and great talents, there would be no hope of that birth for the foolish
and ignorant at all; but the wise are few in number, while the foolish are very many. If the
Original Vow required the hearing and seeing of a great many things, then people who heard
and saw little could have no hope of that birth; but few are they who have heard much, and
very many are they who have heard little. If the Original Vow required obedience to the
commandments and the Law, then there would be no hope of that birth for those who break
the commandments or have not received them; but few are they who keep the commandments
and very many are they who break them. The same reasoning applies to all other cases. If,
then, we make the Original Vow to consist in the practice of these many forms of discipline, it
follows that those who attain birth into Paradise will be few, while the many will fail. We
conclude therefore, that Amida Nyorai, when He was a priest by the name of Hozo ages ago,
in His compassion for all sentient beings alike, and in His effort for the salvation of all, did not
vow to require the making of images or the building of pagodas conditions for birth into the
Pure Land, but only the one act of calling upon His sacred name.

Bibliography

Conze, E., Buddhist Thought in India

Govinda, L.A., The Psychological Attitude of Early Buddhist Philosophy

Suzuki, D.T., Outlines of Mahayana

Takakusu, J., The Essentials of Buddhist Philosophy

Yamaguchi, S., The Mahayana Way to Buddhahood

Notes
[1] E.A. Burtt, The Teachings of the Compassionate Buddha, p. 60

[2] D.T. Suzuki, A Miscellany on Shin Buddhism, p. 6

[3] Ibid. p. 62. The reference to communistic Mahayana is not a political reference. He uses
communistic in the sense ofcommunity.

[4] Coates and Ishizuka, Honen the Buddhist Saint, V, p. 729

[5] Coates and Ishizuka, Honen The Buddhist Saint, II, pp. 344-45
Chapter 5

Kamakura Buddhism: Buddhist Responses to History

Like Shinran and his fellow Buddhists of Japans Kamakura period, we live in an age of the
loss of meaning. As we have noted earlier, such an age is referred to in Buddhism as mappo,
the last age in the decline and disappearance of the Dharma. It is an age when revered and
powerful symbols of the past no longer inspire a sense of wholeness and meaning for great
hosts of people. There survive, in such an age, few if any symbols or myths which really grasp
the imagination and stir conviction and determination in a person. Despite the difference in
time and place, we today face problems similar to those of the Kamakura Buddhists, among
whom Shinran was a major figure.

To appreciate Shinran, and Kamakura Buddhism, we need, therefore, to dwell for a moment
on history. For it is from history, and the examples of conviction and commitment it provides,
that we draw our own direction, and find guidance in making our contemporary decisions.
When we see the way in which earlier individuals faced the problem of their existence, we can
better appreciate the character of their thought. This is certainly true in the case of Buddhism
and of those Buddhist schools that emerged during the Kamakura times. Despite the recent
interest shown by Westerners in such Buddhist traditions as Zen, other Buddhist schools,
particularly those of Kamakura, have suffered a loss of religious and intellectual prestige in
our modern period. We are in an age of reconstruction and reinterpretations of existential
meaning and religious resources.

In order to achieve this, it is necessary to return to origins, to the time when the movement
started, and begin to grasp the issues and problems of that time in both a historic and religious
perspective.

The Kamakura period of Japanese Buddhism is unique. It was during this period that the
reforming element which we earlier perceived in Buddhism broke forth into a flowering of
movements, each with its own character and basis in Buddhist tradition. There was here a
meeting of the time and of diverse personalities, each stimulated in his own special way to
give rise to interpretations of Buddhism which at once were creative, and also carried the
tradition to new heights.

In recent years, there has been much discussion concerning the question as to whether
Kamakura Buddhism was really a reformation in Japanese Buddhism. We cannot go into the
issues of such a debate here, but if we allow for the distinction between the life and teachings
of the founders and the development of the institutions claiming to represent them, we can
accept as a premise that the basis of true reformation was present in the new schools of this
period. This trend is especially true in the cases of Shinran and Nichiren (1222-82), who
developed schools and teachings not before seen in Buddhism. Honen (1133-1212) and Dogen
(1200-53), though they had features which mark them also as belonging to this creative period,
can be viewed, to a degree, as extensions of Chinese schools into Japan. Other important
teachers of this period are Ippen (1239-89), a Pure Land proponent and Myoe (1173-1232) who
attempted to revive adherence to traditional disciplines in Nara.

The new schools of Kamakura Buddhism were spawned in a period of prolonged social crisis,
a period which began in late Heian times (perhaps from the eleventh century) when the
tremors of turbulence began to be felt in the capital, Kyoto, behind which loomed Mt. Hiei, the
monastic capital and major center of Heian Buddhism. The year 1052 generally came to be
regarded in Japanese Buddhist history as the beginning of mappo. From that time on, the
conflict between the capital nobility of the Emperors Court and the provincial warriors of the
many powerful regional clan families intensified. Eventually, the Taira clan became the
dominant force in the capital, and established a dictatorship. When the Taira became
accustomed to their new power and began to enjoy it too much, the Minamoto laid the basis
for their eventual rise to power. The Gempei wars ended with the tragic battle of Dan-no-Ura
and the drowning of the boy Emperor Antoku.

At this point, in 1185, the Kamakura period is usually considered to begin. However, all did
not then become peaceful. The court continued to conspire to get back its power and these
activities led to the Shokyu rebellion in 1222. Later, in the 13th century, the prospect of
invasions of the Mongols from their positions of power on the Chinese mainland, added to the
sense of turmoil in the island nation of Japan. Along with internal political struggles and the
external threat of invasions, there were frequent plagues, famines and earthquakes, all adding
to the miseries and anxieties of the people. In such times, the traditional religious institutions,
which were largely dominated by the nobility, proved unable to provide consolation for the
masses. The times called for new leadership, for new insights to meet the spiritual needs of the
people.

Most religious traditions, when they are freed from the domination and manipulation of the
ruling classes of the society, break forth in a new freedom of the spirit. Their inherent
universality, and their drive for truth comes forth. Although we may not enjoy or desire such
times of upheaval in social or personal life, they are good for the spirit for they challenge us to
seek deeper into our beings for the truth that sustains life. The Kamakura period spurred such
a breakthrough in Japan, so that Buddhism achieved new spiritual heights and, at the same
time, offered itself to the people in a way it had not been able to when it was monopolized by
the aristocracy, and functioned merely to serve the interests of the state or clan.

When we view Kamakura Buddhism in that context, we can see it was an exciting
development, perhaps the most stimulating and significant since the time of Buddha himself,
or the development of Mahayana. This may seem an extreme statement, but in Kamakura
Buddhism we discover individuals searching on their own to find meaning in a tradition they
had known for centuries. We have forms of Buddhism emerging, without any assistance of the
state which had introduced it as a court religion in the 6th century. The new developments of
Kamakura Buddhism were in every sense free expressions of the spirit. It is difficult today to
comprehend the decisions Shinran and his contemporaries made, the convictions they staked
their lives on, the inner forces that drove them out of comfort and complacency on Mt. Hiei to
lives of suffering and difficulty among the people.

Honen, Shinran, and Nichiren suffered persecution and banishment from the capital, while
Dogen virtually imposed punishment on himself. In their responses to history, each of these
Kamakura Buddhist teachers was reacting to the conditions of his time in his own personal
way. Each developed teachings which reflected his own inner condition and ideal. Each was
dissatisfied with contemporary Buddhism and, like the Buddha himself, made the difficult
personal wrench of leaving behind their lives to seek out a new way. It is interesting that even
today the Tendai school maintains it is the mother of Kamakura Buddhism, since all the major
teachers received their training as Tendai monks on Mt. Hiei. Along with their training as
monks, they absorbed spiritual influences from Tendai teaching which strengthened their
decision. However, they all felt impelled to reject Tendai as an institution because they saw
that it was too enmeshed in the political and social evils of the age to provide true spiritual
guidance for them.

Earlier Tendai teaching had brought all forms of Buddhism together in a grand eclectic
synthesis. One could study all major trends of Buddhism on Hiei. There was Zen, Pure Land,
Shingon (Esoteric Buddhism, Mikkyo) and Tendai. Everything had its honored place as one of
many means provided by the Buddha for the liberation of beings. However, the teachers of
Kamakura broke through this eclecticism. Each chose the particular aspect which appeared to
him as the essential and sole basis for true enlightenment. Honen focused on the Nembutsu.
Shinran followed this trend and buttressed it with his understanding of faith. Ippen, also a
Pure Land teacher, roamed the country, offering the Nembutsu to all people he met. Dogen
selected Zen, while Nichiren claimed to revive Tendai in its purity and singleness of devotion
to the Lotus Sutra. Myoe Shonin of Nara represented a conservative attempt to revive the
precepts and monkish order.

A problem that always has to be faced in religion is that the pursuit of truth, even though it is
universal truth, tends to create division, while more pragmatic religious approaches are more
relative and tolerant. Several important features bound the Kamakura teachers who left Tendai
to found new schools. Their new schools were all voluntaristic they were joined by a
decision on the part of the devotee, in contrast to the traditional communal-clan based religion
of the time. The new schools were also individualistic in providing a way of liberation. Unlike
the court Buddhism of the Heian age, they did not appeal to political leaders to help
implement and spread their teaching. All were spiritual in the sense that the primary
consideration was to follow Buddhism. They were committed to the truth of Buddhism as the
fundamental issue. This was in sharp contrast with the view of the traditional Buddhist
schools of that time that Buddhisms main task was to protect Japan (actually the Emperor
[mikado]) by warding off disasters or securing blessings. Curing illness and making it rain
were important motives in the sponsorship of Buddhist ceremonies by the state and nobility.

In approaching the masses, the new Kamakura schools were all simple. They attempted to
clarify the essential teaching of Buddhism beyond the scholasticism and technical language of
the monastic schools, to bring the Buddhas teaching to everyone, in every walk of life. Not
only was there this simplification in teaching, there was similar simplification in practice.
These were laymens religions, and laymen had to work hard for their living. The peasant, the
hunter, the fisherman, the merchant, had little time for the complicated and arduous
disciplines of the monasteries. Honen advocated the simple recitation of Nembutsu and
Nichiren urged the recitation of the title of the Lotus Sutra as practice that was sufficient in
itself. Shinran followed Honen in reciting the Nembutsu as a sole practice, while Dogen held
up the ideal of practicing Zazen (sitting meditation) alone. The new teachers and their
teachings were universal in their appeal. No one was excluded from the hope of salvation. A
great humanism and a desire for human welfare lay behind all these movements. No matter
what class, no matter how rich or poor, no matter how ignorant or weak, Buddhas
compassion could reach all.
Lastly, although it may possibly be regarded as a negative factor, each new movement was
sectarian in tendency. The Mahayana concept of One Vehicle combined with the concept of
mappo so that each teacher insisted that his way was THE way in Buddhism for that time.
Though other forms might be respected, they were considered ineffectual to bring the required
assurance of true enlightenment and ultimate release.

Honen has samurai background. His teachings thus reflect a more straightforward and
decisive character, however, are neither bombastic nor combative. He is extroverted and
pietistic and appears more magisterial, having risen in his lifetime to the position of chief
spokesman of a burgeoning movement. Honen comes on the scene as a compassionate person.
In contrast to Heian Buddhism, which favored the aristocracy, his teaching aims specifically to
assure the salvation of all individuals regardless of their moral and social standing. His
personality has been sentimentalized by tradition, but he has a strength which projects
through that sentimentalization of the centuries, a strength which enabled him to withstand
the persecution brought by the authorities on Mt. Hiei and which finally resulted in his exile, a
strength that attracted a student of the stature of Shinran.

I believe, however, that we can view Honens Pure Land teaching as a rejection of history.
Through the meritorious recitation of Nembutsu, one gains birth in the Pure Land (Jodo) apart
from this defiled world of troubles (Edo). The stress on Pure Land teaching in the Heike
Monogatari illustrates this tendency, particularly in the story of the death of the boy Emperor
Antoku and his going to the kingdom under the sea. Honens teachings offer a vision of an
alternative world in place of the harsh existential reality in which we presently suffer. The
starkness of worldly life is softened by the upaya of otherworldliness which is a gift of
compassion to those whose burdens are heaviest and whose understanding of the nature of
burdens is not easily expressed.

In terms of social class, Shinran was of Fujiwara lineage. The tenor of his teaching suggests an
aristocratic background. He also was neither bombastic nor intemperately critical of other
teachings. Rather, he was lyrical and passionate, as revealed in his hymns and self-confessions.
Shinran was inward, more introverted, probing his inner world.

Through deep introspection of his attitudes and feelings, Shinran sought to discover some clue
or solution to the problem of destiny. As we shall see, he struggled for years against a sense of
imperfection and appears to have internalized within himself the decline of society. He took
history within himself and resolved it in his own consciousness by identifying the resulting
sense of imperfection with faith in Amida Buddha. His spiritual inner pilgrimage brought him
to a new departure point. Released from his anxiety and bondage to history, he could live
constructively and meaningfully in the world. From age 35, a political exile, Shinran went out
into provincial Japan, moving from Echigo to and through the Mito-Kanto area, living a
secular life for twenty years, a life in which he was a teacher and practicer of Nembutsu
among the ordinary people to whom he described himself as neither priest nor layman. In this
period he married Eshin-ni, raised a large family, and only on the threshold of old age returned
to the capital of Kyoto where he continued to teach, to write and to live as neither priest nor
layman.

If Honens teaching is marked by its effort to bring salvation within the reach of ordinary
people, Shinrans is concerned for the inner reality of that offer of salvation. Where Honen
places the full reality of salvation beyond history, Shinran, the existentialist, attempts to find it
within his life by experiencing the assurance of Amidas compassion even in the turmoil of his
own passion and egoism.

Dogen, the Kamakura founder of Soto Zen, also appears to have been a Fujiwara with
considerable literary and philosophical background. He was singularly impressed with the
brevity and transciency of life through the early loss of his parents. This awareness provided
the major theme of his teaching. His urgency was that we should practice as though it was our
last day. He was deeply theoretical, as well as subjective, or inward, though not introspective
in the same sense as Shinran. Dogen was a very serious person, and demanded seriousness in
religion. He was not content with halfway measures but insisted that devotees give themselves
totally to Buddhism. The key phrase he learned from his master Ju-ching was Cast off mind
and body; body and mind cast off!

Zen Buddhism represents an attempt to transcend history directly through realizing the Void
or ones original nature. Though there may be some recognition of the decline of history
represented in the theory of mappo, Zen retains the basic optimism of the potential of men to
perfect themselves through meditation and insight. Freed from the bondage of history by
transcending it, one may dwell unperturbed in the world of turmoil.

Nichiren, the last and latest of the Kamakura teachers, was of peasant-fisherman origin. He
was proud of his lower class background and probably because of his need to prove himself
against Buddhists from the upper class, he appears more critical and combative than any of the
other teachers. He is objectivist, literal and scripture-oriented in his outlook. He was an
individual with a passionate desire for leadership and sought a basis for unifying Buddhism
and society in order to bring social peace. He was a patriot, more aware of general social
conditions than were other Buddhists of his time. He particularly felt the threats coming to
Japan from the invasions of the Mongols, and it was these threats that stimulated his sense of
mission to warn the country and turn it to true Buddhism. Nichiren represents a confrontation
with history. He demands no inward recognition of evil, nor makes a call for direct
transcension. Rather, he stands over against history, pronouncing judgment and calling for
commitment to truth to stave off disaster. A sense of mission inspires his devotees to become
witnesses to truth in history, and the contemporary institutions based on Nichiren, such as
Soka Gakkai, preserve Nichirens combativeness, and his sense of political mission in
Buddhism.

While each of these various threads of Kamakura Buddhism had its contribution to make as a
source of spiritual insight for our contemporary times and problems, we are focusing on
Shinrans perspective because I believe his conquest of history within himself provides the
most profound view of human existence to emerge in the Kamakura period. The
distinctiveness of Shinrans teachings will become increasingly evident in a deeper
acquaintance with the reinterpretation of doctrine which he carried out, and in the changed
style of life which he initiated. The conquest of history within ones consciousness is an
existential awareness which means to recognize and accept ones historicity, but at the same
time, to see that it is not our essential self and destiny it is not our fate.

Shinrans conviction that we are embraced by the compassion of the Buddha suggests that we
may act and participate in history, in our time, knowing that our being is an expression of
something that reaches beyond and surrounds that history. Such an existential definition of
ourselves is a defense against the despair resulting from our own imperfections or the failure
of our expectations in the world. More than a defense, it is a point on which to stand through
our lives, a point from which we see with increasingly clearer and deeper vision the paradox
that we are bound, but in our bondage we are yet free.

Bibliography

Anesaki, Masaharu: History of Japanese Religion

Anesaki, Masaharu: Nichiren, The Buddhist Prophet

Coates, HH and Ishizuka, R: Honen, The Buddhist Saint

Hanayama, Shinsho: A History of Japanese Buddhism

Hirota, Dennis: No Abode; The Record of Ippen

Kim, Hee Jin: Dogen Kigen, Mystical Realist

Matsunaga, Alicia, Daigan: Foundation of Japanese Buddhism Vol. II

Chapter 6

A Perspective on the History of Shin Buddhism in Japan

Over the years, first in Hawaii and now on the mainland, I have become increasingly aware of
perplexity within the Shin community. It is a problem I see reflected in youth who have little
understanding of, or concern for, their Shinshu heritage. I have met them frequently in classes
I have taught. A similar problem is reflected among Shin clergy who face many obstacles in
trying to chart creative directions for their institution. And it is reflected also among the lay
people, who themselves do not understand the teachings and who wonder why their children
show little interest in their Shinshu heritage. I myself have witnessed what I could consider
profound theological confusion, so that there sometimes seems to be a conflict between being
Buddhist and being Shin Buddhist. Among both lay and clergy, there is a conflict on how the
Shin Buddhist faith relates to everyday life and society.

As I have contemplated these problems, for which as a Shin Buddhist convert I have deep
concern I have come to realize that, in fact, they have their roots deep in Shin history as it
unfolded within the framework of Japanese society and its perspectives on religion. The
American Shin Buddhist community is an extension of that history. As I struggled to gain a
handle on the problem, I found myself drawn back to the earliest times of Shin history to
observe the interaction of historical circumstances and human decision. I also found myself
rather deeply over my head in trying to gather the materials to draw this picture, since we
must rely largely on scholarship in Japanese, though there are several excellent works now
available in English.

The subject has been painful in a variety of ways. It is not an altogether bright picture to
contemplate from our contemporary standpoint. To my mind, the perspective from which we
may approach these serious issues of the problems of Shinshu in America is one given by Prof.
Kitanishi, an assistant professor of Otani University in Kyoto, in an essay on the formation and
development of the Honganji Kyodan. He subtitles his essay: One phase in the loss of
religiosity. [1]

According to Kitanishi who relies on Kiyozawa Manshi, a Meiji period Shin reformer, over the
course of Shin history an order has been constructed in the name of Shinran, but in the process
of institutionalization, people have lost sight of Shinran and have also had the misfortune of
losing insight into the humanity which Shinran himself perceived so deeply and profoundly.
As a result, there has been a loss of true self. Rather, living only by the other within the self,
the externalized authority and reality that is internalized has been taken for the real self.

Kiyozawa called this loss of the direct self (Chokka no Jiko) and proposed that if one wished to
liberate himself from the other within himself, he must feud vehemently with the pattern of
the Kyodan (Order), the institutionalization of Shinshu which surrounds him. He goes on to
say that the new starting point for the Order begins with this feud, that the confrontation is the
vehicle for renewal and rediscovery of the direct self which is the focus of Shinrans teachings.
Kitanishi notes that in the past, when this issue arose, the Order had developed suitably as the
womb which gave birth to subjective human beings who could endure that struggle. While in
the past there may have been people who saw the problem and who engaged in the battle,
there was, however, no major reform. One must dismantle the self, says Kitanishi, if there is to
be progress.

We would add to this that in order for such a process to take place, one must understand the
way in which we have arrived at our present condition. Thus, we need an overview of its
historical process as a guide to our dealing with the problem and potentialities of Shinshu in
America, and with the present and future of Shin Buddhism in the modern world.

To show the potential of Shinrans thought and to point out its relevance to our time, we must
note that hardly had his long life ended than the processes of the institutionalization and
formalization of his teaching began. Some of this, undoubtedly, was stimulated by problems
which had emerged before his passing, and therefore, we cannot impute any bad intentions or
negative meaning to what took place. Such developments may be negative if they are
considered to be the true norm, rather than the working out of a tradition for which the future
is still open.

The essential fact we must remember is that we will have departed from the most basic insight
of Shinran, as well as Buddhism itself, if we consider the future closed because the past is more
real or authoritative than the present. This is the heart of the problem of institutionalization of
Shinshu and the consequences for Buddhism of centuries of repressive political control of the
Honganji as well as of other Buddhist orders by the state in Japan.

After the passing of Shinran, the fellowships that he began were small informal groups
without any institutionalization or hierarchy in the beginning. These groups were scattered
throughout the Kanto region. They were, apparently, rather independent and loosely
organized. The followers met in halls or in homes but did not possess temples as such. They
were unrecognized as a religious movement and do not appear on ancient records outside the
sect. In general, the type of organization taken up in the provinces was the more voluntaristic
ko, which was organized for the common person. The ko was a cooperative consultative body
whose leaders were the older and trusted disciples of Shinran, such as Yuienbo, author of the
Tannisho, Shoshin or Shimbutsu.

When Shinran passed away, he did not apparently designate specifically anyone to take over
his position, even from among his own seven children. Instead, during his lifetime, one of his
most anguished decisions was to disown his eldest son Zenran, who claimed he had been
given secret teachings by his father.

During his years of ministry in Kanto, Shinran began with very simple institutional elements
such as the ko groups, but upon his death, there was an immediate effort to give them firmer
shape. His grave was originally merely a marker at Otani, in the vicinity of what is at present
the Chion-in temple of the Jodo school. The marker soon became a mausoleum, and then a
temple, so that the process of venerating and exalting Shinran as the founder of Shin
Buddhism began almost immediately. The emphasis on hereditary succession of leadership
was promoted from the beginning, as explained in the essay, Rennyo and the Shinshu
Revival, by Prof. Weinstein:

Despite the apparent success that these men had in gaining a devoted following, both lay and
clerical, during their lifetime, their attempts to reform and purify Buddhism did not
immediately bear fruit. To the contrary, we find in most instances after the death of the
founder, a common pattern emerged whereby the self-proclaimed followers venerate the
founder virtually to the point of deification while they ignore or distort his teaching and often
revert to the very type of Buddhist belief or practice that the founder had attempted to
reform. [2]

In this manner, after Shinrans passing, the process of institutionalization with its implied
controls began to take place.

There was, certainly, the necessity to preserve the memory of the founder and his teaching in
its purity. Though Shinshu lacked independent recognition from the authorities, Shinrans
daughter, Kakushin-ni, felt the need to provide a rallying point or center a place of
pilgrimage for the loosely knit fellowship of her fathers followers. There may have been
some fear on her part that the land where the marker was placed might be sold in later times,
as well as, also a residual influence of the ancestral reverence so strong in Japan. As Yuienbos
Tannisho indicates, institutionalization may have also been a way to deal with heresy.

Problems had already arisen in Shinrans lifetime, and they appear in the Tannisho as well as
Shinrans letters. Shinran could not prevent such developments, nor could his eldest son,
Zenran, solve them. Zenran, in fact, had to be disowned in the interests of the greater
fellowship. It would appear from this incident that Shinran did not place a greater premium on
blood line over spirit, and that he did not ask, nor designate, any of his children to carry on his
teachings.

Whatever her motives, Shinrans daughter, Kakushin-ni, assumed responsibility to care for the
tomb in Kyoto, and thus set up the Rusushiki or office of caretaker. By 1277, Shinrans
followers in the provinces recognized Kakushin-nis role and helped to maintain it. Eventually,
a more suitable mausoleum was constructed and the care of the shrine became the hereditary
duty of Kakushin-nis descendants.

She was followed in office by her eldest son, Kakue. Next, after some difficulties, it came to
Kakunyo, Shinrans great-grandson in 1301 when he was 41 years of age. Kakunyo had
ambitions to make the mausoleum and his office the center of the Shin sect. In 1290 he had
traveled through the provinces visiting places related to Shinran. He subsequently developed
the Hoonko service to express gratitude and reverence toward the founder. He also wrote a
biography the Godensho to exalt him. He also remodeled the tomb and had a new picture of
Shinran produced, a picture which then became highly venerated.

Kakunyo attempted to transform Shinrans tomb into a temple with the name Senjuji, but
faced opposition from the authorities of Hiei who objected to the name since it referred to the
prohibited Pure Land teachings and used the term which characterized Honens Nembutsu
(Senju means sole practice). Despite this, by 1321 it appears that the less prejudicial term
Honganji which also refers to Pure Land teachings was in use. By about 1333, Honganji
received the status of a kitojo (a temple for prayers), or chokuganji (a temple authorized by the
government to pray for the welfare of the country) from the southern court. In 1334, Shorenin
(the headquarters of the Tendai sect) recognized its independence from the Kanto believers.
Kakunyo also attempted to place an image of Amida in the central position, with the image of
Shinran to the side. He was opposed in this by the provincial believers, but such an altar
arrangement later came about with Abbot Zennyo.
For Kakunyo to secure his leadership, he had to combine the claim of blood lineage with that
of spiritual lineage. This he did by maintaining that he had received Shinrans teaching
through Nyoshin, the son of Zenran, who, though disowned, had followers in the Kanto area.
As Weinstein points out, numerous factors may operate here such as the transmission through
master-disciple, the principle of primogeniture and the right of inheritance belonging to the
eldest son. Kakunyos various efforts to establish the independence of Honganji in relation to
the provincial groups stimulated more sectarian activity among the disciples who split into
several groups. Whatever their reasons, the disciples somewhat distrusted Kakunyo.

Following Kakunyo, Zennyo took over and administered Honganji under the control of
Shorenin. At this time, Honganji was considered a sub-sect of Tendai. These relationships
restricted efforts at Shin development and with the greater independence of the provincial
believers, financial problems arose. Notable was the development of the Takata school which
in 1478 also became a chokugansho, receiving recognition from Emperor Tsuchimikado.

Fortunes began to change for Honganji with the appearance of Rennyo, the eighth patriarch, in
the fifteenth century. At the request of his mother, Rennyo launched a popular campaign to
spread Jodo Shinshu. However, in the course of doing this, he incurred the wrath of the Tendai
sect on Mount Hiei, which regarded the teaching namely that of unimpeded light (Mugeko)
as a heresy. In 1465 Hiei attacked the center of Otani and also threatened Takata. Because of
these and various other problems, Rennyo moved frequently. He transferred from Yamashina
to Yoshizaki near Kyoto. Finally, in 1489, he retired and built a hermitage in Ishiyama near
Osaka. Under Rennyos leadership, Honganji encountered many problems, but grew in
numbers and strength, and continued to grow for more than a century until the split between
the East and West Honganji, a split that has persisted to modern times.

In historical retrospect, it is clear that Rennyo laid the foundation for the popular spread of
Shinshu by presenting the teaching in ways which the common man could grasp, just as
Shinran himself had done. In this popularization, however, some of the subtlety of Shinrans
own thought was perhaps reduced in favor of clear and concrete belief. Sometimes, in meeting
a particular crisis, decisions are made which at the time hold yet unknown implications for the
future. Rennyo appears to have forwarded the developing ecclesiasticism and centrality of
hereditary abbacy through his own charisma. While on one side he warned against the
tendency of Zenchishiki-danomi (dependence on a teacher) as a means to assure people of
their salvation, his own charisma created such a dependency on himself and his successors.
Thus, after Rennyo, zenchishiki-danomi, still a negative term in its implications, comes to refer
to reliance on teachers other than the abbot.

Similarly, in the struggle to restrain the tendencies to antinomianism and ridicule of the gods
and Buddhas, Rennyo also counseled obeying the laws of the state. He urged followers not to
express contempt for traditional religions. He established regulations to control Honganji and
aided in the transformation of Pure Land faith from an individual quest of salvation (as it had
been for Shinran), to a group-oriented faith. Through his close relation to the peasants in
various regions, Rennyo caused them to band together as local groups. This tendency to
sectarian feeling and communality was strengthened through the struggles in the Ikko-ikki
wars (known as peasant revolts).

Through all of these various developments under Rennyo Shonin, the Honganji gradually
became a firmly structured, virtually authoritarian movement which subordinated the
individual to the group, cultivated a paternalism on the part of the leadership, and encouraged
a dependency and ardency on the part of the follower. After Rennyo, the Ikko-ikki wars (which
have the appearance of defense of the faith, or anti-feudalism) increased with the result that
the community transformed from one of nurturing trust to one of feudalistic character. To that
extent, it departed from Shinran to a point from which it could not return. The ko turned into
gumi an organization for warfare. Sect egoism grew. The anomalous belief was implanted in
Shin followers that one could vindicate ones rebirth only by exposing himself to the danger of
giving his life in bloodshed. This transformation in the character of Honganji took place in the
period of Shonyo, during the Temmon period 1532-55. The Ikko-ikki struggles were the
turning point.

There were many levels in the feudal structure of the Shin order, Honganji-Ikkashu (one family
group), also Daibozu, Matsuji, Dojo, and Monto respectively, chief priest, branch temple,
practice or worship center, and follower. There was a structure to meet external threat, and
internally there developed the centrality of the head with power of excommunication, which
threatened the future destiny of the believer. There were strong religious sanctions which
could execute a person spiritually but which also were tantamount to physical execution, since
individuals excommunicated from the village lost their right to live. It is remarkable that the
systematization of Honganji with such strong internal sanctions, could be so very tolerant to
outside groups. In effect, in that period, Honganji externally taught Shinran, but in its internal
promulgation was non-Shinran.
The joy of faith which should be robust among followers was transformed to a passive
prudentialism of safety first. Teaching became indoctrination and was symbolized in the
practice of not permitting people to read such works as the Tannisho until they were
matured. As with most Orders of medieval Buddhism, Honganji entered modern times with
no essential change in its institutional attitudes and practices. Higashi Honganji became buried
within the feudalism of the Tokugawa and the ethics of the Order took shape within this
framework where conservatism was viewed as stability. The history of Nishi Honganji,
following the division of the two, was not entirely dissimilar.

In 1602, when Tokugawa Ieyasu sided with the Abbott Kyonyo in a dispute with Abbott
Junnyo over the succession of the 12th patriarch, Kyonyos supporters became known as
Higashi (East) Honganji, from its location at Karasumaru in Kyoto. Nishi (West) Honganji was
located at Horikawa. This division weakened the political and social power of the
organization, for each side of the division was now more subservient to the feudal regime.

After the onset of the Meiji restoration, and the full opening of Japan to western influence, the
Shin sect played a significant role in helping Japan face the problems of the modern era. There
were positive efforts by Honganji in the areas of religious reform, social work, and Buddhist
scholarship and education. Some Shin Buddhists were instrumental in making religious
freedom a reality in modern Japan. However, important as these contributions undeniably are,
such efforts were limited both because they had strong nationalist coloring and were largely
directed to opposing Christianity. It is apparent from later developments that these changes in
the Meiji era did not reach the grass roots, rank and file Buddhists in Japan.

Bibliography

Dobbins, James: Jodo Shinshu: Shin Buddhism in Medieval Japan

Matsunaga, Daigan and Alicia: Foundations of Japanese Buddhism, Vol. II

Notes

[1] Honganji Kyodan no Seiritsu to Sono Tenkai: Shukyosei shoshitsu to Ichidanmen, in

Honganji Kyodan: Shinran wa Gendai ni Yomigareuka? ["The Honganji Order: Will Shinran
Come to Life Again in the Contemporary Age?"]

[2] In John Whitney Hall, Toyoda Takeshi, Japan in the Muromachi Age, p. 331
Chapter 7

Shin Buddhism in the American Context

It was during the mid-nineteenth century that Buddhism initially became known to the
intellectual and literary world in the United States through the writings of Ralph Waldo
Emerson, Henry David Thoreau and Walt Whitman. The Theosophical Society founded by
Madame H. P. Blavatsky and her associate, Col. Henry Steel Olcott, then further introduced
Buddhism to Americans. In 1879, the first major treatment of Gautama Buddhas life appeared
in the very popular book The Light of Asia by Edwin Arnold. In 1893, as result of the World
Parliament of Religions held in Chicago, Paul Carus, publisher of the journalOpen Court,
became deeply interested in Buddhism as a basis for resolving the conflict between science and
religion. In editing the journal, Carus enlisted the aid of the youthful D.T. Suzuki who later
became the foremost propagator of Zen Buddhism in the West.

While Buddhism was thus beginning to permeate the more cultured classes, albeit in a
fragmentary and noninstitutionalized way, Japanese migrating to Hawaii and North America
were bringing with them their Buddhist traditions. These immigrants provided the basis for
the establishment of Buddhist institutions in a Western context and a foundation for a broader
effort in propagating Buddhism in American society. Although various Buddhist sects took
root in Hawaii, the United States and Canada, by far the largest and best organized were the
Honganji branches of the Jodo Shinshu sect, commonly called Shin Buddhism in English. [1]

Buddhism in America was also part of the reawakening of Buddhism in Japan as the various
denominations, and particularly Jodo Shinshu, sent clergy to care for the needs of the
immigrants who had come to work in Hawaii and the United States. The first Japanese
immigrant group arrived in Hawaii as contract laborers in June 1868, the first year of the Meiji
era. Accordingly, the members of this initial group came to be called Gannenmono, meaning
people of the first year of Meiji. This group and those who followed as contract laborers were
also referred to as Kanyakuimin (contract labor immigrants.)

The first immigrant group to settle in California arrived a year after the first Hawaii group, in
June 1869, and established what was to become known as the Wakamatsu Tea and Silk Colony
at Gold Hill in Eldorado County. In Canada, the first immigrants did not arrive until 1885 and
settled largely in British Columbia where they engaged in fishing.
Although accurate data on the movement of Japanese to Hawaii and America apparently does
not exist, the available data indicates that only a few tens of Japanese migrated to Hawaii and
the United States each year until the mid-1880s, numbered only in the hundreds each year
from 1884 to 1890, and in the thousands only from 1891 (reaching a peak of over 10,000 in
1900.) [2] According to Wilson and Hosokawa, the cumulative total of Japanese immigrants to
mainland America through 1919 was 237,121, but those who either returned to Japan or died
numbered 155,783, showing a net gain of only 81,338. Nevertheless, the 1920 census shows
110,010 Japanese in the U. S. mainland, including 29,672 Nisei who were American citizens
by birth. [3]

American Shin Buddhism is generally an extension of Shin Buddhism as it had developed to

that point when it arrived in the islands in 1888 and on the mainland in 1899. The American
situation of Honganji differs from the situation of Honganji in Japan due to the position of the
Japanese immigrants in American society. As a minority group experiencing various forms of
discrimination and pressures, it was necessary for the immigrants to hold on to the customs,
faith, and loyalties which they brought with them. Buddhist temples became social centers and
the teaching a source of consolation for those undergoing the hard life of the plantations, farms
or cities.

Honganji In Hawaii

The Japanese who came to Hawaii assimilated completely into Hawaiian society. Formal
immigration began with an agreement between the Japanese and Hawaiian governments in
1885. The Contract Labour Agreement permitted large numbers of Japanese to seek their
fortunes on the developing sugar plantations of Hawaii. They provided the social and
religious basis for the development of Shin Buddhism in Hawaii.

Soon after February 1885 the first large contingent of immigrants arrived. However, it was not
until 1889 that the first Jodo Shinshu priest came to establish Shin Buddhism in the Christian-
oriented islands. Rev. Soryu Kagai set up a small temple in Hawaii and then returned to Japan.
Lay people carried on services until the next missionaries came in 1897. Rev. Hoji Satomi
established a Shin Buddhist temple on Fort Street. He was accompanied by Rev. Yemyo
Imamura who served the Hompa Honganji Mission until his death in 1932. Bishop Imamura
was a creative leader and spokesman for Buddhism in the islands and had a stimulating effect
on the development of Buddhism. He was held in high respect by the entire community as a
religious and social leader through his activities in connection with the sugar strikes.
In the face of the dominant Christian society, Buddhist temples in Hawaii developed their
educational and cultural programs. They also attempted to adapt their services to meet the
needs of the new environment, manifesting the flexibility that had characterized the spread of
Buddhism through Asia. Buddhist temples in Hawaii early on employed organs, pews, hymns,
sermons, Sunday school classes with English services and Language schools. Much of the
adaptation was pioneered by Bishop Imamura, who believed that Buddhism was a universal
faith and should be accessible to those outside Japanese culture.

Despite efforts at adaptation, the Buddhist efforts to pacify laborers were initially welcomed.
However, the support given strikers aroused strong opposition and criticism from the general
community, while the language schools came to be viewed as a threat to the American way of
life. Christian evangelists frequently stressed that Buddhism and Americanism were
contradictory. Great efforts were made by Buddhist missionaries to give spiritual direction and
consolation to the immigrants from Japan in their many problems as a minority people.

However, the social environment of its followers placed Buddhism in the American scene in a
defensive posture. It had to help maintain an awareness of, and respect for, Japanese tradition
among people who were not permitted to become American citizens. In Hawaii particularly, it
came to the aid of laborers who were being exploited. It was confused with Shinto by
outsiders, and it incurred the resentment of Christians who found Buddhists resistant to
conversion. Because of the confusion with Shinto, there were suspicions as to the loyalty of
Buddhists. Both traditions were viewed as foreign religions in America. This feeling escalated
as World War II began, and temples were shut down and ministers arrested.

Honganji in the States [4]

Although there had been other Jodo Shinshu visitors to the United States as early as 1872, Rev.
Dr. Shuye Sonoda and Rev. Kakuryo Nishijima were the first Jodo Shinshu ministers sent as
missionaries to the United States by the Hompa Honganji. They arrived in San Francisco on
September 1, 1899, and began laying the foundation for what became the Buddhist Mission of
North America (BMNA) in 1914 and is now the Buddhist Churches of America (BCA). Rev. Dr.
Sonoda had been head of the Academy of Literature of the Hompa Honganji, which later
became Ryukoku University. Rev. Nishijima had been a student of Rev. Dr. Sonoda.

Revs. Sonoda and Nishijima had been preceded the year before (1898) by Revs. Eryu Honda
and Ejun Miyamoto who had been sent to America by the Honganji on a fact-finding and
study mission. (Rev. Miyamoto had taken a similar trip to Hawaii just the year before.) Revs.
Honda and Miyamoto were sent on their mission in response to a request by some young
Japanese immigrants that Honganji send missionaries to the United States. And, as a direct
result of the visit by Revs. Honda and Miyamoto, a Young Mens Buddhist Association
(Bukkyo Seinen Kai) had been established in San Francisco. This organization, formally
established on July 30, 1898, was the precursor of what is now the Buddhist Church of San
Franciso.

Revs. Honda and Miyamoto stayed in San Francisco only a few weeks, then traveled on to
Sacramento and to other areas of sizeable Japanese population, including Seattle, Washington
and Vancouver, British Columbia. And, on their return to Japan, the two ministers
recommended that the Hompa Honganji initiate missionary activity in America. In the
meanwhile, the San Francisco Young Mens Buddhist Association, which had been gaining
members slowly, sent a formal plea to the Lord Abbot of the Hompa Honganji setting forth the
plight of the followers of Shinran Shonin in the United States who were unable to hear the
lessons of the Buddhadharma and were cut-off from the enlightenment offered by the teaching
of Jodo Shinshu.

Thus, while a newspaper (San Francisco Chronicle) account of September 13, 1899 on the
arrival of Revs. Sonoda and Nishijima stated that they had come to establish a Buddhist
mission at 807 Polk Street and to convert Japanese and later Americans to the ancient Buddhist
faith, [5] their efforts and that of the other Jodo Shinshu ministers who followed were
directed primarily towards serving the religious and social needs and interests of the Japanese
immigrants who were already (at least nominally) Buddhists and preponderantly of the Jodo
Shinshu sect, which after all was the largest Buddhist sect in Japan.

Although Rev. Sonoda was recalled to Japan to further serve the Honganji after some 15
months, he was succeeded initially by Rev. Tetsuei Mizuki, then Rev. Kentoku Hori, and finally
Rev. Koyu Uchida who served from 1905 to 1923 as the Kantoku (Director) and later as the
Socho (Bishop) of the Hompa Honganjis missionary effort in the United States. And, in the
first decade following the arrival of the Sonoda-Nishijima mission, Jodo Shinshu congregations
were organized or established in about nineteen areas outside of San Francisco. [6]

As in San Francisco, most of these congregations were started as young mens associations
(Seinenkai), several as offshoots of the San Francisco Seinenkai. Use of the name Seinenkai
may suggest that these early congregations were comprised of only single men. However, all
of these congregations soon after their establishment rented or bought property which could
be used as meeting places and eventually as temples, churches and/or Japanese community
centers. And, as the Seinenkai became Bukkyokai (Buddhist churches), Buddhist Womens
Associations (Bukkyo Fujinkai) comprised of the wives of the male members of the
congregations were established to be what amounted to Ladies Auxilliaries of the respective
churches and temples. Another institution established at some point by most of these
congregations was a Japanese language school to provide Japanese language training to the
Nisei (2nd Generation) children of the immigrant Issei (1st Generation) Japanese.

Unlike the experience of the Japanese immigrants to Hawaii (which was annexed by the
United States in 1898 just before the Honganjis missionary activities in America were begun in
earnest), the Japanese on the mainland United States, including the born-in-America Nisei,
were not readily assimilated into American society. Coincidentally with the enlargement of the
Honganjis activities in America, anti-Japanese attitudes and actions by Americans
(particularly those with vested economic interests in the west coastal States) intensified to
the point that further immigration from Japan was stopped by the Japanese Exclusion Act of
1924. Alien land laws of, among others, California, Oregon and Washington States, which were
designed to prevent the acquisition of land by Japanese, complicated the acquisition of
property for use as churches or temples by Jodo Shinshu congregations.

In the face of the evident anti-Japanese trends in those very areas in which Jodo Shinshu
congregations were taking root and growing, the churches/temples they established came to
serve not only the religious needs of the immigrants, but also their social and cultural interests
and needs and an institutional means of perpetuating their Japanese traditions.

In the 1920s and 1930s, activities designed to meet the needs of the English speaking Nisei
members of the temples were established and expanded. Sunday schools (now called Dharma
schools) became an essential feature of the temples for imparting Dharma lessons to school age
children in English. Various kinds of youth organizations, such as Young Mens Buddhist
Associations and Young Womens Buddhist Associations (YMBAs and YWBAs), were also
established to provide the youths with additional devotional opportunities as well as social
and athletic opportunities and outlets. As these youth groups became organized into regional
and national associations, they enabled inter-community networking by the young people of
the respective Japanese communities.

It was also in the late 1920s and early 1930s that there was increasing awareness of the need for
English speaking Jodo Shinshu ministers. In 1929, the delegates to the Ministers and Lay
Representatives [of the Buddhist Mission of North America] Meeting in San Francisco
approved the establishment of the Hokubei Kaikyo Zaidan (Foundation) to support the
propagation of Buddhism in America. One of the objectives of the Zaidan (now called the BCA
Endowment Foundation) given in its prospectus is Training of Buddhist ministers among
second generation and other Americans. By 1931, there were 33 churches and a number of
branches affiliated with the BMNA, but few of the ministers were fully proficient in English.
Thus, Rev. Kenju Masuyama, formerly a professor of Ryukoku University who had arrived in
1930 to head the BMNA as its Socho (Bishop), gave great emphasis to finding suitable
candidates among the Nisei to enter into training to become Buddhist ministers. However,
except for tutorial type of training that might be given at BMNA Headquarters (as it was to a
few individuals), ministerial aspirants had to go to Japan to receive formal training that would
qualify them for ordination by the Hompa Honganji. Ironically, successful completion of such
training necessitated proficiency in the Japanese language.

Perhaps the instructional program begun in San Francisco by Bishop Masuyama might have
grown and become more firmly rooted had it not been for the advent of World War II, during
which all persons of Japanese ancestry (including United States citizens) living on the West
Coast were removed from their homes by the U. S. Government and interned in camps called
relocation centers. However, even before the Japanese Americans were removed from their
homes, many of the Buddhist ministers had been taken into custody by the FBI immediately
following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and placed in detention camps because, as
leaders of their respective Japanese communities, they were considered to be potentially
dangerous enemy aliens.

Since the Japanese American residents of San Francisco were incarcerated in the Topaz
Relocation Center in Utah, the headquarters of the BMNA was established in that camp. Here,
in April 1944, it was decided to rename the BMNA as the Buddhist Churches of Amerca (BCA)
and to incorporate the entity in the State of California. The BCAs articles of incorporation were
drafted by the BMNA Board of Directors interned at Topaz and approved by the
representatives from the various camps and other communities who attended the Ministers
and Lay Representatives Meeting held at the Topaz Buddhist Church on April 28-30, 1944.

The Japanese Americans were not allowed to return to their West Coast homes and their
temples until 1945. Bishop Ryotai Matsukage returned to San Francisco and re-opened the
headquarters of what was now the Buddhist Churches of America in August 1945. In most
cases, the temples and any affiliated Japanese language school buildings, had to be used as
temporary shelters for the returning evacuees. In many areas, the temples had been used to
store the personal property of the evacuees. And in the absence of the members, many of the
temples had been vandalized. Nevertheless, by the mid-1950s, most of the temples were well
on the road to recovery from the set-backs of the war years and looking to the future with
plans for refurbishing old facilities as well as building new facilities. In addition, because of
the movement of significant numbers of Japanese Americans from the various relocation
centers to areas east of the Mississippi during the war years, by 1960 new Jodo Shinshu
congregations had been formed in: Chicago, Illinois; Cleveland, Ohio; Detroit, Michigan;
Seabrook, New Jersey; Minneapolis, Minnesota and Washington, D.C. In 1941, there were 44
temples affiliated with the BMNA, and by 1989, there were 61 temples and 7 Sanghas
(Fellowships) affiliated with the BCA.

As indicated above, the initiation of any concerted program for training English speaking Jodo
Shinshu ministers was forestalled by the events of World War II. But in 1949, Bishop Enryo
Shigefuji began conducting study classes in Berkeley, California. Rev. Kanmo Imamura,
resident minister of the Berkeley Buddhist Church further developed the program and the
study class was moved to the Berkeley Buddhist Church. And when the new church building
was completed in 1955, the BCA Study Center was established in it. In 1956 the BCA
established a Special Projects Fund which among other things was to provide funds for the
Study Centers library and to cover certain expenses of ministerial students who were to
attend. Then it was decided in 1957 to increase the amount to be raised for the Special Projects
Fund to support a Ministerial Training Center to be established in Kyoto, Japan in 1959 to train
English-speaking ministers from among the students in Japan. However, it was later
concluded that it would be more effective to train English-speaking ministers in the United
States and the program was transferred to the Berkeley Study Center.

Then, in 1966, the BCA National Council decided to establish what is now the Institute of
Buddhist Studies (IBS) and the property at 2717 Haste Street in Berkeley was purchased for
that purpose. The Institute was officially started on October 1, 1966, and eventually became
affiliated with the Graduate Theological Union (GTU) as a graduate school and seminary in
1985. Following its affiliation with GTU, the Institute enlarged its facilities greatly by acquiring
its Addison Street building in Berkeley in 1987 with BCA Endowment Foundation funds which
had been raised through the BCAs Campaign for Buddhism in America capital fund drive.
The Campaign was initiated in 1982 with a goal of $15 million to aid in advancing the
propagation of Buddhism in America.

As a final note on the historical development of Jodo Shinshu institutions in North America,
the first Honganji missionary sent to Canada arrived in Vancouver, British Columbia in 1904
and the first church was built there in 1911. Until 1933, the Jodo Shinshu churches established
in Canada under Hompa Honganji auspices were placed under the jurisdiction of the BMNA
in San Francisco. In 1933, the Canadian churches were removed from the jurisdiction of
BMNA, but remained under the guidance of the BMNA Socho in San Francisco. Then in 1936,
Rev. Zenyu Aoki (who had served under the BMNA since 1915) was appointed as the first
Socho of the Buddhist Mission of Canada. After World War II, the Canadian Mission was
reorganized and renamed the Buddhist Churches of Canada with its headquarters co-located
with the Toronto Buddhist Church in Toronto, Ontario. As of this writing, there were 16 Jodo
Shinshu churches in Canada.

Japanese Cultural Influences on Jodo Shinshu in America

It is interesting that Ruth Benedict wrote her study, Chrysanthemum and the Sword based on
studies of Japanese Americans, which in the absence of direct observation of Japanese in
Japan, provided the best situation for such a book. At that time, their basic ethical orientation
had come out of the Tokugawa-Meiji period, when the first Issei immigrants came to America.

On or giri duty or obligation has operated among the Japanese Americans as a basic
ethical foundation for human relations. This on-giri relationship is essentially conservative. It
can be stultifying in personal groups, especially when one sees it in the context of a status
society and within a close family situation. What happens in the psycho-social functioning of
these principles is that the individual must be more conscious of his external relations rather
than what one may perceive in their inner awareness. There is a tendency to be conformist,
unquestioning, and prudent. The good is always determined by others to whom one has
obligation.

Such an ethical basis for individual relationships and attitudes, together with the net result of
all historical and social factors, has left Honganji (the contemporary order of Shin Buddhism in
Hawaii, North and South America) with a variety of problems which it must face. The first of
these is ethnocentrism; the second is the relation to western culture and the third is, what
message does Shinshu have for Americans? While each of these problems also face other
institutions and religions, they have a peculiar intensity in Buddhism.

As an illustration, I would refer to the issue of ethnocentrism. In one of my classes at the

University of Hawaii several years ago, a young student, who was a member of Honganji on
one of the outer islands of Hawaii, explained to her fellow students that her parents had told
her she would be disowned unless she married a Japanese. When I inquired a bit among some
acquaintances, I came to realize that the universalism of Buddhism is thwarted by such
attitudes in the family situation as it has been maintained among the Japanese in the islands.

Despite the popularity and seeming interest in, and attraction to, Buddhism by non-Japanese,
Buddhist temples in Hawaii tend to have few members of other races, far fewer than is the
case among other religious traditions in island communities. Racial homogeneity, reinforced
by language and culture, makes it difficult for outsiders to enter the heart of the Buddhist
tradition in Hawaii. This is certainly true in the more outlying rural communities of Oahu and
the neighbor islands. Since most Buddhist ministers in Hawaii are recruited from Japan, a large
percentage of them have problems speaking or relating easily in English and are often ill at
ease in the ways of western culture.

From this situation there emerged a string of problems. In what way is the Order to relate to
western culture? Is Buddhism only a Japanese religion, as the appearance of its membership
might indicate? Or is it, indeed, a world religion as indicated by its historic process of
spreading from India through all of Asia. Somehow, in America, Buddhism must develop its
own distinct form as a part of western culture, as, in Japan in the sixth century, it began to
develop its own distinct form as a part of Japanese culture. Though twentieth century
Buddhism in America is indebted to Japanese sources and inspiration, it should not be entirely
controlled from that source. The inspiration rather must become the wellspring of refreshment,
change and renewal.

When, for example, such Buddhist leaders as Bishop Yemyo Imamura sought to adapt
Buddhism to the new setting of Hawaii, and prepare for a wider mission to all people in the
islands and beyond, the effort was carried forth only piecemeal and superficially. Change and
adaptation were limited to alterations in church services, music, hymnology, pews, and temple
construction. The crucial internal adaptation in thought and communication with the broader
culture of the island or American community is only now beginning to occur. Conditions of
earlier times simply did not permit this. The heavy dependence on Japanese clergy and the
religious perspective of the members inhibited serious efforts in this direction. Few striking
interpretations or applications of Shin, by persons raised within the tradition itself, had been
developed within the American context.

The sign posts of Shin history, the ethnocentrism of Japanese Buddhism now call for the
adaptation of Buddhism to American society in a serious way. The initial step requires that
each individual consider why he or she is a Buddhist. It appears to me that Buddhists have
adapted to American society and its lure of success at the expense of their Buddhism.
In my short experience, I have heard very little of why anyone ought to be Buddhist except
that it is part of ones family and tradition. I have so far seen little on what is the true role of
the clergy, other than ritual concerns, or why it is important and meaningful as a vocational
choice. It seems unclear why people should become Buddhist priests. It is generally held that
interest in Buddhism and serving the Dharma must begin with deep personal motivation and
commitment. Consequently, there has been no systematic effort to encourage youth to consider
this life-option. As a result, it seems unclear why a person should become a Buddhist minister.
Although the need is great, the recruitment of young people is slow and difficult.

I believe, however, despite its past experience and history, Buddhism in America stands at the
threshold of a new era. In becoming aware of its legacy of history and tradition, in assessing
itself deeply and realistically in relation to the surrounding culture, Buddhism and in
particular Shin Buddhism has the opportunity to become free, to chart new paths for those
who are Shin Buddhist by inheritance, as well as those who are attracted to the teachings,
thought, and the existential meaningfulness of Shinran Shonin.

That existential meaningfulness is rooted in the life story of Shinran, of his personal, spiritual
struggle which bears such strong parallels to the deep personal struggles, the alienation and
sense of loss and failure of modern men and women.

Bibliography

Buddhist Churches of America, Buddhist Churches of America, 75- Year History 1899-1974, 2
Volumes

Honpa Honganji Mission of Hawaii: A Grateful Past, A Promising Future: The First 100 Years
of Honpa Honganji in Hawaii

Hunter, Louise: Buddhism in Hawaii. Its Impact on a Yankee Community

Kashima, Tetsuden: Buddhism in America

Tuck, Donald R. Buddhist Churches of America: Jodo Shinshu

Notes

[1] The Jodo Shinshu sect is structurally divided into 10 branches: the Hompa (main branch)
Honganji; Otani-ha Honganji; Takada-ha; Kibe-ha; Bukkoji-ha; Kosho-ha; and the four
branches in Echizen (Sammonto-ha, Yamamoto-ha, Joshoji-ha, and Izumoji-ha.) The Mother
Temples (Honzan) of the Honganji Branches are located adjacent to each other in Kyoto, Japan
and are commonly called Nishi (West) Honganji (with respect to the Hompa Honganji) and
Higashi (East) Honganji (with respect to the Otani Honganji).

[2] Robert A. Wilson and Bill Hosokawa: East to America, pp 28-36

[3] Ibid., pp. 56-57

[4] Buddhist Churches of America, Buddhist Churches of America, Vol. I, 75-Year History
1899 to 1974, p. 43 et seq

[5] Ibid., p. 47

[6] According to the BCAs 75-Year History, during the period 1899 to 1910 churches and
congregations to be affiliated with the BMNA were established in: San Francisco, Sacramento,
Fresno, Vacaville, San Jose, Oakland, Los Angeles, Placer (Penryn), Watsonville, Stockton,
Hanford, Guadalupe, Bakersfield, San Mateo, Marysville, Lodi and Fowler, in California;
Seattle and White River (Auburn) in Washington; and Portland, Oregon.
Chapter 8

Life as Story: Its Importance in Religion and Modern Thought (Part 1)

Professor Harvey Cox, a Christian theologian and scholar of religion, in his The Seduction of
the Spirit states:

All human beings have an innate need to tell and hear stories and to have a story to live by.
Religion, whatever else it has done, has provided one of the main ways of meeting this abiding
need. Most religions begin as clusters of stories, embedded in song and saga, rite and rehearsal
The Hebrew scriptures are largely stories; so is the New Testament. Rabbis, saints, Zen
masters and gurus of every persuasion convey their holy teachings by jokes, koans, parables,
allegories, anecdotes and fables . . . [1]

The story of Bodhisattva Dharmakara (Hozo) who finally became Amitabha (Amida Buddha)
is the central story of the Pure Land tradition, which establishes its authorization of practice
and guarantees its hope. It was, indeed, through the Dharmakaras efforts the Pure Land was
said to be created. Another story, that of the White path, was told by Zendo (Shan-tao) to
illustrate the character of Pure Land faith and its understanding of life and religion.

Throughout Buddhism, parables and stories constituted an essential and fundamental way of
transmitting the teaching. The Lotus Sutra is perhaps the most outstanding for this aspect. It
contains numerous famous parables which have been universally employed in Mahayana
Buddhism. It describes the Bodhisattva who proclaims Buddhism to the people as one who:

. . . preaches the mystic principle to them with a gentle countenance. If there be any difficult
question, He answers according to its meaning. By reasonings and parables He expounds and
discriminates it. [2]

The major founded religions have developed biographies of their founders as the primary
illustrations of the truth of their teachings. From varied traditions in Buddhism, eventually a
life of Buddha was formulated and the essential features of his teaching and experience have
been included. Teachings and religious experience can never exist disembodied. Religion can
only take shape in living persons. Therefore, biography and story have always been essential
to religion.
In the case of biographies of founders, study will show that they vary from age to age and
place to place. There is a correlation between the needs of an age and the way it views the
founder of the teaching. To some extent, we can observe this in the interpretation of Buddhas
teaching career in the Tendai system, which had to account for the wide diversity in Buddhist
teachings in China. The Mahayanists viewed the Buddhas life as an illustration of
compassion, stressing that he desired to remain and teach rather than go directly into Nirvana
as a result of his enlightenment. This understanding provided the basis for the Bodhisattva
discipline, and the ideal of saving all beings.

In general, every generation of a religious tradition has to rewrite the biography of its founder
to highlight those aspects of his life which are important issues for their own day. This does
not mean to make up a new life and create legend, nor does it mean merely to twist and distort
the biography for narrow purposes or deception. In effect, the biography of the founder must
become a mirror for our own lives. We must see ourselves in it. It must answer our questions
about life and spiritual reality. We cannot simply live with the stories of the past as they were
given in the past. We must reinterpret them in terms of fresh meaning and renewed
inspiration, for a perspective on our own lives.

Shinrans life is entangled in centuries of tradition. From such a confused historical basis, we
must attempt today to discover the character of his experience in a way which we may assess
and understand. Initially, Shinrans great-grandson Kakunyo composed the first biography,
which he used as the basis for his own authority, and for gaining adherence of the believers to
the mausoleum and its caretakers, the descendants of Shinran. Kakunyo clearly presents
Shinran as a saint. Other schools of Shinshu composed biographies such as the Shotoden of the
Takata school, which exalted Shinran even more in depicting his marriage in Yoshimizu to
Tamahi, a daughter of Lord Kanezane, and also the high status which he had attained in Mt.
Hiei.

In modern times, there have been important novels which took up Shinrans life. In this
regard, the story by Yoshikawa Eiji (and its movie adaptation) is well known. Yoshikawa
developed his clearly fictionalized theme against the background of Japanese search for
identity in the postwar era. There is a reformist note as Shinran tries to change the corrupt
ways of Mt. Hiei. Niwa Fumio in his lengthy work Shinran To Sono Tsuma, focuses on the
human Shinran, the man of passion. Kurata Hyakuzo in his famous works Shinran and The
Priest and His Disciples (Shukke To Sono Deshi), written in the 1920s, presented a more
compassionate and sentimental Shinran. More recently there has been the film Path of Purity
with Mikuni Rentaro. He portrays Shinran as a reformer and attacking the folk religion. He
appears a true man of the people.

Our problem today is, what kind of image can we discover in Shinran for our time? In effect,
what meaning can he have for us? What meaning can he have for the Shin Buddhist, and for
those attracted to Shin Buddhism in America? I believe there are three productive angles from
which to observe Shinrans experience.First,there is the outer course of his life, which we may
determine through historical analysis. Second, there is the inner process of that life, as
interpreted by Shinran himself, represented in the process called Turning Through The Three
Vows. Third, there was the style of life which emerged from his experience, the style he
designated as Neither Priest Nor Layman, a style which symbolized an entirely new
approach to religious existence and meaning.

In relation to the first point, we must locate and take seriously the sources of Shinrans
disillusionment with the traditional religious institutions of his time and the direction this
disillusionment set for his spiritual development. We must then consider the personal meaning
and religio-philosophical importance of the spiritual process through which he passed as the
basis for his re-interpretation of Buddhist faith. We must then observe the life principle which
emerged from this experience, and which establishes the link between his life and our own.

Shinran can only be relevant to us if we can discover in his experience that which relates to our
own. The most significant of the three points, and the one most immediately pertinent to the
potential for Shinshu in the modern world, is Shinrans use of religion as self discovery.

Historical analysis yields four periods in Shinrans life. From 1181 to 1201, during the period of
his entry as a child into the Order and life on Mount Hiei, 20 years of traditionalism and ardent
practice culminated in a religious dissatisfaction which led him down from Mount Hiei to seek
a new path. From 1201 until 1207, the second period was his life as a student of Honen, and
residence at Honens hermitage in Yoshimizu where he nurtured a strong commitment to
Nembutsu teaching. The third period comprises his life in exile from Kyoto from 1207 to 1211,
and the period from 1213 until 1235 he was in the distant provinces, moving from Echigo to
Mito-Kanto, teaching the Nembutsu in what might well be termed an evangelistic period.
Fourth, after 1235, he returned to Kyoto where until the end of his long life in 1263, he devoted
himself to writing.
For him, and for us, the key turning point was at the end of the first period, when with rising
spiritual dissatisfaction within himself, and dissatisfaction in relation to the religious
institutions of his time, he left Mount Hiei at age 29.

This chapter on Shinrans Life, and its potential for impact on our own lives, might well be
retitled Religion as Self Discovery, for such is the potential of his impact on twentieth
century men and women. It is my conviction that religion should act to remove our masks and
expose our excuses. Religion should penetrate our facades of goodness, our self-esteem, and
reveal to us our true natures. Frequently, religion provides a field for the ego to exalt itself in its
piety, by measuring its goodness against those who seem not so good. Not so in the case of
Shinran.

Perhaps more than any other Buddhist figure in history, Shinrans thought is an outgrowth of
his experience of grappling with Buddhist discipline and of plumbing the meaning of that
discipline to its deepest level. The singularity of the religious philosophy which he formulated
requires that we take seriously the development of his life as the inspiration of that philosophy.
That development, that life process was for Shinran a process of self discovery.

When we place Shinran within this framework of self discovery, against the background of
Heian Buddhism which had been his environment since age nine, we should be able to
perceive how penetrating was his experience, and how unique the understanding which
enabled him to shift the basis of religious life not only in face of the traditional Japanese
Buddhism of Mount Hiei, but in face of the entire Buddhist tradition. It is the importance of
this religious dissatisfaction, experienced in his 29th year, that makes it difficult to take
seriously those of Shinrans biographies that are presented in traditional terms and contexts.
Generally, ancient biographies were written not to present the reality of the individual but to
exalt him and to glorify the group of his followers. Because it is an early biography, and was
written by his great grandson, the biography of Shinran by Kakunyo does lay claim to
considerable reliability and has been greatly respected in Shin history. Nevertheless, there is
reason to believe that Kakunyos work presents a highly idealized version of Shinran and has
given rise to considerable sentimentality in the treatment of his career.

Kakunyos text begins by congratulating Shinrans aristocratic background, his inclination

toward religion and the great advances he made in Buddhist learning. The second chapter
briefly states that Shinran visited Honen Shonin in the course of his spiritual search, and that
through Honens explanations, Shinran turned to Honens teaching. In chapter 3, Kakunyo
relates that Shinran had a vision of Kannon who took the form of a beautiful woman,
presaging Shinrans marriage. Shinran is pictured by Kakunyo as assuming the mission of
Honen and Shotoku Taishi in promoting Buddhism among the masses. The exaltation of these
personages is observed in the identification of Honen with Seishi, Shotoku with Kannon, and
Shinran with Amida. In chapter 5, Kakunyo portrays the intimate relation of Shinran and
Honen, based on the materials in the Kyogyoshinsho.

Undoubtedly, in competition with other schools of Jodo, Kakunyo is attempting to gain the
mantle of Honen for Shinran. From that time on, in Shinshu, Shinran was looked upon as a
faithful disciple of Honen. There follows in chapter 6 the exaltation of Honen and the influence
he gained among the nobility. Two stories are included in which it is shown how Shinrans
understanding was closely identified with Honen. Chapter 8 concludes the first section of the
biography with a story of a vision of Shinrans disciple, in which once again Shinran is
identified with Amida.

In Part Two of the book, Kakunyo details incidents relating to the banishment of Honen,
Shinran, and other disciples from Kyoto and of Shinrans mission in the Kanto area as the
fulfillment of his earlier vision. In trying to establish the lineage of Jodo Buddhism through
Honen to Shinran and then himself, Kakunyo blurs the whole point and basis for the
significant impact which Shinran made in Buddhist history. There is not one word by Kakunyo
concerning the inner struggle and momentous decisions which Shinran must have made, and
thus it seems likely that the significance of Kakunyos biography of Shinran was its perspective
of authority for Kakunyo himself.

In modern times, a popular treatment by the famous Hyakuzo Kurata in his novel Shinran
portrays Shinran as a very sensitive and sentimental youth, responding to the sadness of
transiency which he experienced in the passing of his father and his mother. He depicts the
gradual disillusionment of Shinran in religious practice against the background of the
corruption and disruption of Mount Hiei. While Kurata does give insight into Shinrans
experience of frustration and failure on Mount Hiei, he too easily parallels it to the experience
of Honen and thus subordinates Shinrans experience to that great saint. The story of Shinrans
marriage to Tamahi, the daughter of Kujo Kanezane is entirely wrapped by Kurata in romantic
and sentimental legend.

These are two examples of the treatment of Shinrans life, one ancient, one modern, which
for purpose of their own do not come to grips with the historical reality of Shinran as the
basis for the unique thought he established. When we explore Shinrans life according to the
existing original materials, we discover that when he was a youth he found himself in the
monastery. The motives and conditions are quite unknown, but it cannot be because of the
early death of his father, since his father also was retired to the monastery as were Shinrans
brothers. The turmoil of the Gempei wars, which marked the collapse of the political power
and prestige of the Fujiwara, no doubt affected the fortunes of Shinrans family. Theirs was the
Hino clan, a part of the Fujiwara. As fortunes shifted, the monasteries on Hiei, perhaps,
became the familys only refuge. On Mount Hiei, rather than achieving high ecclesiastical
status as depicted in tradition, Shinran is revealed in his wife Eshin-nis letters (discovered
only as recently as the 1920s) to be a Doso, a priestly functionary in the Hall of Continuous
Nembutsu in the monastery. Eshin-ni wrote to her daughter:

This letter is to certify that your father was a doso at Mt. Hiei, that he left the
mountain . . . [3]

The Hall of Continuous Nembutsu was concerned with providing ceremonies for nobility
through recitation of the Nembutsu, the name of the Buddha, on behalf of the departed, a
practice which had been introduced to Tendai through Jikaku Daishi on his return from study
in China many years before. The significance of this activity for Shinran was his intensive
exposure to Pure Land teaching in the many services. As he reflected on the teaching involved,
on his own condition and that of the world about him, he may have become deeply aware of
the unavoidable and ineradicable imperfection and weakness of human beings.

After 20 years of such practice and inner reflection upon its meaning, and upon his own
human nature, his sense of evil and sin became so intense that it drove him to seek a solution
through seclusion in the Rokkakudo, a chapel dedicated to Prince Shotoku in Kyoto.
According to Eshin-ni, when he came down from Mount Hiei, convinced he was a failure, and
filled with deep religious dissatisfaction and despair, he confined himself in Rokkakudo for
100 days. On the 95th day, he had a vision or dream of the Prince, and as a result, went to visit
Honen. Eshinni reports on these events:

He left Mt. Hiei, remained in retreat for a hundred days at Rokkakudo and prayed for
salvation. Then on the dawn of the ninety-fifth day, Prince Shotoku appeared in a dream,
indicating the path to enlightenment by revealing a verse. He immediately left Rokkakudo in
the morning and he called on Master Honen to be shown the way of salvation. And just as he
confined himself for a hundred days at Rokkakudo, he visited Honen daily for a hundred
days, rain or shine, regardless of the obstacles. He heard the Master teach that in order to be
saved in the afterlife, regardless of whether one were good or evil, only the recitation of the
Nembutsu was necessary. Since he carefully kept this teaching in his heart, he would say the
following when people talked about the Nembutsu: Wherever Honen goes, I shall follow him,
no matter what others may say even if they say I would go to hell, because I have wandered
since the beginningless beginning and I have nothing to lose. [4]

After instruction by Honen, Shinran became a member of his community. According to his
own testimony, he became a worthy disciple and received a copy of the Senchaku Hongan
Nembutsushu, Honens autograph, a picture, and some statements in Honens handwriting.
Eventually, master and disciple had to part to go into exile because of persecution of the
Nembutsu teaching brought on by the authorities of Mount Hiei. Shinran was virtually ecstatic
in later life, as he recalled these crucial events of his 29th through 35th years. In that period, he
gained faith in the Original Vow and, with that faith (shinjin), came release from the plaguing
sense of his imperfection and anxiety about his destiny:

What a joy it is that I place my mind in the soil of the Buddhas Universal Vow and I let my
thoughts flow into the sea of the Inconceivable Dharma. I deeply acknowledge the
Tathagathas Compassion and sincerely appreciate the masters benevolence in instructing
me. [5]

At the heart of Shinrans experience in these times was a deep sense of sin which is reflected in
Eshin-nis brief account and which reached its zenith of expression in Shinrans paradoxical
principle that it is easier for an evil person to be saved than a good person.

Although we have no writings of Shinran directly from that period when he underwent the
most important transition in his life, there are numerous confessions from his later life which
represent those feelings and the awarenesses which motivated his search and decisions.

Even though I take refuge in the Jodo Shinshu It is difficult to have a mind of truth. I am false
and untrue And without the least purity of mind. We men in our outward forms Display
wisdom, goodness and purity. Since greed, anger, evil and deceit are frequent, We are filled
with naught but flattery. With our evil natures hard to subdue, Our minds are like asps and
scorpions As the practice of virtue is mixed poison, We call it false, vain practice. [6]

In the volume of Faith of the Kyogyoshinsho, Shinran eloquently depicts the condition of
beings as he must have realized it in the course of his own arduous endeavors:

All the ocean-like multitudinous beings, since the beginningless past, have been
transmigrating in the sea of ignorance, drowning in the cycle of existences, bound to the cycle
of sufferings, and having no pure, serene faith. They have, as a natural consequence, no true
serene faith. Therefore, it is difficult to meet the highest virtue and difficult to receive the
supreme pure Faith. All the common and petty persons at all times constantly defile their good
minds with greed and lust, and their anger and hatred constantly burn the treasure of the
Dharma. Even though they work and practice as busily as though they were sweeping fire off
their heads, their practices are called poisoned and mixed good deeds and also called deluded
and deceitful practices; hence, they are not called true acts. If one desires to be born in the
Land of Infinite Light with these deluded and poisoned good deeds, he cannot possibly attain
it. [7]

Later, in the same text, Shinran exclaims:

Truly I know. Sad is it that I, Gutoku Ran, sunk in the vast sea of lust and lost in the great
mountain of desire for fame and profit, do not rejoice in joining the group of the Rightly
Established State, nor do I enjoy coming near to the True Enlightenment. What a shame! What
a sorrow. [8]

How shall we assess these expressions and the sequence of events that surround Shinrans
departure from Mount Hiei? The starting point of that assessment must be that of our first
chapters; religion today must be existential. By this, we mean that religion must be grounded
in the concrete individual consciousness which confronts the multiplicity of problems and
challenges of ones own time. The assessment of Shinrans spiritual crises from age 29 to age 35
ought to be so grounded, to be fully meaningful to modern men and women. Shinran, among
all the Kamakura Buddhists, was uniquely existentialist, in that his life and his doctrine mirror
each other. There is no explanation of his doctrine apart from seeing the inner struggle in his
life, while his life inspired an understanding of religion never attained in Buddhist tradition.
He was intensely personal and individual. Yuiembo recalled his words:

The Blessed Sage would say in his confession: When looking deeply into Amidas Vow which
was meditated upon during five kalpas, I found it was for me, Shinran alone. Hearty thanks to
the Original Vow which is intended to save me, burdened with an enormous Karma. [9]

The various personal confessions which Shinran made in his writings concerning his own
attachments and passions drive home ever more deeply the personal and existential feature of
his thought.

However, it is a problem for many people that this expression of existential awareness is
manifested in a negative way through a consciousness of sin or defilement and imperfection.
Buddhism and modern people have a deep confidence in their ability to perfect themselves
and to overcome whatever obstacles there may be in ones inner nature to reach the goal of
enlightenment. Human nature is considered as essentially good and concepts of original sin or
the burden of Karma which Shinran proclaims are objectionable and inconvenient for most
people.

As an experience of self-discovery, however, Shinran realized through his practice how deeply
rooted in our being are the lusts for power and ego-benefit. The abstract theory of egoism in
traditional Buddhism became very real to him. He was undoubtedly unusual since thousands
of monks over the centuries had practiced the discipline, experienced their imperfection and
went on to do what they could but, unlike Shinran, they did not leave the monastery nor
develop a new philosophy.

In the case of Shinran, it must be recognized that the depth of his feeling went beyond that of
the ordinary monk who may have undertaken the various rites of repentance provided by
Buddhism, and who then in some confidence went about his duties without being greatly
disturbed in his conscience. There is a strong emphasis on purification in Japanese Buddhism.
Penitential rites and practices of purification flourished throughout the Heian period, but
neither of these traditional avenues of escape or solace were enough for Shinran. Instead,
Shinran realized the contradictions of our being and took them seriously. These became the
starting point for him, and for him religion was reflection.

Some of Shinrans fellow monks may never have felt serious imperfection or inability. Their
eyes were focused outward upon the world and its sins, rather than inward and upon
themselves and their own reality. Dogen, for example, never speaks of his own deficiencies,
though he was much concerned about the deficiencies of Buddhism in his day. Nichiren
excoriates the sins of Buddhism in that same period but he does not show awareness of the
potential sin of pride in his own being. Honen generally saw others as more in need of the
Nembutsu than himself. He kept the Tendai precepts, which Shinran did not.

Although all these individuals, like their contemporary Shinran, rejected Hiei, they did not do
it because they were moved by the deep sense of their own inability to fulfill its ideals. Rather,
for them, Hiei was not fulfilling its own ideals, and their departure from tradition was more
theoretical and abstract. In contrast, Shinrans was an existential departure, in that he saw he
could not fulfill the Tendai ideal himself. With Shinran, there came a total redirection of
religious existence, and of an understanding of the nature and basis of religious life. With
others, there was a modification either by intensification as in the case of Dogen or of
narrowing as in the case of Honen and Nichiren of principles which were already
inherent in the earlier tradition. Shinran, leaving the older institutions totally behind, appears
as a truly new departure in the understanding of Buddhism which we will take up in
consideration of his thought.

Bibliography

Hatake, Takamichi Taka: The Young Man Shinran

Kikumura, Norihiko: Shinran: His Life and Thought

Ueda, Yoshifumi and Hirota, Dennis: Shinran: An Introduction to his Thought, Chapter 1.

Notes

[1] Harvey Cox: The Seduction of the Spirit, p. 9.

[2] Rissho Kosei-Kai trans. Lotus Sutra, p. 277.

[3] Lady Yoshiko Ohtani, Eshinni: The Wife of Shinran Shonin, trans. by Alice and Taitetsu
Unno, P. 34.

[4] Ibid., p. 32.

[5] Ryukoku Translation Series, Kyogyoshinsho, p. 211.

[6] Shinshushogyo Zensho II, p. 527.

[7] Ryukoku Translation Series, Kyogyoshinsho, p. 107.

[8] Ibid. p. 132.

[9] Tannisho, postscript. See also Ryukoku Translation Series II, The Tanni Sho, p. 79.
Chapter 9

Life as Story (Part 2)

The course of Shinrans life shows that he did not pass over his experience lightly. He reveals
himself as existentially authentic and responsible when he attempted to explore that
experience for its meaning for religion and for the direction it could give to his way of life. He
did not merely attempt to excuse himself for his indolence and weakness, but he took these
traits as signs of a greater truth. For him, his existential redirection became a pointer to a new
understanding of Buddhism, and of its relation to ordinary people. He drew universal
meaning from his experience and initiated a new era for Buddhism and, perhaps, for world
religion. It is from such a perspective that, if we are to understand his thought as something
more than mere repetitions of traditional assertions, we must grasp Shinrans experience. In
his book Naturalness, Rev. Kanamatsu states a point which is essential for this:

When doctrine ceases to be regarded as something external to ones inner experience, it

becomes at once the living principle of conduct; and when conduct is released from constraint
or obstruction and becomes the free and natural movement of the spirit, joy expresses itself
through everyday work.

Shinrans recognition of the depth of evil in man is significant as such a living principle of
conduct, a recognition of the absolute bondage that, once acknowledged, leads to limitless
spiritual freedom.

Shinrans thought, though based on an awareness of evil in the self, does not lead to a morbid,
guilty reflection on ones sins. The counter or co-awareness of ones evil nature (bonno) is the
sense of being illumined and embraced in Amidas grace and compassion. In effect, Shinrans
sense of sin is positive because it is mediated through Amidas compassion. Historically, in the
evolution of Buddhist thought, Shinran carried forward Zendos doctrine of two types of deep
faith that of our sin and that of Amidas compassion, in such a way that for the Shinshu
follower, the profound awareness of evil opens us to the embrace of compassion.

Shinrans recognition of our evil natures as the unifying bond among beings has the social
consequence of removing excessive pride and arrogance from our personal relations. It
increases our ability to accept others as they are, when we know what we truly are. There are
ethical and social implications that are similar to, and yet critically different from the
contemporary phrase: Im alright, youre alright, which has a point in showing that the
acceptance of others results from proper self-acceptance. It might be better put for Shinran:
Im evil, youre evil, were all evil together.

Shinrans perspective goes beyond the contemporary view of transactional analysis because it
understands that true relations with others arise when we realize that all our actions are
infected by our ego-concern. Once we recognize this, we can approach conflict and
misunderstanding knowing that we too have contributed to it as much as has our opponent.
With such awareness, we will be more disposed to seek mutual understanding, rather than
self-justification. We will seek conciliation, rather than blame. Blame, aggression, guilt and
hatred, as well as fear, vanish with such a mutual quest in conflict resolution. As the awareness
of evil opens to the awareness of compassion, there is a liberation and freeing of the spirit.
Anxiety for the future is resolved. Our lives are freed to develop the potential latent in them, in
a process of actualization in which our focus shifts from our weaknesses to our strengths. We
can then respond to life more freely.

In his total redirection of Pure Land Buddhism through his existential awareness, Shinran
swept away all forms of religious legalism. He displaced the repressive practices of traditional
Buddhism, and his emphasis on the motive of gratitude as a response to Amidas compassion
provides the basis for an ethic which responds to life to the degree we experience its grace. In
effect, Shinrans religion is a religion that attacks even religion, though this is a little stressed
element in his thought. However, when one considers his criticism of poisoned good, and
his awareness of how people constantly put on a pose of good while they are evil inside, we
see that he was acutely sensitive to the dimensions of religious hypocrisy in himself and his
times. What he aims at is the demolition of every complacency, every self-satisfaction, even to
the pretensions and egoistic desires we cultivate in religion. In the history of Buddhism, there
may never have been a more iconoclastic person. Early in the Zen tradition, the Buddhist
iconoclast I Hsuan had urged killing Buddha, or parents, or patriarchs. But Shinran urges Kill
yourself that self which you put on as a pose for others to see and regard. Or, to put it
better, let it be killed, let it die. The question for all of us today is, can we bear his challenge?

Our age is one which has stressed self-reliance, particularly in the capitalistic societies of the
planet. We Americans exalt the myth of pulling oneself up by the boot straps, and this myth
has distorted our personal, social and national life. The reality of the matter is that we all
depend on others in some way for our existence. The myth of self-perfection and achievement
blinds us to the exploitation and oppression of others, which we bring on them when we do
not recognize how they support our lives. In its absolute dimensions expressed by Shinran, the
concept of other power is extremely important. In its deepest meaning, other power
indicates the fact that our lives are not self-contained or isolated from the totality of reality.
Our limited, bounded lives point beyond themselves to a wider reality symbolized as Amida,
as all encompassing light and life and compassion. Jiriki self power is by contrast a short-
sighted view resulting from, and in, alienation and egocentrism.

Perhaps the terminology Shinran uses may not appear meaningful to contemporary men and
women. It is necessary to transpose his concept of evil and imperfection to contemporary
meaning. Perhaps we can view it from the standpoint of Michael Novaks book, Experience of
Nothingness.

According to Novak, the experience of Nothingness is that empty feeling one has when
suddenly he is confronted with the vanity, futility or absurdity of ones everyday life. Such an
experience of nothingness, if entered courageously, carries one to new depths of awareness.
The alienation, aloneness and absurdity that expresses itself in traditional religions concept of
sinfulness is brought home through a perception of the superficiality of our contemporary
values and our modern way of life. Man stands exposed in the modern world without
supports for his life, which he pursues out of habit, egoism, custom, duty, or the simple fear of
changing. Such life has lost all reason or purpose. It is indeed alienated, full of anxieties,
fearful, lonely, despairing and existentially absurd. There is a spiritual vacuum, or loss of
meaning, an aching inner void against which we must continually apply the placebos of
material gains and success, the myth of individualism, the illusion of self perfection, the
delusion of self reliance. Such a world, unlike that of Shinrans inner dimensions, is
psychologically unreal.

When Shinran experienced such emptiness at the end of his long period on Mount Hiei, it
drove him to questioning and decision. From that questioning, he finally broke through to a
new life. As I have probed the materials concerning Shinrans life and thought for this study, I
have become more and more aware of the historical complications involved in attempting to
determine the precise point of his conversion, whether it was in Yoshimizu during his
association with Honen, or later in the Kanto area when he began his work among the people
in that distant province. There are complications in trying to discover and clarify the various
threads of influence on his thought, whether it was the Hongaku Hommon (the concept of
Primordial Enlightenment) thought of Tendai, the Ichinengi (one thought) principle of Kosai,
or Lotus Sutra and Prajna (wisdom) influences circulating in the Kanto area and emanating
from Kanto Tendai sources. Nevertheless, all scholars agree that from this environment
Shinran fashioned a distinctive way of thought and life which has attained historical durability
and religious importance even when the contributing streams of influence have long been
forgotten.

The style of life which Shinran manifested is summed up in the phrase Hisohizoku
neither priest nor layman. Shinran used this term in the Kyogyoshinsho when he related
the event of his going into exile with the disciples of Honen in 1206. He wrote:

Hereupon, scholars of the Kofukuji temple presented a petition to the Throne in early spring
in the Hinotono-u year of Shogen, during the reign of the Ex-Emperor Gotoba-in (Takanari by
name) or the reign of Emperor Tsuchimikado-in (Tamehito by name). Lords and vassals who
opposed the Law and justice bore indignation and resentment (to the Nembutsu teaching).
Thus, Master Genku, the great promulgator of the True Teaching, and his disciples were,
without proper investigation of their crime, indiscriminately sentenced to death, deprived of
their priesthood and exiled under criminals names. I was one of them. I am neither a priest
nor a layman; hence, I surnamed myself Toku. Master Genku and his disciples spent five
years in remote countries in exile. [1]

The Tannisho contains a similar notation, added at the end:

Shinran was stripped of priesthood and given a laymans name. Hence, he was neither a
priest nor a layman. Thus, he surnamed himself Toku (short haired) and was reported to the
Throne by this name. The judicial report is still preserved at the recording office. So it is said,
after the exile he called himself Gutoku Shinran.

The essential meaning of these passages is that Shinran was defrocked and returned to a
laymans status by the state. We are told in other texts that he was given the name Fujii
Yoshizane. However, in this event, the new status was a penalty for a crime and, therefore, as
far as society was concerned, he was neither a true monk nor a proper layman. He was
banished from the scholastic, more intellectually oriented society of Kyoto into the difficult
existence of struggling for survival in a hostile environment far distant from his familiar
associations.

For Shinran, exile must have been a demanding and sometimes dispiriting situation. In his
book, Zettai Kie no Hyogen, Prof. Bando indicates that Shinrans life in exile was not as
severe as that of Nichiren, since Shinran was cared for by Lord Kanezane, and since Honens
teachings had been spread in the Kanto region. Nevertheless, the experience of disruption
from the temple environment of Kyoto provided Shinran with the opportunity to continue to
explore his 35-year course of searching for enlightenment. The new perspective of Hisohizoku
and Gutoku opened for Shinran a new sphere of inquiry into the true meaning of the
Nembutsu.

It was during this period of his exile that Shinran married. The number of his marriages and
the conditions surrounding them are not really known. In modern times, all Buddhist priests
may marry. In Shinrans day, such a departure was regarded as the breaking of precepts and
was a difficult thing to do, though there are examples of priests with either wives or
concubines in the periods before and contemporary with that of Shinran.

Terada Yakichi, in his work Shinrans Philosophy and Faith, emphasizes the great advance
Shinran made at this point in the development of Mahayana Buddhism. He notes that while on
the doctrinal level Shinran clarified and purified the concept of easy practice, [2] his greatest
achievement came in dealing with the mode of life of a Nembutsu follower. Based on the
doctrine that the salvation of the evil person was the object of Amidas Vow, Shinran was able
to overcome the limits of traditional Mahayana teaching and practice. He showed that
essentially the priest and layman were one, or, to put it in his terms, in true Mahayana practice,
there is neither priest nor layman. From Shinran on, there was to be no difference in everyday
life between the way of the priest and that of the layman. We may say that in this, Shinran
transcended the dualism remaining in Buddhist practice and gave social reality to the principle
that all beings have Buddha nature.

Terada sees the basis for Shinrans outlook in the words of Nagarjuna, who stressed in the
Daichidoron that within lust, anger, and ignorance, there is the way of the Buddha. In this
vein, Shinran himself in the Kyogyoshinsho, stated, I am drowned in the sea of lust. The
decisive events of Shinrans exile, marriage, family and his experience of ordinary lay life had
great significance for Shinrans spiritual development. His comments and writings show that
the crushing experience of his exile, though unjust and painful, permitted him to see more
deeply into real life and spiritual truth. Shinrans accounts of his earlier experiences indicate
that he was unusually sensitive to the events of his life, and his thought reflects his seriousness
in trying to understand his lifes meaning. Though he uses the term Hisohizoku only once
himself to describe his condition, the association of the term Toku, bald headed one, with
this state, and his taking this as a title, is evidence that the phrase depicts his approach to life.
From that point, he called himself Gutoku, a foolish, ignorant, bald headed person.
The phrase Hisohizoku, neither priest nor layman, suggests that there was no category by
which to define his existence. All of us define ourselves by some categories which relate us to
other beings. We are male or female, a citizen or foreigner, a teacher or student, a parent or
child, a friend or enemy. It would be hard to conceive what we would be if we were neither
one nor the other.

Though it may only be a conjecture, the phrase Hisohizoku seems to me to have the form of
the double negation of Buddhist dialectic. It suggests that the meaning of existence does not
derive from the labels applied by the world and society, but from the higher perspective of
spiritual reality. It might, of course, be argued that Shinrans terms are accidental. However, he
did not say I am both layman and priest or I am half priest and half layman or I am not a
priest, but a layman. Since he had felt strongly about the injustice of the state action in its
persecution of his teacher, Honen, and in the states banishment of Honen and his followers,
Shinran might just as well have said, I am really a priest, despite your laws and punishment.
There were numerous possibilities for him in choosing terms to describe his condition, but he
chose this particular form of statement, this particular phrase. His statement at once says
nothing, since he had to be something and yet, on the other hand, it says a great deal, if we see
it from the standpoint of the totality of his experience and thought.

Following the dialectic of Neither Being nor Non-being, Shinran in his new sense of himself
as Hisohizoku abolishes all human distinctions as having no relevance to faith:

As I contemplate the ocean-like Great Faith, I see that it does not choose between the noble
and the man, the priest and the layman, nor does it discriminate between man and woman, old
and young. The amount of sin committed is not questioned, and the length of practice is not
discussed. It is neither practice nor good, neither abrupt nor gradual, neither meditative
nor non-meditative, neither right meditation nor wrong meditation. [3]

Shinrans banishment from society by a discriminating state opened the door to a new way of
being in the world, to the awareness of an existential reality beyond the imposed and relative
social categories of common life. Faith, truth, and meaning, from Shinrans perspective, do not
depend on social distinctions arising from our various accidental fortunes in the world. In the
experience of exile, in the voiding of his life as he had known it for 35 years, Shinrans teaching
developed in close relation to the people of the eastern provinces. They were unlettered,
hardworking people of the land. His teachings, developed through his experiences with them,
are singular in not evidencing class implications, since faith is an universal gift.
In Shinshu, the believers spiritual status is equal to that of Buddha. Neither social status,
intellectual achievement, or spiritual virtue is the basis of religious community. Shinran
declared: I have not even one disciple. [4] All and each are disciples of Buddha alone. They
are not Shinrans possession, Shinrans human relations were all horizontal, the level of
equality. Shinran identified himself with his disciples experiences as illustrated in the
conversation between Shinran and Yuiembo in Tannisho, chapter 9. He addressed his
followers with honorific language, indicating great respect. Always, in every instance, Shinran
stood with not above his followers.

To highlight the distinctiveness of Shinrans perspective more sharply, we should observe that
the status and role of the layman has always been a problem in Buddhist history. Initially, a
Buddhist was a homeless one, a Shukke. He had left home, following the example of Gautama,
to seek enlightenment. Monks were the true Buddhists. Laymen could only gain merit through
supporting them. In the course of time, there were tendencies to liberalization, and efforts to
relax the rule. In Mahayana Buddhism, the layman achieved greater recognition. In the Lotus
Sutra, the naga girl becomes Buddha, while the layman Vimalakirti understands Buddhism
better than monks. The Nirvana Sutra taught that all being without exception possess
Buddha nature in contrast to the idea of Icchantika which proposes there are people who are
considered unsalvageable because of their lack of any seed of Buddha nature. Butchers,
murderers, tanners, prostitutes were among those in this category of people in Buddhist
teaching.

Until Shinran, Buddhism for the most part remained a two-level religion. There was a special
way for monks and ways for the layperson with the status for the layperson generally lower.
Such people had a long way to go through many rebirths to fulfill their spiritual potential. In
Shinrans teaching, this second class status of the layperson was completely swept aside
through the recognition that Amidas absolute compassion could not recognize such
distinctions. All are recipients equally of Amidas non-discriminating light.

When we consider Shinrans deliberate use of Gutoku, it appears his was more than a casual
acknowledgment of ignorance or humility. He indicates that he took on that term specifically
in view of his experience of social rejection and punishment. He took societys rejection into
himself, and made it the pointer for his own approach to life. Through societys rejection, he
was freed from social expectation and role fulfillment. Being thus relieved of his imposed
labels, he could find himself he made his own label. He changed from an Other-directed
person to an Inner-directed. Prof. Futaba in his Shinran no Kenkyu [5] has suggested that
monk meant for Shinran the official monk conforming to law and precept as laid down by the
state. On the other hand, the concept of layperson which Shinran rejected may be reflected in
the phrase where he calls upon the monks and laypeople of the age to take stock of
themselves, in the Kyogyoshinsho. [6] Among those he calls upon in this passage are many
laypeople who oppress and who have authority, or who strive for fame and status. In essence,
in each category monk and lay there is some degree of power.

The term Gutoku may well symbolize Shinrans decision to accept powerlessness as the basis
of his life, and in that fashion to achieve true power. Though seemingly ineffectual and
inconsequential to society in his powerlessness, it was this very fact that gave him power and
influence with the also powerless common people. Knowing powerlessness himself, knowing
the drive of passion, he could share their experience and bring them hope from his own
resource of faith and compassion. It was this that gave rise to the community of comrades in
the Dharma, and this that still holds potential for Shin Buddhism in the world today.

The question may be raised whether we have not read too much into these terms. However,
we must assume that when Shinran specifically calls attention to them, and the tradition has
reiterated them, there must have been a significance beyond their ordinary meaning. As an
example, we could cite the thought of Motoori Morinaga, a national learning scholar of the last
18th century in Japan, who seriously criticized Buddhism. He wrote:

But the human sentiment of monks does not differ from that of laymen simply because they
have become monks; for monks are neither all incarnations of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas,
nor can they, short of achieving enlightenment, rid themselves completely of the defilement of
worldly life. [7]

In this passage, Morinaga indicates there is no essential difference between monks and
laypersons. He eventually concludes that monks are not sincere in repressing their human
feelings. Shinran must have meant this and more when he rejected the distinction of monk and
layperson.

That the term Gutoku points to some awareness deeper than formal humility is perhaps
suggested by the passage in the Tannisho where Yuienbo quotes Shinran as contrasting the
self-power compassion with the Other-power or Pure Land Compassion. That passage reflects
the sense of human limitation which attends all our efforts, the sense of human limitation
making it impossible to do all that we would aspire to do. Is this not a direct reading of the
Gutoku experience? When we have set out to contrive to fulfill our goals, thinking that we will
do it, we always fall short. Gutoku then is a reminder of our shortcomings and powerlessness,
our weakness and ineffectuality, but it also directs us beyond ourselves to the ultimate source
and fulfillment of compassionate aspiration. It is a sign of hope rather than despair when it
shapes our attitudes to self and others.

Much of the foregoing is abstract and dialectical, but serious religious thinking is always that
way when dealing with issues of the deepest realities. The questions go beyond words and
concepts. The answers find only stumbling expression. For many people, there is one question
always raised: Is it practical? I believe it is. Here we must not confuse the context of what we
are saying. To a self-conscious person, dominated by external standards in defining his life, the
Gutoku experience may merely reinforce the sense of inferiority and negativity one carries
within himself or herself. To the self-aware person, whose inner life has been aroused through
a deep impulse of faith, and who sees through the domination of external circumstances, the
Gutoku experience is one of self-understanding which permits hope but limits expectation;
which reduces arrogance and insistence; which is open and sharing. Gutoku experienced in
this way is the basis of true egolessness the age long ideal of Buddhism from its beginning
in India. It is the true Middle Path which by accepting the ego as it is with its sensed
limitations, becomes actual egolessness. It is the bondage that, acknowledged, results in a
freedom that can indeed be defined as salvation having been saved from oneself.

There will be much contemporary resistance to this type of perspective which focuses on the
weakness and limitations we have in modern America. Several years ago in Japan, there was a
controversy in the Diet [Japanese National Assembly] when one leader said Japan must be
Jiriki (self power) and not Tariki (other power). Tariki, said the proponents of self power, is a
sign of weakness. In America likewise, we have strong emphasis on individual initiative and
power. The modern American man or woman is supposed to have self-confidence, and
minimize his or her weaknesses. It takes considerable insight to recognize that in weakness
there may be strength. Lao-tzu pointed out that water, as the softest and weakest element, was
also the strongest. Similarly, we are all aware of the comparison of the mighty oak which is
blown over by the wind, while the supple young tree or grass merely sways in the wind. When
we come to understand the power that lies in weakness, we can become truly self-aware
persons for whom the Gutoku experience of Shinran provides an inspiring model.

Hisohizoku-Gutoku points to the core of Shinrans way of life where, through transcending
categories, we become free to allow true compassion to flow into the world. For Shinran, the
basis of human existence is this transcendence and in this context, the Shinshu life is a life of
gratitude where religion is not an exercise and effort in achievement, but a recognition of
blessing received and obligation accepted.

Bibliography

Bloom, Alfred: Shinrans Gospel of Pure Grace

Ueda, Yoshifumi and Hirota, Dennis: Shinran: An Introduction to his Thought

Unno, Taitetsu: Tannisho: A Shin Buddhist Classic

Notes

[1] Kyogyoshinsho, Ryukoku Translation Series Sono Montei, pp 32-35, 58-61

[2] Easy practice correlates to Difficult practice. These terms are used in Pure Land teaching to
distinguish the variety of disciplines in general Buddhism, such as meditation, precepts and
austerities, from the practice of reciting Nembutsu. They contrast the more available way to
rebirth and enlightenment for laypeople and the monastic way open to the more religiously
adept people. The distinction is attributed to Nagarjunas teaching presented in the section on
Easy Practice in his reputed commentary to a portion of the Avatamsaka Sutra.

[3] Kyogyoshinsho, Ryukoku Translation Series V, p. 113

[4] Tannisho, p. 6

[5] Kenko Futaba, Shinran no Kenkyu, p. 124

[6] Kyogyoshinsho, Ryukoku Translation Series, p. 202

[7] Wm. Theodore DeBary, Sources of Japanese Tradition, p. 539

Chapter 10

Religion as Manifesting Truth

In its earnest search for truth, as a religion of enlightenment, Buddhism has a deep faith that
knowledge frees and truth liberates. It has had abiding confidence in the potential of the
human mind to experience truth, to break through the veil of ignorance that shrouds our
being. Buddha, as the truly awakened one, has awakened to the truth of his very being. His
pursuit and goal is to be our pursuit and goal.

The pursuit of truth in Buddhism gave rise over the centuries to profound analyses of being, of
the nature and operation of consciousness, of the various levels and characteristics of
knowledge. Buddhist thought developed epistemology (how we know), metaphysics (the
nature of what appears to exist), and logic as the principles of thinking. There were theories of
two-levels of truth formulated by Nagarjuna in the Madhyamika or Middle Path school.
There was the three-level theory of the Consciousness Only or Yogacara school of
Vasubandhu. Buddhism critiqued ordinary experience to dramatize that we can only be
emancipated when we discover the true relation of the absolute truth to the relative truth of
our own experience. Whatever the school, and whatever the shift of philosophical emphasis in
its 2,600 years of history, Buddhism was and is still understood as a quest for truth.

At times, for a variety of reasons, this quest for truth became entangled in highly complex
scholasticism. In China, for example, there developed great translation enterprises and diverse
schools based on the great sutras and treatises. There was a reaction against these trends in the
formation of Zen Buddhism which looked to spontaneous, sudden insight, (quite apart from
complicated texts and schools of practice) as the emancipating truth.

In Japans Kamakura period, for the ordinary person, the shortcut to liberation came through
the Pure Land practice of Nembutsu as well as Zen. These Chinese trends and schools,
spreading to Japan and developing in the Kamakura period, eventually gave rise to the many
strands of Japanese Buddhism that exist today. Still, at the heart of all of these, and of all forms
of Buddhism everywhere in the world, there is that yearning to realize the truth that frees.

The quest for truth in Buddhism has frequently been obscured on the institutional level.
Buddhism played the role of the defender of the state and through its great spiritual powers
of the provider of individual wants. Buddhism, in many places and historical periods,
became identified with magic. In its adaptation to the demands of supporting political powers,
Buddhism sometimes restricted the search for truth largely to the monasteries where dedicated
monks individually might seek their own enlightenment. Though Mahayana Buddhism
announced the ideal of sharing enlightenment with others, and working with them to achieve
it, Mahayana monastic life was largely an individual endeavor to attain the goal for oneself.

The two-level theory of truth, and its accompanying doctrine of convenient means (hoben)
was originally developed in order to point devotees to the true source of enlightenment as a
means to lead people to the higher truth. However, the two-level theory of truth is elitist in
structure. Experts may know about the higher level of truth, but the ordinary person is
confined to the plane of relative truth. It is interesting that until very recent times, any religious
education aimed at elevating and spiritualizing the religious perceptions of the masses has
been rare. In Japan, despite Buddhist activity, the basic religious perspective which govern the
Japanese religious world has not seriously changed from the earliest primitive times.

The degradation of the term hoben to the level of its use as an intellectual sop for people who
are presumed unable to understand anything higher, is counter to Buddhisms basic thrust to
make the truth known. Buddhist subservience to the political forces which supported it
(particularly in Japan) was at the expense of this basic task. When the Kamakura Buddhism
appeared, there was a determined attempt to break through the stranglehold which the court
society of Japan had forced on Buddhism. During the Kamakura period, for each teacher, the
search for truth again became paramount and direct. Soon thereafter, however, compromise
again developed. The truth became routinized, institutionalized, fixed. Where the disciples of
old could read the texts and letters of such individuals as Shinran and Nichiren, and where
Dogen wrote in the vernacular, by later generations it had all become too difficult and was
considered really unnecessary since ones status as a truth seeker or follower was guaranteed
by membership in the institutions that developed from the Kamakura period of Buddhism.

Despite this process of history, the question of truth remains as the central issue of Buddhism,
and of religion generally, in our 20th century. Shinran points, in the Tannisho, to the
centrality of this question:

If the Original Vow of Amida is true, then Sakyamunis sermons cannot be untrue. If the
Buddhas words are true, then Zendos comments cannot be untrue. If Zendos comments are
true, how can Honens sayings be false? If Honens sayings are true, what I, Shinran, say
cannot possibly be false, either. After all is said, such is the faith of this simpleton. Beyond this,
it is entirely left up to each one of you whether you accept and believe in the Nembutsu, or
reject it. [1]
Though Shinran in this passage argues that since he could not actually perform the difficult
practices of Buddhism which were believed to yield enlightenment, and thus he was
ultimately doomed to hell, then Honen could hardly have deceived him when he taught that
we can be saved by reciting the Nembutsu alone. Left at this point, it would appear that
Shinrans choice was a matter of desperation it was the only alternative left. However, if
such had been the case, he probably would have given up even the practice of Nembutsu.
Desperation is not a sound basis for commitment.

Shinran moves from the position of apparent desperation to the question of the truth which
grounds his faith in the Nembutsu. In this he serves notice, that he believes what has been
taught him is itself the truth and that truth, when followed back through the tradition, finds its
roots in the Vow of Amida itself. The issue of truth was central to Shinran and his innovative
interpretation of Buddhist tradition makes his teaching an issue of truth for other perspectives
in Buddhism. His denial that we can do any good deed to contribute to our enlightenment is
hard to square with traditional Buddhist understanding that it is through the accumulation of
good deeds that we develop the spirituality and potential to achieve enlightenment through
many births. Shinrans concept of poisoned good deeds strikes at the heart of Buddhist
views of karmic retribution, for with Shinran, there could only be bad karma, as he defined it.
This meant that for him, the search for truth was especially keen and necessary.

It is not without reason, therefore, that in the various sections of his Kyogyoshinsho, the
titles are all given as Ken Jodo Shinjitsu A Collection of passages revealing the true
teaching, practice and enlightenment of Pure Land (Buddhism). He announces in the
introduction:

Hence, it is clear to me that the auspicious name of the complete and all-merging supreme
virtue is the True Wisdom which turns evil into merit and that the Adamantine Serene Faith
which is difficult to attain is the Truth which removes doubt and enables us to realize
Enlightenment. [2]

How difficult it is to attain the True, pure Faith [3]

Veritable, indeed, are the True Words of (Amidas) embracing and not forsaking and the
True Teaching which is unequaled and rare! [4]

Accordingly, then, this is the clear evidence that (the Larger Sutra) reveals the True
Teaching. Indeed, this is the true exposition for which the Tathagata appeared in this world,
the rare and supreme wonderful scripture, which the ultimate teaching of the One Vehicle, the
Golden Words, enable one to quickly attain the complete and all merging merits, the true
words praised by (Buddha of) the ten quarters, and the true teaching conforming to the time
and capabilities of sentient beings. This we should know. [5]

These passages make clear that Shinrans faith was rooted in a perception of truth. In the
Introduction to the volume on Faith in the Kyogyoshinsho, he comments that the
awakening of True Mind is made possible by the compassionate skilful means of the Great
Sage. Here, faith which we experience is identified with the True Mind, or the Mind of Truth
which is aroused through Sakyamunis teaching.

In other words, the root of faith must be deeply set in the soil of truth, else it will wither in the
hot sun of adversity. The anchor point of faith is truth, in the same way that a ship on a stormy
ocean is held by its sea anchor so that it will not drift and be completely at the mercy of
mountainous waves.

For some readers, the question will naturally occur: How did the Buddhists determine the
truth that is this anchor point of faith, and the salvation of the human condition? While
remembering that for Buddhism truth is essentially an experience the attainment of wisdom
nevertheless, for the diverse people it confronted, it did attempt to establish principles
which would open people to pursue the goals of Buddhism more deeply. The philosophical
approaches of Nagarjuna and Vasubandhu raise questions concerning the validity of our
ordinary experience. Nagarjuna attacked our logic, our concepts, and words to show that they
are inadequate to depict truth directly. Vasubandhu showed that through analysis of our
perceptions of the world, there is basis for doubting the validity of ordinary experience to
represent the truth. By dislodging people from their attachment to the senses, and from their
addiction to logic, these teachers made it possible for people to be more open, to look deeper
into themselves and their experience.

In terms of competing philosophies of ancient times, Buddhism criticized theories, then

current among the peoples of India, on the issues of soul and of cause and effect. As the
centuries passed, within Buddhism itself the gradual development of sectarian divisions
required principles to distinguish the true teaching of Buddhism from lesser expressions. This
was especially so as the teachings spread beyond India. In China, for example, it was once
again in competition with, and critical of, Confucianism and Taoism, both formidable
opponents in those times. While respecting Confucian morality, Buddhists emphasized that
Confucianism had no profound philosophy and lacked a view of human destiny.
The Benshoron, quoted by Shinran, states in general evaluation:

Laotzu, Duke Chou, and Confucius may, as disciples of the Tathagata, teach people, but they
are already heathenish. What they tell are but the good deeds of the secular world. We cannot
cross over the fate of common mortals and attain the holy state. [6]

In China, too, the multiplicity of schools and texts that developed in Buddhism stimulated the
formation of criteria to assess the relative worth and importance of these various texts and
teachings, a series of endeavors called Critical Classification of Doctrine. The most
comprehensive and influential of these was the system developed by Tien-tai Ta-shih, Chih-I,
which in Japan was called the Tendai school and was introduced on Mount Hiei by Saicho in
the ninth century. Tendai is known generally as the teaching of five periods and eight
doctrines.

Another widely important and influential theory of critical classification of doctrine was that
set forth by Shan tao of the Pure Land school, and this is the set of critical principles that had
such significant impact upon Honen in Japan as basis for the establishment of Pure Land
School of Buddhism. It was in this tradition that Shinran developed his own classification in
order to clarify his experience of Buddhism, and his analysis of the true teaching, the insights
that grew out of his own experience.

Buddhism was not a religion of believe anything you want, or a religion which simply
catered to individual whim, and thus the formation of such systems was important in view of
the Buddhist search for truth. Buddhism, being a religion of principle, sought to arrange
principles in some order to focus upon the essential truth to which these principles could lead.
In the case of Shinran, the critical classification based on Pure Land teaching, was modified to
show that the final expression of Buddhism is singlemindedness and this singlemindedness is
characterized as either shallow or deep. The shallow singlemindedness refers to the Settled
(Meditative mind) and Dispersed minds (worldly good deeds and morality) which he calls self
power, while the deep singlemindedness is the true mind of other power. In his definition of
this position, Shinran went beyond the classifications of traditional Pure Land by
distinguishing two types of Nembutsu.

Based on his understanding that faith is the true mind of Amida bestowed on, or aroused in,
the person, there is self-power Nembutsu and Other Power Nembutsu. Other Power
Nembutsu emerges as the result of faith and expresses ones gratitude for the Primal Vow in
contrast to the self-power practice which the devotee regards as his or her own meritorious act.
In this way, Shinran deepened understanding of religiosity and faith in the Pure Land tradition
but at the same time, he also challenged religious understanding in Buddhism. This
challenge was a rejection of egoistic employment of religion, and in Kyogyoshinsho, Shinran
expressed this by quoting from the Nirvana Sutra as follows:

There are four good things which may gain one four evil fruits. What are the four? The first is
one in which one reads and recites the sutras to surpass others. The second is one in which one
observes moral precepts to profit. The third is to offer alms with things that belong to others.
The fourth is one in which one who concentrates thoughts and thinks to attain
thoughtlessness and non-thoughtlessness. [7]

In our consideration of modern Shinshu, the emphasis on truth in Shinrans thought has great
importance. On the one hand, Shinran was clearly in line with the search for truth which
animated Buddhist faith and practice throughout its long history. On the other, however, his
search for truth led him to question the accepted perspectives of his day and to formulate new
interpretations. He was not merely a sentimentalist, but was capable of analytical thought and
the Kyogyoshinsho, his major work, reveals this as well as his critical temperament and
systematic, but creative approach. His insertion of the volume on Faith between that on
Practice and on Realization represents a view never before established in Buddhism.

In these volumes, and in their sequence as well as in his letters and other writings, there is the
evidence of his constant attempt to make his principles clear and to state his case with these
principles rather than appealing to sentiment or invoking his authority as a teacher. Though he
possessed both sentiment and sensitivity, to a high degree, Shinran was highly intellectual.
This aspect of Shinshu and of Buddhism in general, needs reaffirmation, and a re-application
to our own time. In the present century, there is great religious confusion in all the traditions
because a serious search for truth has been abandoned. In our times, the quest for truth as been
replaced by the pursuit of taste.

It is easy to be religious today because religion demands little of us in facing the corruption
and decadence that marks our mappo era. Even when there appears to be arduous disciplines,
most forms of contemporary religions are basically adjustive and adaptive to surrounding
conditions. They build interior worlds for their believers while leaving the exterior world of
suffering untouched even to the point of expressing a judgment. There are some religious
groups which never placed themselves against the evil of the Viet Nam war, and many which
have had trouble in facing up to the racism that was, and continues to be, a central problem.
The ideal of the Bodhisattvas identification with beings in the full range of their sufferings in
the world of samsara would suggest that the most profound truth of religion is that it fortifies
the inner person, while at the same time, the person works in the outer world to bring
compassion into the lives of our fellow beings.

The great emphasis today in religion, as it has been for some time, is on peace of mind which
of course we all desire and need. However, since peace of mind is merely egoistic satisfaction,
it cannot be the primary value and purpose of religion. The desire for inner peace is the basis
of much religious competition and exploitation in the world today. Individuals are attracted in
great numbers to charismatic leaders, who promise spiritual security, salvation or material
blessings in return for the submission and allegiance of the follower. This competition and
exploitation certainly fits the condition of mappo as Buddhist symbolism describes.

For myself, I do not believe that religion should take advantage of human weakness in order to
capture the support of the masses. It is in this way that Shin Buddhism speaks differently to
modern man, for the religious truth expressed by Shinran questions religiosity itself. It directs
the question to the deepest levels of our motivation. Shinran understood that we not only
receive benefit through religion, but religious faith motivates our concern for others (Rita). The
aim of religious faith is not to achieve fame or fulfill lust which means to assert control over
others. Rather, for Shinran, a robust faith enables us to see through our own egoism and
pretensions of self-sufficiency.

Thus, the truth which Shinran and Buddhism seek to illuminate is not a chauvinistic truth, a
truth which asserts its superiority over other expressions of truth. There are those within the
tradition who may do this, but Buddhism in its deepest dimensions has always urged its
followers not to be attached to views, not to get stuck on questions which merely end in
argument, but constantly to transcend towards the goal of enlightenment. Buddhism has
always recognized that the pursuit of truth and the recognition of truth are quite different. It is
singleminded in the pursuit, but it has been tolerant to differences in the expression of truth,
sometimes it may seem to the point of indifference. Also, it realizes that truth lies beyond
our limited means to perceive it. This approach of Buddhism is important today because its
compassionate understanding can go far to redirect western intellectual concerns which have
given science and technology the priority over truly humane and human values.

Unlike western philosophies, which became detached from religious sources of inspiration,
Buddhism links the quest for truth with the development of the compassionate heart, the heart
of concern for all beings. This is illustrated in the Bodhisattva path in which the practicer starts
seeking his own salvation and ends by rejecting it until all can be saved. The Bodhisattva
dedicates himself to study and knowledge in order to provide or open the way to salvation for
all beings. In Buddhism, compassion and wisdom are inseparable.

In the light of our consideration that Buddhism is a quest for truth, we must understand that
each tradition has formulated what it regards is its truth. Disagreement in interpretation has
given rise to the religious competition and conflict which marks Buddhist history. There has
been, however, a tendency in recent times among Buddhist schools to minimize differences,
even at the expense (or so it sometimes appears) of setting aside the essential point of the faith.
The search for truth should not, of course, be an exercise in group ego, but at the same time
our attempt to maintain positive relations with others should not prevent expression of our
differences with them. Shinran and the other teachers of his day were very clear about the
differences which separated them from their fellow Buddhists. Dogen criticized Nembutsu.
Honen and Shinran criticized what they deemed the self-power schools. Nichiren denounced
all of them. Shinran pronounced his judgment on his times, stating the issues clearly and
without hesitation:

Even though the multitudinous beings in the corrupted world and the defiled evil sentient
beings, having left the ninety-five wrong paths, have entered the Dharma-gates of the
Incomplete and Complete Teachings or the Expedient and True Teachings, it is very difficult
to follow the teachings truthfully and few really practice the way; many are led to falsehood
and the deluded beings are quite numerous. [8]

As I contemplate matters, I see that the acquirement of serene Faith arise out of the
Tathagatas Selected Vow and that the awakening of True Mind is made possible by the
compassionate, skilful means of the Great Sage.

However, priests and laymen of the Declining Age and masters of these days, sunken in the
idea that ones true nature is Buddha and that Buddhas Pure Land exists in ones mind,
degrade (the belief in) the True Enlightenment in the Pure Land; or, being deluded by the mind
of self-power to practice meditative and non-meditative good deeds, they are blind to the
Adamantine True Faith. [9]

The guiding principle in the quest for truth is that we be sure to probe as deeply as we can,
and I believe that, like Shinran, we must always test our perceptions and our understandings
against the experience of life. We must always ask the compassionate question: In what way
does our knowledge and wisdom enhance the lives of those about us? These were the kinds of
questions that led to the developments Shinran initiated in his interpretation of Pure Land
thought and its implication for religious existence. The deepest wisdom a person can discover
must be a unifying and vitalizing wisdom which confers meaning and value on even the
lowliest being. It takes seriously the question of what is really good for a person and in the
asking respects the personality and integrity of that person. Shinran was not pompously
dogmatic in all this. After putting forth evidences for his view, he notes that it is up to the
individual whether he will accept it or not. Though there are critical words in Shinran, there is
no condemning word. His is a true search for truth.

In his writing, Shinran frequently uses the term Jodo Shinshu, which he derived from Honen.
Shin is also read Makoto in Japanese. It means true, truth, reality and sincerity. In this context it
may be interpreted as True Teaching. Many people that I have met appear confused as to the
meaning and inference of the word Shin in this context. For many its true meaning appears to
have been forgotten because it became a traditional teaching in which the questioning of truth
is a secondary issue. Shin has largely become a term with vague and hazy dimensions.

Re-examining the term from the perspective of this unit, our emphasis on the question of the
meaning of Shin is a plea to return to the awareness of the original meaning, the implications
with which Shinran used the term. By refreshing our understanding from that source, we can
keep the tradition from being merely a tradition simply handed over from the past. Reflection,
renewal, recognition, retrospection is necessary to the ongoing criticism of religion and
tradition that is a central focus in the history of Buddhism. If tradition does not manifest and
make clear the truth, what is tradition? For religion to remain vital, its followers must keep the
question of truth open and uppermost in their considerations. Therefore, to question the
religious aspects of a tradition does not mean disrespect, but, on the contrary, a deeper respect
in an attempt to understand genuine and appreciate deeply the roots which brought that
tradition into being.

Bibliography

Bloom, Alfred: Shoshinge: The Heart of Shin Buddhism

Shin Buddhism Translation Series, The True Teaching, Practice and Realization of the Pure
Land Way, 3 vols

Notes
[1] Tannisho, Ryukoku Translation Series, p. 21

[2] Kyogyoshinsho, Ryukoku Translation Series, p. 20

[3] Ibid

[4] Ibid., p. 24

[5] Ibid., p. 36

[6] Kosho Yamamoto, Kyogyoshinsho, p. 329

[7] Ibid. p. 269

[8] Kyogyoshinsho, Ryukoku Translation Series, p. 163

[9] Ibid. p. 84
Chapter 11

The Symbolic Structure of Faith

What meaning can an ancient mythology or story have for persons in our alienated, absurd
world? This is the question that must be explored in terms of the relevance and meaning of
religious faith, as well as for secularized, scientific, modern men and women. This issue
pertains also to Shinrans thought, as well as all contemporary religious thoughts.

Shinran was an exponent of the Pure Land thought and way of salvation. The foundation of
his thought was based on the three sutras that are known as the Three Pure Land Sutras. As
with all sutras, all the traditional stories that begin Thus have I heard, (nyozegamon) are
reputedly the vehicle for relating the teaching of Gautama Buddha. This phrase presumed to
confer authority on the subsequent content as being in accord with the words of Buddha
historically and with the truth itself.

The term nyo, or nyoze Thus has important meaning because it relates to such
Buddhist philosophical principles as shinnyo true suchness and nyorai the
Tathagata (The Thus Come Thus Gone). The idea of nyo, or Thusness, signifies the essential
truth of things and reality. In effect, it is an assertion of the truth of Buddhism. The nature of
Buddhist truth, however, presents modern people with a variety of problems in their attempt
to determine the historical accuracy of the sutras and the truth of religion. In traditionalist faith
everything could be spelled out by merely quoting honored authorities. Nothing had to be
proved. It was all assumed. In modern times, however, people question the meaning of truth
of such assertions and expect reasonable answers to their problems. The quest for truth, which
was at the root of all traditions, re-emerges as a focus of importance for truth-seekers in this
modern era.

Ancient man always attempted to see his life against the backdrop of eternity. Human beings,
the only creature whom we believe to be aware that he must die, has always had to reflect on
life and its meaning. They could never bring themselves to believe that the powerful forces
which sustain their lives could simply end when they died of illness, old age, or some tragedy.
In all traditions there were myths which depicted human destiny after life in this world.
Salvation religions not only focused on the continuation of life itself, but correlated the quality
of that future life with the quality of ones present life. To inspire religious devotion, there
developed both positive and negative pictures of the afterlife. One might go to heaven, or one
might end up in hell.

The heart of the story of these Pure Land Sutras is the endeavor of the Bodhisattva
Dharmakara (Hozo Bosatsu) to acquire sufficient merit through his sincere practice to be able
to secure the way to the Pure Land for all being everywhere in an infinite future. Once having
achieved this, the Pure Land (described as being in the West, or the Western Paradise) and the
Buddha Amitabha (Amida, the Buddha of Infinite Life and Light) await those who avail
themselves of the means of rebirth provided by the Bodhisattva.

The Larger Pure Land Sutra tells the story, while the smaller Amida Sutra describes the
Pure Land itself. The Meditation Sutra offers a variety of meditations whereby birth in the
Pure Land may be achieved, but it also presents a system of meditation whose goal is to
visualize the Buddha and attain union with him.

On the basis of these sutras, the various teachers in the popular Pure Land tradition began to
spell out the implications and meaning of their contents for faith and practice. In China, there
were teachers such as Hui Yuan who emphasized the system of meditation, while Tan Luan
and succeeding teachers like Tao-cho and Shan-tao developed a popular teaching focusing on
the practice of recitation of the Nembutsu (name of Amida Buddha), a practice that changed in
meaning and emphasis as the Pure Land tradition evolved in China, and later, in the
Kamakura period in Japan. Tao-cho and Shan-tao in their contribution to this evolution,
brought the teaching into relationship with the theory of degeneration, or Mappo, maintaining
that the simple recitation was an appropriate practice for common people in the last age of the
disappearance of the Dharma (Mappo).

When we review the story of the Sakyamuni Buddha and his progress towards enlightenment,
we would not expect the development of myths and stories dealing with future destiny and its
possibilities since, fundamentally, Buddhism is non-mythological. Buddha himself was a
human being who developed his human potential to the fullest and gained insight into the
true nature of existence. In his teachings, the gods were displaced, and deprived of any serious
role in a persons attainment of enlightenment or Nirvana. Early Buddhist art did not represent
the Buddha figure because, having broken through the bonds of existence, he must be
regarded as inconceivable.

It could likewise be assumed that Buddhism would develop as a religion without myth as well
as without image, and yet, from those earliest times, the devotion of his disciples and followers
gave rise to legends about the Buddha, and of course, in time, to impressions that could be
visually conceived and represented. Over the centuries there evolved a biography replete with
mythic and legendary features such as stories of the Buddhas birth, and of his attainment of
enlightenment. In comparison to ordinary men, we might say that the Buddha virtually
became a divine being in terms of Buddhist mythology and art. At the same time, however,
Buddhism constantly held to the firm tradition that he was not divine, but as the supremely
awakened one he was the highest human being.

With the development of Mahayana Buddhism, the myth-making tendency became even more
pronounced. The figure of Buddha expanded from a historical person to a cosmic reality all
embracing and indwelling. The multiplicity of Buddhas who filled the infinite worlds of the
universe all became manifestations of the Cosmic Buddha. In the Lotus Sutra we see that the
Buddha (Sakyamuni), who taught 40 years and went into Nirvana, was really only one
manifestation of the eternal Buddha who has never gone into Nirvana but continually strives
for the salvation of all beings. With the advent of Pure Land thought, this eternal Buddha
Amida symbolized the infinite time and space.

In the Larger Pure Land Sutra, the story of Dharmakaras attainment of Buddhahood offers
an eloquent testimony to the depth of compassion which Mahayana Buddhists perceived in
the Buddha reality and which they felt impelled to express in the constant refrain of the
Bodhisattva: unless and until all other beings can achieve the same goal, he would refuse
enlightenment. The focus of this Sutra on the central characteristic of the Buddha being
compassion is intensified also in the first of the four Bodhisattva Vows (shiguzeigan):

However innumerable sentient beings are, I vow to save them

Or, as another version states:

I will save those who are yet to be saved; I will make those who are frightened feel secure; I
will help enlighten those who are yet to attainenlightenment; I will cause those who are not in
nirvana to be in nirvana. [1]

In this spirit of the ideal of compassion, there developed an emphasis on dana, or giving, the
first of the six perfections to be practiced by Bodhisattvas: dana, giving; sila, morality; ksanti,
endurance; virya, energy; dhyana, meditation; and prajna, wisdom. In his Outline of the
Triple Sutra of Shin Buddhism, Prof. Fujimoto eloquently translates the application of these
six perfections of the compassionate idea expressed in the Pure Land sutras:
Each of the Bodhisattvas manages to become a friend of swarming sentient beings though not
asked; takes upon his shoulders the peoples heavy burden; by preserving the inexhaustible
stock of the Tathagatas profoundest Dharma, protects and develops their seed of Buddhahood
so it will not be destroyed; commiserates with them out of his ever-rising compassion; shuts
the door of the three evil worlds, unlocking that of goodness; preaches the Dharma to the
swarming people before being asked, just as a pious son loves and pays respect to his parents;
takes care of sentient beings as well as he does of himself, thus carrying them to the Other
Shore by means of the supreme root of goodness. [2]

Religion and religious endeavors must be the realization of deepest compassion through
identification with all beings whatever their state. Through all the intricacies and details of the
myth, this is its central burden, the confirmation that the heart of reality is activated by
compassion. It is a profound statement of the faith that ancient Buddhists had in the
worthwhileness of life and in its inclusive universal meaning.

The ideal of infinite compassion also sets an example of mission for those who would believe
in this myth. It dramatizes for us that from the heart of compassion new worlds of infinite
potentiality are created and thus, this ideal shines as a message of hope in a contemporary
world that does not seem much moved by creative efforts, a world of technological values
where altruism often seems ineffective and valueless.

The composers of the ancient Buddhist sutras remain anonymous, since they ascribed
everything they wrote to having heard the teachings directly from Sakyamuni Buddha, or from
someone who had heard it repeated by one who had himself directly experienced hearing
them. The chain of distance from the source expanded with the passing centuries, and
composition continued, but the authority of that Thus have I heard was retained. It stirs the
imagination to contemplate the depth of concern of those anonymous composers of the Pure
Land sutras. Suffering humanity was their focus, and their path was not easy for often they
were accused of distorting and perverting the original message of Buddha. However, they
believed deeply in their mission and their commitment took them to the point of being willing
to sacrifice their lives, as is illustrated in the Exhortation to Hold Firm, Chapter XIII of the
Lotus Sutra.

Undoubtedly, the description in the sutra of the Buddha arising from contemplation with
glowing countenance, followed by the inquiry of the disciples as to the reason for his
exaltation and ecstasy, suggests the type of situation which must have produced the first
versions of such sutras. They were, perhaps, inspired by concentration on the meaning of
compassion. As this aspect of Buddha was probed, its comprehensiveness had to be given
concrete expression over against the traditional goal of Nirvana. The Pure Land of Bliss and
Peace can be considered an expansion of qualities sometimes associated with Nirvana (as is the
interpretation of Ryukyo Fujimoto in his Triple Sutras I, 19, 21). The Pure Land is not a place
of isolation and simply individual enlightenment, but a place where fellowship and
communion with Buddha and the Bodhisattvas is realized. Pure Land thought reflects the
sociality of the Mahayana ideal of attaining Buddhahood together. The grandeur of their view
was inspired by their deep human concern, a concern which emanates from and undergirded
the symbolic structure of Shinrans thought.

Despite the idealism embodied in Buddhist and other myths, the form in which they are cast,
their role in religious tradition have created problems as to what kind of authority and
credibility these myths may have for contemporary culture. Modern people have come to
believe that he is emancipated from myth. They criticize myth as merely myth, by which
they mean that the myth is an empty story. In western culture, from the time of Plato onward,
myth has tended to have a negative meaning. In modern times Auguste Comte, a French
sociologist, argued that with the development of civilization and science, society progresses
from myth to metaphysic to science. The intellectual evolution of humanity has come to be
accepted in the west as being an evolution from religion to philosophy to science. Many
modern anthropologists have tended to view myth as evidence of a pre-logical mentality, and
as representative of the childhood of humanity. It appeared that ancient people and
contemporary primitive people live controlled by their myths, while presumably civilized
people are guided by reason and science.

In Christian tradition there developed opposition between myth and history. Basic concepts
were then brought into question. Is the Incarnation myth or history? Is the Resurrection myth
or history? Buddhism developed outside the framework of these problems, but it did not long
remain uninfluenced by the approach to their solutions once extensive contact with the West
and western modes of thought began.

In Japan, such contact initiated similar questions to be faced by the traditional Mahayana
Buddhist schools. Were the many Mahayana Sutras which claim to be taught by Sakyamuni
(who is an historical person) really taught by him? Scholars began to discuss what is termed
Daijo hibusetsuron, which is the theory that Sakyamuni Buddha did not teach the Mahayana
sutras as had been traditionally assumed in the use of the opening phrase, Thus have I heard .
. . (nyozegamon). A problem rose from this discussion. If Sakyamuni Buddha did not teach
them, what authority do these sutras have in establishing particular practices as the way to
enlightenment over against the way of the Four Noble Truths, the Eightfold Path, etc. which
Sakyamuni declares as the way in the earliest days of Buddhism. The issue in this, and the
impact of western peoples modern scientific preoccupation, was perhaps most clearly stated
in the Meiji Era work, The Historical Buddha and The Eternal Buddha, by Masaharu
Anesaki:

. . . The eternal truth of Buddha cannot result from visionary speculation; it must be found
in actual history. [3]

Another scholar, Murakami Sensho, in his text, The Unity of Buddhism, also criticized
traditional Buddhism in this vein and wanted all sects to unite with a unified doctrine, while at
the same time maintaining a basic Mahayana outlook.

Stimulated by the quest for basic Buddhism, 19th- and early 20th- century Japanese
Buddhist scholarship advanced to the level of western studies in their assault on myth and
application of historical research. The change in Japanese scholarship, in terms of this quest,
did not occur in traditional Buddhist organizations in Japan, nor alter their views and practice
to any significant degree. The practical issue facing Buddhist tradition in this period in Japan
was not the same as that occupying the scholars. Rather, traditional Buddhist teachers were
concerned with the confrontation with Christianity and Christian missions that political and
social westernization patterns brought to Japan after an absence of three hundred years. This
confrontation left traditional Buddhist groups generally defensive, and reluctant to change in
their views of their own history and doctrines.

Among the attempts made to resolve the Japanese Buddhist dilemma between scholarship and
faith referred to above was that of Murakami Sensho who declared The criticism of
Mahayana Buddhism is a problem of history, not of doctrine. From the doctrinal point of view,
no one should doubt the Mahayana interpretation. [4] In straddling the fence of his sect
connection and his scholarly approach, he concludes that the teachings of Mahayana, while
not directly given by the Buddha, were a brilliant development of Buddhist thought. Another
scholar, Maeda Eun in his work An Interpretation of Mahayana History, claimed that the
seeds of Mahayana did indeed lay in the teaching of Buddha during his lifetime. Kimura
Taiken resolved the apparent conflict by regarding Mahayana as an effort to revitalize
primitive Buddhism from a deeper point of view. [5]
Against the background of this problem for Japanese Buddhists during the past century, we
can understand Prof. Fujimotos attempt to depict the basis for the origin of Mahayana Sutras:

The Mahayana Tripitaka, we might say, is a kind of revised edition of the Hinayana one, for
the former can be designated as the fruit of a revival movement rising among the direct
disciples of Sakyamuni as well as later ones. It was in primitive Buddhism that the Sangha
tended to be more stagnant in spite of the transient circumstances, becoming monastic in
paying little attention to the lay people, and formalized in clinging to the time worn precepts
or ritual. [6]

Dr. D.T. Suzuki, in his essay The Development of the Pure Land Doctrine in Buddhism,
begins by taking note of this:

If we believe, as we must from the modern critical point of view, that the history of any
religious system consists partly, in the exfoliation of the unessential elements, but, chiefly, in
the revelation and the constant growth of the most vital spiritual elements which lie hidden in
the words of the founder or in his personality, the following question naturally comes up for
solution in our investigation of the history of Buddhist dogmatics: How much of the Pure
Land idea is deducible from the teaching of primitive Buddhism so-called, or from the
personality of Sakyamuni Buddha himself? [7]

From this perspective, Suzuki attempts to develop a philosophy of religious experience which
would lead to such a formulation. After summarizing basic concepts and features of the Pure
Land sutras, he concludes:

Incidentally, let us note here that the idea of scriptural authority in whatever form is no more
tenable and therefore that whatever ideas have proved vital, inspiring, and uplifting in the
history of religion must find another way of establishing themselves as the ultimate facts of the
religious consciousness. Scriptures, Christian and Buddhist, are divine revelations inasmuch as
they tally with the deeper experiences of the soul and really help humanity break through the
fetters of finitude and open up a vista full of life and light. In other words, authority must
come from within and not from without This being our standpoint, the Pure Land teaching
is to be interpreted, as I said before, in terms of religious consciousness, and not, as is done
usually by its orthodox followers, in terms of scriptural authority or special revelation. [8]

These reflections bring us back to the original problem of what stimulates the production of
myth, and what established its grasp on religious consciousness as a normative guide or
authority over against other similar or competing claims. The focal issue which must be
considered is the nature of religious consciousness, and whether it contains sufficient principle
within itself to determine religious truth without either analytical reasoning or metaphysical or
philosophical reflection.

The structure of the sutras, which presents them as authentic words of Buddha, tends to
suggest that there was once an objective basis for regarding the sutras, for although scholars
might make qualifications, on the popular level they were given unquestioning reverence.
Religion as a control instrument in society required that the ordinary person be encouraged in
his belief in the truth of the religion, which in this case meant that Pure Land Buddhists be
encouraged to rely on the authority and validity of these three sutras, and their expression of
the myth of Amidas Vow. The impact of the exposure of Japanese scholars to the western
analytical viewpoint, and the western tendency to discredit myth and assess everything in
terms of verifiable historic research made the views of Suzuki and others who shared his
insight into the validity of religious consciousness increasingly significant for our times. Is
indeed, religious consciousness merely an illusion as Freud asserts? Is religion itself simply an
opiate for the masses as Marx insisted? Both Freud and Marx have become themselves archaic
in their views as the twentieth century nears an end.

To the contemporary mind, being religious and being a thinker are sometimes considered
contradictory, but if religion is not to be oppressive and exploitive of people, or if it is not
merely to be a control mechanism for society, then its foundations in thought and experience
must be frankly faced. This is particularly essential if we are to continue to pursue the tradition
that Buddhism is a serious quest for truth, and if Shinrans critical attitude and search for truth
is to be realized in us.

A myth arises from the interaction of a consciousness and the world in such a way that the
disparate and multitudinous elements of the world are given some degree of coherency and
meaning. Myths direct themselves to the crucial problems of human existence value and
destiny, tragedy, good and evil. Myths arise from the awareness of human limitations and the
apprehension of mystery or uncontrollable power in the world. While myths may not have
factual reality as accepted in the day-to-day world, nevertheless they have a reality by virtue of
pointing to aspects of human existence which give them more compelling power over the
mind than have things in the concrete world. People will die for their pictures or myths of
reality more readily than they will die for particular possession of things.
While myths are, on the one hand, products of consciousness and so are never apart from the
mind, they point to something beyond the mind and consciousness which is the basis for that
mind and consciousness. In the case of Amida and the Pure Land, this myth may have been
the product of a consciousness moved by its aspirations and hopes for a higher existence,
whereupon the myth asserts the reality of the higher life. This myth is not knowingly a
product of its own consciousness. The author did not believe he made it up, but rather that he
was the vehicle through which this higher reality was expressed.

In effect, myth leads not only to psychology but to metaphysics or philosophy in order to
discover what basis there is in reality for the particular myths which have grasped the
consciousness. For Buddhists, and perhaps mainly Pure Land Buddhists who center their
religious existence about the symbols of that tradition, there is a necessity to explore more
deeply the philosophical implications of the symbol system. It will not be sufficient to invoke
the concepts of hoben (expedient means), sunyata (the doctrine of void) or to assess the claim
that Amida or the Pure Land exist only in our minds. All these side step the issue as to why
that particular myth should be an authority controlling religious life and action.

At the same time, there is necessity that the Pure Land myth preserve fundamental Buddhist
affirmations concerning non-duality and objectivity. If Shinshu is to meet the challenge of the
modern world, all these issues must be taken seriously, and particularly the issue of myth and
the symbolic structure of shinjin, or the faith that completely entrusts in the true, real and
indescribable that the myth reveals.

Earlier, we stated that modern man once believed he was emancipated from myth, but recent
events have shown that this is not so. We have discovered in our times that people are moved
by racial and economic myths (Nazis, KKK, capitalism, communism), national myths (flag),
and myths of science. Humans are myth-making animals and in their myths they enshrine (as
in advertising) the values and meanings that integrate their lives. Myths which ground a
culture are rooted in the common experience of that culture. Myths are absorbed by the
individual as norms for attitude and action. They have social enforcement in that there are
penalties for opposing or otherwise rejecting the group myth. In a sense, in any and every
culture, and at any and every time, including our own and perhaps even in most particular our
own, one is born to these myths.

However, religious myth (apart from those religious myths which are part of the folk culture
or have been absorbed into folk culture) has a different relationship, since it is the realization of
the truth of the religious myth by the individual which brings the particular group into
existence. Religious myth gains its importance from the fact that it expresses what is ultimate
for life. It reveals to the person the unconditional element of existence which places a demand
on the persons existence that he take that element upon himself as his ultimate concern.
Profound myth calls upon the person to make a commitment, to take a risk in faith. There is an
element of judgment and critique in myth which strengthens the inner man, who is thus
committed against the forces such as society and culture which would deny his true, concrete
existence by merely subordinating him to some larger whole and depriving him of any real or
significant possibilities of action. Profound religious myth is therefore liberating, liberating the
individual from all forms of subjugating bondage so that, in effect, religious myth enables the
person to discover his true self.

In Buddhist history in China, the Confucianists recognized the implications of Buddhist

egalitarianism and myths depicting an ideal world. They repeatedly worked for the restraining
of Buddhist activity among the masses. The Pure Land persecutions in Japan likewise were
based on the realization of so-called anti-social aspects of the teaching such as disrespect
and neglect of the gods of the land which meant to undermine the Kyodotai-communality-
social solidarity of that era.

The history of religions indicates that myth is ambiguous. The myth that frees may also
subjugate. I think this is what lies behind I-hsuans statement that the terms Buddha and
patriarch are terms of reverence but also bondage. When faith turns into belief, and experience
transforms to doctrine and theory, religion becomes the taskmaster and tyrant over the human
spirit. Hui-neng in the Platform Sutra remarks that if one practices with the mind, one turns
the Lotus, but if one does not practice, the Lotus turns him.

The impact of ultimacy in the Buddhist myths of Pure Land has been limited largely because
the teaching was regarded simply as a secondary and lesser alternative for reaching
enlightenment. It was only a partial way. The history of the tradition reaching to Shinran was
an evolution culminating in his awareness of greater depth and ultimacy in the teaching.
Shinshu means that Shinrans Pure Land teaching is not merely one among many alternatives,
but must in itself express the greatest depth of meaning and reality, else it could not be true
in the full sense. The myth of Amida and the Pure Land is thus an essential element in the
consideration of Shinrans religious philosophy. It provides the pattern of compassion which is
to suffuse our personal existence. It thus requires careful religious and philosophical study,
and reflection, as the basis for the symbol structure of Shinshu and as a religious myth whose
expression of awareness of ones absolute bondage to the human condition is the very
expression that at the same time yields the absolute spiritual freedom that modern man so
desperately seeks.

Bibliography

Campbell, Joseph: The Hero With a Thousand Faces The Masks of God

Campbell, Joseph: The Power of Myth

Eliade, Mercea: Cosmos and History

Zimmer, Heinrich: Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization

Notes

[1] Japanese/English Buddhist Dictionary, p. 276b

[2] 47-48 Shinshushogyo Zensho, I, 3-4

[3] Quoted in H. Kishimoto, Japanese Religion in The Meiji Era, p. 161

[4] Ibid, p. 164

[5] Ibid. p. 167

[6] Ryukyo Fujimoto, An Outline of the Triple Sutra of Shin Buddhism, I.P. 17

[7] D.T. Suzuki, Collected Writings on Shin Buddhism, p.3

[8] Ibid. pp. 10-11

Chapter 12

The Metaphysical Structure of Shinshu

In interpreting Shinrans thought thus far, we have emphasized his religious experience and its
apparent intensity and decisiveness. We have tried to follow its consequences in his altered
style of life and transformed religious thought, together with its implications for our own
approach to life and daily affairs. We have been theological and abstract in tracing the
configurations of his thought, but at the same time we have tried to keep constantly in mind
that Shinrans thought is eminently practical and can provide a life orientation. As yet,
however, we have said little of the philosophical foundations in Buddhist tradition from which
Shinran drew. We did not mean to neglect that aspect. Rather, by placing it at this point in our
exploration of Shin Buddhism and the nature and validity of the religious quest in our Mappo
era, we wanted to suggest that Shinran had an experience which then sought philosophical
understanding.

Shinrans religious experience loses intensity and drama when it is considered only as arising
from contact with Buddhist teachings for example, from the reading of a sutra or text. To the
contrary, his thought gains in universal importance because it arose from a sensitized
awareness of the true nature of man. Shinran did not merely contemplate ideas. Rather, he
confronted himself and as a consequence, had to seek a new path.

Naturally, all aspects of his involvement in the Buddhism of his day stimulated him and
ultimately shaped his understanding. The Jinenhonisho to which we will presently refer
came from the latest period of his life. This suggests that his thought constantly took shape in
the light of his continuing experience and problems. It is clear from the historical materials we
possess that Shinran was not simply a religious pragmatist, unaware of the nature of the ideas
that he proposed. His thought evidences a philosophical perspective, and he is particularly
rooted in the nondual-voidness philosophy of Buddhism from which he developed an
understanding of the concept of Reality that is of great significance both in theory and practice.

In emphasizing the philosophical quality of Shinrans thought we should understand in our

day of social and cultural upheaval that unless people develop a philosophical perspective on
existence, they will only be buffeted by the forces surging about them, unable to understand or
effectively participate. Americans are not a notably philosophical people they are more
pragmatic and interested only in results. They care less for the wider grounds of thought in
religion than for the good feeling or consolation that may be gained from it.

In order to catch the flavor of Shinrans philosophical insight and perspective, I would like to
focus briefly on the Jinenhonisho which he wrote in his 86th or 88th year. Though it is very
brief, it is his most philosophical expression. Incisive with understanding, it came from long
years of religious reflection.

When we speak of Nature (Jinen), the character Ji means naturally by itself (Onozukara). It
is not (the result of) an intention (self assertion or Hakarai) of the devotee. Nen is a word
which means to cause to come about (shikarashimu). Shikarashimu (also signifies that it) is
not (due to any) effort (Hakarai) of the devotee. Since it is (the result of) the Vow of the
Tathagata, we call it Honi i.e., truth. We say of Honi that it causes to come about because it is
the Vow of the Tathagata. Since the truth is the Vow of the Tathagata, we say generally that it is
not (the result of) the effort of the devotee, and therefore, the power (virtue) of this Dharma is
that it causes to be. For the first time, there is nothing to be done by man. This is what we
should understand as the reason which is beyond reason (Mugi-no-Gi). Originally Jinen was
a word meaning to cause to be. We say Jinen when the devotee does not consider his
goodness or evil, in accordance with the fact that Amida has vowed originally (that salvation
was to be attained) not by the efforts of the devotee, but by being embraced and caused to rely
on the Namu Amida Butsu (his name). In the Vow which we hear, it is vowed that he will
cause us (to attain) the highest Buddhahood. Highest Buddhahood signifies to abide in
formlessness. Because we are without form, we say Jinen (Nature). When we indicate that
there is a form, we do not speak of the highest Nirvana. We heard and learned for the first time
that the one who makes known formlessness is called Amida. Amida is the means by which
we are caused to know formlessness. After we understand this principle, we should not
constantly discuss Jinen (Nature). If we constantly discuss it, the principle that what is beyond
reason is reason is made (to conform to) reason. This is the mystery of Buddha-wisdom. [1]

Although scholars have written much about the concept of jinenhoni and have analyzed the
text written by Shinran in various ways, there has been little attempt to apply the concept
concretely to contemporary life. As a Buddhist term, the idea was not original with Shinran,
but he did open up some new possibilities in interpreting it that are relevant to our present
considerations. In terms of the broader context, Shinran defines Nature (Jinen), emphasizing its
dynamic aspect in the word shikarashimu, to cause to be of itself. The term suggests an
organic view of Nature as a living reality in contrast to a purely mechanical system as
represented either in the system of cause-effect of Buddhism or in the modern scientific
system. Nature, as presented here, brings things into being spontaneously that is, of itself
without intention or cause. It is the ultimate order, because it is not worked upon or affected
by anything outside itself. This understanding of Nature contrasts somewhat with the nuance
in the traditional Buddhist concept of Tathata, or suchness. Tathata is more static when it is
defined as purity and tranquility.

The idea of Nature as the context, basis, and dynamic of mans life in Shinrans thought is
supported in modern thought by studies in quantum mechanics and the newly awakened
concern with ecology, which deals with the relations of humanity and its total environment.
No small part of this interest arises from the problems of pollution and conservation that
civilized people, in their self-assertion against reality, have themselves created. In the
ecological relation, human beings are an integral part of the reality of Nature, and all Nature is
integral to the life of sentient beings. The spiritual significance of this relationship is to develop
an ethic in which people do not impose their will on the balance required to maintain life for
all. We must survive, supporting our own existence, but not at the expense of everything else.

The generally objective scheme of Macro-Nature as presented by science assumes a system of

cause and effect. In Shinrans thought, the philosophical understanding of Nature is the basis
of religious existence. So far as we are a part of that system, we have a fate. When Nature is
viewed as external to ourselves, over and against us, it is Nature in its alienated state. In this
context, we may feel oppressed by Nature. We may have to struggle against it, and may live
with fear and anxiety in reaction to its irrational and erratic activities. Or (and this appears as
the modern alternative) we may learn to manipulate it and subordinate it to human purposes,
in which case it is we who become alienated.

The Nature that appears in Shinrans thought is the process within which we live and which
gives us life. When we subjectively become aware of Nature in its spiritual dimension, we find
harmony for our existence and emancipation from the anxieties of finitude in a non-alienated
Nature whose being is our being. Though we are not unaware of the erratic and dangerous
aspects of Nature, spiritual meaning is drawn from its life-supporting and life-enhancing
features.

Shinran did not simply consider the process of Nature in and for itself. Rather, we see in the
text that he moves to a consideration of the activity of truth, Honi. He sees a parallel between
the spontaneous activity of Nature and the process of deliverance in the Vow of Amida. By
relating the process of Nature to Amidas vows, Shinran established the certainty of faith on a
firm basis. The working of Amidas Vow, in Shinrans thought, is a mythical statement of the
process of Nature.

This fundamental insight manifested by Shinran was not derived simply from sacred texts and
traditions, but was, perhaps, grounded in tradition in the contemplation of Nature itself and
the influence of the doctrine of Primordial Enlightenment of the Tendai sect.

The doctrine of Primordial Enlightenment is without beginning or end. It is based on chapter

16 of the Lotus Sutra, the basic scripture of the Tendai sect which contrasts the Eternal
Sakyamuni with the historical Sakyamuni who lived only 80 years. However, the truth cannot
be limited to 80 years. The truth must be eternal. Shinran, having studied Tendai thought,
reinterpreted the teaching to apply to Amida Buddha whose name means Eternal Life or
Infinite Light. In consequence, for Shinran, Amida Buddha became the ground of reality and
the source of deliverance. Amida Buddha is also the symbolization of the all-encompassing
process of interdependence which sustains our lives. Shinrans understanding of the concepts
of self-power and other power in Pure Land teaching has also been shaped by the perspective
of Primordial Enlightenment.

As a consequence of the cosmic understanding of Amida, Shinran revealed the unreality of

self-power attitudes and transcended the dichotomy of self-power versus Other-power. An
implication of his insight is the fact that our very existence in the world becomes itself a
testimony to Other-power. Whatever activities we may carry out in the world, are not done
solely through ourselves, but there is an order of things that supports and, in a sense, works
through us. The dichotomy of self-power and Other-power is a delusion, since our act is our
act and is, at the same time, not our act. Self-power is the expression of alienated being. It is
self-contradictory since it proposes to do away with delusion through a delusion. A
consequence, then, of Shinrans view of nature is to provide a pervasive deep awareness of
cosmic process as the foundation of religious faith.

It is most likely that Shinran focused his attention on this term, Jinen-Nature, as a result of his
deepened understanding of human nature. He observed that because of his passions and the
ignorance and delusion they create, human beings cannot on their own, overcome the
fundamental alienation that separates them from reality. This being the case, the source of
deliverance must be other than beings as such. The more sharply Shinran felt this alienation,
the more he became aware of the power of reality that strives to overcome the alienation. Here
we see a dialectic between the perception of imperfection and the perception of absolute
compassion and purity to counter that imperfection. Only in knowing ourselves as we truly
are can we truly become aware that there is a power in the depth of reality that seeks to
liberate us from our ego bondage and delusions. Penetrating that reality, Shinran came to
realize that we are in reality, and reality is in us.

Deliverance can only be achieved on the basis of an identity between human beings and
Buddha. The reason for this is that perfection could only be achieved by perfection. For beings
to be able to become pure, they must have the potential of purity within them. This potential
does not reside in the passion and ignorance that constitute experienced human existence.
Beyond this there is a dialectic in which our passions and delusion make us think of Buddha as
other than and outside ourselves, when in reality he is the ground and essence of our
existence. The deliverance of Pure Land Buddhism is in coming to experience this non-duality.
Here Shinran took very seriously, as the basis of his theory of salvation, the central Mahayana
belief that all beings possess Buddha nature which is realized through faith. As a result of this
view, Shinran overcame the tendency to a dualistic approach to Pure Land thought on the
popular level.

The Buddhistic understanding of the fundamental identity between beings and Buddha, (ki-
ho-ittai) the perception of which is enlightenment or deliverance, reveals a keen insight into
the problem of alienation. Alienation implies a separation, an estrangement of being. If one
assumes the finality of dualism as the basic structure of being in the sense of a chasm between
God and humanity as in Christianity then alienation cannot be truly overcome since there
is an alienation built into reality. It is noticeable in Christian theology, which maintains a
discontinuity between God and humanity, that somewhere in the system it is necessary to
posit some identity. Hence, God incarnates; he joins himself to humanity. Paul Tillich
attempted to deal with this problem and spoke of God as the ground of being. Thus alienation
is not ultimate and is overcome by a return to the prior and primal union with the source of
our own being.

It was Shinrans heightened self-awareness which led him to perceive the unity necessary to
deliverance more deeply more intensely so that within the Jinenhonisho there is the
constant reminder that nothing comes about through mans hakarai, i.e., through his intention,
calculation, assertion, or design. Neither Nature nor deliverance depends on us. This is an
important idea since it indicates for Shinran that religion is beyond the legalism of good and
evil or human manipulation. Deliverance does not depend on living up to an imposed system
of prescribed acts. Also, religion is not to be manipulated for human ambition and desire.
Pride, anxiety of imperfection, and self-aggrandizement are all rejected. Religion is not a tool.
Not only does deliverance not depend on human capacities or the lack of them, it does not
depend on a persons steadiness or wavering. Amidas Vow achieves its goal without
obstruction. By rooting deliverance in the process of reality itself, Shinran signifies that truth is
beyond the mere opinion or constructions of men. Faith is not merely a persons view of things
as a belief, but is itself reality, in which the symbol of Amida opens us to the vision of the Real
itself.

Shinrans emphasis on the transcendental aspects of the process of Nature, which brings things
about of itself, reflects the unconditioned aspect of Nature. Unconditional Nature limits mans
addiction to theory and words, which lead to disputes. The process is a mystery. When it is
once glimpsed, one should not press his words to try to analyze or describe it.

We would suggest also that in Jinenhonisho, Shinran is showing that faith above all has to
do with truth with reality in its deepest dimensions. Since that is its essence, the knowledge
and realization of truth brings deliverance. However, one should seek truth before deliverance.
Shinran was willing to risk himself in his perception of truth when he indicated that he did not
know as a matter of intellectual certainty whether the Nembutsu was the seed for birth in the
Pure Land or in Hell. But as Yuienbo tells us in Tannisho, having grasped a truth that
illuminated his life, Shinran would stand by it.

There are many in our day who regard religion simply as a means of becoming happy or
satisfied, or of getting peace of mind. Satisfaction, happiness, peace of mind may well result
from religion, and Shinran also speaks of joy and peace and tranquility; nevertheless, these
results come about only because one believes that one has perceived the truth. If religion is not
first and foremost a search for truth and its realization in life, then it is a vain, self-seeking
activity. Hence Shinran titles the Kyogyoshinsho in its full name Kenjodoshinjitsu kyogyo
shomonrui (An Anthology which manifests the True Teaching and Practice of the Pure Land
[tradition].)

Some interpreters suggest that the view of Nature and deliverance that Shinran sets forth
enables the individual to have joy and peace within tragedy and suffering. We may attain an
inward freedom in the recognition that what confronts us is itself reality. With faith in the
compassionate essence of reality, we may endure with a quiet peace the troubles and turmoil
of life and is enabled to take life as it comes and to respond to events positively. If we do not
have truth about reality, about man there is no way to establish value and dignity. If
human life is understood only within the scheme of life established through modern secular
studies and science, there is no indication of the value of human personality and life. Science
has not tended to make us more respectful and aware of the value of existence. Science claims
to make no value judgments.

The conception of reality offered by Shinran establishes the value of the person, as of all life, in
seeing that person as the object of the compassionate aspiration of reality itself. While this
view is not itself scientifically demonstrable, nevertheless, it is evidenced as Shinran perceived,
through the very way in which Nature supports our life and courses through our being. The
meaning of life in this context is that our own being, despite our evils and, indeed, even
because of our passion is itself the expression of that compassionate aspiration. Therefore, in
everyday life, in our relations to other beings and persons, we should become for them the
realization of that compassionate aspiration.

Shinrans religious thought and experience provide basic elements for the construction of a
philosophy of existence that is applicable to contemporary problems. Despite the fact that he
lived centuries ago, his human experience transcends time and focuses upon the universal
problem of man. From within the broad perspective of Buddhist tradition, he offers insight
into the fundamental nature of existence and the basis for human action and life in the world
upon which all may draw.

Bibliography

Haguri: Naturalness

Bloom, Alfred: Shinrans Gospel of Pure Grace, pp. 43-44

Ueda, Yoshifumi and Hirota, Dennis Hirota: Shinran: An Introduction to his Thought, pp.
176-78

Notes

[1] Translation quoted from A. Bloom, Shinrans Gospel of Pure Grace, pp. 43-44
Chapter 13

The Traditional Structure of Shinrans Thought

Shinran rooted his teachings in the Pure Land tradition by tracing the lineage of his thought
back through seven patriarchs, a system in which he paid special tribute to his immediate
teacher Honen, to Shan-tao, and to Sakyamuni himself. The development of Mahayana
tradition required that it justify itself over and against the Hinayana Buddhists who believed
they had the original teachings of Buddhism. Thus, it is particularly in Mahayana that lineages
of the transmission of the teaching were formed. In such a system of lineage, enlightenment is
to be transferred as water, from cup to cup without losing a drop.

New aspects or interpretations (as was Shinrans) become possible through the view of this
lineage as an evolution of doctrine and thought. Mechanisms for dealing with creative change,
and progress in the teaching responding to the times, are not so clear in primitive Buddhism.
In this sense, the Pure Land tradition appears to be more open, emphasizing that the teaching
must correspond to both the person and the times (jikisoo). This sense of the reality of time
and its relation to the development of the teaching is due in all probability to the Chinese sense
of history, and was a conclusion derived from the observation of the inapplicability of the
ideals of Buddhism for the masses in a time of disruption and in ages and places (such as
China) long distant from the Buddha. The hoben, the means by which the Dharma is brought
to all beings, was regarded by the Hinayanaists as a novelty introduced by the founders and
developers of Mahayana. In addition, the Mahayanists also formulated an expansion in the
number of previous Buddhas in an attempt to show that it was not the truth of Mahayana
Buddhism that was a novelty, but that this truth had been given by all the Buddhas of the past,
as well as it will be by future Buddhas. The means hoben of compassion was the
Mahayana departure from Hinayana tradition.

Buddhism, wherever it appears, Mahayana or Hinayana, Southeast Asia, Japan or Hawaii, is

highly traditional and this traditionalism is one of the factors that makes it difficult for
Buddhism to change in the face of modern problems. Although this change factor is
specifically a social-institutional question, it suggests a feature which needs to be explored
further in relation to Shinran, his thought, and the institutions which have been built on
increasingly rigid specifications of the structure of his symbolism, faith and tradition. Shinrans
approach to the linkage of his thought in Buddhist tradition has much in common with other
schools which have attempted to establish their basis in Buddhist history through a patriarchal
lineage. In the case of Zen, for example, twenty-eight patriarchs are cited from the passing of
the flower of Mahakassyapa to Bodhidharma. From Bodhidharma there were then counted a
series of Chinese patriarchs, of which the most famous was Hui-neng, who is the sixth.

Shinrans perspective, however, has implications which go beyond previous teachers, to be a

genuine leap forward to a new perception of truth. These implications are of importance and
relevance for our own lives today. Shinran set forth his particular line of tradition in the
famous Shoshinge, (Hymn of True Faith), in the Practice volume of the Kyogyoshinsho,
and in his hymns composed in praise of the patriarchs in the Kosowasan. The Shoshinge
was later published separately by Rennyo and spread widely in Japan. Its publication
popularized the tradition through its concentrated and clear outlining of the essentials of
Shinshu.

When we compare the general idea of the development of Pure Land teaching as represented
in Honens Senchaku-Nembutsushu, we see simply that the Pure Land critical classification
of doctrine grew out of a series of distinctions, each provided by one of the teachers and
brought to completion by Shan tao. In this tradition Nagarjuna reputedly distinguished two
paths in Buddhism; the difficult and the easy. Vasubandhu contributed the principle of single-
mindedness. Tan-luan made a distinction of self power and Other Power, while Tao-cho
introduced the terms Sage Path or Way of Saints and Pure Land Gate. Shan-tao brought the
many threads of consideration together to formulate a system focusing on the practice of
Nembutsu and the appropriate attitudes which should accompany it. He distinguished clearly
the practices offered to all Buddhas and Bodhisattvas as mixed and as right practices those
offered only to Amida Buddha. The recitation of Nembutsu became the right practice among
all other right practices. Others were assisting practices. Then, with Honen, this right practice
became the Senju or sole practice. The assisting practices were now excluded by Honen.

Through such an evolution, the principle of vocal recitation as the means for achieving rebirth
and enlightenment in the Pure Land was reached. Such interpretations strengthened the
impact of Pure Land thought on the masses, for this was considered as the way of easy practice
which the non-scholar, the non-intellectual, the householder living the everyday life, could
follow. The earlier understanding of Nembutsu had been that it was merely one possible way
for people lacking the capacity for more profound discipline, but with Honens affirmation of
the practice as the only way, a fundamental change in the attitude towards Nembutsu practice
occurred. It became absolute the only way not just for inferior people, but for everyone.
With Shinran, the focus of attention changed, partly due to his own intellectual capacity and
the nature of his experience, and perhaps also from criticism arising from other schools. In
traditional Buddhism, the basis of Buddhist practice was rooted in the aspiration for
enlightenment; the arousing of a mind to seek bodhi, the bodhi-citta. The model was Gautama,
who before he left his fathers palace had become aroused to seek enlightenment through
his observation of illness, old age, and death, the suffering of humankind, the reality from
which his father had tried to shield him. The awareness that all this would in time, or perhaps
at any moment with illness or death, happen to him too, spurred Gautama to leave home,
leave his position in life, and as a wandering ascetic, to seek enlightenment. In many
biographies of later famous Buddhist monks, similar conditions are depicted which led to their
embarking on serious Buddhist practice. Such situations as were manifest in the pattern of
Prince Siddartha Gautamas decision become the turning point whereby the individual makes
a decisive resolution to seek Buddhahood.

Later, in the development of Pure Land Buddhism, Shan tao correlated the practice of
Nembutsu to the attitudes and motives validating that practice. He indicated that the principle
of anjin, or faith, (literally, quieting the heart) meant to have three minds: the sincere mind,
the deep mind, and a mind desiring to be born in the Pure Land with transfer of merit to that
end. In addition, Shan tao outlined a variety of attitudes relating to the way in which the
various practices were to be carried out, so that while there was now a practice available to the
common man to achieve rebirth, he had to have the appropriate spiritual or attitudinal
motivation to be able to effectuate that Nembutsu.

With Honen, another shift took place. Whereas the various minds had to accompany the
Nembutsu for Shan tao, for Honen they were not at all consciously necessary. Rather, they
would arise naturally out of the constant practice of the Nembutsu. To many people of his
time, Honen appeared to reject the basic Buddhist principle of bodhi-citta and those aspects
which would maintain Nembutsu as a truly spiritual practice.

It is at this point that Shinran offered his contribution. From his own experience, he recognized
with Honen that one cannot ever be sure that he is sincere, that he has sufficient faith or, as in
the case with Yuienbos lack of desire for Pure Land, [1] that one can really overcome his
attachment to this world. Hence, to require these aspects of mind, even though the practice
was simple and easy, was still to place considerable obstacles in front of the common man and
shut him off from Amidas compassion and the assurance of salvation. Also perceived by
Shinran was the fact that the foundation of Buddhism lies in a deep spiritual resolve and
motivation to attain rebirth or enlightenment. He synthesized his two insights by maintaining
that in a mysterious way, through hearing Amida Buddhas name and becoming aware of his
compassion, faith is aroused a faith which is not based on human contrivance, but a faith
which wells up because it is in fact a gift of Amida to the person. It is the transfer of his True
Mind to the person; the process of which is the Buddha-nature which is in us, the potential to
become Buddha with which each living being is endowed, being awakened within us.

Thus Shinran describes the mind which aspires for birth in the Pure Land not as a self-
generated faith, but as a spontaneous faith, naturally arising in our minds. It is this which
gives rise to the practice of Nembutsu as the response of gratitude for this gift of faith aroused
in a spontaneous, natural way through Amida Buddhas compassion. Consequently, in the
preface to his volume on Faith, Shinran writes:

As I contemplate matters, I see that the acquirement of Serene Faith arises out of the
Tathagatas Selected Vow, and that the awakening of True Mind is made possible by the
compassionate, skillful means of the Great Sage. [2]

Later, in discussing the issue of the three minds, Shinran notes that each of these minds itself,
is a gift of Amida:

The Tathagata endows His Sincere Mind to the sea of all the multitudinous beings filled with
evil passions [3]

The essence of the Serene Faith is the Sincere Mind endowed by the Other Power. [4]

And, finally, he writes:

The substance of the Desire for Birth is the True, Serene Faith. Indeed, this is not (the mind
of) merit-transference with self-power as conceived by Mahayanist or Hinayanist, common
men or sages, or meditative or non-meditative persons; hence. It is called (the mind of) non-
merit-transference. [5]

With the foundation of these thoughts as background, the question may arise, how does that
faith, those minds, come to us? It is here that tradition functions in an extremely important
way for Shinran and is also particularly relevant to contemporary discussion in religion. In
trying to understand how faith may come to us, it is not by accident, I believe, that the
Shoshinge which reviews the progress of the Shinshu tradition in history is placed at
the end of the volume on Practice in the Kyogyoshinsho. As is pointed out in the
introduction to the translation of the text:

The Shoshin-Ge is placed at the end of the chapter on Practice, and it serves as the hinge
connecting the two chapters, i.e., between Practice and Faith. By these facts therefore, we can
easily understand the important role played by this gatha.

Actually, the interpretation of gyo (practice) and shin (faith) and the relation between the
two had been the central subjects of controversy among the disciples of Honen Shonin. Most of
them failed to grasp the masters true meaning of the Nembutsu and took the term gyo to
mean mans oral utterance of the Nembutsu (Namu-Amida-Butsu). This interpretation, when
combined with the idea of self effort, tended toward the misunderstanding of the true spirit
of salvation by Amidas Power. Shinran, one of the disciples of Honen, made it clear that gyo
is not the practice based on mans effort but the Buddhas Work originating in his Vow. [6]

This is to say, our Birth in the Pure Land is gained through His Work (i.e., the merits of
Amidas Name) given to us and not through our merit of practicing the Nembutsu. And shin
in Shinrans interpretation refers to Amidas mind given to us and not the faith which is based
on mans mental effort. Practice and Faith thus conceived by Shinran constitute the basic
character of Shinshu doctrine. Historically, the practice of recitation of the Name-with-
universal-meaning is based on the 17th Vow, which states:

If, upon my attaining Buddhahood, all the innumerable Buddhas in the ten quarters were not
approvingly to pronounce my Name, may I not attain the Supreme Enlightenment. [7]

By viewing the historical appearance and development of the Pure Land tradition as virtually
the fulfillment of this Vow, Pure Land becomes not simply a popular tradition which draws its
justification from the fact that it suits popular temperament, but is given a foundation within
the process of Amidas Vows, as the manifestation of the evolution of Buddhas universal
compassion. Despite all differences among the various teachings in the Pure Land tradition,
and regardless of the fact that the original texts do not specifically yield Shinrans
interpretation, in his understanding he maintained an essential unity among the Pure Land
teachers by his representation of them as links in the historical realization of compassion.

In relation to this interpretation by Shinran, there are two features which require attention. The
tradition must be viewed both in terms of its surface meaning, and of its inner meaning. In his
discussion of the sutra, Shinran notes:
Truly I know that this sutra has thus the implicit and explicit aspects. Herewith, I show
whether the Three Minds in the two Sutras are the same or different; this is to be well
discerned. The Larger Sutra and the Meditation Sutra are different in their explicit aspect, but
they are the same in their implicit aspect. [8]

Using principles which Prof. Bando describes in his Zettai Kie no Hyogen (pp. 253-58) as
kensho and onmitsu Shinran thus reconciled the disparate aspects of the Pure Land
tradition and created a unity. Shin tradition also developed the means to reconcile Shinrans
individual and creative approach to varying emphases in Pure Land teaching. This was the
relationship between dento, or Tradition, and kosho, the individual insight which Shinran
developed. On the surface, the tradition seems to contradict what Shinran teaches, but when
explored deeply, in its implicit aspect, this is not the case.

In essence, the contribution of Shinran and the unifying tradition of Shin Buddhism, is a
philosophy of history which attempts to recognize change while at the same time maintaining
a fundamental unity to show that history is working out of the Buddhas Vows, not merely a
chance happening or something unreal, but a process with its roots in the absolute. This
absolute is not disconnected from life, but manifests itself in the sphere of human existence as
a moving force striving for deeper realization in persons and stimulating within them the
spontaneous commitment of faith. History, for Shinran, is a spiritual process leading to
enlightenment.

This perspective is important in the light of our earlier portrayal comparing Shinrans response
to history with that of other Kamakura Buddhists. Shinran lived history through. The basis for
the acceptance of history, and of life as we encounter it, is the fact that it is embraced by
Amidas compassion. There is no need to leave the historical sphere of finite and daily
existence to discover that compassion. Once our eyes have been opened to perceive it, it
confronts us at every turn in our everyday lives. In the contemporary period, there is a
struggle for people to discover the meaning of existence, and their own identity within
historical existence. The mass, urban, technological society threatens to deprive us of our
personal meaning through subjection to means and techniques which turn humans into objects
to be disposed of at will by superior powers.

Shinrans theory of the Vows and history, and his interpretation of Pure Land tradition,
suggests that the meaning of existence is that we ourselves also become a channel whereby the
compassion of Amida Buddha is present in history. In our time and at all times, we are the
Buddhas praising the name in the Seventeenth Vow. Perhaps, through extending the meaning
of the term praise, we could include many forms of action in the world which are indeed
manifestations and revelations of the compassion of Amida.

Shinran has thus taken up within his own context the profound problem of the emergence of
the absolute in history, which at once raises the value of history, and makes the experience of
the absolute a reality of history. This view which Shinran offers us heightens the importance of
tradition, while at the same time keeps it open for further change. Truth is enmeshed in
history, but it must also transcend it. If truth is merely a historical product, it loses its capacity
to hold our conviction and maintain vitality in illuminating issues of concern to humanity.
Therefore, it must represent and point to something which lies beyond our perceptible history
which is subject to apparent cause and effect of the finite order. Without a root in the absolute,
truth simply becomes relative. Change for the sake of change and novelty loses its meaning
unless that change or innovation represents a deeper perception of a truth that has always
been present in a tradition.

In the evolution of Pure Land thought, there was a broadening and a deepening as it became
more universal and spiritual in approach to religious action and life, a development brought to
its peak by Shinran. Without the background of the existing tradition (in his Kamakura
period), his own awareness and process of thought would not have been stimulated to look
deeper. If he had ignored tradition, and merely created his interpretation alone, it could hardly
have attracted attention.

Shinran is often depicted as a radical, and a radical in the truest sense of the word is one who
goes to the roots. He was not a radical as the word is used negatively in our own day, to label
someone who seems to cut things off at the root, rather than cultivate those roots. In his
challenge to the Buddhist tradition, Shinran rooted his views in that tradition, thus, his having
removed Pure Land thought from the sphere of simple hoben, made it universal in time and
space. For Shinran, though the Pure Land teaching was devised for people in the last age of the
Dharma, it was applicable beyond that framework, and so he points out:

How sad it is that the common and ignorant men with defilement and hindrances, from
beginningless time up to the present, have had no opportunity for deliverance because of their
inclination to perform Auxiliary Acts and the Right Act indiscriminantly and practice the
meditative and non-meditative good. When we reflect upon our cyclic transmigration, we find
it difficult, even in the passage of infinite kalpas, to turn to the Buddhas Vow-Power for refuge
and enter the Sea of Great Faith. We should indeed lament it and deeply deplore it. As sages of
Mahayana and Hinayana and all the good men make (the utterance of) the Blessed Name of
the Original Vow their own good, they cannot attain Faith or believe in the Buddhas Wisdom.
As they are ignorant of the Buddhas purport of establishing the cause (for Birth), they cannot
enter the Recompensed Land. [9]

Later, Shinran indicates that the practice of the Path of the Sages cannot apply to the decadent
age, while the Pure Land Gate applies to any age:

Indeed, we know that the various teachings of the Path of Sages are practicable for the
Buddhas time and the Age of Right Dharma and not for the Ages of Semblance Dharma,
Decadent Dharma and Extinct Dharma. The time for those teachings has already passed and
they do not agree with the capacities of sentient beings. Whereas, the True Teaching of the Pure
Land compassionately leads to the Way the defiled and evil multitudes in the Ages of
Semblance Dharma, Decadent Dharma and Extinct Dharma, as well as those in the Buddhas
time and the Age of Right Dharma. [10]

Shinran has thus reversed the usual understanding of Buddhist practice. While other traditions
of Buddhism regard the ancient practice of meditation as in the case of Dogen applicable in
any age, the Pure Land doctrine was a teaching primarily for weak persons of the last age.
Shinran, however, sees that in actuality other practices are merely preparatory to entering the
Pure Land Gate, as the failure to gain enlightenment through any of these other practices
becomes realized. The Pure Land way is thus the supreme teaching for all time, in his view.

We may suggest here that this approach is sound in terms of Buddhist symbolism, since it is
hardly likely that human nature changed significantly in the few thousand years of Buddhist
history to justify the alteration of Buddhist practice in the way Honen did. Shinran was more
perceptive perhaps than his teacher in realizing that the human problem is universal in time
and space. Egoism and pride infect people in every age and distort their religious endeavors.
For Shinran, Pure Land teaching correlates to the perennial human problem, and not merely to
the changes of history. In this way the teaching became more absolute as the Truth rather
than a Truth or, more properly, as the Gate rather than a Gate, to the Truth.

Shinrans creative treatment of tradition further suggests the deep existential roots of his
experience and thought. As he grappled with his own personal problems and came to
understand realistically and truthfully his own condition, he saw more keenly into the
implications of Pure Land thought and through his existential insights, established the
tradition on a sounder spiritual and philosophical basis. In terms of past developments of Pure
Land, he gave an answer to the numerous problems that had faced believers. Unfortunately, he
was extraordinarily subtle in doing this, so that in the course of history, the real meaning of his
thought has never worked the reformation of which it was and is capable.

Bibliography

Bloom, Alfred: Shinrans Gospel of Pure Grace, pp. 7-25

Bloom, Alfred: Shoshinge: The Heart of Shin Buddhism

Ryukoku University Translation Series: Shoshinge

Shigefuji, Shinei: Nembutsu in Shinran and His Teachers: A Comparison

Notes

[1] Tannisho 9

[2] Ryukoku Translation Series, Kyogyoshinsho, p. 84

[3] Ibid., p. 10

[4] Ibid., p. 106

[5] Ibid., p. 109

[6] Ryukoku Translation Series, Shoshinge, p. 6

[7] Translated by D.T. Suzuki, Collected Works on Shin Buddhism, p. 338

[8] Ryukoku Translation Series, Kyogyoshinsho, p. 173, also pp. 169, 167, 190-91

[9] Ibid., p. 196

[10] Ibid., p. 198

Chapter 14

Faith and Practice: Shinrans Perspective

The topic we are to address in this section is religious experience as a process of growth and
development. I want to discuss this issue because people generally view religion as some thing
fixed, static or rigid. In many cases in our society, a persons religious understanding and
insight reflect what he or she had gained by adolescence when they probably stopped going to
Sunday School. I have been in situations in the academic world where people with very
mature views in education, etc. held rather childish views of religion. Their spiritual growth
had stopped at some point in their life.

On the other hand, there are people who are anxious because there remains so much to learn
and experience in religion. They doubt themselves. It appears an unending quest.

Consequently, as a teacher of religion, I am frequently confronted by childish complacency in

religion or by a baffled uncertainty in the face of the depth of religion.

In my study of Shinran, it has been a matter of great interest that he experienced a process of
growth and development in his religious experience. Shinrans life and faith were not static
and closed. Rather, he moved through several phases of religious insight until he reached
mature, confident faith.

This should not appear so striking to us because we know from ordinary life that we go
through stages of physical and mental development. We pass from childhood to youth to
adulthood, to old age and finally death. In most societies there are rites of passage which
highlight these important stages of life. When it comes to religion, however, it becomes a
problem to think in these terms because we have rather narrow views about what religion is.

If religion is about life, it will reflect the development of our life. As we mature in life, our
religious understanding should also mature. Further, if we understand that religious faith is a
process of growth, it will influence our approach to religious education. In our school system,
we have graded material to accord with the intellectual development of the child. In a similar
way, we must develop educational materials within our temples that harmonize with the
intellectual and social levels of our people from childhood to the adult years.
When I began to study Shinrans thought in detail in the light of his own religious experience
(so far as it could be determined or understood from his writings), I was greatly struck by his
interpretation of the Original Vow of Amida. It appeared to me that the system he portrays has
philosophical as well as religious significance and gives further evidence of Shinran as a
creative religious thinker from whom we might all benefit.

In order to perceive the distinctive way in which he treated them, it is first essential to make
some observations about the Vows which are given in the Larger Pure Land Sutra. Though
in other ancient texts the number varies, in that sutra they number 48 Vows and represent the
fullest development of ancient Pure Land mythology. Each Vow has its own specific character
of which the totality is intended to describe the ultimate possibilities of the character of the
Pure Land, its beings, and the modes of gaining entrance there. The Bodhisattva selected for
these the highest and best of all aspects of religious aspiration. Being thus a composite of all
religious ideals for gaining entrance to the Pure Land, the Vows of the Larger Pure Land
Sutra are not strictly organized nor do they have, as they are given, any implicit relation
between them except as varied aspects of the goal of Pure Land.

The feature of the appearance of Buddha at the moment of death, the recitation of the name of
Buddha and the aspect of faith and the number of recitations implied in the 19th, 20th, and
18th Vows were fused to provide the basis for popular Pure Land practice. In China, where it
developed earlier, Pure Land teaching was widespread and during its long history it was
mostly regarded as a subsidiary doctrine, a hoben a teaching device to give hope to the
suffering masses who could not carry out the rigorous practices of the monastic orders. Pure
Land was thus a doctrine which all schools of Buddhism would teach.

Later, those exponents who began to look upon it as a more basic and central truth of
Buddhism for the last age, formulated systems of distinctions such as easy path versus
difficult, self-power- Other-Power, Pure Land gate versus Sage path, correct practice versus
mixed practice. By the Kamakura period in Japan, the trend in Pure Land was gradually
focusing on the centrality of the vocal Nembutsu as the main means of salvation for the last
age. This tradition came to its logical conclusion when Honen taught the Senjakuhongan
Nembutsu or the Senju Nembutsu the select and sole practice of Nembutsu as the way to
birth in the Pure Land. From a doctrinal and practical point of view, Honen brought to final
clarity the centrality of Nembutsu for ordinary people. However, he did not go beyond the
traditional concepts in explaining and defending his position.
While we have frequently mentioned the impetus given to Shinrans thought through his own
experience, coincidental and of equal importance with this as an impetus was the impact upon
his thinking of recent developments in the understanding of Buddhism. In his 20 years on Mt.
Hiei, Shinran studied in a Tendai background. According to the Tendai system, in the final
stages of Buddhas teaching in the world, he would teach without hoben. He would give the
direct truth without mediation.

In addition, Shinran, perhaps, learned the hongaku-hommon theory. This term refers to the
Primordial Enlightenment and original teaching taught in the Lotus Sutra, according to
Tendai doctrine. It is the teaching of the Eternal Sakyamuni and regarded in Tendai as the final
ultimate teaching of Buddha. All other teachings are approximations of truth or helps (hoben)
to the truth.

Shinran absorbed this view and applied it to the interpretation of Amida Buddha and his
Vows. For Shinran, the Pure Land teaching was not the highest teaching merely because of
ease of practice or the degenerated last age, but because it represented the expression of the
true mind of Amida who is ultimate reality. Against the background of the pluralism of his
age, Shinran had to discover an absolute basis for Pure Land thought and faith. His own
religious experience, the influence of Tendai thought and reflection on the Vows led him to the
conclusion that Pure Land faith was designed to offer the profoundest and most certain
assurance to the troubled humanity not only of his time, but of all time.

It is for this reason that Shinrans system of turning through the three Vows has religious
and philosophical importance. As evidence that Shinran developed this theory on the basis of
his awakened religious consciousness, we must observe that he presents a series of stages of
which the first two are preliminary and instrumental for reaching the third. One must travel
through the 19th Vow, which is characterized by emphasis on cultivating roots of virtue
presumably morality and being granted a vision of Buddha at ones death moment. The
20th Vow appears to envisage the recitation of the name as well as moral cultivation and
transferring the merit to bring birth in the Pure Land, while the 18th Vow speaks of the
sincerity and faith, and ten thoughts (or recitations) which bring birth. If one were to believe
that the Bodhisattva had foreseen this process which Shinran depicts, when he made his Vows,
the order might have been 18 to 19 to 20 (See study helps). Rather, we go 19 to 20 to 18. This
reordering suggests that Shinrans interpretation was not already implicit in the Vows
themselves, but was brought to them by him. Previous thinkers only fused them all into a
common religious view for which the Vows justified some element.
Shinran himself gives testimony that this understanding of the Vows represented his own
experience. We cannot go into the detailed history as to what points in his life correspond to
the individual stages. I would simply suggest that stages 1 and 2, the 19th and 20th Vows,
possibly represent the totality of his experience on Mt. Hiei when he was engaged in moral
cultivation as well as Nembutsu practice in the hall of Continuous Practice. After his
momentous struggle for direction in the Rokkakudo, and his entrance into Honens
community, he appears to have experienced great relief and it seems this is the occasion when
he felt buoyed along by the Sea of the Original Vow. The problem is that his theological and
intellectual development did not cease. This initial moment of spiritual peace was further
deepened so that he eventually went beyond his teacher in thought. Some scholars look for
other times of conversion to match this post-Honen development in Shinran. From an
experiential standpoint this is not necessary, for Shinran wrote concerning these events:

I, Gutoku Ran, a disciple of Sakyamuni, through the Sastra-writers expositions and the
masters exhortations, had forever left the temporary gate of the thousands of practices and
various good deeds and departed from the teaching for the Birth under the Twin Sala Trees
and, having converted to the True Gate of the roots of goodness and virtue, I raised the
aspiration for the Incomprehensible Birth. However, I have now left the provisional True Gate
and turned to the Sea of the Best Selected Vow: having abandoned at once the aspiration for
the Incomprehensible Birth, I am now assured of attaining the Inconceivable Birth. What deep
significance is there in the Vow of attaining the Ultimate Salvation!

Now that I have entered the Sea of the Vow once and for all, I deeply acknowledge the
Buddhas benevolence. In order to repay my indebtedness to his Utmost Virtue, I have gleaned
the essential passages of the True Teaching and always utter with recollection the Sea of the
Inconceivable Virtue. More and more do I appreciate it, and particularly do I receive it with
gratitude. [1]

Shinran dated this experience of moving into the 18th Vow as 1201, when he was 29 years of
age:

I, Gutoku Shaku Shinran, abandoned the Sundry Acts and took refuge in the Original Vow in
the Kanotonotori year of Kennin. In the Kinotono-ushi year of Genkyu, with the masters
permission, I copied his Senjaku Shu. In the same year on the fourth day of the middle part of
the early summer month, Master Genku kindly wrote with a brush the following words on my
copy: the title inside the book in kanji -SenchakuhonganNembutsushu, Namuamidabutsu,
Ojoshigo Nembutsuihon and Shaku no Shakku. On the same day I borrowed the masters
portrait and copied it. [2]

Shinran also testified to the deep relationship with Honen which developed in the few years
they had together:

In the same second year, on the ninth day of the latter part of the uru seventh month, he
wrote the following words on it: If, after I have attained Buddhahood, the beings of the ten
quarters who utter My Name, making even as few as ten utterances, should not be born, may I
never attain Perfect Enlightenment. He is a present Buddha. It should be known that His
Original Vow with the persistent desire (for salvation) is not in vain. Those sentient beings
who utter the Nembutsu (with Faith) will unfailingly attain Birth. On the same day, he also
wrote on the portrait my new name Zenshin to which my former name Shakku was
changed according to a revelation in a dream. The master was then seventy-three years old.

The Senjaku Hongan Nembutsu Shu was compiled at the request of Zenjo Regent Tsukinowa-
dono Kanezane (Ensho by his Buddhist name). The essentials of the True Teaching and the
profound doctrine of the Nembutsu are contained in it. Those who read it can easily
understand its purport. It is indeed an incomparable and supreme collection of fine passages,
an unsurpassed and profound scripture. Out of thousands of persons who received his
teachings, personally or otherwise, over many days and years, very few were allowed to read
and copy the book. However, I was allowed to copy his book and his portrait. This is a benefit
of the exclusive practice of the Right Act; this is a sure proof of my future attainment of Birth.
With tears of sorrow and joy I have noted the above story. [3]

A footnote to the passage above suggests that going through the three Vows in such a manner
as Shinran describes his own process does not mean that all individuals must undergo the
same. It is here that a serious theological and religious problem of the relevance of a religious
leader comes to the fore. If Shinrans experience is not archetypical for his followers, how can
he be an example or meaningful to them? If his experience does not hold some clue for their
lives, why would anyone revere him? If it would be meant that we should follow his pattern
exactly, then we would all have to go to Hiei to practice for 20 years. Of course, that could not
be the idea.

However, if we cannot trace somewhere in the depth of our being the surmounting of egoistic
efforts and their frustration leading to a deep awareness and appreciation of the Original Vow,
then religion would only become a matter of doctrinal assent to what somebody else had
experienced and taught. It would not be ones own. The religious crisis of our time has been
the result of people merely holding up the beliefs of the past without identifying them in their
own experience so that their inner truth becomes clear. Therefore, saints and sages are only a
matter of the past for many people today.

Shinran perceived something more elemental in religious life. I know of only one other theory
in Buddhism that remotely approaches his. It is Kukais theory of 10 levels of religious
consciousness by which he rates various teachings. He does not, however, spell out the way
one grows through these stages to arrive at the truth. They have simply a doctrinal or logical
order. Shinrans uniqueness is that he not only saw the theory of three vows as a means of
distinguishing various tendencies of Buddhist teaching, but as a process of growth in religious
insight and depth. It is for this reason that the two prior vows are hoben instrumental in
leading to the higher level. In their very natures, they both leave something unresolved,
unfinished which urges the person to seek further.

According to the story in the Larger Pure Land Sutra, of course, all the vows have been
fulfilled. However, the incomplete aspect is involved with the nature of the effort being
validated by the Vow or, in other words, how much cultivation of virtue would be required in
order to assure that the Buddha would arrive with his host of bodhisattvas to accompany the
individual to the Pure Land. It is this point of anxiety that led Shinran to reject the doctrine of
meeting Buddha at death (raigo) or Last Thought (rinju Shonen). Something more, he felt, was
needed in the way of assurance. In the 20th Vow, a similar situation presents itself. The Vow
says that one may recite the name of Buddha and cultivate ones roots of virtue which are then
transferred to bring about birth in the Pure Land. But how much will assure this? Is this not
again dualistic, and the use of finite acts to build a bridge to infinity? So Shinran wrote:

All the ocean-like multitudinous beings, since the beginningless Past, have been
transmigrating in the sea of ignorance, drowning in the cycle of existences, bound to the cycle
of sufferings, and having no pure, serene faith. They have, as a natural consequence, no true
serene faith. Therefore, it is difficult to meet the highest virtue and difficult to receive the
supreme, pure Faith. All the common and petty persons at all times constantly defile their
good minds with greed and lust, and their anger and hatred constantly burn the treasures of
Dharma. Even though they work and practice as busily as though they were sweeping fire off
their heads, their practices are called poisoned and mixed good deeds and also called deluded
and deceitful practices; hence, they are not called true acts. If one desires to be born in the
Land of Infinite Light with these deluded and poisoned good acts, he cannot possibly attain
it. [4]

Shinran saw that it was the 18th Vow, read according to his own interpretation, that solved the
problem. Here it is not merely a person taking up a practice, but with the mind of deep and
sincere faith given by Buddha that rebirth is assured. Thus Shinran wrote further in the
Kyogyoshinsho:

The Tathagata endows His Sincere Mind to the sea of all the multitudinous beings filled
with evil passions, evil acts, and perverted knowledge. The Sincere Mind is the true mind,
endowed by Him to benefit the beings; hence it is not mixed with doubt. The substance of this
Sincere Mind is the blessed Name of the supreme virtue. [5]

And in the following statement, he indicates the centrality of faith thus:

The True Faith is necessarily accompanied by (the utterance of) the Name. (The utterance
of) the Name is not always accompanied by the Faith endowed by the Vow-Power. [6]

And:

However, for the eternally drowned common and ignorant men and the transmigrating
multitudes, the Highest, Excellent Fruition is not difficult to attain. But the True Serene Faith is
very difficult to gain. Why is it so? Because it is attained through the endowment of the
Tathagatas power and through the Power of the Universal Wisdom of the Great
Compassionate One. If ever the Pure Faith is obtained, it will not be perverted or in vain.
Hence, the sentient beings with extremely deep and heavy sins attain the Great Joy and receive
the great love of all the Holy Ones. [7]

We can understand Shinrans exhilaration as he contemplated the meaning of the 18th Vow for
himself, because now salvation does not rest on accidental circumstances of intellectual and
spiritual ability, economic resources, or specific religious practices which can become a source
of pride. He wrote:

As I contemplate the ocean-like Great Faith, I see that it does not choose between the noble
and the mean, the priest and the layman, nor does it discriminate between man and woman,
old and young. The amount of sin committed is not questioned, and the length of practice is
not discussed. It is neither practice nor good, neither abrupt nor gradual, neither
meditative nor non-meditative, neither right meditation nor wrong meditation, neither
contemplative nor non-contemplative, neither while living nor at the end of life, neither
many utterances nor one thought. Faith is the inconceivable, indescribable, and ineffable
Serene Faith. It is like the agada which destroys all poisons. The medicine of the Tathagatas
Vow destroys the poisons of wisdom and ignorance. [8]

In assessing the religious and historical importance of this process of turning through the three
vows (sangantennyu) outlined by Shinran, it becomes evident that Shinran deepened the
symbolic meaning of the Original Vows by relating them directly to his own experience. The
traditional distinction of self-power versus Other-Power attained deeper significance when he
viewed the self-power aspect as a stage of development in the emerging awareness of Other-
Power in an individual. In that sense, Other-Power is a more inclusive process enveloping self-
power. There is no longer a dualism. One is a stage towards, and a part of, the other. In this
way, Shinran brought hope for religious existence to limited, weak individuals by viewing all
imperfections, sins, and shortcomings in the light of the higher process in which Amida works
for the salvation of all beings. Destructive guilt, or resignation in the face of personal weakness
were no longer barriers to a joyful religious life.

Shinran declared that for the Nembutsu there was no superior good, nor any obstructing evil.

More reflection and interpretation of Shinrans philosophy is required in order to heighten the
symbolic character of these stages on lifes way. Further, the theory is indicative of Shinrans
philosophic depth in using his experience to clarify the centrality and reality of faith in Pure
Land Buddhism, a focus and centrality that can speak clearly and with force to the questing,
alienated, despairing people in the modern secular, scientific, and technological world which
underestimates the importance or validity of a religious existence. It offers a wholeness, a
centerpoint for inner strength and spiritual awareness to counter the unbearable, meaningless,
loneliness that characterizes much of contemporary life.

Bibliography

Yamaoka, Seigen H: Jodo Shinshu: An Introduction

Ohara, Shojitsu: Hearing the Dharma, Revs. Shojo Oi, Kenryo Kumata, translators

Ueda, Yoshifumi and Hirota, Dennis: Shinran: An Introduction to His Thought, Chapter 4

Notes
[1] Ryukoku Translation Series, Kyogyoshinsho, pp. 197-98

[2] Ibid., p. 208

[3] Ibid., pp 209-10

[4] Ibid., p. 107

[5] Ibid., p. 105

[6] Ibid., p. 112

[7] Ibid., p. 89

[8] Ibid., pp. 113-14

Chapter 15

The Assurance of Fulfillment

Among the many contributions to religious understanding in Shinrans teachings, there is

probably none more significant and important, in social as well as religious implications, as the
idea of attaining the status of entry into the company of the truly assured at the moment of
faith, in this life (Shojoju). It is a stunningly radical opening of the Pure Land gate not simply
to those who qualify through precept, arduous practice, or merit transference, but to each and
everyone who entrusts himself or herself singleheartedly in Amidas Vow to work ceaselessly
to save all beings everywhere. Traditionally, in the ancient process of the pursuit of
Buddhahood, the status of entry into the company of the truly assured came in the first stage
of the Bodhisattva path.

In a comprehensive outline of this process, Dr. Suzuki indicates that in Mahayana Buddhism
there are altogether 52 stages of discipline leading to Buddhahood. These steps are categorized
into ten units of five aspects each, with the final two relating to supreme enlightenment. The
commonly known ten stages of the Bodhisattva path is the fifth of these ten units and already
presupposes great determination and training of the aspiring Bodhisattva. The first stage of
this series of ten is called the stage of Joy and is marked by entry to the company of the truly
assured. This stage is non-retrogressive. The Bodhisattva is so established in his faith that he
will not fall back to the realm of delusion. This stage is described:

The first of the ten Bodhisattva stages (102), where one attains genuine insight into the
Buddha-dharma, enters the great ocean of Buddhas Wisdom, benefits other fellow beings, and
acquires for himself a great blissful joy. This stage is also known as the stage of non-
retrogression, for once entering it there is no falling back, and rebirth is assured. It is also the
stage where, for Shinran, the attainment of faith in Amidas Original Prayer is realized. [1]

This stage originally related to highly developed devotees of Buddhist discipline, certainly not
to common mortals involved in everyday activities in the world of delusion. When such a
stage was promised to common mortals in the Pure Land Sutra, it was to be achieved in the
Pure Land beyond this life. In the Larger Pure Land Sutra Buddha related to Ananda:

The Buddha said to Ananda: The beings who enjoy birth in his country all sit in the Right
Established State. Why? Because in that Buddha country there are no persons wrongly or
infirmly established. [2]
It was this doctrine, reinterpreted by Shinran, that brought the Pure Land even closer to the
lives of ordinary people. For him, assurance of salvation was attained immediately at the
moment of faith as a result of the embrace and non-rejection of Amida Buddha. It is this
awareness that through Amidas Vow all beings are already saved. The absolute entrusting of
mind and heart in the Other Power of the Vow is the essence of the faith which Shinran
described as diamond-like shinjin when he stated:

We say that we abide in the rank of the company of the truly assured when we encounter
the profound Vow of the gift of Amidas Other Power and our minds which rejoice at being
given true faith are assured, and when, because we are accepted by him, we have the
adamantine mind. [3]

And he urged his disciples:

You must all consider that your birth (into the Pure Land) is determined. [4]

It has been widely recognized in Pure Land tradition that the self-generated mind of sincerity,
faith and desire for rebirth could waver. Honen tried to deal with this by focusing on the
practice itself, and leaving the faith mind to rise naturally as a result. This, however, gave rise
to other problems, for instance the problem as to how many will assure it hence the
discussion of one recitation versus many recitations. Shinran resolved these problems and
reinforced the certainty of ones status in the present life by claiming that the experience of
faith endows the person with equality to Maitreya, the future Buddha, and with Buddha
himself:

Now, the Larger Sutra speaks of the stage next to enlightenment, like that of Maitreya. Since
Maitreya is already close to Buddhahood, it is the custom of various schools to speak of him as
Maitreya Buddha. Since the person counted among the truly settled is of the same stage as
Maitreya, he is also said to be equal to Tathagatas. You should know that the person of true
shinjin can be called equal to Tathagatas because, even though he himself is always impure
and creating karmic evil, his heart and mind are already equal to Tathagatas. [5]

Shinran declared that, like the Bodhisattva Maitreya, believers in Amida Buddha are in a state
of cause with respect to Buddhahood. That is, the cause is perfected presently, but its
realization takes place inevitably in the future. Such a devotee of true faith (shinjin) has the
relation to Buddha of a single son, a close friend, a true disciple, a person of superior virtue
beyond description, as Shinran describes it:
Hence it is that Sakyamuni rejoices in the person of shinjin, saying, he is my true
companion. This person of shinjin is the true disciple of the Buddha; he is the one who abides
in right-mindedness. Since he has been grasped never to be abandoned, he is said to have
attained the diamond-like heart. He is called the best among the best, the excellent person,
the wonderfully excellent person, the finest of people, the truly rare person. Such a person
has become established in the stage of the truly settled and is declared, therefore, to be the
equal of Maitreya Buddha. This means that since he has realized true shinjin, he will
necessarily be born in the true and real Buddha Land. You should know that this shinjin is
bestowed through the compassionate means of Sakyamuni, Amida, and all the Buddhas in the
quarters. [6]

There is a sense of communion or fellowship implied in these terms. That the person of faith is
the dearest friend and true disciple, equal to Maitreya, expresses the revolutionary character of
Shinrans perspective, and it is enlightening to trace the connection of this aspect of his
teaching to traditional Buddhist doctrine centering on the concept of the last thought at the
moment of death.

With Shinrans rejection of merit acquisition and his theory that the moment of faith denoted
the conferring of an assured status for the future in the present life, he relieved the anxiety
implicit in traditional thought, an anxiety that had led its representatives to undertake the
constant recitation of Nembutsu sometimes as many as 40,000 to 70,000 times a day. The
number was related to the apprehensiveness associated with the last moment of life, and was
an attempt to be sure that the thought of the Buddha was in ones mind as one approached
death. Since death is often unexpected and swift, the idea behind this practice was that this
unceasing practice was a virtual insurance that whenever one did die, it would be with the
pronouncing of the Nembutsu and would assure birth in the Pure Land accompanied by the
Buddha (19th Vow).

We may observe the importance of the last thought at the moment of death from the early
Indian Upanishads (Chandogya III, 14, l; Prasna, III, 10) to modern expressions of
Buddhism. In his Man in the Universe, Dr. W. Norman Brown emphasizes the importance of
this concept in Indian thought:

The most critical time in connection with desire is the hour of death. Whatever one fixes his
mind on then is likely to determine his future state, for he is thought to fix his mind in his last
moment on that which expresses his deepest desire. The Bhagavad Gita makes this point
emphatically; whoever meditates on Me (Krishna) alone at the hour of his death, goes to My
(Krishnas) estate (BG 8.5, cf. 8.10; 8.13). There are many stories in Indian literature exploiting
this motif. A small folktale expresses it succinctly. As a man lay dying, a friend plucked a rose
and held it before his eyes, and the man fixed his gaze on it and, holding it so fixed, died. The
friend then asked a holy man standing there what was the state in which his friend had been
reborn. Let me show you, answered the holy man. He took the rose, parted the petals, and
saying, There is your friend, pointed to a small insect lying in the roses heart. [7]

It may be useful here to give some illustrative quotes which reveal the wide influence of this
thought and to highlight the decisiveness of Shinrans interpretation which countered this long
standing belief.

The Bhagavad Gita, a major popular Indian religious test states:

At the hour of death, when a man leaves his body, he must depart with his consciousness
absorbed in me. Then he will be united with me. Be certain of that. Whatever a man
remembers at the last, when he is leaving the body, will be realized by him in the hereafter;
because that will be what his mind has most constantly dwelt on, during this life. Therefore
you must remember me at all times and do your duty. If your mind and heart are set upon me
constantly, you will come to me. Never doubt this.

Make a habit of practicing meditation, and do not let your mind become distracted. In this
way you will come finally to the Lord, who is the light-giver, the highest of the high. [8]

This idea entered into Buddhism as an aspect of karma. It is known as Death-threshold Karma.
Whatever is remembered at the time of death; for when a man near death can remember
(kamma), he is born according to that. [9] In his History of Buddhist Thought, E. J. Thomas
comments:

It is a Buddhist doctrine that the next state of a being to be reborn is determined by the last
wish. Buddhaghosa gives examples of it in discussing the Causal Formula. There is no
necessary violation of the law of karma in this, for whatever that state is, the individuals
karma will begin to take effect in it. Nor can an individual at the end of a life make an arbitrary
wish. It is really determined by the life he has led, by the character which he has come to be.
We find a parallel to this in the modern parable of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. Dr. Jekyll did not
wish to cease to be Mr. Hyde, and he wished to practice the life of a Mr. Hyde more than ever.
What he did not wish was the unpleasant [10]
The concept was not meant to be arbitrary, yet since it is difficult to have an overview of the
entire direction of ones life, one must counter the possibilities which may come to fruition at
the time of death. The Tibetan Book of the Dead reveals the dangers inherent in this moment
in the following way:

The All Determining Influence of Thought

(Instructions to the Officiant): Say that, for by such setting face-to-face, despite the previous
non-liberation, liberation ought surely to be obtained here. Possibly, (however) liberation may
not be obtained even after that setting face-to-face; and earnest and continued application as
follows:

O nobly born, thy immediate experiences will be of momentary joys followed by momentary
sorrows, of great intensity, like the (taut and relaxed) mechanical actions of catapults. Be not in
the least attached (to the joys) nor displeased (by the sorrows) of that. If thou art to be born on
a higher plane, the vision of that higher plane will be dawning upon thee.

Thy living relatives may by way of dedication for the benefit of thee deceased by
sacrificing many animals, and performing religious ceremonies, and giving alms. Thou,
because of thy vision not being purified, must be inclined to grow very angry at their actions
and bring about, at this moment, thy birth in Hell: whatever those left behind may be doing,
act thou so that no angry thought can arise in thee, and meditate upon love for them. [11]

The Tibetan approach to this problem as shown in its more lengthy discussion indicates an
attempt to turn negative thought into positive influence at the time of death by recognizing its
negativity and the effect it can have. However, a person in a state of suffering may hardly be
expected to give such fine consideration to the nature of his thought:

Such (thought) will not only be of no use to thee, but will do thee great harm. However
incorrect the ritual and improper the conduct of the priests performing thy funeral rites,
(think), What! mine own thoughts must be impure! How can it be possible that the words of
the Buddha should be incorrect? It is like the reflections of blemishes on mine own face which I
see in a mirror; mine own thoughts must (indeed) be impure. As for these (i.e., the priests), the
Sangha is their body, the Dharma is their utterance, and in their mind they are the Buddha in
reality; I will take refuge in them.

Again, even if thou wert to be born in one of the miserable states, and the light of that
miserable state shone upon thee, yet by thy successors and relatives performing white
religious rites unmixed with evil actions, and the abbots and learned priests devoting
themselves, body, speech, and mind to the performance of the correct meritorious rituals, the
delight from thy feeling greatly cheered at seeing them will, by its own virtue, so affect the
psychological moment that, even though thou deservest a birth in the unhappy states, there
will be brought about thy birth on a higher and happier plane. (Therefore) thou shouldst not
create impious thoughts, but exercise pure affection and humble faith towards all impartially.
This is highly important. Hence be extremely careful. [12]

This concept is still promoted among Buddhists in the present day as indicated in a pamphlet
concerning death published by the Buddhist Publication Society in Ceylon. It states:

This last thought series is most important since it fashions the nature of his next existence,
just as the last thought before going to sleep can become the first thought on awakening. No
extraneous or arbitrary power does this for him. He does this for himself unconsciously as it
were. The most important act of his life it is, good or bad, that conditions the last thought
moment of a life.

The pamphlet then continues:

The idea of getting a dying man to offer clothes (Pansukula) to the Sangha or the idea of
chanting sacred texts to him is in order to help him to obtain a good terminal thought for
himself by way of Asanna Kamma or death-proximate Kamma, but the powerful force of
inveterate habit can supervene and in spite of chantings by the most pious monks available,
the memory of bad deeds repeatedly performed may surge up to his consciousness and
become the terminal thought.

The reverse can also occur. If the last few acts and thoughts of a person about to die are
powerfully bad, however good he may have been earlier, then his terminal thought may be so
powerfully bad that it may prevent the habitually good thought from surging up to his
consciousness, as is said to have happened in the case of Queen Mallika, the wife of King
Pasenadi of Kosala She lived a life full of good deeds, but at the dying moment what came
to her mind was the thought of a solitary bad deed done. As a result, she was born in a state of
misery where she suffered, but it was for only seven days. The effects of good Kamma was
suspended only temporarily. [13]

This tradition played an important role in the development of Pure Land thought. It figures in
the 19th Vow, where the cultivation of virtue is in view of the appearance of the Buddha to
welcome the devotee into the Pure Land, and in the Meditation Sutra, vicarious recitation of
Nembutsu is offered as a means to aid the dying person in his last moment:

Some good friends will then say to him (at his last moment), Even if thou canst not exercise
the remembrance of the Buddha, thou mayst, at least, utter the name, Buddha Amitayus. Let
him do so serenely with his voice uninterrupted, let him be continually thinking of the Buddha
until he has completed ten times the thought, repeating (the formula) Adoration to Buddha
Amitayus. On the strength of (his merit of) uttering Buddhas name he will during every
repetition expiate the sins which involve him in births and deaths during a eighty millions of
kalpas. [14]

Concerning this teaching, Honen gave one of the strongest statements:

May it be that when you come down to the closing scene of life you shall, with a composed
mind, look into the face of Amida Buddha, call upon his name with your lips, and in your
heart be able to await with confidence the welcome to be extended to you by his holy retinue.
Even though through the days and years of life, you have piled up much merit by the practice
of the Nembutsu, if at the time of death you come under the spell of some evil, and at the end
give way to an evil heart, and lose the power of faith in and practice of the Nembutsu, it means
that you lose that birth into the Pure Land immediately after death. And though, you may
have one or two or three or even four lives after this, or no matter how many times you
experience birth and death hereafter, you are cut off from the possibility of salvation. Surely
this is indeed a most terrible thing to contemplate, and on which no words can describe. This is
why Zendo so tenderly urged us to pray thus: May we, the disciples of the Buddha, when we
come to die, suffer no mental perversion, nor come under the spell of any hallucination, nor
lose the consciousness of the truth, but, free from agony of mind and body, may we in peace of
mind, like those in an ecstasy, have that holy retinue of Amida come to meet us, and,
embarking safely on the ship of his Original Vow, may we have our birth into Amida Buddhas
Pure Land, and sit upon the lotus of the first rank. From this it is clearer still that we should
pray for a composed mind when death comes. There are some men who say that people who
pray for a composed mind at the hour of death, do not really put their trust in Amidas
Original Vow, but stop and think how superior they must be to the great Zendo himself! What
a base and dreadful thing for a man to say! [15]

Other passages from Honen, following the prescription of the Meditation Sutra, imply that
devotees of Nembutsu will be met at their deathbed by Amida regardless of the presence of a
religious advisor. Here, devotees of Nembutsu are given some advantage over those who did
not believe, and yet some others may gain rebirth through the help of an advisor. In another
passage, the problem of mental suffering at the last moment is taken up. Honen states:

And yet even though he becomes insensible through his agony when he comes to draw his
last breath he is, by the power of the Amida Buddha, kept in his right mind and attains Ojo.
The moment of death is no longer than the time it would take to cut a hair, and bystanders are
unable to tell the exact frame of mind he is in, but it is known to the Buddha and to the dying
man himself [16]

In Buddhist, as in Indian, tradition the last moment of life was a problem rooted in the concept
of karma and religious practice. It is against this background that Shinrans assertions of the
moment of faith placing the believer in the company of the truly assured, takes on momentous
importance. In his development of and radical contributions to Pure Land thought, he pitted
himself against the whole of Buddhist tradition in this area. Shinrans conviction was that the
basis of salvation for each and every person without discrimination lies in the work of Amida
Buddha (with salvation being assured through faith in his work). He strongly urged those of
his followers who had true faith not to be concerned with the last moment before death. He
challenged tradition, saying:

There is nothing I can do about your fellow-practicers, who say that they await the moment
of death. The person whose shinjin has become true and real this being the benefit of the
Vow has been grasped, never to be abandoned; hence he does not depend on Amidas
coming at the moment of death. The person whose shinjin has not yet become settled awaits
the moment of death in anticipation of Amidas coming. [17]

And also:

The idea of Amidas coming at the moment of death is for those who seek to gain birth in the
Buddha Land by doing religious practices for they are practicers of self-power. The moment of
death is of central concern for such people, for they have not yet attained true shinjin. We may
also speak of Amidas coming at the moment of death in the case of the person who, though he
has committed the ten transgressions and the five grave offenses throughout his life,
encounters a teacher in the hour of death and is led at the very end to utter the Nembutsu.

The person who lives true shinjin, however, abides in the stage of the truly settled, for he has
already been grasped, never to be abandoned. There is no need to wait in anticipation for the
moment of death, no need to rely on Amidas coming. At the time shinjin becomes settled,
birth too becomes settled; there is no need for the deathbed rites that prepare one for Amidas
coming. [18]

Since Amidas infinite work provided the basis for the infinite result in salvation, all anxiety
could thus be dispelled about the state of ones final moment of life and the apprehension that
one might die having not pronounced the Nembutsu with his final breath. For Shinran,
salvation does not depend at all on our own efforts. Rather, the moment of faith bestowed by
Amida became central in shaping a whole new perspective on the nature of religious existence.
Not among the least of the benefits of this perspective was the release of the follower of
Shinrans thought from magical superstitions concerning the dead, and, in general, from the
principles of magic. Many scholars have called attention to the fact that Shinran placed no
emphasis on the use of religion as a tool for securing life. In fact, as is evident from the
Kyogyoshinsho, Shinran describes in spiritual rather than material terms the 10 benefits for
those having true faith in this life:

What are the 10 (benefits)? They are (1) the benefit of being protected by unseen divine beings,
(2) the benefit of being possessed of the supreme virtue, (3) the benefit of having evil turned
into good, (4) the benefit of being protected by all the Buddhas, (5) the benefit of being praised
by all the Buddhas, (6) the benefit of being always protected by the Buddhas Spiritual Light,
(7) the benefit of having much joy in mind, (8) the benefit of acknowledging His Benevolence
and repaying it, (9) the benefit of always practicing the Great Compassion, and (10) the benefit
of entering the Group of the Rightly Established State. [19]

In this passage, the high degree of spirituality of gain from religion should be carefully noted
and compared with the promise of worldly benefits as promised in other Buddhist texts.
Religious existence for Shinran is itself involved in expressing compassion, and is thus a
benefit that is, religious life is an end in itself, and not merely a tool for gaining other
particular ends. It is for this reason that magic has no place in Shinshu.

We should point out, however, that Shinran wrote a series of poems designated Hymns on
the Benefits in the Present Life. They are found in the Collection of Pure Land Hymns.
Shinran speaks more directly in this context of worldly protection afforded to the Nembutsu
devotee based on the respect given the devotee by all spiritual beings and powers as a result of
the persons faith. It is clear that Shinran is aware that many physical and spiritual problems
confront people and they need assurance that the powers of the cosmos care and support the
person of faith. Later teachers of Shinshu also rejected emphasis on benefits as a primary
purpose or function of religious faith. At best, such benefits are a by-product of faith and not to
be sought or used as a proof of faith. Despite Shinrans awareness of such needs and the
protection given as a result of faith, he avoided any suggestion that religious faith depended
on such phenomena.

With this aspect of Shinrans teaching we have the clearest evidence for the change in religious
style and emphasis which he brought to Buddhism. Though it is sometimes difficult to see
through the network of traditional religious symbols which he employed to advocate his
views, his contribution was not only religious but social as well. Understanding this, we can
see that it was probably no accident the forces of Mount Hiei (the stronghold of Buddhist
tradition) urged the government to prohibit the heresy of the infinite light promoted by Pure
Land Buddhists. Muryokobutsu the symbol of Infinite Light highlighted the egalitarian
and liberating teaching of Pure Land, such as was given by Shinran. The concern of the
Buddhist establishment of Hiei was that being embraced in Amidas light meant to be free
from all anxieties and from the religious bondage which manifested itself in the great temples
and services. Translating the meaning of Shinrans doctrine to religious principle, we can
observe the challenge it places before all forms of religion based in moralism of spiritual
achievement.

Reform movements such as that of Shinrans break through the bonds of such mundane and
communal religious perspectives by offering the individual a secure spiritual status that is
independent of his social or political one. Such movements reject moralism and its
accompanying external standards of religiosity. They lay the groundwork for a true equality
for all persons by regarding all socially enforced standards as insignificant for religious
evaluation. Buddha did this 2,600 years ago when he rejected the caste system in his order.
Frequently, such movements become subversive, anti-social and are persecuted once their
political implications become clear to the establishment, and yet once the reform has
become popular enough, and begins to institutionalize, the reform itself becomes established
and social and political halters develop in its tradition.

The peace of mind which reform religion offers is not a cheap or superficial tranquility
resulting from becoming blind to the problem of human suffering it is not merely
psychological tranquility but an ontological, deep perception that one is in harmony with
reality and that one is accepted, no matter what problem may arise. Thus Shinran exclaimed:

I only think of the Buddhas deep Benevolence, and do not care about peoples abuse. [20]
It is this deep tranquility which permits a person to take his stand and not fear the opposition
which may arise when he presents the truth. It is self-awareness versus the self-consciousness
to which we earlier referred. The tranquility of peace arising from true faith is a confidence in
the essential worth and meaning of life despite all the evidence to the contrary. This is minority
faith; not the easy faith of the majority which runs on conformity and custom.

Reform religion takes traditional religion out of the quantitative, futuristic, formal, external
realm and seeks the qualitative, present, spiritual dimension of faith. Quantitative religion
provides a basis for competition and pride reinforcing egoism. In his qualitative emphasis on
religion, Shinran points out that practices employed to induce egolessness are in essence self-
contradictory, since one knows he is trying to be better than others, which is inflating the ego
in the process of deflating it. Shinran quotes Shan-tao:

Indeed I realize that those who perform the Exclusive Practice with Mixed Minds do not
attain the Great Joy. Hence, the master says: These people do not feel grateful for the Buddhas
Benevolence. For, even when they practice, they are haughty and disdainful and their practices
are always accompanied by the desire for fame and wealth; being naturally covered by self-
attachment, they do not associate with fellow-believer and good teachers; they fondly
approach various worldly matters, creating thereby, hindrances to their own and other
performances of the Right Practice for Birth. [21]

Whenever religion places great emphasis on the future, the meaning of the present is reduced.
Since no one can know the future, we are particularly vulnerable. Our anxiety manifests itself
in a perennial interest in divination, seeking spirits, or astrology, and in our modern life
this anxiety is also manifested through insurance salesmen trading on anxiety about the future.

Shinrans rejection of the Last Moment Theory, and his establishment of the presentness of the
Assured State, invests the moment of the present with its own meaning, independent of the
guarantees of social and religious exploitation on any basis, and it is this which makes his a
religion of true freedom, freeing the individual to develop his own inner potential in harmony
with the compassion which freed him. Meaning comes not through the anxious pursuit of
salvation or the subjection to the religious emphases of an institution, but through responding
to compassion and embodying it. It is this spiritual freedom that is the still radical and life-
revolutionizing message of Shinrans thought to the alienated, anxious men and women of
today.
Bibliography

Bloom, Alfred: Shinrans Gospel of Pure Grace, pp. 61-68

Shin Buddhism Translation Series I, Letters of Shinran: A Translation of Mattosho. Letters 1,

2, 3, 7, and 18

Notes

[1] The Kyogyoshinsho, D.T. Suzuki, tr. p. 235, #92

[2] Yamamoto, Shinshu Seiten, p. 39

[3] Shinshu Shogyozensho II, 684.

[4] Ibid., 689

[5] Shin Buddhism Translation Series I, Letters of Shinran, #3, pp. 26-27

[6] Ibid., #2, pp. 24-25

[7] W. Norman Brown, Man in the Universe, p. 85

[8] Prabhananda and Isherwood, Song of God, 75, Ch. VIII

[9] Buddhaghosha, Faith of Purification, XIX, 16 p. 698

[10] E.J. Thomas, History of Buddhist Thought, p. 112

[11] Evans-Wentz, Tibetan Book of the Dead, pp. 169-170

[12] Ibid., pp. 171-72

[13] Buddhist Reflections on Death, V.F. Gunaratna, Wheel Publication 102/103, 33-34

[14] Sacred Books of the East, XLIX, p. 198

[15] Coates and Ishizuka, Honen the Buddhist Saint, pp. 407-08

[16] Ibid., p. 439

[17] Shin Buddhism Translation Series I, Letters of Shinran, #18, p. 55

[18] Ibid., pp. 19-20

[19] Ryukoku Translation Series, Vol. V, Kyogyoshinsho, p. 121

[20] Ibid., p. 211, also p. 85

[21] Ibid., p. 195

Chapter 16

The Expression of Faith, Joy, and Gratitude

The spiritual liberation offered in Shin teaching manifests itself in a deep level of joy and
gratitude. Clearly, however, Shinshu is not in essence a sentimental faith whose appeal is to the
emotions. There is a starkness about Shinrans thought. Things we normally might not
perceive are illuminated by a new insight into ourselves and life as it is. However, this
starkness does not mean Shinshu has no relation to sentiments, attitudes, and feelings.
Sentimentalism merely reacts to conditions. Moralism is apt to be sterile and inhumane.
Shinshu provides a balance between pure sentimentalism and rationalistic moralism through
the deep feelings of joy and gratitude that are the accompaniment of faith, feelings that
permeate the individual who has made the leap into spiritual freedom.

In understanding the joy and gratitude in Shinshu, it is important not to confuse these feelings
with the situation in contemporary religion where, for many people, the criterion for the truth
of a religious view that they hold is that it makes them happy. There is a happiness cult today
that claims satisfaction and contentment as the primary qualities offered. We often hear it said,
It satisfied me, I am happy. Now we would not say that such conditions, if they exist, are
bad. It would be nice if all could be happy. However, if that happiness and satisfaction are at
the expense of blinding oneself to the reality of suffering in the world and our own relation or
complicity with it, then it cannot be a true value. It is egoistic.

Further, if the achievement of satisfaction and contentment depends on social relations, we

may say that it is a social quality, but not truly religious. The inner qualities of religion must
produce community and bring people together, but study of the great religious figures,
particularly those that suffered persecution and isolation in exile or even death, shows that
these qualities were founded in deep inner reality and were not dependent on external
circumstances. Thus the qualities which express the deepest aspects of religious existence are
not superficial qualities or values which can be induced through a variety of manipulations by
religious leaders. Rather, they are states of being which arise from the individuals inner
awareness of his true self and its relation to the Reality which undergirds all life.

In their deepest sense, the qualities of religious existence are existential and, if we use a rather
technical term, we would say they are ontic in that they reflect the nature of ones being.
They reflect a deep transformation in the evaluation of life and meaning within the person and
are predicated on a commitment, a reorientation, essentially a conversion of the person, a
process which Shinran speaks of as Turning through the Vows and which he describes as being
accomplished by the transcendence of the crosswise leap (ocho). This is a technical term
which Shinran employed from the Sutras to refer to the immediacy of the moment of faith. It
may be compared to the sudden enlightenment that is emphasized in Zen tradition. It
symbolizes the absolute Other Power basis of deliverance in Shin Buddhism.

We should understand, in relation to Shinran, that he underwent a decisive conversion to

which he testifies in his reflection on his life with Honen. It appears in all the events that led
up to his meeting with Honen. His later determination to withstand all criticism which his
wife noted, and which he also asserted, indicate that transforming commitment whereby he
stood on his own being. Despite the pressures and difficulties of his life, Shinran constantly
expressed his joy and gratitude at the salvation offered to him through Amida Buddha. But in
speaking thus of joy, we are not speaking of happiness! In the modern situation, happiness is
defined as the absence of problems and difficulties. I know of no religion that speaks of
happiness as the highest attainment of life, but many speak of joy, which is a quality that arises
within the sufferings and problems of life. Joy is the perception of truth within the experience
of ambiguity and doubt.

However, in the early Theravada Buddhist tradition, joy is merely a mental element which
must ultimately be transcended. Such an orientation derives from the initial emphasis in early
Buddhism that suffering results from our attachments through passion to the things of the
world. All feelings and emotions or sentiments which reflect passion must be transcended and
negated in order to be finally liberated.

Buddhaghosa (a 430 C.E. translator of Sri Lankan Buddhist texts to Pali) presents a detailed
analysis of the forms of happiness in his Vissudhi-magga (IV-94-101). They are elements in
stimulating the first jhana (meditation). As one proceeds through the various stages of
meditation, Buddhaghosa points out the bliss, in other words, the mental joy appears gross to
him and in the fourth jhana they are all transcended. (IV-181-189). It also is a quality which
arises from cultivation of virtue as described by Buddhaghosa in the Path of Purity:

Such virtues lead to non-remorse in the mind, to gladdening, to happiness, to tranquility, to

joy, to repetition, to development, to cultivation, to embellishment, to the requisite (for
concentration), to the equipment (of concentration), to fulfillment, to complete dispassion, to
fading away, to cessation, to peace, to direct knowledge, to enlightenment, to nibbana. [1]
In the fourth jhana, Buddhaghosa states:

And at this point, With the abandoning of pleasure and pain and with the previous
disappearance of joy and grief he enters upon and dwells in the fourth jhana [2]

Mahayana tradition took up the themes of earlier Buddhism, but drew out other nuances. All
existence is seen to share the Buddha nature and at the heart of existence is the urge to
compassion. All life is interdependent so that each assists the other in their growth and
development.

Through its deeper perception of the relation of all beings, Mahayana opened new dimensions
not evident in the earlier teachings. Early Theravada appears stark, somber, severe in its quest
of enlightenment. Mahayana tradition had a laymens perspective with some awareness of the
value of human relations. In this altered context, where devotees work for the salvation of their
fellow beings, the sense of joy became a primary value. The Bodhisattva is depicted as entering
the stage of Joy in the early stages of his career. There is no indication that he abandons that
joy, but that in his deepening perception of suffering, his heart of compassion expands to
include all within that joy. Har Dayal in his The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit
Literature (228-29) describes the quality of Sympathetic Joy (Mudita) as follows:

Mudita (sympathetic joy). This word has been variously translated as appreciation, die
Mitfreude, satisfaction, joy, delightfulness, happiness in the happiness of all, das
Freudgeschaftsfuhl, etc. E. Senart suggests that this may be a Prakrt form of mrduta
(gentleness, softness). But this feeling is said to be directed towards virtuous and righteous
persons (puny-atmakesu). Its chief characteristics are joy, faith, and freedom from
despondency, craving, jealousy, insincerity and hostility. It is associated with the alertness of all
the faculties.

The Dasabhumika-Sutra is said to have the most systematic presentation of the stages. The first
stage here is also called joyful. According to the interpretation of the Mahayana Sutra-lamkara,
the term indicates that a bodhisattva feels keen delight (moda) when he knows that he will
soon attain bodhi and promote the good of all beings. This stage is entered when the devotee
attains the thought of enlightenment.

What is noticeable in these descriptions is that joy relates to the mission of the Bodhisattva and
his awareness of the truth. It is the ground on which all his other activities and progress
depends. In such a context, joy does not mean a superficial happiness in the absence of
problems, but is a stimulating and motivating factor for facing problems. Joy is the confidence
of the Bodhisattva that he has entered into the truth.

The basis for Shinrans emphasis on the joyful elements in faith goes back to the passage on the
fulfillment of the 18th Vow which sees both faith and joy as a result of Amidas transfer of
merit:

If all sentient beings, hearing the Name and having joy in Faith even once through the
Buddhas sincere endowment desire to be born in His Land, they can instantaneously
obtain Birth and dwell in the Non-Retrogressive State excepted are those who have
committed the five deadly sins and abused the Right Dharma. [5]

The simultaneity of faith and joy is also reflected in the term for faith: shingyo, which means
faith and joy (Joyous faith). In this instance Shinran states:

With regard to Shingyo, shin means true, real, sincere, full, utmost, accomplished, function,
heavy, discerning, test, expounding, and loyal; gyo means desire, aspiration, appreciation,
rejoicing, delight, joy, gladness and happiness. [6]

In a wasan, Shinran exclaimed: Birth is certainly determined. [7]

He notes elsewhere:

Those who have received the True Practice and Faith have much joy in their minds; hence,
this stage is called the stage of Joy. [8]

And, further:

If ever Pure Faith is obtained, it will not be perverted or vain. Hence, the sentient beings with
extremely deep and heavy sins attain the Great Joy and receive the great love of all the holy
ones. [9]

In this identification Shinran reveals that Joy is not a purely sentimental reaction, for he
declares:

Shingyo is the mind full of truth and sincerity, the mind of utmost trust and reverence, the
mind of clear perception (of Amidas salvation) and steadfastness, the mind of aspiration and
appreciation, and the mind of joy and delight; hence, it is not mixed with doubt. [10]
The conversional, transforming aspect of the arising of faith and joy appears in the discussion
of the One Mind where Shinran discusses the character of the Adamantine Mind and the
principle of Crosswise transcendence, which all point back to Amidas gift:

As I contemplate the True Serene Faith, there is one thought in the Serene Faith. One
Thought reveals the moment of the first thought of the awakened Serene Faith and it
expresses the great and inconceivable Joyful Mind. [11]

He says:

The One Mind is the true cause for (Birth in) the Pure Recompensed Land. [12]

And he identifies all these traits:

The True One Mind is the Great Joyful Mind. The Great Joyful Mind is the True Faith. The
True Faith is the Adamantine Mind. The Adamantine Mind is the Mind Aspiring for
Buddhahood. [13]

Shinran roots the mental and spiritual quality of joy not merely in emotional response but in
the very foundation of reality as the expression of Buddhas compassion in the roots of our
being. This joy that was so much a part of Shinrans conception of faith was not a theoretical
formulation, or a result of the relation of terms in a verbal statement of scripture. It was, rather,
a joy of such deep and pervasive nature that the scriptural passages became a vehicle for him
to articulate what he had experienced as an essential element of his own existence, and it was
in this way that he declared:

What a joy it is that I place my mind in the soil of the Buddhas Universal Vow and I let my
thoughts flow into the sea of the Inconceivable Dharma. I deeply acknowledge the Tathagatas
Compassion and sincerely appreciate the masters benevolence in instructing me. As my joy
increases my feeling of indebtedness grows deeper. Hereupon I have collected the essentials of
the True Teaching and have gleaned the important passages of Pure Land Buddhism. I only
think of the Buddhas deep Benevolence and do not care about peoples abuse. [14]

For Shinran, this perception of joy and gratitude does not mean the reduction of tension in life
resulting from an individuals awareness of ones own imperfection as a barrier to the goal of
ones aspirations. It is a joy of an entirely different nature from the illusory ideal of perfect
happiness often found in religious faith. Shinran acknowledges his deep awareness of his own
imperfection, and the unbridgeable gap between his own self power the human condition
 and the goal of becoming one with the Buddha mind of compassion, wisdom, and the
indescribable light of enlightenment.

The Vow of Amida, the Buddha of Infinite Light and Life, that his compassion embraces each
and every one as he or she is, and that this compassion itself will become the vehicle to
enlightenment for all beings, gives Shinran a faith that is, at the very moment of its experience
in life, a salvation, an acceptance of the limits of ones human nature and the limitlessness of
Amidas compassion which grasps never to abandon. It is this perception that is at the root of
Shinrans gratitude and joy. Joy exists despite the imperfection one finds in himself. In his
sensitivity to this experience of the range of suffering, disappointment, and self-deception in
life, Shinran affirms: Grieve not that ye lack wisdom bright! He is the torch for eternal gloom.
Wail not for sins, for his bark will take ye across the flood of doom.

In a deep exclamation of his joy and gratitude, Shinran declares that he feels the work of
Amida to have been done for himself alone. This should not be understood to have been said
in a selfish way, but rather in relation to the acute personal sense of identity that comes with
the awareness of being grasped by the compassion which lies behind the story of Amida.
Shinrans is a joy and gratitude that penetrates his being, but at the same time, with existential
honesty, he says of himself:

Truly I know. Sad is it that I, Gutoku Ran, sunk in the vast sea of lust and lost in the great
mountain of desire for fame and profit, do not rejoice in joining the group of the Rightly
Established State, nor do I enjoy coming near to the True Enlightenment. [15]

In Chapter IX, Tannisho, Yuienbo reports Shinrans sharing this feeling and empathizing
with him when Yuienbo asks Shinran about his inability to rejoice at that which should fill him
with joy. Impossible is it to leave this old home of agitations where we have wandered
aimlessly since beginningless aeons ago, nor do we long for the Buddha Land of peace which
we have yet to experience all due to blind passion so truly powerful and overwhelming. But
no matter how reluctant we may be, when our life in this world ends, beyond our control, then
for the first time we go to the land of fulfillment. And those who do not want to go
immediately are the special concern of true compassion. For this very reason the vow of true
compassion is completely dependable; and our birth in the Buddha Land is absolutely certain.
If our hearts were filled with joy and happiness and we desired to go swiftly to the Buddha
Land, we might be led to suspect that blind passion no longer existed.
To rephrase Shinrans perceptions into our contemporary mode of expression, we might say
that in the midst of his own self-centered cravings, foolishness, and ignorance, in the face of
the depth of unknown potential for evil in his conscious and unconscious minds, and in the
environment of the disrupted and corrupt world of his time, Shinran discovered there was a
joy in living which gave deep significance and meaning to his life. Within the depths of his
own being was the fundamental life-promoting force which moves beyond our evils, beyond
our incapacity for good or our unwillingness to do so, beyond our self- deception and
arrogance.

As some psychologists suggest, there are those who are moved by the death wish and those by
life. The people who are moved by wonder at the power of life place themselves at the
disposal of life and dedicate themselves to enhancing the lives of others. Such persons,
enhancing life, find their own lives fulfilled in the deep joy of living. It is this life affirmation,
this absolute yielding of himself to the disposal of life of Amida, that is, the heart of truth in
Shinrans thought, the shinjin that is the perception-altering moment of faith in Shin
Buddhism. Of such is the element of joy and gratitude in Shinshu.

In the quest for truth, the deepest level of sentiment should be pursued. Religion is always
more than emotion and feeling. It must be rooted in perception of truth. Shinrans thought
eloquently reinforces that perspective. Because of Buddhisms rigor in discipline and its
association with funerals and afterlife, it is rarely perceived as a religion of joyfulness. Many
Christian religious groups try to discover the basis for celebrating life even within the midst of
a dark world. Buddhism also has reason to celebrate life, and to affirm it with joy and
gratitude at awakening to the sources of meaningful existence, the absolute certainty of our
acceptance, just as we are, by that which we respond to and recognize as true, real, and sincere.
The institutions of Shin Buddhism rarely provide ways to express this Buddhist joy, either in
worship or in forms of social community. I believe this is an area that deserves exploration and
study. Joy in living (or life affirmation) and gratitude even for the very simple fact we have
been given the gift of life, establishes a foundation of ethical existence that, in Shinshu, goes
beyond moralism and egoism to a profound existential and spiritual level. Like joy, gratitude
gives structure to the Shin way of life.

The realization of joy which is grounded in Amidas unconditional embrace which never
abandons us gives rise to the response of gratitude which establishes the foundation of Shin
Buddhist ethical existence. Shinrans teaching rejects the traditional mainstays for controlling
behavior either through threats of punishment or lures of reward through performances of
socially-approved actions.

When traditional behavior control mechanisms are removed, what style of life emerges for
believers? The ordinary person generally conceives religion to be strictly moralistic, concerned
only with doing good deeds and avoiding bad ones in order to win salvation. For such a
person, religion is like a commercial transaction, based on fear. But with Shinran, all such
appeals have been set aside. No transaction is urged or recommended. On the enormously
difficult easy path, the only basis of religious action for Shinran is the expression of
gratitude. He asserts:

Only by constantly reciting the Tathagatas name can we repay the grace of the Vow of great
compassion. [16]

And:

Though our bodies are (ground) to powder.

The grace of the masters and teachers also we must repay,

Though our bones be crushed. [17]

In a more personal and perhaps intimate way he declared:

When I consider well the Vow upon which Amida thought for five aeons (I reflect) it was for
me, Shinran, alone. O how grateful I am for the Original Vow which aspired to save one who
possesses such evil karma. [18]

As, at the end of the Kyogyoshinsho, he reflected on his faith and its source, he wrote:

What a joy it is that I place my mind on the soil of the Buddhas Universal Vow, and I let my
thoughts float on the sea of the Inconceivable Dharma. I deeply acknowledge the Tathagatas
Compassion and I sincerely appreciate the Masters benevolence. As my joy increases, my
feeling of indebtedness grows deeper. [19]

Such was the centrality of the theme of gratitude in Shinrans religious life, a theme stressed in
succeeding teachers to the degree that it is still a centrality in Shinshu life. Of course, Shinshu
is not unique in its expression of gratitude. Other and earlier Buddhist teachers stressed this
element, and it was a major component in Confucian thought as well. The important new
aspect of this expression in the case of Shinshu is that for Shinran, gratitude becomes the
central expression and indeed the main function of the religious life displacing
utilitarianism, magic, legalism, and the expectation of egoistic benefits from religion.

Shinrans stress on gratitude and its centrality and function, leads beyond the simple practice
of recitation of the Name (Nembutsu) to affect other areas of life and become the basis of a
quite new approach in ethical orientation and human relations. Shinran cautions his followers
against defaming the gods and Buddhas from whom we have received benefits:

Through the long ages we were exhorted to the Way by all Buddhas and Bodhisattvas and we
are now blessed with meeting the Vow of Amita Buddha. Should we forget all that we owe and
speak ill of all Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, this will be to forget the great obligation. [20]

For Shinran, the awareness of gratitude, our indebtedness to Buddha, directly affects our
attitude to the world about us. Had he expressed himself in a specific detailing of rights to be
cultivated and wrongs to be avoided, his system would have ended in the kind of legalism that
he had escaped. He gives no clear definition of right and wrong. Rather, Shinrans ethical
orientation aims instead at the formation of positive attitudes toward people and situations
based on a deep sense of gratitude. This sense of gratitude is grounded in the awareness of
ones own potential for evil and the boundlessness of Amidas compassion which embraces
good and evil without discrimination.

This is not to say that Shinrans is an ethic that tolerates and condones bad acts, but neither
does he condemn. Knowing ones human condition and the inescapable capacity for evil that
is the karmic burden of all humanity, the gratitude that overwhelms the mind and heart at
becoming aware of and embraced by Amidas Vow stimulates positive and affirming actions.
In Shinshu, one stands in awe of oneself, and aware of ones capacity for anything
programmed by ones karma, strives on the moral level to guide ones thoughts, words, and
actions in a positive. Shinran asks his followers not to nourish hatred to those who oppose
them but to have sympathy and compassion for them:

Those who live in the Nembutsu should have pity on and sympathy with those who work
out troubles. [21]

And Shinran also wrote:

Please always say the Nembutsu with the sincerest heart and pray, to the end of this life and
to the extent of the life to come, for the good of all those who speak ill of the Nembutsu If
you but pray for the good of all those wrongly-led persons, telling them to enter the Way of the
Vow of Amita Buddha, you will be repaying what you owe the Buddha. [22]

Though history records that in one instance, in order to meet a severe problem in his
fellowship, Shinran set down a list of ethical specifics, it would have been inconsistent of him
to do so in his general approach to Buddhism since he maintained that passion-ridden beings
are unable to keep any such precepts and regulations. Led by their karma, human beings fall
into evil acts and understanding this, Shinran perceived that rules do not prevent evil. Using
modern terms, we might say that Shinran desired to work at a deeper level of the psyche,
advocating an ethic of transformation rather than the usual religious ethic of prescription and
enforcement. Thus his was an inner rather than an external ethic, and the clue to this approach
comes from Chapter VI, Tannisho, where Yuienbo takes up the problem of repentance for
evil deeds. Repentance for evil deeds, as if our salvation depended on it, implies that only a
good person can be saved. Rejecting this self-power view, Yuienbo writes:

When our faith is firmly established, our Rebirth in the Pure Land is to be attained through
the Wisdom of Amida our own discretion can be of no avail whatsoever in this regard. By
reason of the nature (of the Vow), a feeling of mildness and patience is naturally developed
in our mind, when becoming conscious of our sins, since we rely devoutly on the power of the
Vow. Casting aside all our own cleverness as to Rebirth, we have to remember the great
Blessing of Amida Buddha with piety and thankfulness. And then naturally we shall come to
recite the Nembutsu this also due to the Nature (of the Vow). By this Naturalness it is
meant that the Vow works itself in our mind, unbiased by our idea or discretion [23]

Here we may note that a by-product of the experience of Nembutsu is mildness and patience,
and that the Nembutsu works in our minds in an unbiased, undiscriminating, spontaneous
way, without design or calculation on our part. Yuienbo describes the Shin Buddhist ethic of
transformation, the process of acceptance of ones limited self-awareness of sin, and an
assimilation to a positive ideal (Amidas Compassion) which constantly places itself before our
consciousness. This approach has profound psychological and religious significance,
suggested by methods of behavior modification:

The therapist can intervene most effectively by concentrating on what the client wants to
establish, rather than on what he must eliminate, by looking at the positive rather than the
negative.24
While there is a difference between a therapeutical mental health situation and a religious
approach, there are similarities in enabling the individual to surmount his limitations to reach
a deeper satisfaction with himself and life, a depth which can be the basis for inner strength
and positive human relations. What is needed for youth and society today is not a society of
repression or law and order, but a society with positive ideals in the process of fulfillment, a
process which offers its participants a deep sense of life affirmation and worthwhileness. It is
such a process that is Shin Buddhism.

Shinrans concepts of Joy and Gratitude lay the basis for a true Buddhist ego-less existence.
Buddhism has had as its goal the experience of non-ego, a state in which we reflect on the
nature of things seen not as our delusory senses wish to perceive them, but as they really are.
To reach this goal, Buddhism had long pursued the self-power path of sages, as Shinran called
it. (A label which had in it no aura of condemnation or discrimination but simply an
acknowledgement that this way, which may have worked for others, was a way along which
he had encountered absolute failure). The Buddhist tradition has a long history of attempts to
purify the passions and meditate on the Void in order to realize for oneself the emptiness of
things and self. Shinran perceived that this was not the true way because, paradoxically, the
attempt to obliterate the ego and reduce it to nothing ends by increasing and strengthening it.
In the self-power approach, the ego becomes more subtle in its pursuit of fame and power. It is
a psychological fact that the more one tries to not do something, the more likely one is to do it.

Shinran recognized the reality and strength of ego, but in recognizing the power of
compassion to embrace such ego, or in other words, by acknowledging the absolute bondage
of himself to his human condition, and becoming aware of his own helplessness in effecting
the goal he sought, limitless spiritual freedom became his. Moreover, the transformation of
faith in the Other Power of the Vow replaced the illusion of ego-power with a sense of
gratitude which opens oneself to perception not only of debt to Buddha but to all who support
ones life. In this way, in Shin Buddhism, the theory of interdependence transforms from an
abstraction to the experience of gratitude as the basic mode of our existence. Shinran was a
realist who showed subtlety in his view, attempting to rule out of religious life any competitive
element that would give us a chance to measure our goodness against others. The religious
community of Shinshu is one linked in a deep way by their sharing of an individual
commitment to this process, to the Nembutsu as total existence, to Other Power as the vehicle
that takes us beyond the limits of our greedy, ignorant, grasping, and foolish selves into the
embrace of Reality not as we like to see it, but as it is.
Bibliography

Bloom, Alfred: Shinrans Gospel of Pure Grace, pp. 73-74

Suzuki, DT: Mysticism: Christian and Buddhist, pp. 143-211

Notes

[1] Buddhagosa, Path of Purity, I, 140

[2] Buddhagosa, Vissudhi-magga, IV, 183-84

[3] Har Dayal, The Bodhisattva Doctrine, 276

[4] Ibid., 279

[5] Ryukoku Translation Series, Kyogyoshinsho, p. 90

[6] Ibid., p. 102

[7] Ryukoku Translation Series IV, Jodowasan, p. 26

[8] Ryukoku Translation Series, Kyogyoshinsho, p. 54

[9] Ibid., p. 89

[10] Ibid., p. 103

[11] Ibid., p. 118

[12] Ibid., p. 119

[13] Ibid., p. 123

[14] Ibid., p. 211

[15] Ibid., p. 132

[16] Shinshu Shogyozensho II, p. 44

[17] Ibid., p. 523

[18] Ibid., p. 792

[19] Ryukoku Translation Series V, Kyogyoshinsho, p. 211

[20] Yamamoto, The Private Letters of Shinran, p. 63

[21] Ibid., p. 65

[22] Ibid., pp. 73-74

[23] Ryukyo Fujimoto trans., Buddhism and Jodo Shinshu, p. 229

[24] Psychology Today, November 1973, p. 99

Chapter 17

The Nembutsu

What is an existential religion? I suggest one definition be that it is a profound religion

embracing and permeating every facet of everyday life. The history of such a religion, and its
theology, reveals the gradual penetration of insight into every area. The on going problems
and questions of men and women at any time (including our own), demand that one
contemplate the relation of faith to the activities of everyday life, not in a superficial, quieting,
ritualistic way, but in the most deeply honest, often painful, process of awareness of self.

Applying such a definition to Buddhism, and particularly to the Mahayana Pure Land
development of Shin Buddhism and the history of Nembutsu, we can discern a significant line
of evolution culminating in the thought of Shinran. It is an intriguingly open question as to
whether there might not yet be a further step to which modern Shinshu will address itself.

The term Nembutsu derives from the Sanskrit term buddhanusmrti, which has the meaning of
meditating on the Buddha or recollecting the Buddha or visualization practices. It is this
concept which lies behind the system of meditations in the Meditation Sutra, and this practice
which was in line with the discipline of meditation that was the continuing legacy of earliest
Buddhism. Buddhanusmrti, meditating on the Buddha, was the practice at the basis of Hui-
yuans White Lotus Society in China, an attempt to achieve a visualization of the Buddha.
Until the Kamakura period in Japan, such Buddhist practices were elitist, requiring the devotee
to excel in virtue and ascetic commitment. Buddhaghosa of the Pali tradition states:

It should be developed by one who has taken his stand on virtue that has been purified by
means of the special qualities of fewness of wishes, etc., and perfected by observance of the
ascetic practices. [1]

Among the meditation subjects which prepare the individual for enlightenment, there are ten
recollections of which the first three relate to Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha. In the case of the
Buddha recollection, the meditator focuses on special qualities of the Buddha. One result of
this recollection is:

He comes to feel as if he were living in the Masters presence. And his body, when the
recollection of the Buddhas special qualities dwells in it, becomes as worthy of veneration as a
shrine room. His mind tends toward the plane of the Buddhas. When he encounters an
opportunity for transgression, he has awareness of conscience and shame as vivid as though
he were face to face with the Master. And if he penetrates no higher, he is at least headed for a
happy destiny. [2]

Though this does not specifically indicate that a visualization of the Buddha takes place from
contemplation of his special qualities, it is inferred in the system of 16 meditations of the Pure
Land Meditation Sutra and may be only a small step to the formation of a total vision of the
Buddha:

But through the power of the Tathagatas vows fulfilled in a previous life, those who keep the
Buddha in mind will, without fail, be able [to perceive his body]. Just by perceiving the figure
of the Buddha, one gains immeasurable merits; how much more so if one perceives all the
physical features of that Buddha. [3]

The text commends such meditation on the qualities of Amitayus Buddha, the Buddha of
Infinite Life and Light:

The Buddha of Immeasurable life has eighty-four thousand prominent features; each feature
has eighty-four thousand secondary attributes; each secondary attribute sends forth eighty-
four thousand rays of light; each ray of light shines out over the worlds of the ten quarters; and
those sentient beings who are mindful of the buddha are embraced [by that light], never to be
abandoned.

No words can fully describe the lights, the prominent features, the secondary attributes, and
the miraculously created buddhas, but by concentrating your thoughts [on these things], you
can see them with the minds eye. For to see these things is to see all the buddhas of the ten
quarters. because you see these buddhas, it is called the mindfulness-of-the-buddha-samadhi.
[4]

Such meditation is recommended to people like Queen Vaidehi who, after Buddhas passing,
required some assurance of a better life. The text of the Meditation Sutra describes a system of
grades of beings and relates the practice of which each grade may be capable. To the lowest
being, it offers the recitation of the name of the Buddha especially to those who cannot,
because they are in death throes, think on the Buddha. In recommending this system, the Sutra
states:

Those who perform this samadhi will be able, in this present life, to see the Buddha of
Immeasurable Life and the two great bodhisattvas. If a good man or a good woman but hears
the name of the Buddha and the names of the two bodhisattvas, the evil karma binding that
person to birth-and-death for immeasurable kalpas is eliminated. How much more so if that
person is mindful of the Buddha. [5]

Meditation was favored over recitation and regarded as a higher practice for superior beings
such as monks and nuns. Tan-luans (Donran) achievement in China was to establish that the
mode of recitation of the name of Buddha as prescribed for the lowest grade of beings in the
Meditation Sutra, fulfilled the principle of easy practice that had been proposed by
Nagarjuna and that the recitation of the name had effectiveness because of the power in names
to evoke the reality they represented. Tao-cho (Doshaku) took up this theme and transmitted it
to Shan-tao (Zendo) who gave a most comprehensive theoretical basis to the practice of
recitation of the name, and who restated the 18th Vow to read:

As it is said in the Muryojukyo: If, when I become Buddha, all beings are not reborn, as they
recite my name even down to ten voicings, may I not gain true enlightenment. [6]

Once the practice of recitation was established as a possible alternative to the practice of
meditation, rather than a low grade practice available only to those unable to meditate or
incapable of doing so, it evolved to being regarded as the true practice for defiled beings of the
last or Mappo age, which the last approximately fifteen hundred years have been presumed to
be. Though the believer might assist his process of salvation with other practices, recitation of
the name, or Nembutsu, was thought to be the most powerful for the ordinary human being.
In Japan, this utter reliance on the power of the Nembutsu was developed by Honen, who
taught that the Nembutsu is the root of salvation and should not be diluted by auxiliary
practices. Honen, whom Shinran revered throughout his lifetime as his teacher, developed the
principle of senju Nembutsu the sole practice of Nembutsu.

Up to this point, the Nembutsu had had a horizontal universality in comparison with the
vertical universality of the elitist Buddhist practices such as meditation. With Shinran, that
universality became neither horizontal nor vertical, but a practice of universality itself with his
assertion that Nembutsu was not merely an external practice of a magical character, but the
expression of an inner state of being, a practice and an expression to which there were no
barriers, no discrimination, and no exclusivity. The power of Nembutsu turned, with Shinran,
from an outward to an inner focus, and indeed, from a practice to what is described in chapter
X of Tannisho by Yuienbo: The master Shinran said, in the Nembutsu no selfworking is true
working it is beyond description, explanation, and understanding. And in Tannisho,
chapter VIII:
The saying of Nembutsu is neither a religious practice nor a good act. Since it is practiced
without my calculation, it is non-practice. Since it is also not a good created by my calculation,
it is non-good. Since it is nothing but Other Power, completely detached from Self power, it is
neither a religious practice nor a good act on the part of the practicer. [7]

Shinran interpreted the term Nen, to think, in the Nembutsu, to mean Faith:

Nen (means) to believe the Vow of Tathagata single-mindedly (literally, without two
minds.) [8]

In a very significant passage in the Kyogyoshinsho, Shinran reveals this change in

interpretation in a succinct statement:

The Adamantine True Mind is called the True Faith. The True Faith is necessarily
accompanied by (the utterance of) the Name. (The utterance of) The Name is not always
accompanied by the Faith endowed by the Vow-Power. [9]

Shinran thus made the Nembutsu an existential condition, no longer a practice of recitation but
an exclamation of gratitude for the awareness deep in a believers being of the Buddhas
embrace which never rejects. No longer is the Nembutsu one among many practices. No
longer is it merely for weak people. With Shinran, it becomes a sign of faith, when it
spontaneously arises at the very thought-moment the absolute trust-worthiness of Amidas
Vow is realized. The Nembutsu becomes an expression of being, and otherwise has no
meaning except as the yearning repetition of the response to the totality of Other Power in one
who glimpses but has not yet yielded himself to it and who still clings to attempts to use self
power and calculation, to suppose that life can go as one determines it must for oneself.

The existential nature of the Nembutsu as a spontaneous and natural expression of gratitude
arising in ones heart and mind is the essence of Shinshu. Shinran exalted the Nembutsu as
fundamentally the Great Practice in fulfillment of the 17th Vow. Nembutsu has become not the
vehicle for salvation, but the spontaneous signal that one has realized through Amidas Vow
that he is already saved. The calling of the name in that simple moment is a response of joy
and gratitude. The lifelong recitation of Nembutsu, as practiced by Shin Buddhists, is no
longer a practice for acquiring merit, or transferring merit, but is instead an expression of
thanksgiving, of appreciation for all that the Vow means in each persons life.

There is a transformation in meaning from a recitation of the name to a response to the

name that calls us, that calls each human being to awaken to the recognition of his true and
real self and to the web of interdependence that is life for all beings. It might be said of Shin
Buddhism, in modern terms, that its foundation of living the Nembutsu can also be described
as existentialism without despair.

So, to return to the original question asked early in this chapter whether there might yet be
a further step which modern Shinshu will take. I believe that to be an exciting possibility. In
our time, we may continue to build on the perspectives established by the Pure Land teachers,
by regarding the Nembutsu more comprehensively in relation to our lives. It is universal in
character. It is inward in root. It must be comprehensive in expression. In Buddhism there has
traditionally been the trilogy of Body-Mouth-Mind which is used in reference to Buddhist
practices. In Shinshu, the compassion that manifests itself in the Nembutsu must become the
motivating force for all of life, body-mind-mouth: what is done, what is thought, what is said
with the emphasis not on saying Nembutsu but on being Nembutsu. Or, perhaps, the
emphasis should be on living the Nembutsu, as in a former slogan of Honpa Hongwanji
(Shin Buddhist) Mission of Hawaii.

Now and then, I hear individuals state that the recitation of Nembutsu doesnt make any
sense. It seems like mere words, but they believe it is a prescribed practice that all believers in
Pure Land teaching should perform. However, Shinran has clearly shown that there is no
meaning in just saying Nembutsu, unless it has a deeper root in ones being. I have also
heard that some are concerned that Shinshu does not have disciplines as, for example, does
Zen. In Shin Buddhism, one does not appear to have to do anything. But again, what is at stake
is not whether we do something or not, not whether we have or do not have a discipline, but
how deeply and comprehensively we understand the power of the Vow, the total affirmation
to which Nembutsu is the response.

If our actions manifest the great compassion in all the affairs of our lives, there is implied a
great discipline. When studying the Bodhisattva path, we see that as the perception of
compassion deepens, the Bodhisattva works harder in the learnings and character he is
developing. The point is, Bodhisattvas are not egoistically oriented. Their labors are for others.
Such a transformation of ordinary life from egocentricity to becoming a part of the Vow by
living the Nembutsu is the option for modern Shinshu. Relating Nembutsu to the activities of
life prevents Shinrans teaching from merely becoming a spiritual tranquilizer, or sentimental-
emotional religious pietism. It avoids the segmentation of religious existence as something
quite apart from ordinary everyday life, as something only done in a temple or on Sundays
and at funeral and memorial services.
The transformation and practice that Shinshu points to are graphically illustrated in the lives
of many Nembutsu followers and particularly those designated as myokonin. We will now
turn to a study of these outstanding persons of faith.

Bibliography

Bloom, Alfred: Tannisho: Resource for Modern Living, pp. 63-64

Bloom, Alfred: Shinrans Gospel of Pure Grace, pp. 7-25

Shigefuji, Shinei: Nembutsu in Shinran and His Teachers: A Comparison

Notes

[1] Buddhaghosa, Visuddhimagga, p. 84

[2] Ibid., p. 230

[3] Ryukoku University Translation, The Sutra of Contemplation on the Buddha of

Immeasurable Life, p. 75

[4] Ibid., pp. 59-61

[5] Ibid., p. 113

[6] Alfred Bloom, Shinrans Gospel of Pure Grace, p. 15

[7] Taitetsu Unno translation, Buddhist Study Center Publication Series Number One

[8] Shinshu Shogyozensho I, p. 617

[9] Ryukoku Translation Series, Kyogyoshinsho, p. 112

Chapter 18

Nembutsu Myokonin

In order to strengthen a holistic understanding of the Nembutsu as a way of life, it is

appropriate to again consult the history of Shin tradition and view in terms of their impact on
our own attitudes towards existence, the remarkable group of Shin Buddhists who are called
myokonin, or wonderfully good people.

Every existential faith produces an ideal type who embodies the true tendencies of a religion.
In Christianity there is the saint, in Islam the Sufi mystic, in Judaism the hasid, in Taoism the
sage, in Hinduism the acharya, mahatma, in Buddhism the arhat and bodhisattva, and in
Buddhist history in Japan, the bosatsu and hijiri. If it is to have profound influence, religion
must be expressed in personality, not merely in theory, as each of the foregoing and, in Shin
Buddhism, the myokonin does.

In recent years myokonin have been brought to the forefront of Shinshu religious life, and
considerations of its nature and meaning, by Dr. Daisetsu Suzuki, who gave us insight into
their attitudes in such writings as The Myokonin and Sayings of a Modern Tariki Mystic
in his A Miscellany on Shin Buddhism, his Kono Mama (I am that I am) on Saichi and
Translations from Saichis Journal in Mysticism: Christian and Buddhist. In addition,
several articles on the subject have appeared in the American Buddhist: Portrait of a
Myokonin, Genza in October 1971; Shoma of Sanuki Province, by Rev. Jitsuen Kakehashi, in
March 1972; and Myokonin an Aspect of Faith, by Rev. Tsunoda, in November, 1972.

The term myokonin became more prominent in the Edo period (1600-1868) with the
production of Myokoninden a collection of biographies of myokonin based on the
teachings of Shinran and Honen, which originated during the later years of the Tokugawa
period. Stories of farmers, merchants, and samurai as myokonin and their unlettered, simple
manifestation of faith were used to stimulate people to emulate their virtues. Politically, this
was promoted to encourage in others the myokonin sense of acceptance and compliance.
Many stories support the feudal order, and meet certain problems such as the rise of new
religions, pursuit of worldly benefits among peasants, and unethical behavior in the Shin
order.In our 20th century, D.T. Suzuki and Teramoto Eitatsu described the myokonin Saichi to
show spiritual self-awareness. The contemporary biographies of myokonin like Saichi
emphasize their inner religious consciousness. In the Shin tradition, there are two contending
views of their significance: the one that they are not typical of religious life and are heretical;
the other that they are the elemental and pure expressions of Shinshu.

Through their self-introspection, the myokonin perceived within themselves the activity of the
great life power based on Jinen honi, the truth that becomes so by itself, of which Shinran
wrote in the last years of his life. According to Dr. Suzuki, the term myoko refers to the
wondrous beauty of the lotus flower which became a symbol for spiritually developed human
persons. Few comparable terms such as this are found in Buddhism, although Honen had said
that faith could not be attained unless one became like an unlettered nun, (Amanyudo).

Undo Gido has analyzed the variety of types and three major forms of myokonin. In the form
of religious consciousness they share internal joy and their joyful appearance is a form of
external propagation. In their lifestyle, the myokonin may range from an egoless form, a
wisdom form, a self-reflection form, to a unifying form. In personality, the myokonin may
have a severe form, a gentle form, an argumentative form, or a wisdom (sagacious) form. In
relation to the society of their times, myokonin have appeared in various stances. They
appeared first within the Clan-Shogunate system, then at the end of the Shogunate and in the
Restoration period, and next within the system of Imperial Absolutism of Meiji and Taisho.
Today, they are to be discerned within modern democratic society. Such distinctions represent
an attempt to see the myokonin in relation to their progressive or conservative ethical
orientation resulting from their religious views. [1]

It remains a problem whether the myokonins characteristic passivity resulting from deep
religious experience is simply compliance or a form of resistance. Social analysis does not
determine this in the hundreds of individuals whose actions and attitudes speak eloquently of
the potentialities in Shin faith to produce such wonderfully good people. As Rev. Tsunoda
notes:

In the lives of these people we find many such related incidents in which the emotions are
ranked as far superior to the intellect. Faith to them is how you feel in your heart and how that
feeling is manifested outwardly in acts of rejoicing, crying, laughing, etc. [2]

While the myokonin may appear sentimental and emotional, what is at issue is the
involvement of their whole being in their faith and how that faith flowed out when stimulated
by the situation in which they found themselves.
They were also individuals who, standing in the stream of history and confronting the
problems of their existence, achieved a deeper subjective awareness of the true nature of their
lives. They fulfil the principle of Shinran and that of Kierkegaard: Truth is subjectivity. This
awareness permitted them to find meaning despite conditions in their lives and times of
political powerlessness and economic poverty. Although they have been criticized for their
social acquiescence and compliance to the demands of a despotic social order, it has been
pointed out by some scholars that their compliance was not the unconscious subservience of
the typical individual, but a compliance founded in a deeper perspective of their relations to
reality. They conformed, but they were not slaves of the order. In fact, they had an inner
autonomy that transcended the social order.

According to Dr. Suzuki, the myokonin do not allow abstract theory and cares in the mind to
obstruct faith, and they rely on the Other Power which flows in despite the existence of
84,000 passions. Saichi declares:

I may be in possession of 84,000 evil passions,

And Amida too is 84,000

This is the meaning of oneness of Namu-amida-butsu. [3]

Myokonin tend to have no social status. They appear in villages, in market places, in a variety
of occupations. Since Pure Land Buddhism, including Shinshu, was persecuted in the post
Kamakura period in Japan, they tended to adopt a passive attitude. This tendency gained
strength from the idea of being a defiled person of the last age, inferior and low in potential.
The attitudes which they expressed were Arigatai thankfulness, Mottainai unworthiness,
and katejikenai gratitude. Such attitudes, under social or political stress, were generally
non-resistant and harmless.

Most characteristic of the myokonin is their attitude of absolute acceptance despite any evil or
danger, and their ability within such difficult, threatening circumstances, to express joy and
gratitude. Such was possible because of the unification in their person of the Shinshu
experience of faith the simultaneity and spontaneity of gratitude and repentance. Theirs
was an inner trans-ethical conversion that realized the unity of Buddha and being (Ki-ho-ittai).
The awareness of this transforming, permeating sense of oneness and interdependence as
expressed in the Nembutsu is indicated in their free and uninhibited life attitude an attitude
that goes beyond social compliance and social ethic, that roots in Nature Jinen. There
develops in these myokonin an inner autonomy resulting from the self-denial which opens
them to the relation with the absolute dharma. The theological bases of their religious outlook
consist of the principles of the Unity of Buddha and Beings (Bonbutsuittai, Kihoittai) and the
concept of Jinenhoni, naturalness, stressed by Shinran (truth becoming so by itself). The subtle
non-dual-duality of their Shin consciousness is succinctly expressed by Saichi:

How wretched!

What is it that makes up my heart?

It is no other than my own filled with infinitude of guilt,

Into which the two syllables na-mu have come,

And by these syllables infinitude of guilt is borne,

It is Amida who bears infinitude of guilt.

The oneness of the ki and the ho

Namu-amida-butsu! [4]

In more emotional terms, Saichi exclaims:

My joy!

How beyond thought!

Self and Amida and the Namu-Amida-Butsu.

How fine!

The whole world and vastness of space is Buddha!

And I am in it

Namu-amida-butsu! [5]

My heart and Oya-sama

We have just one heart

Of Namu-amida-butsu [6]

While contemporary critics may view these characteristics as socially irrelevant because of the
conformity they produce, as we consider the models we need for dealing with our modern
problems, we must not overlook the religious basis of the myokonin and its relation to their
lives. Suzuki asks whether, granted that such attitudes are good for individual existence, are
they good for collective life? Passivity, to a robber, also has social implications. A society is
made of individuals, but we must strive to produce people who do not become robbers and for
this kind of development, the Pure Land understanding of life needs cultivation. The
importance of such an understanding embodied in the myokonin yields the meaning of Tariki
Other Power as the foundation of social life as well as for the individual lives which
make up society. The myokonin, like Shinran, express a deep sense of personal imperfection
and sinfulness. Mrs. Mori, a myokonin, conveys this:

Though in parental relationship with Amida,

I cannot help from time to time

Being bothered with evil thought.

How shameful indeed! Namu-amida-butsu!

How hard I try not to cherish them!

Looking at my evil self

I realize what a deplorable thing it is.

Truly an old hag, this disgusting ego!

But she is ever with Oya who refused to part with her.

How grateful indeed! Namu-amida-butsu! [7]

As it had earlier for Shinran, this deep awareness of their own limitations and weakness
forced upon them through the complexities of their lives became the revelation of the
abiding compassion of the Buddha to myokonin like Saichi and Mrs. Mori. They believed that
this awareness was itself the illumination of Amidas light and the guarantee of their ultimate
attainment. In that confidence, fears and anxieties for the outcome of their lives melted away,
and they gave themselves over to joy and praise and even an intimacy with the Buddha,
whom they regarded as Oya-sama (parent).

Saichi expressed the parental sense of Amida which Oya-sama indicates:

Amida is my Oya-sama,

I am child of Amida;

Let me rejoice in Oya-sama,

in Namu-amida-butsu,

The Namu-amida-butsu belongs to child as well as to Oya-sama;

By this is known the mutual relationship (between Three and me). [8]

We should not miss the importance of their sense of personal evilnesss for it marks as much a
comment and judgment on their age as it does an indication of their own inner life. As with
Shinran, they internalized the corruption of their age and understood their own complicity in
that corruption. Thus despite their apparent compliance to contemporary social demand, they
point to a deeper level for judging and relating to life and those about them. Despite the unity
of this world and the Pure Land experienced by the myokonin, they did recognize its evils:

How dreadful!

This world known as shaba

Is where we endlessly commit all kinds of karma.

How thankful!

All this is turned into (the work of)

the Pure Land Unintermittently! [9]

Perhaps the best way to approach the unique perspective of the myokonin is to give a few
examples of the type of response they might make to situations. Shoma of Sanuki manifests the
type of intimacy the myokonin felt with Buddha. On one occasion, when he went to the
temple, he decided to take a nap and so he fell asleep before the altar of Amida. When
worshippers came in they scolded him, declaring he was disrespectful. Shoma retorted, You
are the ones who should be ashamed. I am in my fathers home and when I am with my father,
isnt it only natural that I relax? You are the ones who are acting as strangers to Amida.

Numerous such tales are told of Shoma, who is said to have resembled a modern hippie, since
he worked at odd jobs and was itinerant. His intelligence is attested by the fact that he
memorized the Shoshinge of Shinran and the Gobunsho of Rennyo. He detested superficial
religion, the memorization of texts without comprehension of them. Among the most striking
of Shomas encounters is the time he worked in a bathhouse and was called upon to wash a
magistrates back. While doing so, Shoma commented, Taking (from others) to eat, youve
gotten fat. He slapped the magistrate on the back and added, Dont forget your
indebtedness! Everyone thought Shoma would receive severe punishment because samurai
could kill members of the lower class without penalty. Later the magistrate summoned Shoma,
whom the village leader advised to offer a strong apology in order to save his life. However,
rather than exacting retribution by taking Shomas life, the magistrate said to the myokonin,
Youre honest. Now leave. So, in his own way, Shoma commented on the character of life in
the Japan of his time through his own direct and free expression.

An interesting comment on religion comes from another story of Shoma. On one occasion
Shoma was assistant in a temple. He had to carry in the sutras for a service sponsored by a rich
supporter. When they were entering the house, the priest told Shoma, You enter from the
kitchen entrance. Shoma replied, Thats where you should enter. In this instance, Shoma
was remarking on the assumption of status of the priest merely because he wore the kesa,
while Shoma, even though carrying the sacred books themselves, was regarded as a lower
person. It was Shomas way of noting that all are equal before the Buddha. This went even to
the point of bowing to a dog. When questioned on that occasion by a priest, Shoma replied
they, too, were objects of Amidas Vow.

The myokonin, Genza, expresses the seriousness of faith in his custom of helping people to
attain serene faith. Though of advanced age, he would go out on cold mornings against the
advice of his family. He would reply to their admonitions:

I fully appreciate your worry over me, but I must remind you that I am going over for the
most important matter in life. Most things you can do-over or make-up in this world, but this
matter of life and death is just one chance, and when this is misunderstood, then everything is
lost for the poor fellow. [10]
Genza even injected humor into his situation. When a friend commented how difficult it must
be to hurry so with his bent back, he replied, No, no bother about walking, because as you
can see, my head is already going ahead of me and the only thing to do now is to see that my
legs would go forward in time to keep me from falling head-on.

Then there is the instance of Seikuro, who was a very diligent farmer and never missed giving
the tribute which officials demanded, though other farmers fled. In recognition of his dutiful
attitude towards the government, Seikuro received exemption from the annual tribute and the
privilege to take firewood from the manorial hills. He also was put in charge of the lands.
However, he refused on the basis it would interfere with his religious life. This is an example
that despite compliance with the social order, the myokonin was not its slave and retained his
own existence. In all these instances, the myokonin not only exemplified a wondrously good
person, but also one embraced by the mystery of goodness, the fully harmonized person in
life. His faith is his being. His being is faith. They represent the ideal of every age where
people confront gaps in their lives: contradictions between the inner and outer, and the higher
and lower in their being.

Strength of commitment is manifested among other myokonin such as the case of one Ryoken,
a follower of Rennyo. When there was a temple fire, he rushed in to save the volume on
Realization of the Kyogyoshinsho which had been forgotten. In so doing, he died from the
flames, but the book was preserved. In another instance there was Araki Mataroku, a samurai.
He constantly recited the Nembutsu and received the ridicule of his fellows. When he was
counseled to stop, he pleaded that it came naturally to him and he could not stop. He made a
poem to the effect that though he endures people speaking of the Nembutsu he voices and
strives for prudence toward their criticism, for himself already his own ragged Nembutsu is
unbearable, as the rising fire is too much for the water. On hearing this, his critics so admired
his sincerity that they stopped their ridicule.

These few examples reveal something of the inner resolve of the myokonin, a state of mind
and heart which formed the basis of their religious existence. Despite various criticisms and
variation in attitude and action among the myokonin, they point the way whereby an
individual may take a stand in history based on his or her own felt perception of the ultimate
truth of life and the world. It is no exaggeration to say that the myokonin as spiritual exemplar
represent very significant expressions of faith. They are the mirror in which Shinshu sees in
concrete form the working of Amidas compassion, the absolute reliance of Amidas Vow.
Bibliography

Suzuki, DT: Miscellany on Shin Buddhism

_________, Mysticism: Christian and Buddhist

Notes

[1]Shukyo Kenkyu, March 1968

[2]American Buddhist, Nov. 1972, p. 3

3 D.T. Suzuki, Mysticism: Christian and Buddhist, p. 185

[4] Ibid., p. 188

[5] Ibid., p. 177

[6] Ibid., p. 178

[7] D.T. Suzuki, Miscellany on Shin Buddhism, pp. 73-74

[8] D.T. Suzuki, Mysticism: Christian and Buddhist, p. 179

[9] Ibid., p. 196

[10] Portrait of a Myokonin Genza,American Buddhist, October, 1971.

Chapter 19

The Ultimate End of Faith (Part 1)

The debacle of Jonestown and the Peoples Temple adherents in Guyana in the winter of 1978
(and now such movements as Branch Davidians and Aum Shinrikyo in Japan) expressed an
ultimate in blind faith, and has given rise to serious reflection on the nature of religion and
religious commitment. From a Buddhist perspective, one of the most striking aspects of that
tragedy was the virtual absolute rule of Jim Jones and the blind devotion of his followers. The
history of religion evidences frequent confusion of faith and fanaticism. Unquestioning
obedience often becomes a requirement of that faith. The history of Buddhist teaching reveals
an awareness of the deceptions and delusions involved in religion itself. Buddhism is critical of
anything that would substitute for the truth. The principle of Emptiness itself must be
emptied. Dogen Zenji declared that Buddhism means to transcend Buddhism, that Buddhism
questions all dogmatic, religious assertions however pious or appealing as a sign of our
inveterate egoism. For the Buddhist, the issue is not how religious one may be, but whether
the ego is transcended.

In Pure Land Buddhism, some believers regard the Pure Land as an other-worldly, naive
heaven, but as seen in our early discussion of myth as truth, the Pure Land as a symbol has a
spiritual dimension, and expresses the ideal of ego-transcendence. Religious faith also must
provide a sense of hope and final fulfillment of its ideals. For Shinran, the Pure Land was
specifically identified with Nirvana not merely as a secondary launching platform for the
attainment of Nirvana itself. For him, it was not a mere condescension to human inability and
weakness, a holding out of the carrot of rebirth in a heaven to stimulate faith. Above and
beyond the final goal of a Pure Land of bliss where the departed may reside, Shinran
emphasized the return to this world in wondrous Buddhahood to save all other beings. The
end of religion is not oso (goingtothe Pure Land), but genso (returningfromthe Pure Land).
Religion is not a selfish preoccupation to gain security and benefit for oneself. It is, rather, a
process whereby through ones own faith, one helps others to faith (as in the case of the
myokonin Genza). Ones own faith becomes the existential condition whereby faith may arise
in others.

Although Mahayana Buddhism is a missionary tradition, the aspect of mission is not clearly
formulated as a task or goal of its numerous institutions. Outgoing compassion is generally
expressed in the indirect, symbolic, magical eko (transfer of merit) rather than in the direct
organized activity which we identify generally as missionary activity. In modern times,
prejudice against missions as performed by Christian sects reinforce this tendency of
Buddhism to slough off its sense of mission. Such missions as Buddhism does carry out are
more passive and permeative rather than active and direct. Since Buddhism generally became
identified with the folk culture of the countries to which it spread, any impetus to mission was
limited. Yet, in the contemporary era, the sense of mission needs to be developed in a more
outgoing articulation of the ideals, values, and potential of Buddhism to deal with the problem
of life. The issue in such a mission is not aggressiveness, but a reaching out to suffering beings
in all areas of their need, a becoming part of the great compassion of the Vow.

In their sense of disseminating the teachings, Buddhist sutras usually involve a mission. The
stories they tell present the core of Buddhas teachings to the world. The tradition derived
from the three Pure Land sutras has been noted particularly for the aspect of hope which it
offers to ordinary men and women through birth in the Pure Land as the basis for ultimate
enlightenment. The presentation of the sutras certainly implies a mission to all beings.

Prior to Shinran, the Pure Land was regarded as a launching platform to enlightenment,
though for the masses it was an end in itself to the sufferings in this world. When we come to
Shinran, we can observe that for him, the Pure Land was Nirvana and was therefore not a
launching platform or a secondary phase but the ultimate end of life. He depicted the birth in
the Pure Land (oso) as the attainment of Buddhahood, and thus set the stage for a more
penetrating understanding of this concept. Although this distinction was not new with him,
Shinran emphasized that there were two aspects to Amidas transfer of merit on behalf of
beings. There was the aspect of going to the Pure Land (oso) and the aspect of return (genso). It
is this latter aspect that has central meaning for any discussion of the ultimate end of faith as
understood in Shin Buddhist teachings, and as an illustration of how Shinran conceived of
religion in a totally non-egoistic way.

Based on the Vows of Amida, Shinran declared that the goal of faith is the salvation not only of
oneself, but of all beings. Popular Pure Land tradition has generally stressed the aspect of
going since obviously the issue of mortality appears most immediate. However, in so doing,
religion has been made an exercise in egoistic self-concern to assure ones salvation. In the
consideration of Shinshu in the modern world, it may be possible to reinterpret the futuristic
element in the principle of Return to a present reality in which our daily actions and lives as
well as the efforts of others might be considered as Buddha in the world working for the
salvation of all. Saichi was able to see this in terms of the Pure Land itself:
My joy is that while in this world of shaba

I have been given the Pure Land

Namu-amida-butsu! [1]

He also identifies himself and Tathagata:

O Saichi, who is Nyoraisan? He is no other than myself! [2]

Everything in the world is, for Saichi, the manifestation of Amidas compassion:

How grateful!

When I think of it, all is by him (Amidas) grace.

O Saichi what do you mean by it?

Ah, yes, his grace is real fact.

This Saichi was made by his grace;

The dress I wear was made by his grace;

The food I eat was made by his grace;

The footgear I put on was made by his grace;

Every other thing we have in this world was all made by his grace,

Including the bowl and the chopsticks;

Even this workshop where I work was made by his grace;

There is really nothing that is not the Namu-amida-butsu!

How happy I am for all this!

Namu-amida-butsu [3]

Just as ki and ho give ultimate meaning to the world in which we live, they together with
the principle of genso establish an active side in Shin Buddhism, a mission for men and
women of faith to fulfill and make real. The compassion of Amida expresses itself in many
unseen and hidden ways as the world itself, and to be an active part of that compassion in a
spontaneous, non-ego-centered way is the ultimate end of faith in Shin Buddhism.

Undoubtedly, in the past, the social circumstances of history limited the active side of this
perspective from expressing itself, but in the modern age, the fulfillment of meaning in human
existence lies not in merely being recipients of meaning, but in becoming bearers of that
meaning. Namu Amida Butsu is an existential response that can signify this active expression.
The embodiment of ego-transcendence in those who experience the one thought-moment of
settled faith can ameliorate and help change the suffering of a self-centered, ego-focused
humanity.

Such an active expression of the ultimate end of faith involves two other aspects in Shinshu, in
Buddhism of the Pure Land schools, and in Buddhism in general. One of these aspects is the
limits of human compassion and the other is the relationship between filial piety and our role
as human beings, both of which are deeply involved in any consideration of the ethical or
social aspects of faith. These will be taken up in more detail in subsequent discussions.

Any such exploration of Shinrans thought and teachings inevitably leads to a consideration of
the style of life and action which grows out of the internalization of that thought and those
teachings. Every religious view implies some stance or approach to the problem of living and
human relations, and this is true also of Shinshu.

The principles of neither monk nor layman, of joy and gratitude, of Nembutsu as total
existence, the examples of myokonin and the idea of genso (the return to this world as
Buddha), embody the understanding that our very lives should manifest the reality of Buddha;
compassion and wisdom. We are to give those qualities existential reality and not merely an
abstract and idealistic verbalization. In fact, the principle of absolute Other-Power which
distinguishes Shinrans religious view demands inquiry as to how Shinrans way of life,
implied by his teachings, significantly differs from that of traditional Buddhism. Or, to put it in
more experiential terms: How does one live egolessly in an egoistic world? How does one keep
faith and life together? If there is only faith, there is formalism. If there is only action, there
may be no depth. What is a non-moralistic ethic?

In his study Shinrans Philosophy and Faith, Terada Yakichi indicates that it was Shinrans
achievement to bring life and faith together in the history of Buddhism. That is, Shinran made
Buddhism a part of daily life and in that way can be said to have originated laypeoples
Buddhism. Terada notes that through its history, Buddhism was separated from ordinary life
through the establishment of monastic existence so that, in time, Buddhism became very
difficult for laypeople to understand. As faith became separated from ordinary life, it also
became more formalistic. Terada sees this process at work in the development of Hinayana
which then stimulated the evolution of Mahayana.

In Mahayana, it was the rise of Pure Land which in its evolutionary turn once again tried to
bring faith and life together. The igyodo (way of easy practice) was a problem revolving
around monks and a way of a life of faith, a way which took a bold leap with Shinran when he
made the evil person the true object of Amidas Vow and totally abolished the distinction of
monk and layperson. Legitimation of marriage, and the eating of meat were two changes in
lifestyle in Shinrans fellowships. There is no question that Shinrans interpretation of
Buddhism opened the way to a new style of Buddhist life in his age but what does it mean
for now, for our own age, for we modern, alienated, absurd, and lonely men and women of
this mappo era?

The ultimate test of any system of thought is its meaning in everyday life, its survival as idea
translated into terms of ordinary experience. Societies through the ages have recognized
dangers in free religious commitment and have made efforts to restrain or dilute any
commitment which might expose the exploitation or oppression in a society. There have been
numerous examples of this in the persecution of Socrates, Jesus, the prophets of Israel,
Zoroaster, Honen, and his disciples including Shinran, and Nichiren. In diluting religion and
blurring its critical focus, society encourages two approaches. First, religion focuses on this-
worldly success defined in terms of the prevailing order. It promises physical and mental
benefits from its practice. It highlights the immediate needs of individuals for health, wealth,
and security which it grants at the expense of conformity to established social powers.
Secondly, it focuses attention on the afterlife, making conformity to present social norms a
means of securing a good destiny in that afterlife. For this reason, magical and other-worldly
religions are often deficient in social criticism.

Society fears any religion that gives an individual an independent basis for moral judgment on
affairs related to his life. We can trace such issues in American and Japanese societies. By
reducing religion to a partial and pragmatic concern, its essential moral impact is blunted, and
although societies have been interested in accomplishing this, they have not been without
ethical orientation. In all types of religious traditions there can be distinguished two types of
moral concern.
First, there is the communal, socially-supported, prudential ethic. It usually takes the form of
negative abstention the things an individual is to avoid in order to not receive punishment
or be exposed to shame and public censure. An ethic of this type aims at preserving the status
quo and at avoidance of individual problems. It is a system-maintenance ethic and generally
stresses how to get along within the system. The second ethical orientation is more positive
and out-going. It faces problems created by the system by placing individual good before the
good of the system. It is motivated by compassion, love, or justice, and seeks higher goals than
mere social order. In our time, it has been seen in the call for justice versus law and order. If the
first ethic is other-directed, this latter is inner-directed, being based on some type of universal
philosophy. The first ethic stresses submission. The second stresses freedom. The first is
reactive. The second is responsive-responsible.

It is clear from a survey of the basic concepts making up Shinrans thought that his religion
falls in the latter category. It is transcendent religion, with its understanding of reality as only
what can be spoken of between Buddhas. Its path of religious activity is based on working
which is no working, a religion in which Amida Buddha has emerged from the formless,
inconceivable Nature as the means to guide beings to salvation a religion not of mans
devising, but the result of the primordial aspiration in the heart of reality symbolized in the
work of the Bodhisattva Dharmakara. It is a religion which illumines human existence, and
with all its evils, embraces it totally. Faith is thus for these reasons indescribable, inconceivable,
and profound.

Transcendent does not mean escape from. It means more than and is the something more
which provides the person with a true sense of meaning and value, which places into question
every lesser loyalty, value, and obligation. The transcendent nature of Buddhism was indicated
in ancient sutras which stipulated that monks do not revere kings, parents, or gods. For
Shinran, this transcendence is mediated into history through faith in which in one thought-
moment the person simultaneously perceives his or her own sinfulness and the embrace of
Amidas compassion. Having experienced faith, ones ultimate destiny is assured and one can
participate more determinedly in the world. Shinran stated, there is no good superior to the
Nembutsu, and no evil that can obstruct it. His standard of judgment is raised on all claims
including his own:

I know, on the whole, neither good nor evil! For were I to know good so thoroughly that the
Tathagata must regard it as good, then I should be sure to know what is good. And were I to
know evil so thoroughly that the Tathagata must look on it as evil, then I should be certain to
know what is evil. With us, therefore, filled with sin and lust as we are in the transient world,
unreliable and unsteady as a burning house, everything is sheer falsehood and nought is stable
and sure. [4]

It is against this background that we should view Shinrans challenge to his age, and ours. He
did not counsel us to accept complacently the conditions of the world. Without standing apart
in arrogant self-righteousness, he challenged hypocrisy in all areas. Any attempt to assess the
ethical orientation resulting from Shinrans philosophy of existence must taken into account
the ethical norms imposed in his time on members of the society. These norms were considered
valid because they were expressions of some objective moral order such as the law of karma
in traditional Buddhism or Heaven in Confucianism, in much the same fashion as, in western
Christianity, the objective moral order was considered to be the expression of duty to God. In
the Shinshu tradition, the distinction of religious existence and social life came to be
formulated in the principle of Shinzokunitai, the two truths of Absolute and Conventional.

This distinction is derived from Nagarjuna in the early philosophical evolution of Mahayana.
It was, however, given emphasis by Rennyo in the 15th century to deal with the activities of
Shin believers in Japan and to avoid problems with the political authorities. In his letter of
February 17, 1474, Rennyo advises his disciples who have heard the teachings and are
confirmed in their faith that they should pursue their religious faith in their hearts and not act
scandalously or contemptuously towards people of other schools. Wherever we may be, on the
road or at home, says Rennyo, we should not praise such actions. With respect to the Shugo,
the guards who act as police and the manorial lords who exact their tribute from the people,
believers should not act rudely, claiming they have attained faith. Instead, they should all the
more yield in lawsuits or disputes. Believers are urged not to neglect all the gods, Buddhas,
and bodhisattvas because all are implied in the six characters: Namu-amida-butsu. In addition,
they were urged to consider worldly benevolence and righteousness and fundamental.
Observing the secular law externally, they should within their hearts and minds, cultivate the
Other-power faith. So in Rennyos Goichidaikikigaki we read:

Law should be worn on the brow: the Buddhist teaching should be stored deep in ones inner
heart. So said the Shonin. One should be straight and rigid in ones own ways of life
(jingi). [5]

As a result of this distinction, the absolute truth was the realm of religion, belief, and faith,
while following the mores and demands of the secular society was the area of conventional
truth. By this distinction, from the 15th century on, the full impact of the ethical implications of
Shinrans teachings were unable to manifest themselves in society at large. Indeed, they often
surfaced only as a characteristic of those wondrously good people, the myokonin.

Bibliography

Haguri, Gyodo: The Awareness of Self

Hongwanji International Center: Shinran in the Contemporary World

Otani University: Jodo Shinshu

Notes

[1] D.T. Suzuki, Mysticism: Christian and Buddhist, P. 194

[2] Ibid., p. 175

[3] Ibid., p. 202

[4] Ryukyo Fujimoto, Tannisho, Conclusion

[5] Kosho Yamamoto, Words of St. Rennyo, p. 52

Chapter 20

The Ultimate End of Faith (Part 2)

In general, Japanese and Shinshu people were ethical, but it was largely a passive ethic,
prudential in nature in the face of social problems. In the past five centuries of Shinshu there
have been varying theories on the connection of this principle of Two truths, absolute and
conventional. The view of Akamatsu, outlined by Fugen Daien in his Shinshu Gairon, is
that they have an inevitable interrelation (Sohatsusetsu) or mutual emergence. In this view,
conventional morality is held to be contained in the absolute truth. A second theory, also
outlined by Fugen Daien, holds that essentially the realm of absolute truth refers to the transfer
of merit of faith whereas the conventional realm refers to the principles derived from rational
reflection. In this, the content of the conventional truth is that of Confucian morality with its
five cardinal virtues, combining the five relationships of filial piety and the five cardinal
Confucian virtues of justice, politeness, wisdom, fidelity, and benevolence. In this view,
morality is impregnated with faith, but their sources differ. In his analysis, Fugen tends to
accept the second view as more adequate, since if morality is totally a product of faith, then
there is no way to account for the morality of the unbeliever. However, faith may make
morality stronger through its influence, even though morality is derived from rational
reflection.

In his Introduction to Shin Buddhism, Kosho Yamamoto states the mutual relation of the
two spheres of truth:

To clarify the relation between religion and moral, the Shinshuist of modern ages has
brought about the so-called teaching of shinzoku-nitai, i.e., the Two truths of True and
Secular. By true is meant the Way of Truth, which is what concerns emancipation from
dukkha, i.e., lifes sorrow. By secular is meant what concerns the Way of Life. It is said that
these two gates are to go as the wheels of a vehicle. This is to say, the failure of one cripples the
other, hence jeopardizing the faculty of the whole.

If we view this in the light of the traditional meaning of secular truth (as embodying
Confucian morality and following the Imperial Law), the standard of religion ultimately
becomes whether or not that religion is a fulfillment of the individuals citizenship role. Ones
religion is thus evaluated on the basis of whether it makes one a good citizen and the essential
nature of religion is subsumed under social obligation. In the history of Japan, persecution of
Pure Land Buddhism was based on this point. The teachings of Honen, and of his pupil
Shinran, as well as that of their contemporary Nichiren, were intolerable to the Kamakura
Imperial regime because they challenged this standard and broke communality in their
profession of a deeper meaning in religious truth.

From another aspect we can see that in periods when the control of the society over the
individual was total, the secular standard of political conformity for religion does have the
virtue of offering an area where faith can be free albeit at the expense of not disturbing the
social order. Such a formulation of isolated limited freedom of faith contrasts with our
democratic modern standpoint in which free faith is indistinguishable from freedom of action.
The limited freedom of the traditional secular standard does not spell out precisely what faith
adds to the action of achieving justice and benevolence in society, or how faith deals with
situations of oppression and exploitation in a society beyond acceptance or even resignation.

Shinshu theologians frequently identify the practice of gratitude with morality, yet the full
thrust of Shinrans morality was obstructed during the period of nationalism when the
principle of two truths was interpreted to conform to the priority of the Imperial Law. In his
analysis of Shin Buddhism, Prof. Futaba sharply questions the relationship between the faith
that is the practice of gratitude and morality. He calls attention to the thought of Manshi
Kiyozawa, who saw morality as indispensable for the perfecting of humanity and ourselves,
but a morality not of social conformity but of definition by faith alone. For Futaba, the stance
provided by Shinran for approaching the ethical life was the principle believing oneself, teach
others to believe (Jishinkyoninshin). It is in this principle that we see demonstrated the critical
thrust of Shinrans thought, piercing the false, hypocritical good of society and religion in his
day.

Although Shinshu traditionalists still may define the practice of morality as the expression of
gratitude, such has seldom been the case. Instead, under the impact of Japanese social history,
the principle of morality as the expression of gratitude more often meant uncritical
subservience to the reigning ethic. The boundless freedom of Jodo Shinshu was thus obscured
during much of the Tokugawa and Meiji eras and, indeed, Buddhism as an acceptable set of
rites for funerals and memorial services with few exceptions supplanted the original focus of
Shinran and his Kamakura contemporaries on Buddhism as the very way and meaning of life
itself. It is this element of Shinrans critical insight into religion and society that must be
recovered if the true meaning of his potential is to be made effective in the modern world. As
Prof. Futaba says:
Whatever occupations all the successive followers of Shinran participate in, is it not
imperative that they must reject becoming virtuous in the world of political power but in the
end must focus on (the principle of jishinkyoninshin (to teach others the faith one holds
oneself). Should not the people of the world accept Shinrans standpoint that, within the
conflict of enormous political powers which have grown like monsters, the only moral path is
jishinkyoninshin, as a society of non-authoritarian believers.

The belief in material things and political authority reveals that a primitive faith in the gods
pervades modern times. It is regarded as rational, intelligent, and something that brings a
world to fruition, something strong on which we can rely. However, it is clear that its history is
false and absurd. The standpoint of faith which brushes aside a self-power mentality and
rejects belief in gods is the only way which people must seek through their lives confronting
the delusions of history even in the modern age. [2]

In the light of the collapse of traditional moralities East and West, Shin thought offers a new
approach to the relationship of faith, and action. In our present period, belief in objective
structures of morality has weakened if not collapsed. We have too often seen such structures
manipulated and applied in the interests of special classes and groups. In a world which
cannot guarantee the validity of ones ideals through some supernatural or cosmic guarantee,
contemporary people have been given the responsibility to establish ethical existence from
within themselves. In this context, Shinrans religious perspective, with its roots in deep
inward transformation and commitment, become an important resource for considering
contemporary issues. We would not be attempting to discover the precise content of Shinrans
ethical outlook in terms of specific dos and donts (although some are present in his writings).
Rather, we can try to discover the basic underlying principles that govern his perspective.

For that reason, we have directed attention to Shinrans statements on Sage Path and Pure
Land compassion, as recorded by Yuienbo in Tannisho, IV:

In the matter of compassion, the Path of Sages and the Pure Land path differ. Compassion in
the Path of Sages is to pity, sympathize with, and care for beings. But the desire to save others
from suffering is vastly difficult to fulfill.

Compassion in the Pure Land path lies in saying the Name, quickly attaining Buddhahood,
and freely benefiting sentient beings with a heart of great love and great compassion. In our
present lives, it is hard to carry out the desire to aid others however much love and tenderness
we may feel; hence such compassion always falls short of fulfillment. Only the saying of the
Name manifests the heart of great compassion that is replete and thoroughgoing. Thus were
his words. [3]

This passage might be titled the limit of compassion, when brought into relation with
Shinrans understanding of karma, his experience of the futility of reciting sutras on the road
to Inada, and when viewed also in relation to Shinrans concept of neither-priest-nor-layman.
It yields insight into the context for his ethical thought. The point of this passage seems very
clear, in that the Sage path approach to compassion and its attempt to help beings falls short of
its own goal. As limited beings in the world, we cannot generate sufficient power on our own
to effect the release of all. Shinran discovered this for himself when on the road to Inada, he
vowed to save all beings through reciting the thousand parts of the three Pure Land sutras.
Realizing that this effort was futile, he abandoned the practice. It was again the situation he
met when striving for his own salvation by trying to build a bridge to infinity from the narrow
basis of his own strength and intention.

In Chapter XIII of Tannisho there appears an interesting discussion of the role of karma in
determining action, in which Yuienbo quotes Shinran as saying:

Remember that no evil is ever done, that does not originate from a past karma, be it so minute
as a grain of dust on the point of a hair of a lamb or rabbit. [4]

Shinran here appeals to the reality and strength of karma which places us in this life and
directs our actions in this world. Nothing we do can be done unless there is the karmic basis
for it. Hence, from that side of existence, we are utterly powerless to act on our own as though
we were totally autonomous beings. In contemplating his relation to other beings, and his
efforts to save them, the utter limitation of being able to do anything on his own was Shinrans
basic realization. This was his way of facing his historical reality which, as with the later
myokonin, heightened his sense of imperfection and sin. Through this historical reality which
bounds our lives, we become aware of deeper forces at work which strive to save us and all
other beings. This is the faith in Buddhas compassion which has no superior power to
compete with it, and which cannot be obstructed by any evil. Therefore, in the Pure Land faith
the goal is to become Buddha and, by uniting with that power of compassion which we call
Amida Buddha, to attain the salvation of all beings.

Despite the futuristic element of Pure Land, which places this attainment in another life, there
is built into such a faith a guard against despair as to either our own capacities or the results
which may be achieved through our limited efforts. Shinran, while indicating the limits of
human action, does not reject action as such and it is in this way that he reaches out to the
despairing, alienated men and women of today. He understands that we will be moved to act
through compassion. We may have aspirations and hopes, but he cautions against
expectations. Such a viewpoint goes against much of contemporary ideas of thinking big,
but its realism is quite evident when one considers the failure of the many movements for
social changes in our time. In countless cases, the participants have had too high expectations
and when they failed to reach their goal, they turned on society and those about them with
bitterness. They sought escapes and dropped out. Many also perceived they needed a deeper
understanding of reality and frequently joined extreme religious movements.

By contrast, Shinrans way sets the direction for ethical action by providing a realistic
assessment of the possibilities of human effort in a world such as ours and with people like
ourselves. When we understand his idea of poisoned good, we see that a major concern he
had was to purge religion of egoism; that is, to place religious action in a context where the act
would be spontaneous and not tinged with egoism. His concept of neither-priest-nor-layman
also attests to this view. Our actions are not to proceed from the traditionally understood
religious motivations to create merit and gain enlightenment for ourselves, which is the
priestly approach, nor merely for the maintenance of social order, which is the responsibility of
the layman. For Shinran, action must proceed from the realm beyond, which he terms the
realm of no calculation or contrivance, from the realm where working is no working. It is the
supernal realm of Jinen honi, of Buddha nature, of the Unimpeded Infinite Light, a realm
beyond shape or definition, a realm symbolized in the compassion of Amida Buddha as
depicted in the sutras.

What does such a basis mean for ethic and ego? In his effort to avoid the possibility of arrogant
presumption on the part of his disciples, Shinran cast this participation in the ultimate nature
of compassion into the future after our birth in the Pure Land. We can never believe that we
fully realize that ethic, even though we may understand that we are sustained by the power of
the Vow itself. Over against our efforts to work ceaselessly for the good of our brothers in the
light of the Vow of Amida without discrimination or being judgmental, we are illumined by
the power of that Vow, and aware of our egoism, sinfulness and desire for power and fame
(Takuwa, in his Perfect Freedom in Buddhism, pp. 89-99).

Shinrans definition of compassion is thus not meant to inhibit ethical action of an outgoing,
positive type, but to instill in such ethical action a sense of deep limitations with respect to our
capabilities, our intentions, our prospects. While this view may well induce a passivity in face
of a well-established social order which limits any criticism or efforts for change, I do not
believe Shinran would have entirely condoned subservience to the status quo. He was himself
able to make judgments concerning the justice and righteousness of the society which exiled
his teacher Honen, his fellow students, and himself. He could not fight back on that societys
political terms, and he probably did not desire to do so. His motivation went far deeper and he
continued in exile, despite government prohibitions, to propagate the teaching of the Pure
Land way.

In cases when his followers faced persecution, he did not counsel that they merely be servile to
the state, but in the interests of the further progress of the teaching to be more sensitive to their
actions and the social implications of their actions. Thus, he advised not to despise the gods
and Buddhas of traditional communal religion, but to regard them as manifestations of Amida
and therefore essentially benefactors. He counseled against useless arguments which created
hatred, and urged that believers practice their faith quietly. He advised also that his followers
should have aspirations for the welfare of society in general, for when there is peace and
tranquility, the conditions are better for the spread of the teaching. His stance toward society
was not one of acquiescence to the status quo, but one which viewed the situation from a
higher plane and attempted to act in harmony with that plane.

To fully comprehend this essential dimension of Shinran, we must emphasize, particularly as

exemplified in chapter IV of Tannisho, that the important point is non-egoistic action, action
which is not an instrument merely for advancing the self but which is action that reveals the
compassion of the Buddha. This perception supplies a major consideration in determining in
our own time what actions are appropriate to a Shin Buddhist. I believe that one important
determination would be what does that action do to bring meaning into other peoples
lives? Rather than the Shin Buddhists focus being on the meaning of his or her own life
(which may under these conditions seem not to have meaning), we may consider how
meaningful our actions are in the lives of others all in light of the boundedness of our lives.

For Shinran, the directive influence in determining ones moral activity must be Buddhism. As
illustration of this, in chapter V, Tannisho, Shinran makes a statement which is truly
remarkable in view of the nature of the importance of filial piety in his time:

I, Shinran, have never invoked the Nembutsu even once in the feeling of filial piety for my
parents. All sentient beings have been, and will be at one time or another, our fathers, or
mothers, brothers, or sisters in the course of transmigration. So, we, after becoming Buddha in
our next life, should save each one of them.
While we might agree with Shin scholars that in this passage Shinran is not advocating
disrespect of parents, but actually perhaps even a broadening of filial obligation to all beings,
the fact remains that from traditional Confucian viewpoints (which were also promoted in
Buddhism through its memorial services), society is based on graded love. Ones parents and
family have a greater claim on ones duty than have the broader masses of people. This was an
ancient issue between Confucianists and the advocates of Universal Love, such as Mo ti in
ancient China. Buddhists in China argued that they fulfilled filial piety through services on
behalf of departed ancestors. Yet Shinran, guided by his own understanding of Buddhist
universality and his awareness of absolute Other Power, confessed that he never performed
such Nembutsu.

In reality, he is saying that there is nothing special about his parents over against all other
beings, and in this life he is in any case powerless. He does concede to human sentiment,
however, that when one has become a Buddha, this statement hardly displaces the earlier,
since he has already stated that everyone at some point is mother and father to us. It is only the
last in succession that would qualify for special treatment? It is difficult to reconcile Buddhism
universalism and Confucian hierarchy at this point. We must, I believe, accept Shinrans
personal re-direction of ancient Japanese social morality.

The discussion of the ultimate end of faith has led us from the consideration of issues
pertaining to the afterlife and human destiny to ethical issues rooted in this life. The problem
of afterlife and the challenge of this life are in healthy tension in Shin thought. The charge of
other worldliness is misplaced. While there are instinctual and important concerns for afterlife
which we all face as mortal beings, the center of gravity of Shinrans thought lies in this life
because of the deep confidence and assurance we have that Amida has embraced us never to
abandon and the Vow covers all times and space. With destiny assured, life can be lived with
meaning and dedication, with hope and courage.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. According to Kosho Yamamoto, the Shinshuist of modern ages has brought about the so-
called teaching of shinzoku-nitai, or Two Truths of True and Secular, for the purpose of:

a) clarifying the relationship between religion and morality b) showing that there is no
relationship between religious truth and morality c) demonstrating that link between morality
and good citizenship
2. For Shinran, the salvation of all beings could only be attained by:

a) pitying and caring for beings b) reciting sutras that would generate enough merit to save all
beings c) saying the Name and quickly attaining Buddhahood

3. How does Shinrans thought set the direction for ethical action? By:

a) encouraging us to think big in bringing about social change b) providing a realistic

assessment of the possibilities of human effort in a world such as ours c) instructing us that no
such actions are possible since everything is ego-motivated

4. In Chapter V, Tannisho, Shinran states that he has never invoked the Nembutsu even
once in the feeling of filial piety for my (his) parents. What is Shinran actually saying? That:

a) family is not important b) filial piety is a delusion c) there is nothing special about his
parents over against all other beings

Thought Questions

1. What is your understanding of the relationship between religion and morality?

2. The author thinks that Shinrans religious perspective can be an important resource in
dealing with contemporary ethical/moral issues.Find an issue that concerns you and try to
apply Shinrans perspective to it. What do you find? What problems do you encounter?

3. Today, as in the past, there are people who are attempting to bring about social
change.While Shinrans stance toward society was not one of acquiescence to the status quo,
he did urge his followers to constantly question their own motivations for such action and to
be sensitive to their actions and the social implications they might have. How can such an
approach benefit us today?

Bibliography

Bloom, Alfred: Tannisho: Resource for Modern Living

Notes

[1] Kosho Yamamoto, Introduction to Shin Buddhism, pp. 172-73

[2] Shinran no Kenkyu, pp. 364-65

[3] Dennis Hirota, tr., Tannisho: A Primer, p. 24

[4] Ryukyo Fujimoto translation

[5] Ryukyo Fujimoto translation.

[6] Ryukyo Fujimoto translation

Chapter 21

The Ultimate End of Faith (Part 3)

The Pure Land tradition is chiefly known as a popular teaching designed to offer hope to the
suffering masses for a blessed hereafter in a land of peace and bliss established by the Buddha
Amida. The major, popular practice employed to be reborn in that land is the recitation of the
name of Amida. As a consequence of its history, Pure Land Buddhism is usually regarded as
an otherworldly faith and an inferior path for those who are unable to engage in the
traditionally rigorous, monastic disciplines. It has been regarded as an upaya to console
ordinary people and is part of the teaching of all Mahayana Buddhist schools. According to the
general theory, birth into the Pure Land provides the optimum environment for the fulfillment
of Buddhist disciplines and the attainment of enlightenment.

In Japan during the Heian era the teaching was particularly esteemed by the nobility who built
many halls and temples in honor of Amida in order to assure their rebirth into the Pure Land.
Through Genshins Ojoyoshu (Treatise on the Essentials of Rebirth [in the Pure Land]), as
well as other forms of Pure Land literature, the efforts of popular preachers and itinerant
Nembutsu monks, and later in the Kamakura period, Honens teaching of the Sole Practice of
Nembutsu, the belief penetrated deeply into Japanese society. The Hell Scrolls in art, depicting
vividly the tortures of hell, and such works as the Tale of the Heike brought the message
directly to the people.

In the context of world religions, Pure Land teaching is a response to the constant human
concern about the nature of the afterlife. Religious faith attempts to console people facing
unbearable tragedy and sorrow. It also attempts to fortify the individual against the
frustrations of lifes hopes and efforts. Consequently, elaborate systems of afterlife have
developed in the worlds great religions to respond to these serious questions. The moral
character of Pure Land teaching, based in the principle of karma, also gives expression to the
human demand for justice. Through the principles of interdependence and transfer of merit,
the teaching offered a practical means whereby people could assist their loved ones in
progressing to higher levels of rebirth. The symbols of the Pure Land and the contrasting hells
which appear in Buddhist tradition express an understanding of the entire religious process of
spiritual development, and give expression for human hopes and aspirations for fulfillment
and perfection, as well as moral retribution.
While we have stressed the social and this-worldly orientation of Shinrans thought in order to
highlight its contemporary relevance, a comprehensive religious faith must embrace concerns
of both this life, and the afterlife. The most serious personal problem for individuals as they
progress through life is the issue of death, their own or those whom they love dearly.

In his work among the masses, Shinran made use of Pure Land symbolism to console and
encourage his followers. Therefore, it is essential to consider the Buddhist cosmology and Pure
Land symbolism from which he drew.

Buddhist Cosmology

The early Buddhist cosmology is geared to stages of spiritual development and the principle of
karma. Consequently, there is a gradated universe which combines material and spiritual
elements arranged in a hierarchy of increasing spirituality and attainment. The Buddhist
universe essentially has three levels or planes the levels of Desire, Form, and Formless.
Beyond these three is Nirvana.

Within the realm of Desire there is a three-story world involving five paths of rebirth. These
range from the lowest-hell to animal, preta (hungry ghosts), humans, and gods. Later Asura,
angry spirits or rebel gods, were added, making six. Beyond the realm of Desire is the World of
Form which contains heavens correlated to four stages of dhyana (meditation trances) in the
Brahma worlds. Altogether there are 17 stages. Finally, there is the Formless dimension which
has four levels. Beyond all these dimensions and levels there is Nirvana which transcends all
distinctions and gradations. Altogether there is an infinity of universes reaching the
inconceivable totality termed the great thousandfold world or three thousandfold world (1000
X 1000 X 1000 = 1 billion). Every aspect of this cosmology is governed by karma and the level
of discipline until one reaches final liberation.

Mahayana Cosmology

While the historical development is not entirely clear, the Mahayana tradition has added to the
general cosmology the concept of Buddha land. Every Buddha has his land or realm as the
fruition or fulfillment of his practice. This is represented in his body of fruition or body of
reward. The establishment of the concept of Pure Land does not conflict with earlier
cosmological concepts but perhaps completes or caps the system.

The Mahayana teachers accepted Early Buddhism as elementary. They also transformed the
ideal goal from simply attaining Nirvana to Buddhahood. As a consequence of this alteration
there had to be changes in the symbol system leading to the proliferation of Buddhalands and
expansion of the Cosmos. While each Buddha had his own Pure Land, the Pure Land of Amida
eventually became the most prominent and chief path to achieve Buddhahood for the peoples
of East Asia.

Thus, the various Mahayana texts, which narrate the status of the Pure Land and those who
enter there, indicate that the Pure Land is beyond the three worlds or levels taught by
Hinayanists. [1] Some texts state that there are no hells or hungry ghosts, nor the three worlds
in the Pure Land. [2] It is a sphere superior to all worlds.

Among the various Pure Lands, individual texts assert the superiority of one land or another.
Thus in the Older Kegon text Ch. 29, we are told that one kalpa in Sakyamunis land is as one
day in Amidas land. But a kalpa in Amidas land is one day in the land of Kongobutsu. The
series ends with the land of Kenshu Buddha who abides in the Shorengesekai which is filled
with many great Bodhisattvas such as Fugen (Samantabhadra) Bodhisattva.

Pure Land Teaching

Pure Land teaching as a movement, within the context of Mahayana Buddhist development,
presented aspiring bodhisattvas as well as ordinary persons with the goal and prospect of
achieving birth in the Pure Land established by Amida Buddhas Vows which are recounted in
the Larger Pure Land Sutra. An important factor indicated in this Sutra is the state of non-
retrogression which assures final enlightenment to the aspirant. Vows 11 and 47 proclaim the
state of non-retrogression and enlightenment. In earlier Buddhist understanding one could
regress, depending on the condition of ones karma. It may be that the exponents of Mahayana
were attempting to offer a stronger sense of security by establishing a point where the nature
of the person or the environment did away with any possibility of backsliding.

We should point out that Buddhist scholars classified Pure Lands according to whether the
land is the result of the fruit of Buddhahood or whether it was manifested for the sake of
others as an upaya. [3] As we earlier indicated in the discussion of Amida Buddha, the
status of Amida Buddha was variously regarded and it was the same for the Buddhaland. [4]

The founder of the Tien tai (Tendai) school in China, Chih I, distinguished four types of
lands. Amidas land was an upaya in which the delusion of upaya is cut off but the delusion of
fundamental truth remains (that is, traces of dualistic views remain). It is the world of
followers of the Common Teachings (the doctrines common to all Buddhists) in the
classification of teachings according to Tien tai. Amidas land is the abode where Sages and
Common persons reside, as well as the land for Bodhisattvas who have not yet entered the first
stage in the Bodhisattva path of 10 stages in the progress to buddhahood and enlightenment.
In this system Amidas Pure Land is a preliminary level. Shinran, along with Zendo, an earlier
Pure Land teacher in China, however, held that Amidas Pure Land is the highest level of
attainment and reality.

Another issue which we encounter with the concept of the Pure Land is whether it has
objective existence or only exists in the mind. Is it out there or only in the mind? In general,
ordinary Pure Land followers tend to regard it as more of an objective existence where they
can meet their deceased loved ones and ancestors in contrast to the subjective approach which
views it as only existing in ones own mind.

The objective tendency derives from the statement of the Sutra that the Pure Land is in the
West beyond ten billion Buddha lands The subjective approach is based on the principle
that if the mind is pure, the land is Pure. The Vimalakirti Sutra states, If Bodhisattvas desire
to attain the Pure Land, they must surely purify their own minds. According to the Purity of
their mind, is the Buddhaland therefore pure. [5] The Kegon Sutra declares: If people desire
to seek and know the Buddhas of the three worlds, they must surely contemplate in this way.
The mind makes (produces) all the Tathagata. [6] In this perspective as one becomes
enlightened, ones very body is Buddha, and this world as it is the land of Bliss. It regards the
teaching of Pure Land as apart from and beyond the ordinary person as an upaya. It generally
is the position of Tien tai, Chan (Zen) and Shingon traditions and represents the Self-striving
(jiriki) perspective.

There are a variety of issues relative to the character of Buddhist cosmology which are
pertinent to the way Shinran deals with these facets of teaching. Shinran, in the Faith volume,
rejects the Pure Land as simply a subjective reality. However, he does not reject the principle of
Universal Buddha nature as we have seen. Rather, endowed trust as the True Mind of Amida is
the realization of Buddha nature.

There is consequently the problem of reconciling the popular, traditional view of the objective
existence of Amida and the Pure Land as over there with the understanding of Amida as the
all-embracing Eternal Buddha reality which is immanent within our world. In this context the
concept of two types of Law Body which we have discussed earlier may assist.
Shinran asserts in the Jinenhonisho that Amida is a medium, means, source that enables us to
know the formless, colorless Dharmakaya. Like the Name (Myogo), belief in Amida and the
Pure Land, though specific and seemingly limited symbols, direct the mind to contemplate the
deeper reality from which the form of Amida and the Pure Land have emerged as the dynamic
symbols that activate faith. Reality is objective to us to the extent that our minds do not create
reality. We exist in reality. In that sense Amida and the Pure Land, as symbols of the highest
reality, are not merely constructions of our mind, though they have arisen in the course of
Buddhist history as a focal point of Buddhist aspiration and contemplation. In the course of
the spiritual evolution of Buddhism, they have become vehicles to convey that reality to us.

Though Shinran enunciates a highly spiritual conception of human destiny, he still speaks of
rebirth into the Pure Land implying survival after death and the objective existence of the land.
He clearly denies that the Pure Land is merely in ones own mind. On a personal note Shinran
writes in Mattosho letter #12:

My life has now reached its fullness of years. It is certain that I will go to birth in the Buddha
Land before you, so without fail I will await you there. [7]

In reference to the death of a disciple Kakushin-bo, the disciple Reni wrote with Shinrans
approval:

Whether one is left behind or goes before, it is surely a sorrowful thing to be parted by death.
But the one who first attains nirvana vows without fail to save those who were close to him
first and leads those with whom he has been karmically bound, his relatives, and his friends. It
should be so, and since I have entered the same path of the teaching as Kakushin, I feel
strongly reassured. Since it is said that being parent and child is a bond from a precious life,
you too must feel reassured. It is impossible to express how moving and impressive it all was,
so I will stop here. How can I speak of it anymore? I hope to say much more later.

I read this letter to the Shonin in order to see if there were any errors; he told me that there
was nothing to be added, and that it was fine. He was especially moved and wept when I came
to the part about Kakushin, for he is deeply grieved by his death. [8]

Concerning the meaning of the term Pure Land, or Sukhavati as it is given in the Sutras, we
should note that it generally means a land of happiness, pleasure, bliss. In the Chinese sutras
two terms have been used most prominently and in various combinations. The Larger Pure
Land Sutra uses the term Anraku, the land of peace and harmony. It is the land of peace-
tranquility and bliss. The Smaller Pure Land Sutra (Amidakyo) uses the term Gokuraku,
which means extreme, highest bliss or pleasure.

In his writings Shinran shows a distinct preference for Anraku in various combinations. In the
Kyogyoshinsho, he quotes texts using this term some 46 times, and three times in his own
statements. In his writings apart from the Kyogyoshinsho, there are 64 references with
Anraku, nine quotes and 55 statements of Shinran. In the Kyogyoshinsho, Gokuraku
appears in nine quotes and in one statement of Shinran. In his various other writings it is used
21 times, with 10 from quotes. Rennyo in later times showed a greater preference for
Gokuraku.

We may suggest that Shinran preferred Anraku because it was the term highlighted by the
Sutra on which he based his teaching. Also, because he held a more abstract idea of the Pure
Land, he may have avoided the more widely used and popular term Gokuraku. The Smaller
Sutra Amidakyo gives a highly detailed picture of the Pure Land.

Among texts which have been influential in developing Pure Land thought are the Treatise on
the Pure Land by Vasubandhu which is the earliest commentary on the Larger Pure Land
Sutra. It is a short text discussing the 29 accomplishments, adornments or actualizations of
the Pure Land organized around the Buddhaland (17), the Buddha (8) and the Bodhisattvas
residing there (4).

The Second part of the text deals with practices which bring rebirth. His initial poem from
which he then elaborates the qualities of the Pure Land has played a great part in the
development of Pure Land teaching and in the thought of Shinran. He offers a summary of the
vision of the spiritual meaning of Amida and the Pure Land.

Another significant text which was in the background of Shinrans thought is the Ojoyoshu
by Genshin. This work became a preachers handbook giving the information on damnation
and salvation and the way to achieve salvation. Based on his descriptions compiled from
Sutras, pictorial representations have been made and used in ways similar to modern
evangelists. The descriptions of sufferings are graphic, as are also the portrayals of the bliss of
paradise.

Shinrans View of Human Fulfillment

I. Introduction
As with other Pure Land teachings, Shinran bases his view within the tradition, but also
modifies the interpretation in consonance with his own experience and effort to present Pure
Land faith as the supreme teaching of Buddhism.

In approaching his understanding we must focus on the final three volumes of the
Kyogyoshinsho: Realization, True Buddha Land and Transformed Buddha Land. It is
significant that Shinran does not just depict the beauties, glories and pleasures of the Pure
Land as they are given in the Smaller Sutra. His is not a popular view. Prof. Mikogami Eryu [9]
in his study of the Kyogyoshinsho indicates that Shinran does not offer an idolatrous,
sentimental, or sensuous Pure Land even in the form of the Transformed Land, which is the
land based on human aspiration and cultivation or self-striving.

Shinran bases his thought completely on his awareness of absolute Other Power. For him, the
symbols manifest the highest level of spiritual existence imaginable or conceivable for the yet
unenlightened ordinary person.

II. Realization

The section on Realization takes up the issue directly. The fulfillment of human existence rests
in the perfection of the 13th and 22nd Vows.

The 13th Vow pledges that those born into the Pure Land will abide in the company of those
who have attained the right definite assurance and ultimately realize Nirvana. [10] There are
two features of this Vow which are central: 1) the entry into the company of the truly assured
and 2) the attainment of Nirvana.

In Shinrans interpretation, as we have already seen, the entry into the company of the truly
assured is a status that is simultaneous with the reception of endowed trust (shinjin). In
contrast to the Vow which presents this status as a future attainment concurrent with birth in
the Pure Land, Shinran sees it as an experience of this life before birth in the Pure Land.

The basis for this alteration in the meaning of the Vow in the Larger Sutra is a statement in the
Vow perfection text of the Nyoraie (Tathagatas Assembly) which is a variant Pure Land Sutra.
[11] This passage speaks of the people of that country, the Pure Land; and those that will be
born there. They all definitely attain enlightenment. None are wrongly settled or unsettled.
Implicitly they are truly assured or settled. In the Notes on Once-calling and Many-calling,
Shinran quotes the Larger Sutra:
The Sentient beings who will be born in that land all dwell among the truly settled, for in that
Buddha land there is not one of those falsely settled or not settled. [12]

According to Shinran, based on these texts, the status of being truly assured is a matter
ofthislife.

The inevitability of Nirvana is stated by the Vow and follows immediately on birth into the
Pure Land. Thus the Pure Land is itself a symbol for Nirvana. It is not a stage of practice
leading to Nirvana. That Buddha-land is pure and tranquil, wondrous and delightful. It is not
apart from the enlightenment of uncreated nirvana. [13]

Quoting extensively from Donrans commentary to Vasubandhus Pure Land Treatise, Shinran
expresses the universality and community of those in the Pure Land, as well as the basis of the
soteriological process in the compassionate activity of Amidas pure Vow Mind to benefit all
beings. Because of the Buddhas unconditional compassion, even foolish common people such
as ourselves all attain Nirvana without severing blind passion. [14]

Establishing that birth in the Pure Land is Nirvana, Shinran moves to the second aspect of
rebirth which is the principle of the bodhisattvas return to this world to work for the salvation
of others. It is the fulfillment of the 22nd Vow. The Vow speaks of bodhisattvas being assured
of 1) ultimate Buddhahood in one more birth, 2) helping all beings freely, 30 surpassing
ordinary bodhisattvas. Though the Vow portrays the activities of the bodhisattva and implies
the stages of the bodhisattva path, Donran and hence Shinran, rejects such gradations. [15]
These are provisional devices given by Sakyamuni.

As interpreted by Donran, we see the ideal of compassion lying behind this teaching. [16] The
concept of the bodhisattvas return indicates that the goal of religious faith is not self-serving
salvation. Donran declares:

Suppose there is a person who, without awakening the mind aspiring for supreme
enlightenment, simply hears that bliss is enjoyed in that land without interruption and desires
to be born there for the sake of the bliss; such a person will not be able to attain birth [17]

Selfish and faithless interest in such birth does not ensure salvation. Rennyo also pointed out
that:
those who desire to be born in the land of Highest Happiness because they hear that one
can have pleasure there do not become Buddhas. Those who trust in Amida become Buddhas.
[18]

Birth in the Pure Land is Birth of Nonbirth (Musho-no-sho).

III. True Buddha Land

The volume of the True Buddha Land does not have the focus on human fulfillment so much
as establishing that it is the True Recompense Land of the Buddha. As such it is the land of
highest realization because it is the fulfillment of the 12th and 13th Vows the Vows of
Infinite Light and Eternal Life.

In various passages Shinran emphasizes the aspect of Light. One Sutra states:

The light of Amita Buddha shines greatest and those of all Buddhas cannot come to be the
equalThe light of Amita Buddha is pure, faultless, and undefiled. [19]

Quoting the Nirvana Sutra, the Buddha is described as Birthlessness, and extinction, and
egolessness, a deathlessness, a non-breaking, and a non-spoiling. He is not one made. So we
say the Tathagata enters the Great Nirvana. [20] The Tathagata is non-created and eternal. [21]

In its paradoxical way the Great Nirvana is non-sorrow and non-joy. Yet it is Great Joy. [22] It is
also absolutely Pure. The Dharmakaya (the Body of Final Truth) is characterized as
permanence, joy, self, and purity. On the background of the ultimate nature of Amida, Shinran
discusses the Pure Land of Amida as a Recompense land among the various Bodies of a
Buddha, resulting from the fulfillment of his Vows. While The Sutra of Contemplation
speaks of Amida coming with a host of transformed Buddhas to meet devotees at their death,
the Recompense body, exemplified by Amida, is eternal and can manifest various forms for the
benefit of beings at any time.

Shinran concludes that the Buddha in the Sutras and later teachers present the Pure Land as a
True Land of Recompense. There we manifest our Buddha nature through the power of the
Vows. The Nirvana Sutra states: The beings will be perfectly adorned, in the life to come,
with the pure body and thus see the Buddha nature. [23] Also the Larger Sutra states: All are
endowed with the bodies of the World of Uncreate and Birthlessness. Their corporeal
existences pass to infinitude and eternity. Final human fulfillment is realized in a
transcendent sphere which is inconceivable in itself, but for reasons of human sentiment and
individual levels of spiritual understanding, it may be expressed in concrete mythic language
and images.

IV. Transformed Land

Finally, in contrast to the True Buddha Land, there is a Transformed Buddha and Buddha
Land. The last section of the Kyogyoshinsho presents a criticism of other religious
perspectives of Shinrans time. They are all based on self-striving and are egoistic in nature.
Rather than condemning such people to hell, Shinran indicates that they attain birth in one or
another region or suburb of the Pure Land and will ultimately attain enlightenment when they
gain true faith.

For those people who do not have true faith, the principle of karma operates and brings them
to the level of birth corresponding to the degree of their karmic bondage. There are three
categories of teachings that bring one to a transformed land. The first is the teaching
represented by the Sutra of Contemplation (symbolized by the 19th Vow) that includes
mixed practices (the wide variety of spiritual disciplines in Buddhism combined with Pure
Land practices), the meditative and moral practices. These forms of religiosity bring birth in
the Borderland, Embryo Palace, and Land of Indolence. [24]

The second is the self-striving Pure Land Nembutsu of the 20th Vow. This approach brings
Inconceivable Birth (Nanji ojo) in the Castle of Doubt and Embryo Palace. The third is the
practice of non-Buddhist teachings such as Confucianism and Taoism and the religious beliefs
associated with them. All alternatives apart from the faith based on the 18th Vow lead to
rebirth in an outer region.

According to the Nyoraie Sutra, good deeds may keep people from faith in Amidas Vow.
The self-righteousness and self-centeredness that may attend our good deeds, accompanied by
our spiritual pride, keep us from truly believing in Amidas Compassion. The Sutra states:
Because of the good deeds they have done, they cannot obtain faith. Though they may be
born in this country, they sit in the lotus and cannot come out. Those beings sit in the embryo
of the flower. This is as if they are in the garden and palace. [25]

We discussed the relations of these teachings under the topic of classification of doctrines and
will not go into them here. We should note that Shinran, viewing all teachings as some form of
expedient means of the Buddha for guiding people to enlightenment, does not condemn
people to hell. Because of the nature of the Vow, despite ones tortuous karmic evolution,
enlightenment will finally be attained. Shinran offered a hopeful and compassionate teaching,
embracing the most evil person. However, from the human side, lack of faith and true
understanding delays attainment and causes one to pass through various stages of suffering.

Karma functions in this context as a self-judgment. That is, we are born into a world which
conforms to the level of spiritual insight we cultivate. Shinran does not speculate on the
negative destinies. On the Compassionate side he states that the compassionate heart of the
Bravest of the World extends even to criminals of the highest degreee, blasphemers of the
Right Dharma, indeed, to those who are utterly devoid of any stock of merit. [26] Later he
writes also, If one should miss this opportunity through being beclouded by a veil of doubt,
one may have to wait in vain for another numberless kalpas. [27]

It is rare, according to Shinran, to meet the Dharma and attain true faith. On balance, Shinrans
teaching is an expression of great compassion and hope for all mankind. Though the Buddhas
compassion embraces us, our passion-ridden eyes cannot see. It is the mystery of life and
destiny that we can awaken to that truth. It is this wonder and mystery that inspired Shinran
as he saw it working in his life and strove to clarify and share it with others with all its
paradoxes.

V. Conclusion

We have tried to present in a brief way the general outline of Shinrans understanding of the
nature of human fulfillment. He relied on and made use of the traditional concepts that
evolved in Buddhist thought. He also had to respond to the question about what happened to
the person after death and how final enlightenment would be achieved. In our modern
situation people will have many questions about these views. However, Buddhism is not a
literalist, dogmatic tradition. We have to penetrate the spirit of the concepts and the intention
of Shinrans teachings, namely to inspire and bring hope to the people of this age.

Taken symbolically, there is important spiritual meaning to be gained from the cosmology and
view of religious life outlined by Shinran. He clearly indicates that true religious faith is not an
egocentric sentimentality, but is the basis for meaning and sharing with others. It implies a
spiritual community. He also indicates that religious symbols, though they have negative
features such as hells and realms of suffering or retribution, emphasize hope and compassion.
The negative symbols have developed in religious history along with heightened moral
consciousness and sometimes reflect a desire for revenge in the midst of conflict. It is to
Shinrans merit that, despite the difficulties and opposition he experienced, he did not invoke
these symbols to condemn or castigate his opponents.

Bibliography

Andrews, Allan A: The Teachings Essential for Rebirth (A Study of Genshins Ojoyoshu)

Hua, Tripitaka Master: A General Explanation of the Buddha Speaks of Amitabha Sutra

Matsubayashi, Hoshu: The Sukhavati Vyuha Sutra (Amidakyo)

Matsunaga, Daigan and Alicia: The Buddhist Concept of Hell

Notes

[1.] Daichidoron, p. 93 in Mochizuki Bukkyo Daijiten III, p. 2701

[2.] Yugashinjiron

[3.] Mochizuki, Bukkyo Daijiten p. 2702

[4.] See Mochizuki, Gokuraku II, pp. 1159-60

[5.] Shinshu Daijiten, I, p. 577

[6.] lbid

[7.] Shin Buddhist Translation Series I, Letters of Shinran: A Translation of Mattosho, p.41

[8.] lbid, pp. 49-50

[9.] Kyogyoshinsho Gaikan

[10.] Suzuki, Kyogyoshinsho, p. 176

[11.] Shinshushogyozensho I, 203

[12.] Shin Buddhism Translation Series, Notes On Once-calling and Many-calling, p. 34

[13.] Shin Buddhism Translation Series, Kyogyoshinsho III, chapter on Realization, p. 357

[14.] lbid., p. 360

[15.] Suzuki, p. 184

[16.] Suzuki, pp. 192-93

[17.] Shin Buddhism Translation Series, Kyogyoshinsho III, Chapter on Realization, p. 381

[18.] K. Yamamoto, Kikigaki, p. 122

[19.] K. Yamamoto, Kyogyoshinsho, p. 204

[20.] lbid., p. 206

[21.] lbid., p. 207

[22.] lbid., p. 209

[23.] lbid., p. 232

[24.] lbid., p. 258

[25.] lbid., p. 24L.

[26.] Suzuki, Kyogyoshinsho, p. 3

[27.] lbid., p. 4
Chapter 22

Shin Buddhism in the Modern Ethical Context

As we have noted earlier, worldwide social and intellectual problems have weakened the
spiritual influence of major world religions. Everywhere secularization, modernization,
industrialization have challenged traditional faiths to defend themselves on their own merits,
that is, in terms of their ability to enhance the quality of modern life.

Within the modern context, the Pure Land tradition with its apparent other-worldliness has
frequently provided critics of religion with a good example of the irrelevance of Buddhism.
However, the struggles of Jodo Shinshu against the lords of medieval Japan show that such
faith may not always be passive, weak in spirit, or incapable to taking a stand.

We must note also that early western students of Buddhism regarded it as an ethical religion.
However, Buddhism is not essentially a prescriptive ethical system, binding on all society,
though it has established precepts and disciplines as the basis for progress toward
enlightenment.

Shinran also stands within the general Buddhist tradition in advocating ethical action as an
aspect of spiritual or religious responsibility and responsiveness to the compassion one has
experienced. Ethical activity is an aspect of the living out of faith. Consequently, Shinran does
not lay down specific rules for behavior as a qualification for salvation or membership in the
community.

A further observation is necessary in approaching this subject. In our contemporary situation it

is common to hear people ask, what does your religion say about this or that problem?
Religious people find it difficult to come up with specific and precise answers based on their
tradition. We must understand, however, that all religious traditions, including Jodo Shinshu,
originated in the pre-modern period where our social and technological problem could not be
imagined or expected. The increasing scientific and secular complexity of modern life has
raised issues of human worth, dignity and welfare as well as global environmental concerns.

While we cannot expect precise and uncompromising fixed answers to all problems, the
spiritual traditions can assist in value formation and establishing priorities. Religious faith can
offer perspectives and insight into the human condition that will enable people to approach
problems more sensitively, openly and reciprocally. Truly religious persons will more share
insight rather than seek domination for their viewpoint, and they will be more cognizant of the
broad range of individual needs and circumstances.

Shinrans understanding of the unconditional, all-inclusive vision of Amidas compassion as it

illuminated his own passion-ridden ego provides a basis for the contribution of Shin
Buddhism to the contemporary dialogue. As we Shin Buddhists combine a deep awareness of
the working of the Vow in our own lives and a more competent grasp of the problems of our
world through being intelligently informed, we can join with others in common struggle to
secure the welfare of all beings. Despite our limited and seemingly petty individual efforts, we
will perceive the Great Compassion at work in our world and lives, thereby gaining a deeper
sense of life-meaning in an otherwise absurd world of despair. In such a context religious faith
enables us to retain our sense of human worth, despite the dehumanization that challenges
and undermines our most cherished values.

There are various issues which require attention in the discussion of Shin Buddhism in society.
These include consideration of the social implications of Pure Land Buddhism, Shinrans self-
understanding and religious orientation as the background for his ethical perspective and the
concept of the two truths, absolute and conventional which developed in Shin Buddhism to
correlate faith and social obligation.

Social Implications of Pure Land Buddhism

Though Pure Land Buddhism is frequently criticized for its other worldly, social passivity, its
teachings have implications which can be applied socially. The foundational story of the
creation of the Pure Land by Dharmakara Bodhisattva narrated in the Larger Pure Land Sutra
implies a judgment on the character of life in this world. The ancient king, surveying the mass
of suffering in the world, renounces his throne to devote himself to establish an ideal world
where all forms of suffering would be abolished.

What is socially significant in this story is that the kind abdicates his throne and recognizes
that political power alone is not sufficient to bring meaning and salvation to all beings.
Through this story, the self-sacrificing altruism of Mahayana Buddhism is clearly depicted
together with a social awareness that the highest endeavor is to establish ideal conditions for
the happiness and welfare of all beings.

The Primal Vows which are an essential element of the story teach that salvation and the
welfare of beings are not merely universal in scope but are indivisible. No one truly gains
liberation who does not work to share it with others. The story implies egalitarianism and
universality which are fundamental for vital social concern.

The Pure Land, though beyond this world, recognizes the importance of the environment in
fulfilling ideals. The Pure Land represents the ideal context for realizing enlightenment. The
activities of the Bodhisattva in establishing ideal conditions for enlightenment provides a
model for modern people to labor to improve society so that all people may have opportunity
to realize their potentials. It could also be applied to ecological thinking, motivating efforts for
a more healthy physical environment.

The Sutra itself shows great concern for moral conditions when it describes the effects of
wickedness. It declares that with the help of Buddha, these evils are abandoned and people
attain good.

In Japan, Honen established the Nembutsu as the sole practice leading to enlightenment
because it did not require a person to be rich, educated, wise, well traveled, or well disciplined
in religious practice or perfect in morality. Honen implicitly criticized the aristocratic elitism of
Japanese society in his time. As a consequence, his teaching was repressed and his followers
persecuted.

For Shinran, Pure Land teaching was presented as a matter of this world. Faith bestowed by
Amida gives certainty of future enlightenment now. We are freed from anxieties toward the
future. Shinrans understanding of the all-encompassing quality of Amidas compassion
released people from superstitious folk religion. He shows great interest in justice when he
criticizes the authorities for exiling Honen and his disciples, including Shinran as unjust and
without proper investigation or due process. In his Wasan (hymns), he quotes Prince Shotokus
constitution which states that if there is no impartiality on the part of the officials, the
complaints of the rich are resolved like throwing rocks into water, while for the poor it is like
throwing water into a rock.

When we survey the Pure Land tradition, we see that it is inspired by an ever-expanding
vision of Amidas compassion. It embodies a humane idealism which neither discriminates nor
rejects any person. It aims to inspire everyone to seek the highest welfare of others as the goal
of their own progress toward Buddhahood. Shinran caught the spirit of Pure Land teaching,
and it inspired him in his mission to communicate Amidas compassion to the masses in
Eastern Japan where he settled after exile.
Shinrans Self Understanding

When we turn to Shinrans self-understanding and religious orientation, we can observe his
deep personal involvement and awareness of the compassion of Amida. He declared that
Amidas work of five kalpas was for him, Shinran, alone. Awareness of Amidas compassion
grounded a strong self-concept and personality. On several occasions, he declared that no
matter what others think or say of him, he will follow the truth he has received.

In the light of Amidas compassion, he could see through the facade of social life, and declared
that all the world is a lie, a deception. Only the Nembutsu is the final truth. At the same time,
he recognized his own limits in making judgments. He states that if I knew good as Amida
knows good, then I would truly know good. If I knew evil as Amida knows evil, I would truly
know evil.

Shinran writes:

You should know that this shinjin (true faith) is bestowed through the compassionate means
of Sakyamuni, Amida, and all the Buddhas in the quarters. Therefore, you should not
disparage the teachings of other Buddhas or the people who perform good acts other than
nembutsu. Neither should you despise those who scorn and slander people of nembutsu;
rather you should have compassion and care for them [1]

On a deeper level Shinran suggests that faith and recitation of Nembutsu work a
transformation in the believer. As we have quoted above, the deepened awareness of self evil
which comes through the knowledge of Amidas compassionate Vow causes one to stop the
evils in which one may be engaged. The true mind of faith transforms the passions. In Letter
19, Shinran states:

Signs of long years of saying the nembutsu and aspiring for birth can be seen in the change in
the heart which had been bad and in the deep warmth for friends and fellow-practicers [2]

In general, as we survey the relation of ethics and faith in Shinrans letters and the Tannisho,
it is clear that Shinran urged ethical behavior. Such behavior is to be motivated by gratitude for
the salvation one has received through the Vow and in repayment of the kindness of ones
teachers and guides. Deep faith should bring about a transformation of character inspiring
proper behavior.
It is observable that Shinran does not advocate a repressive ethic emphasizing abstention from
any worldly activity simply because it is worldly. He is against calculating behavior that
weighs odds and implies egocentrism. Rather, he seems to suggest an ethic of displacement in
which contemplation of the Vow and the recitation of Nembutsu infuses an awareness of
Amidas compassion within the consciousness. In this way the believer assimilates to the ideal
of Amida, replacing negative forces by more positive ones within the personality. With proper
associations within the community there would be positive reinforcement.

There are two other aspects of Shinrans thought which indicate that his ethical concern does
not simply mean reinforcement of traditional ways. Particularly, Shinran appears to stress
Buddhist principles of human relations rather than Confucian. In Chapter five of the
Tannisho, Shinran declares that he never said Nembutsu even once out of filial piety. For
Shinran, Nembutsu has a deeper meaning than simply observing social obligation.

In Chapter six, Shinran declares that he does not even have a single disciple. As a teacher he
viewed himself on the same level spiritually with his followers, since they all alike received
faith through Amidas working. Even disagreements with the teacher and separation from him
does not place the errant disciple in spiritual jeopardy. Shinran rejected authoritarian control
over his disciples.

Shinran moves religion beyond formalism and status and sees it essentially as an altruistic
endeavor. However, there could be a basis for self-righteousness if a person were to believe
that he was doing good. Therefore, in order to avoid a competitive, self seeking under the
cover of piety, Shinran advances a realistic understanding of the self and its devious
manipulations. In his many confessions we glimpse the dialectic of the two types of deep faith
which we mentioned earlier.

It should be noted that the emphasis on gratitude in Shinrans writings has its basis in the
awareness of imperfection and defilement which reveals the impossibility of ever attaining the
necessary purity for achieving enlightenment through ones own efforts.

The recognition of human limitation, as well as awareness of a deeper reality underlying our
acts, is expressed in Chapter four of the Tannisho where Shinran describes two types of
compassion. There is the compassion of the sages or saints, also a self power compassion, and
the Pure Land compassion.
In this chapter Shinran recognizes that everyone has some aspiration to help others at some
time. The problem in doing good is not so much in knowing the good, but in knowing how to
do good. Shinran shows that when we act, as we must constantly do in the world, we must
understand the true nature of those acts. Our human acts never measure up to the standard of
Amidas perfect sincerity and truthfulness. However, we are not to give up doing good where
we can, but recognize that the final outcome does not lie with us. Compassionate action joins
with the compassionate heart of reality which we find in the depth of our own being. In effect,
we must live and act in the world with hopes but no expectations. We must have commitments
but no demands.

Shinrans awareness of the ultimacy in Amidas compassion expressed through the Nembutsu
and in his own life determined his approach to ethical issues. It also inspired a deep sense of
mission as indicated in his visionary experience in the Rokkakudo temple. In this vision, the
Bodhisattva Kannon appeared in the form of a monk. He promised to be Shinrans helpmate in
the work of embellishing the world by taking the form of a woman. The vision points towards
Shinrans marriage and his effort to reach the masses. To embellish the world refers to the
qualities of the Pure Land which the Bodhisattva realizes through his vows. Shinran aimed, in
a sense, to bring the Pure Land into this world through establishing a community of faith
motivated by the compassion of Amida which originally created the Pure Land.

Shinrans teaching offers a perspective of cosmic meaning and humble human relations and
actions. Shinrans self concept and religious orientation rejects legalism and communal modes
of social control. Rather, he has established a spiritual standpoint whereby the person seeks the
highest welfare of those about him. He does not begin with abstract rules and commands
applied without compromise. Shinrans approach encourages a flexibility and openness to
lifes situation and problems based in the awareness of Compassion and the use of reason to
discover alternatives for the greater good.

Faith and Social Obligation

In the course of Shinshu history, there was constant need to correlate the aspect of faith with
social obligations. Shinrans teaching was something misinterpreted by his followers to mean
that one could do as one pleased because Amida will save in any case. Some followers acted in
unethical ways, claiming such deeds had no effect on salvation. Opponents of Pure Land
teaching charged that it was an anti-social and subversive teaching.
Shinran struggled with this problem frequently in his letter. In Goshosokushu 4, Shinran
cautions his followers about forgetting the gratitude they owe to the many deities and
Buddhas or Bodhisattvas who aided them in many lives until they could encounter Amida
Buddhas Vow. They are to be compassionate toward those who obstruct the Nembutsu
teaching and say Nembutsu on their behalf quietly. They are to act responsibly and avoid
antinomian behavior which would bring blame on their teachers and become the excuse for
persecution by officials. In any case, the Nembutsu followers are never to retaliate against their
opponents, but pray for their eventual salvation.

Shinran never fully resolved this problem. The issue appears in the Tannisho and forms the
background for discussion of Karma in Tannisho, Chapter 13. Later successors also
undertook to define the relation of faith and social practice in the concept of two truths
absolute and conventional.

According to this principle, there are two aspects to our lives. Faith, the sphere of absolute
truth, represents the way to rebirth in the Pure Land. Conventional, secular or worldly truth
represents the requirements for living in society. As these areas of religious concern were
viewed till modern times, the aspect of absolute truth focuses on nurturing faith in ones mind,
awaiting rebirth in the Pure Land. This understanding reinforced the Other-Worldly character
of Pure Land teaching. Worldly truth was defined chiefly by Confucian ethical philosophy,
centering on filial piety and loyalty to ones lord or the five constants or virtues of
benevolence, righteousness, propriety knowledge and faithfulness.

In the course of Shin Buddhist history a variety of interpretations of the relation of the
religious and secular spheres of life emerged. Kakunyo, the third abbot exhorted followers to
store up faith inwardly, while externally observing the principles of Confucian ethic. His son
Zonkaku compared the two dimensions to the two wings of a bird or wheels of a cart. Both
aspects are mutually dependent on each other. The eighth abbot Rennyo at times asserted the
priority of the secular law or Confucian ethic and at others the priority of the Buddhadharma.

In the course of Shin history into modern times, a variety of interpretations of the relationship
of the two truths emerged. Generally there are five possibilities. These are:

(1) the religious and secular truth are one truth

(2) they are parallel truths

(3) they are mutually related

(4) religious truth influences the secular

(5) the secular truth is upaya or compassionate means

Each of these relationships represents an effort to clarify how a person of faith is to live in
society, and in this case, Japanese society which had many problems in opening itself to the
modern world. Prof. Takamaro Shigaraki critiques all the alternatives as leading to the
subservience of Buddhism to the social order. They all assume Confucian morality as the basic
ethical system, whereas Shinran did not regard the value system of society as ultimate or
absolute. For Shinran, the world is a lie and deceptive. Thus in the Kyogyoshinsho, Shinran
quotes a sutra which declares that the monk (for him, the person of faith) does not bow before
the King, or to his parents nor serve the six closely related persons such as mother, father,
elder, younger brothers, elder or younger sister.

As Shinran has shown us there is only one absolute the compassion of Amida which
transcends our limited human judgments of good and evil. Shinran relativizes our egoistic
claims, as well as all worldly value systems. While we may not find specific answers to
contemporary problems in his writings or in Buddhism as a whole, he provides us with an
understanding of ourselves and the world which can enable us to work toward more
compassionate, humane solutions in concert with those who also strive for the highest good.

Bibliography

Honganji International Center: Shinran in the Contemporary World

Notes

[1] Y. Ueda, trans., Letters of Shinran, p. 25.

[2] Ibid., p. 58.

Chapter 23

Shin Buddhism in the Modern Ethical Context

As we have noted earlier, worldwide social and intellectual problems have weakened the
spiritual influence of major world religions. Everywhere secularization, modernization,
industrialization have challenged traditional faiths to defend themselves on their own merits,
that is, in terms of their ability to enhance the quality of modern life.

Within the modern context, the Pure Land tradition with its apparent other-worldliness has
frequently provided critics of religion with a good example of the irrelevance of Buddhism.
However, the struggles of Jodo Shinshu against the lords of medieval Japan show that such
faith may not always be passive, weak in spirit, or incapable to taking a stand.

We must note also that early western students of Buddhism regarded it as an ethical religion.
However, Buddhism is not essentially a prescriptive ethical system, binding on all society,
though it has established precepts and disciplines as the basis for progress toward
enlightenment.

Shinran also stands within the general Buddhist tradition in advocating ethical action as an
aspect of spiritual or religious responsibility and responsiveness to the compassion one has
experienced. Ethical activity is an aspect of the living out of faith. Consequently, Shinran does
not lay down specific rules for behavior as a qualification for salvation or membership in the
community.

A further observation is necessary in approaching this subject. In our contemporary situation it

is common to hear people ask, what does your religion say about this or that problem?
Religious people find it difficult to come up with specific and precise answers based on their
tradition. We must understand, however, that all religious traditions, including Jodo Shinshu,
originated in the pre-modern period where our social and technological problem could not be
imagined or expected. The increasing scientific and secular complexity of modern life has
raised issues of human worth, dignity and welfare as well as global environmental concerns.

While we cannot expect precise and uncompromising fixed answers to all problems, the
spiritual traditions can assist in value formation and establishing priorities. Religious faith can
offer perspectives and insight into the human condition that will enable people to approach
problems more sensitively, openly and reciprocally. Truly religious persons will more share
insight rather than seek domination for their viewpoint, and they will be more cognizant of the
broad range of individual needs and circumstances.

Shinrans understanding of the unconditional, all-inclusive vision of Amidas compassion as it

illuminated his own passion-ridden ego provides a basis for the contribution of Shin
Buddhism to the contemporary dialogue. As we Shin Buddhists combine a deep awareness of
the working of the Vow in our own lives and a more competent grasp of the problems of our
world through being intelligently informed, we can join with others in common struggle to
secure the welfare of all beings. Despite our limited and seemingly petty individual efforts, we
will perceive the Great Compassion at work in our world and lives, thereby gaining a deeper
sense of life-meaning in an otherwise absurd world of despair. In such a context religious faith
enables us to retain our sense of human worth, despite the dehumanization that challenges
and undermines our most cherished values.

There are various issues which require attention in the discussion of Shin Buddhism in society.
These include consideration of the social implications of Pure Land Buddhism, Shinrans self-
understanding and religious orientation as the background for his ethical perspective and the
concept of the two truths, absolute and conventional which developed in Shin Buddhism to
correlate faith and social obligation.

Social Implications of Pure Land Buddhism

Though Pure Land Buddhism is frequently criticized for its other worldly, social passivity, its
teachings have implications which can be applied socially. The foundational story of the
creation of the Pure Land by Dharmakara Bodhisattva narrated in the Larger Pure Land Sutra
implies a judgment on the character of life in this world. The ancient king, surveying the mass
of suffering in the world, renounces his throne to devote himself to establish an ideal world
where all forms of suffering would be abolished.

What is socially significant in this story is that the kind abdicates his throne and recognizes
that political power alone is not sufficient to bring meaning and salvation to all beings.
Through this story, the self-sacrificing altruism of Mahayana Buddhism is clearly depicted
together with a social awareness that the highest endeavor is to establish ideal conditions for
the happiness and welfare of all beings.

The Primal Vows which are an essential element of the story teach that salvation and the
welfare of beings are not merely universal in scope but are indivisible. No one truly gains
liberation who does not work to share it with others. The story implies egalitarianism and
universality which are fundamental for vital social concern.

The Pure Land, though beyond this world, recognizes the importance of the environment in
fulfilling ideals. The Pure Land represents the ideal context for realizing enlightenment. The
activities of the Bodhisattva in establishing ideal conditions for enlightenment provides a
model for modern people to labor to improve society so that all people may have opportunity
to realize their potentials. It could also be applied to ecological thinking, motivating efforts for
a more healthy physical environment.

The Sutra itself shows great concern for moral conditions when it describes the effects of
wickedness. It declares that with the help of Buddha, these evils are abandoned and people
attain good.

In Japan, Honen established the Nembutsu as the sole practice leading to enlightenment
because it did not require a person to be rich, educated, wise, well traveled, or well disciplined
in religious practice or perfect in morality. Honen implicitly criticized the aristocratic elitism of
Japanese society in his time. As a consequence, his teaching was repressed and his followers
persecuted.

For Shinran, Pure Land teaching was presented as a matter of this world. Faith bestowed by
Amida gives certainty of future enlightenment now. We are freed from anxieties toward the
future. Shinrans understanding of the all-encompassing quality of Amidas compassion
released people from superstitious folk religion. He shows great interest in justice when he
criticizes the authorities for exiling Honen and his disciples, including Shinran as unjust and
without proper investigation or due process. In his Wasan (hymns), he quotes Prince Shotokus
constitution which states that if there is no impartiality on the part of the officials, the
complaints of the rich are resolved like throwing rocks into water, while for the poor it is like
throwing water into a rock.

When we survey the Pure Land tradition, we see that it is inspired by an ever-expanding
vision of Amidas compassion. It embodies a humane idealism which neither discriminates nor
rejects any person. It aims to inspire everyone to seek the highest welfare of others as the goal
of their own progress toward Buddhahood. Shinran caught the spirit of Pure Land teaching,
and it inspired him in his mission to communicate Amidas compassion to the masses in
Eastern Japan where he settled after exile.
Shinrans Self Understanding

When we turn to Shinrans self-understanding and religious orientation, we can observe his
deep personal involvement and awareness of the compassion of Amida. He declared that
Amidas work of five kalpas was for him, Shinran, alone. Awareness of Amidas compassion
grounded a strong self-concept and personality. On several occasions, he declared that no
matter what others think or say of him, he will follow the truth he has received.

In the light of Amidas compassion, he could see through the facade of social life, and declared
that all the world is a lie, a deception. Only the Nembutsu is the final truth. At the same time,
he recognized his own limits in making judgments. He states that if I knew good as Amida
knows good, then I would truly know good. If I knew evil as Amida knows evil, I would truly
know evil.

Shinran writes:

You should know that this shinjin (true faith) is bestowed through the compassionate means
of Sakyamuni, Amida, and all the Buddhas in the quarters. Therefore, you should not
disparage the teachings of other Buddhas or the people who perform good acts other than
nembutsu. Neither should you despise those who scorn and slander people of nembutsu;
rather you should have compassion and care for them [1]

On a deeper level Shinran suggests that faith and recitation of Nembutsu work a
transformation in the believer. As we have quoted above, the deepened awareness of self evil
which comes through the knowledge of Amidas compassionate Vow causes one to stop the
evils in which one may be engaged. The true mind of faith transforms the passions. In Letter
19, Shinran states:

Signs of long years of saying the nembutsu and aspiring for birth can be seen in the change in
the heart which had been bad and in the deep warmth for friends and fellow-practicers [2]

In general, as we survey the relation of ethics and faith in Shinrans letters and the Tannisho,
it is clear that Shinran urged ethical behavior. Such behavior is to be motivated by gratitude for
the salvation one has received through the Vow and in repayment of the kindness of ones
teachers and guides. Deep faith should bring about a transformation of character inspiring
proper behavior.
It is observable that Shinran does not advocate a repressive ethic emphasizing abstention from
any worldly activity simply because it is worldly. He is against calculating behavior that
weighs odds and implies egocentrism. Rather, he seems to suggest an ethic of displacement in
which contemplation of the Vow and the recitation of Nembutsu infuses an awareness of
Amidas compassion within the consciousness. In this way the believer assimilates to the ideal
of Amida, replacing negative forces by more positive ones within the personality. With proper
associations within the community there would be positive reinforcement.

There are two other aspects of Shinrans thought which indicate that his ethical concern does
not simply mean reinforcement of traditional ways. Particularly, Shinran appears to stress
Buddhist principles of human relations rather than Confucian. In Chapter five of the
Tannisho, Shinran declares that he never said Nembutsu even once out of filial piety. For
Shinran, Nembutsu has a deeper meaning than simply observing social obligation.

In Chapter six, Shinran declares that he does not even have a single disciple. As a teacher he
viewed himself on the same level spiritually with his followers, since they all alike received
faith through Amidas working. Even disagreements with the teacher and separation from him
does not place the errant disciple in spiritual jeopardy. Shinran rejected authoritarian control
over his disciples.

Shinran moves religion beyond formalism and status and sees it essentially as an altruistic
endeavor. However, there could be a basis for self-righteousness if a person were to believe
that he was doing good. Therefore, in order to avoid a competitive, self seeking under the
cover of piety, Shinran advances a realistic understanding of the self and its devious
manipulations. In his many confessions we glimpse the dialectic of the two types of deep faith
which we mentioned earlier.

It should be noted that the emphasis on gratitude in Shinrans writings has its basis in the
awareness of imperfection and defilement which reveals the impossibility of ever attaining the
necessary purity for achieving enlightenment through ones own efforts.

The recognition of human limitation, as well as awareness of a deeper reality underlying our
acts, is expressed in Chapter four of the Tannisho where Shinran describes two types of
compassion. There is the compassion of the sages or saints, also a self power compassion, and
the Pure Land compassion.
In this chapter Shinran recognizes that everyone has some aspiration to help others at some
time. The problem in doing good is not so much in knowing the good, but in knowing how to
do good. Shinran shows that when we act, as we must constantly do in the world, we must
understand the true nature of those acts. Our human acts never measure up to the standard of
Amidas perfect sincerity and truthfulness. However, we are not to give up doing good where
we can, but recognize that the final outcome does not lie with us. Compassionate action joins
with the compassionate heart of reality which we find in the depth of our own being. In effect,
we must live and act in the world with hopes but no expectations. We must have commitments
but no demands.

Shinrans awareness of the ultimacy in Amidas compassion expressed through the Nembutsu
and in his own life determined his approach to ethical issues. It also inspired a deep sense of
mission as indicated in his visionary experience in the Rokkakudo temple. In this vision, the
Bodhisattva Kannon appeared in the form of a monk. He promised to be Shinrans helpmate in
the work of embellishing the world by taking the form of a woman. The vision points towards
Shinrans marriage and his effort to reach the masses. To embellish the world refers to the
qualities of the Pure Land which the Bodhisattva realizes through his vows. Shinran aimed, in
a sense, to bring the Pure Land into this world through establishing a community of faith
motivated by the compassion of Amida which originally created the Pure Land.

Shinrans teaching offers a perspective of cosmic meaning and humble human relations and
actions. Shinrans self concept and religious orientation rejects legalism and communal modes
of social control. Rather, he has established a spiritual standpoint whereby the person seeks the
highest welfare of those about him. He does not begin with abstract rules and commands
applied without compromise. Shinrans approach encourages a flexibility and openness to
lifes situation and problems based in the awareness of Compassion and the use of reason to
discover alternatives for the greater good.

Faith and Social Obligation

In the course of Shinshu history, there was constant need to correlate the aspect of faith with
social obligations. Shinrans teaching was something misinterpreted by his followers to mean
that one could do as one pleased because Amida will save in any case. Some followers acted in
unethical ways, claiming such deeds had no effect on salvation. Opponents of Pure Land
teaching charged that it was an anti-social and subversive teaching.
Shinran struggled with this problem frequently in his letter. In Goshosokushu 4, Shinran
cautions his followers about forgetting the gratitude they owe to the many deities and
Buddhas or Bodhisattvas who aided them in many lives until they could encounter Amida
Buddhas Vow. They are to be compassionate toward those who obstruct the Nembutsu
teaching and say Nembutsu on their behalf quietly. They are to act responsibly and avoid
antinomian behavior which would bring blame on their teachers and become the excuse for
persecution by officials. In any case, the Nembutsu followers are never to retaliate against their
opponents, but pray for their eventual salvation.

Shinran never fully resolved this problem. The issue appears in the Tannisho and forms the
background for discussion of Karma in Tannisho, Chapter 13. Later successors also
undertook to define the relation of faith and social practice in the concept of two truths
absolute and conventional.

According to this principle, there are two aspects to our lives. Faith, the sphere of absolute
truth, represents the way to rebirth in the Pure Land. Conventional, secular or worldly truth
represents the requirements for living in society. As these areas of religious concern were
viewed till modern times, the aspect of absolute truth focuses on nurturing faith in ones mind,
awaiting rebirth in the Pure Land. This understanding reinforced the Other-Worldly character
of Pure Land teaching. Worldly truth was defined chiefly by Confucian ethical philosophy,
centering on filial piety and loyalty to ones lord or the five constants or virtues of
benevolence, righteousness, propriety knowledge and faithfulness.

In the course of Shin Buddhist history a variety of interpretations of the relation of the
religious and secular spheres of life emerged. Kakunyo, the third abbot exhorted followers to
store up faith inwardly, while externally observing the principles of Confucian ethic. His son
Zonkaku compared the two dimensions to the two wings of a bird or wheels of a cart. Both
aspects are mutually dependent on each other. The eighth abbot Rennyo at times asserted the
priority of the secular law or Confucian ethic and at others the priority of the Buddhadharma.

In the course of Shin history into modern times, a variety of interpretations of the relationship
of the two truths emerged. Generally there are five possibilities. These are:

(1) the religious and secular truth are one truth

(2) they are parallel truths

(3) they are mutually related

(4) religious truth influences the secular

(5) the secular truth is upaya or compassionate means

Each of these relationships represents an effort to clarify how a person of faith is to live in
society, and in this case, Japanese society which had many problems in opening itself to the
modern world. Prof. Takamaro Shigaraki critiques all the alternatives as leading to the
subservience of Buddhism to the social order. They all assume Confucian morality as the basic
ethical system, whereas Shinran did not regard the value system of society as ultimate or
absolute. For Shinran, the world is a lie and deceptive. Thus in the Kyogyoshinsho, Shinran
quotes a sutra which declares that the monk (for him, the person of faith) does not bow before
the King, or to his parents nor serve the six closely related persons such as mother, father,
elder, younger brothers, elder or younger sister.

As Shinran has shown us there is only one absolute the compassion of Amida which
transcends our limited human judgments of good and evil. Shinran relativizes our egoistic
claims, as well as all worldly value systems. While we may not find specific answers to
contemporary problems in his writings or in Buddhism as a whole, he provides us with an
understanding of ourselves and the world which can enable us to work toward more
compassionate, humane solutions in concert with those who also strive for the highest good.

Bibliography

Honganji International Center: Shinran in the Contemporary World

Notes

[1] Y. Ueda, trans., Letters of Shinran, p. 25.

[2] Ibid., p. 58.

The Future of Jodo Shinshu in America

Part I: The Present Situation

by Peter Hata, West Covina Buddhist Temple

Over the past years, I can remember many discussions with various ministers, board members
and others concerning the challenges facing our temple and other temples in regards
particularly to declining membership. There have also been references to this subject in various
newspapers and by various Buddhist writers/lecturers. This month, Id like to start a series of
articles that try to put together some of the many ideas and opinions Ive come across. This is
by no means meant as an exhaustive reference; its merely an attempt to present some of the
information that is already out there in the hopes of stimulating thought amongst our Sangha
about this critical topic. I invite any and all who have additional information or opinions to
put it in writing by submitting it to the Gateway staff directly, or dropping it in the
suggestion box that we are adding to our services very shortly.

How many of you saw the article that ran in the Religion section of the Saturday, Jan. 27,
1996 LA Times? The headline read Buddhist Group Beset by Membership Drop, Tension
Between Sexes. The subhead was, Conflict: Younger pastors blame declining numbers on
doctrinal rigidity. Women see mostly male hierarchy as insensitive. In my opinion, though the
article was technically about the BCA (Buddhist Churches of America) or Nishi branch of our
Jodo Shinshu sect, it could just as easily have been about our Higashi Honganji North
American District.

The crux of the article was that the BCAs membership has dropped from 50,000 families in
1960 to only 17,755 families in 1995, leaving the BCA only about 1/3 the size of what it once
was. This drop has led to a shortage of funds and to the outright closure of some temples. The
article states, Younger ministers blame the membership problems on the reluctance of the
churchs aging leaders to update doctrines and policies to make them relevant to third and
fourth-generation Japanese-Americans. Women complain that the male-dominated hierarchy
is insensitive to their desire to become equal partners in church affairs. The article points out
that opinions on these issues seem to be divided along generational and gender lines.

Another problem mentioned in the article is that there is a discrepancy between the Jodo
Shinshu of Shinran and Jodo Shinshu as actually practiced here in America. The article states,
To many Japanese-Americans, Jodo Shinshu has become stale, better known for its ritual
commemoration of dead ancestors than for its doctrine of salvation by grace.

The article points out that some ministers, such as Mill Valley minister Rev. William Masuda,
think that the key to saving the BCA is to become open to non-Japanese members. The article
states that as many as 70% of Japanese-Americans are marrying outside the community
today. However, though it would seem that this would open the door for many non-
Japanese to become church members, in reality, few join because the message of the church
doesnt draw them in.

Interestingly, I also recently came across a copy of an article in the Sacramento Bee on Rev. Bob
Oshita of the Buddhist Church of Sacramento. Rev. Bob, as you may know, recently spoke at
our Spring Ohigan. The article on him essentially parallels the Times article, citing many of the
same BCA problems.

The Bee article states that the founding issei generation is dying off, yet young Japanese-
Americans are not flocking to Buddhist churches, and the BCA is in conflict about how to
turn things around. In the article, the Rev. Ken Tanaka of Alameda county says Were at a
crossroads; the BCA is perceived as a Japanese ethnic fortress and now things are changing.
Rev. Tanaka states that Sansei, for example, are increasingly assimilated into American life,
intermarrying, feeling out of place in churches where ministers speak only limited English and
do little to reach out to other ethnic groups. The article also states, as does the Times article,
that the political infighting is largely along generational and sometimes gender lines.

What are some of the possible solutions cited in the Bee article? Ralph Sugimoto, the BCA lay
president, says We need to go with the times. We need to appeal to interracial couples. Rev.
Tanaka feels that the training of new ministers should be done entirely in America; ministerial
candidates should not be required to study in Japan. In the article, Rev. Oshita himself says
that younger Japanese-Americans usually dont speak Japanese and are increasingly moving
away from Japanese traditions. Half of the marriages at the BCS involve interracial or
interfaith couples; 10% of their membership are of non Japanese ancestry.

Still, even with all the problems, Rev. Oshita states that he is optimistic that the essence of
Buddhism can be made accessible to Americans, and to a generation of Japanese-Americans
that knows only English.
Thus, both articles basically say the same thing: Membership has drastically shrunk, and that
the shrinking membership is due to several key factors:

1) The out-of-date doctrines and policies of aging leaders.

2) A male-dominated hierarchy insensitive to the desire of women to be equal partners.

3) Differing opinions about what and how to change that are divided along generational and
gender lines.

4) That Jodo Shinshu has become stale; often little more than rituals of ancestor worship.

5) That the BCA churches are perceived as Japanese ethnic fortresses, but that those ethno-
cultural elements are losing their value with younger J-As who are moving away from such
traditions.

The solutions mentioned in the articles are:

1) Go with the times: Open the doors to non-Japanese; reach out to other ethnic groups.

2) What is needed are American ministers trained in America who can relate Buddhism to
Americans.

3) The control of American temples should be by American Buddhists. This should include
younger members, women, and members who are not of Japanese ancestry.
The Future of Jodo Shinshu in America

Part II: The ideas of Dr. Haneda and Dr. Bloom

by Peter Hata

As we saw last month in Part I, recent articles in theLA TimesandSacramento Beeidentified

several key factors influencing the decline in membership in our Jodo Shinshu temples.
Reading both theTimesandBeearticles was for me, in many ways, like deja vu.

Back in 1992, I wrote a couple of articles in which I quoted at length from lectures given by Dr.
Nobuo Haneda, noted Buddhist lecturer and author of December Fan, The Evil Person
and Heard By Me. Dr. Hanedas comments seemed to foreshadow those that we hear today.
Not only does his vision of the future for Shinshu and the need for change appear to be
in line with the statements from the Times and Bee articles, but he helps us understand why
change is necessary: Because our tradition comes from Shinran Shonin, himself a radical who
broke away from the meaningless, out-of-date traditions of his time.

In the Gateway article, Dr. Haneda Speaks at Higashi Hoonko, he says:in order to insure a
future, we must first make a distinction between two kinds of tradition in our temples. The
living tradition of Buddhism is self-examination. Self-examination is the process of examining
and accepting our shortcomings, our self-centeredness and arrogance. It is a humbling
experience, but one which also leads the way to the desired attitude of a student, a seeker. As
such, self-examination is completely non-ethnic and non-cultural. It is universal. This is
absolutely critical to Dr. Haneda. Buddhism is either for everyone, or it is worthless, he
saidThe dead tradition is made up of things like chanting and ancestor worship. These he
cited as only secondary priorities. Of these two traditions, it is the living tradition (self-
examination) that Dr. Haneda feels we need to promote in our temples. It is universal,
dynamic, practical, and is the essence of Buddhism. Thus it is the one thing that can foster the
survival and even the spread of Buddhism in America.

However, Dr. Haneda had not meant that practices like chanting and ancestor worship be
abandoned, just that they are secondary priorities. To quote again from the article:

They are like containers, he said. Whatever importance they have is only because they hold
or perhaps stimulate something that is importantthat is the living tradition, the process of
self-examination. All Buddhists who are serious about the Dharma clearly differentiate the
Living Tradition from the Dead Tradition. An example is Shinran Shonin: he was a harsh critic
of the dead tradition, a radical negator and destroyer of the dead tradition. But this was out of
deep respect for the Living Tradition. It was not for the sake of negation, but out of deep
respect for the Living Tradition.

In the second Gateway article, featured in Special Obon Program, Dr. Haneda challenged us to
redefine our priorities, to place the emphasis in our temples not on the ethnic and cultural
elements, but on the essence of Buddhism, which of course is the living tradition. To quote
the article:

This is the essence of Buddhism. It is the spirit of the student, the seeker. It is also the creative
spirit. The living tradition comes directly from Sakyamuni himself, from his enlightenment
which was the insight into the truth of impermanence.

In his talk, Dr. Haneda further explained that there is a real difference between culture and
religion: Culture is not self-negating. It is something that we enjoy. In religion, on the other
hand, the self is challenged and negated. Culture can give us amusement, comfort and
pleasure but only Dharma can give us deep joy, rebirth and a fundamental spiritual
transformation.

In concluding his talk, he called the living tradition of Buddhism a wonderful treasure, and
declared If we hide it in our ethnic container, it is a crime. It is the living water that can
quench the thirst of all humanity. It can liberate all the people in the world.

To Dr. Haneda, an ongoing problem is that the Shinshu Buddhist tradition here is controlled by
Japanese headquarters. He says, What is crucially needed is a July 4th Independence Day in
our Buddhist calendar too. It is our problem, we have to do something about it ourselves
there is precedence for this independence Christianity, Judaism, Catholicism they all
became independent from the country of origin. This is the inevitable way if Buddhism is to
survive in this country.

***

Dr. Alfred Bloom, Prof. Emeritus of Religion, Univ. of Hawaii, echoes in many ways the
feelings of Dr. Haneda. To Dr. Bloom, the problems we see in our temples seem to point the
finger as it were at the entangling web of tradition and subordination imposed by the
Japanese religious perspective, to quote from his series of articles entitled Shin Buddhism in
Modern Culture, published on theShin Buddhism Networkhomepage. Tradition, he says,
should be a stepping stone to deeper insight and experience, and not a barrier to growth.
Tradition should not become ingrown, but should be out-growing as it correlates to the
ongoing timeswe should consider Buddhism in the following way: Buddhism is a
movement, not a position; a process, not a result; a growing tradition, not a fixed revelation.

Dr. Bloom goes so far as to identify what he calls the Japanese Problem. How the Japanese
ethnic and cultural traditions have stood in the way of progress, of the true process of renewal,
self-questioning and growth that is the essence of Shinshu. He writes, On or Giri duty or
obligation has operated among the Japanese-Americans as a basic ethical foundation for
human relations. This on-giri relationship is essentially conservative. It can be stultifying in
personal groupsthe individual must be more conscious of his external relations rather than
what one may perceive in their inner awareness. There is a tendency to be conformist,
unquestioning, and prudent.

Another aspect of this problem, says Dr. Bloom, is that racial homogeneity, reinforced by
language and culture, makes it difficult for non-Japanese to enter the heart of the Buddhist
tradition.

Echoing Dr. Hanedas and others call for American-trained ministers who can comfortably and
confidently communicate the Dharma to Americans, Dr. Bloom writes, Since most Buddhist
ministers in Hawaii are recruited from Japan, a large percentage of them have problems
speaking or relating easily in English and are often ill-at-ease in the ways of western culture.
To Dr. Bloom, one can begin to wonder if in fact Buddhism is only a Japanese religion, as the
appearance of its membership might indicate. Or is it, indeed, a world religion as indicated by
its historic process of spreading from India through all of Asia.

Somehow, in America, Dr. Bloom observes, Buddhism must develop its own distinct form
as a part of western culture, as, in Japan in the sixth century, it began to develop its own
distinct form as a part of Japanese culture. Though twentieth century Buddhism in America is
indebted to Japanese sources and inspiration, it should not be entirely controlled from that
source. Of course, there have already been attempts to adapt Buddhism to the west but, as Dr.
Bloom points out, these were carried out only superficially, in piecemeal fashion. Change
and adaptation were limited to alterations in church services, music, hymnology, pews, and
temple construction. The crucial internal adaptation in thought and communication with
the broader culture of the American community is only now beginning to occur.
Furthermore, like Dr. Haneda, Dr. Bloom makes a plea for us to question tradition: If tradition
does not manifest and make clear the truth, what is tradition? For religion to remain vital, its
followers must keep the question of truth open and uppermost in their considerations. Of
course, as Dr. Bloom points out, questioning Buddhist traditions is indeed difficult because,
Buddhism, wherever it appears, Mahayana or Theravada, Southeast Asia, Japan or Hawaii, is
highly traditional and this traditionalism is one of the factors that makes it difficult for
Buddhism to change in the face of modern problems. However, says Dr. Bloom, to question a
religious tradition does not mean disrespect, but, instead, a deeper respect in an attempt to
understand and appreciate deeply the roots which brought that tradition into being.

Despite the challenges however, Dr. Bloom, like Dr. Haneda is optimistic, basing his optimism
on the timeless and liberating truth that is the essence of Buddhism. He states, I believe that,
despite its past experience and history, Buddhism in America stands at the threshold of a new
eraBuddhism and in particular Shin Buddhism has the opportunity to become free, to
chart new paths for those who are Shin Buddhist by inheritance, as well as those who are
attracted to the teachings, thought, and the existential meaningfulness of Shinran Shonin. That
existential meaningfulness is rooted in the life story of Shinran, of his personal, spiritual
struggle which bears such strong parallels to the deep personal struggles, the alienation and
sense of loss and failure of modern men and women.
The Future of Jodo Shinshu in America

Part III: Why Shinshu?

by Peter Hata

In Part I, I quoted from articles in the LA Times and Sacramento Beenewspapers which
described the overall decline in membership in our Jodo Shinshu temples, some reasons for the
decline, and some possible solutions.

In Part II, I quoted from both Dr. Haneda and Dr. Bloom, two contemporary Buddhist writer/
lecturers who feel passionately about the need for certain changes in our temples to reverse
these trends.

However, before we go any further, there is a question that needs to be addressed, a question
you yourself may be thinking, which is, Why all this fuss about the decline in membership in
our temples? Or to put it another way, Why should we even care about the fate Jodo
Shinshu?

With all the turmoil and upheaval we see in our world today a fact that is evident from
watching the news on any given night perhaps you and I might be more interested in Jodo
Shinshu if it could promise us some sort of peace of mind. Most religions do indeed attract
many followers with just such a promise. Buddhism however, is different. As we saw last
month in the excerpts from Dr. Haneda, the essence of all Buddhist traditions the living
tradition is self-examination. This is the process of examining and accepting our
shortcomings, our self-centeredness and arrogance. It is a humbling experience Dr. Haneda
also clarified that the process ofself-examination comes directly from Sakyamuni himself,
from hisenlightenment which was the insight into the truth of impermanence.

Impermanence, of course, means change; that you, me, all of our loved ones, indeed every
living thing, is constantly changing and, someday, will perish.

Thus it is clear that Buddhism, and perhaps Shin Buddhism in particular, does not, per se, offer
peace of mind. Dr. Bloom explains why (from Shin Buddhism in Modern Culture): Since
peace of mind is merely egoistic satisfaction, it cannot be the primary value and purpose of
religionIt is in this way that Shin Buddhism speaks differently to modern man. As he
explains: From its beginnings, more than 2,500 years ago, Buddhism has been a search for
truth. It was Siddharthas goal to break through the veil of delusion that blinded humanity to
things as they really areBuddhism is areligion of enlightenment.

To put it another way, the reason Buddhism doesnt promise us peace of mind is simply
because the fundamental truth or Dharma of Buddhism is impermanence. If you accept the
reality of the Dharma, then peace of mind or comfort can only be a dream or illusion.
However, as Rev. Sen-ei Tsuge has said (Oct 93 Gateway), The point is not to get rid of the
pain. That is impossible. Rather, it is to live with the pain, but to turn the focus inward. To
achieve this is to attain a kind of rebirthKill the ignorance and be reborn in the truth. Then
live with the truth. Thus, rather than promises of peace of mind, Jodo Shinshu actually
presents us with a kind of challenge. The challenge, as Rev. Tsuge stated, is to Leave the
comfort of your daily life and awaken to the truth.

The answer to the inevitable question of Why would anyone want to accept such a strange
challenge? is that, though the Buddhist self-examination is a humbling experience, it also
leads the way to the rebirth Rev. Tsuge talks about, and to what Dr. Haneda calls the
desired attitude of a student, a seekerThis is the essence of Buddhism. It is the spirit of the
student, the seeker. It is also the creative spirit. Awakening through self-examination to the
true nature of our ego-selves, and to the reality of impermanence breaking the veil of
delusion as Siddhartha did is necessary because only then can we awaken to the Dharma
and discover the true joy in living. And as Dr. Haneda states, only Dharma can give us deep
joy, rebirth and a fundamental spiritual transformation.

I think its important here to clarify a couple of points. The first is that, as Rev. Tsuge had said,
we dont permanently destroy our egos, nor can we ever permanently get rid of the pain. We
see the true nature of our evil or self-centered motives, the truth of impermanence, and that
acknowledgment, that recognition or acceptance itself is what can lead to a transformation and
spiritual rebirth. Another critical point is that, although at first Jodo Shinshu seems
preoccupied with self-evil, this does not in fact lead to a guilt-laden, depressed state of mind.
The reason is because, as Dr. Bloom remarks, Buddhism links the quest for truth with the
development of the compassionate heart, the heart of concern for all beingsIn Buddhism,
compassion and wisdom are inseparable. Again, remembering that the fundamental truth is
impermanence, it is clear that all of us are sufferingor eventually will suffer. Buddhism simply
doesnt allow us the luxury of self-pity.

Those of you Baby Boomers might recall the 60s phrase Im okay, youre okay. Actually,
while there is merit to that thought, the Shinshu version would probably be Im messed up
(e.g., self-centered, judgmental, impatient, fallible, arrogant)but so are you. Thus, Shinrans
and Jodo Shinshus perspective goes beyond our normal view of interpersonal relationships
because, as Dr. Bloom points out, it understands that true relations with others only arise
when we realize that all our actions are infected by our ego-concern.

So what is the answer to the question why should we care about Jodo-Shinshu? It is the
same as the answer to the question of why someone would accept the challenge of Buddhism
to awaken to the truth. It concerns the kind of change-of-heart or positive transformation
that the living tradition of Jodo Shinshu self-examination has the power to effect in our
attitudes.

One of these positive changes is that, as we recognize that not only are we messed up, but
that everyone else is as well, this has the social consequence of reducing our judgmental and
arrogant tendencies in our relations with others. It can help bring us together. It can help bring
families, communities, perhaps even nations together. Certainly it could make for a stronger
Sangha at each temple.

Dr. Bloom writes: It increases our ability to accept others as they are, when we know what we
truly areOnce we recognize this, we can approach conflict and misunderstanding knowing
that we too have contributed to it as much as has our opponent. With such awareness, we will
be more disposed to seek mutual understanding, rather than self-justification. We will seek
conciliation, rather than blameAs the awareness of evil opens to the awareness of
compassion, there is a liberation and freeing of the spirit.

Clearly, Buddhism can improve inter-personal relationships. As Dr. Bloom puts it, Shinrans
religious philosophy and life may well be termed the religion beyond good and evil which
means giving up the conscious moralistic distinction of good and evil as the means of
comparing ourselves with others (where the comparison is usually favorable to us). In such a
religious philosophy and life, rather than being a barrier or division, religion becomes a force
to unite and bring people together.

Finally, Shin Buddhism can help in regards to what is often termed our most important
asset, which is our youth. Dr. Bloom states, What is needed for youth and society today is
not a society of repression or law and order, but a society with positive ideals in the process of
fulfillment, a process which offers its participants a deep sense of life affirmation and
worthwhileness. It is such a process that is Shin Buddhism.
One last note. Before you or I start to think, Well, that sounds fineJodo Shinshu is just the
ticket to fix all the evils and problems out there, we must remember that the living tradition
of Jodo Shinshu the process of self-examination is really challenging us to awaken to our
true selves, not someone elses. As I fondly remember our former minister Rev. (now Rinban)
Nori Ito once writing, Buddhism is not a religion to fix others; it is a religion to fix ourselves.
The Future of Jodo Shinshu in America

Part IV: The Mahayana Mission

by Peter Hata

Last month, we saw that the relevance of Jodo Shinshu to us today lies in its power to effect a
positive transformation in us, bringing deep meaning and joy into our lives. But is that the
ultimate purpose of our practice of Jodo Shinshu? Is it simply for our own benefit?

During the original North American Dobokai program of 1991 to 1993 (dobokai means
friends of the Dharma), introduced here in the U.S. by Bishop Sato, participants were
encouraged to catch the cold of Buddhism and pass it on. In other words, after weve
awakened to the teachings, we should find ways to share them with others. Initially of course,
we should do whatever might further our own personal understanding of the teachings of
Buddhism. This would include attending Sunday Services, going to retreats, reading books on
Buddhism, etc. However, the ultimate end of our study and practice of Buddhism is not just to
achieve our own awakening. It is actually to help everyone else achieve theirs.

This idea of sharing the teaching with others is part of the Mahayana Buddhist tradition, from
which our Jodo Shinshu tradition has evolved. As Dr. Bloom points out (in Shin Buddhism in
Modern Culture), All world religions attempt to share their teaching with all humanity.
There is no world religion which is not in some way missionary. Mahayana Buddhism is
essentially a missionary religion and this impetus appears in Shinrans writings, particularly
his emphasis on the phrase Jishin Kyoninshin, which means essentially to share ones faith
with others.

Although it might at first seem to be a big stretch to go from working for our own
awakening to working for everyone elses, it is actually not a stretch at all. This is because, as
Dr. Bloom has said, Compassion and wisdom are inseparableno one truly gains liberation
who does not work to share it with others. In other words, we cannot be awakened without
also acquiring compassion. The Buddhist awakening and the simultaneous embodiment of
compassion is thus the essence of finding meaning and true joy in life.

The process of sharing the teachings with others might be termed the Bodhisattva path. Dr.
Bloom explains that This is a path where a person starts seeking his own salvation
(salvation means awakening Ed.) and ends by rejecting it until all can be saved. The
Bodhisattva dedicates himself to study and knowledge in order to provide or open the way to
salvation for all beings.

If we take the words all beings to mean any living thing other than ourselves, a modern-day
Bodhisattva would seem to have an almost unlimited range of causes he or she could
dedicate their energies towards. This could range from those very close to home, such as a
persons own loved ones, to worldwide causes such as helping to save the environment. In a
similar way, if the membership of a Buddhist temple came together to work for the
advancement of a certain cause or causes, it would in effect be acting as a single Bodhisattva.
The most appropriate cause or action for a temple would logically seem to be some form of
outreach into the immediate community.

However, in our Jodo Shinshu temples, it is clear that historically, very little has been done in
the way of community outreach. Some reasons for this lack of outreach were given in
previous installments, such as the tendency in our temples to promote what Dr. Haneda calls
the dead traditions or container aspect (ancestor worship, chanting, etc.), rather than the
living tradition or water (self-examination). The dead traditions mainly appeal to those of
Japanese descent; the living tradition appeals to all.

Another reason might be the way that using on or giri duty or obligation as the basic
ethical foundation for human relations makes Japanese and Japanese-Americans act in
essentially conservative ways. As Dr. Bloom writes, There is a tendency to be conformist,
unquestioning, and prudent. Certainly, a strong reason for the lack of outreach must be the
fact that most ministers, being from Japan, are, as Dr. Bloom states, often ill-at-ease in the
ways of western culture, and so are reluctant to take on the challenge of reaching out into the
community at large.

In any case, despite the historical lack of outreach, many forward-thinking Jodo Shinshu
Buddhists feel that today we stand at the threshold of a new era, one that holds a great deal of
promise for the spread of Buddhism. This optimism might at first seem curious, given the
tremendous problems and challenges presented by our contemporary society. But as Dr. Bloom
observes, There is a great opportunity within the context of religious freedom to share the
Buddhist insights and understanding of life with people in all walks of life, such as we have
never had before. Despite the small number which we represent in society, there is,
nevertheless, an enormous interest in Buddhism. Shin Buddhism itself attracts people when
they are able to study it for itself in Shinrans writings or modern expositions.
Furthermore, although it seems paradoxical, it may be that this optimism is actually due in
part to the gravity of the problems we face today, and not in spite of them. In other words, the
greater the difficulties in our interpersonal relationships single-parent families, domestic
violence, drive-by shootings, racial tensions, etc., the greater are the problems in our world
today. And thus, the greater the need for and relevance of Jodo Shinshu.

With this in mind, Dr. Bloom states, the sense of mission needs to be developed in a more
outgoing articulation of the ideals, values, and potential of Buddhism to deal with the problem
of life. In essence, this is a kind of call to outreach. But what does it mean to outreach in a
Buddhist sense? If we accept that the ultimate end of our study and practice is not so much to
achieve our own awakening, but to help others achieve theirs in other words, some form of
outreach then how do we outreach Buddhistically?

Interestingly, there do appear to be some guidelines for Buddhist outreach. Dr. Bloom points
out: We must emphasize, particularly as exemplified in Chapter IV of (Shinrans) Tannisho,
that the important point is non-egoistic action, action which is not an instrument merely for
advancing the self but which is action that reveals the compassion of the Buddha. This
perception supplies a major consideration in determining in our own time what actions are
appropriate to a Shin Buddhist. I believe that one important determination would be what
does that action do to bring meaning into other peoples lives? In other words, do our actions
enhance the lives of those around us?

Thus, the guidelines for Buddhistic outreach center around the model of the Bodhisattva as
one who dedicates himself or herself to study and knowledge in order to provide or open the
way to awakening for all beings. As Dr. Bloom writes, The activities of the Bodhisattva in
establishing ideal conditions for enlightenment provides a model for modern people to labor
to improve society so that all people may have opportunity to realize their potentials. Seen
this way, Buddhistic outreach involves finding ways to spread the teachings; in essence,
finding ways to pass on the gift of Buddhism to all people in an effort to enhance their lives.
But it could also involve almost any effort that is positive and life-affirming, such as working
to preserve our environment, or helping people lead more healthy lives.

Of course, one of the keys to the success both of any kind of outreach and certainly to the very
future of Shinshu itself is that we must involve our youth. As Dr. Bloom so eloquently states,
We must encourage our youth, not simply to replicate the past we knew, but to chart new
paths in the new age. Through the youth we must enter the information age and begin to think
of Shin Buddhism without borders, beyond ethnic and language differentiations. We must
become an educating community that opens the minds of our members, our youth, the
world.

Above all, as Dr. Bloom emphasizes, it must be recognized and understood that Jodo
Shinshu, as a Buddhist tradition grounded in universal human experience, is a World Religion.
It is not merely a Japanese religion, despite the fact that native Japanese or Japanese-Americans
are its major constituency. Accidents of history should not obscure the meaning of a teaching
or the mission of a movement. To Dr. Bloom, Unless truth and compassion the basic
essentials of faith are absolutely comprehensive, they are neither the truth nor real
compassion. Dr. Haneda put it even more bluntly when he said, Buddhism is either for
everyone or it is worthless.

There is one final thing we should try to keep in mind in our attempts at outreach. As Dr.
Bloom explains, Shinran shows that when we act, as we must constantly do in the world, we
must understand the true nature of those acts. Our human acts never measure up to the
standard of Amidas perfect sincerity and truthfulness. However, we are not to give up doing
good where we can, but recognize that the final outcome does not lie with usIn effect, we
must live and act in the world with hopes but no expectations.

As we awaken to a deep awareness of compassion, we can join with others in the common
struggle to secure the welfare of all beings. There will, of course, be times when we will be
discouraged and our actions, however well-intentioned, may fail or seem trivial. However,
through the continued and enthusiastic study and practice of Jodo Shinshu Buddhism, we can
together all become Bodhisattvas and, by uniting with the infinite power of compassion,
share the gift of Buddhism with all beings.
The Future of Jodo Shinshu in America

Part V: 21st Century Buddhism

by Peter Hata

In these Future of Jodo Shinshu articles, Ive tried to present the ideas of some of the most
respected and knowledgeable Buddhist ministers, lecturers, writers and lay leaders in America
regarding the challenges Buddhist temples in America must meet if they are to survive and
grow into the 21st century. This final installment will present some of the specific changes they
and others have suggested, as well as some of my own. But before I list these changes, Id like
to put them into their proper perspective.

At the recent Board of Directors Seminar, Bishop Imai asked some hard questions of our
leaders: What is the role of a templeWhat is its raison dtre, direction and what do we do
about declining membership?It is the Board of Directors responsibility to have concern over
these issues. He also asked, Why become a Higashi Honganji member?Its your
responsibility to find your own raison dtre. We all must receive the teaching, or there is no
meaning.

I think what Bishop Imai is saying is, we should try to keep in mind that we are members of a
Buddhist temple, not a social club, Japanese cultural group, or place for weddings and
funerals. That is not to say we cannot socialize or enjoy our culture, etc. These elements are
enjoyable and important. Its a matter of emphasis. Cultural elements, etc. are, as Dr. Haneda
has said, containers; whatever importance they have is only because they hold or perhaps
stimulate something that is importantthat is the living tradition, the process of self-
examination.

This leads me to what I feel is a crucial point. I believe that the future of our temples rests on
education. And that we should start with our own self-education. This includes attending
services, study classes, seminars and retreats. As was detailed in Part IV of this series, The
Mahayana Mission, education, in the Buddhist sense, can lead to the awakening of a deep
awareness of compassion. If our Sangha can do this together, we can, as Dr. Bloom has said,
become an educating community that opens the minds of our members, our youth, the
world. I feel this could become the rallying cry of all Shin Buddhists who are concerned
about its future in America. And, in the 21st century, perhaps the word Sangha can even take
on a new and wonderful global meaning.
As members of a Buddhist temple, we should become the educating community mentioned
above. We should all be dobokai, or friends of the Dharma. It has been my experience that
when people have caught the cold of Buddhism, that rather than complaining about this or
that, people become energized and creative, and actually look for ways they can contribute.
And what our temple really needs is our energy and creativity, our talents and commitment,
not so much our money.

What should we do with all that energy? Lets put our collective energy together and
brainstorm ways to redefine and reinvent the communication of Buddhism. And lets not limit
ourselves to the old ways of doing things. As Dr. Bloom suggests, We need to constantly re-
examine anew the meaning of and the communication of Jodo Shinshu in our modern
world, just as Shinran did in his. Lets find new creative ways to make Buddhism meaningful
and accessible, and perhaps even compelling, to our youth, and to people of all ethnic
backgrounds. If we can do that, well also build our membership.

Now, some specific examples of changes:

The need for English services was detailed in Part I of this series; certainly, its time for Shin
Buddhist services to change to reflect the language and culture of America. For example, weve
already tried English sutra reading, but I believe we can and should try even more things,
and in particular, try to find new ways of communicating the Dharma. Just as an example, I
think many would find it fascinating and instructive to search the internet for Buddhist
websites and compare and contrast them with regards to their presentation of Buddhist
teachings. The intent here is not to criticize other traditions but to gain insight into our own
tradition by juxtaposing it with others. The hope is that we can perhaps discover the universal
element in all traditions. This could be done as part of a sermon, or during a discussion group.

Overall, a guiding principle we can use to ease the implementation of any change is to think in
terms of inclusion rather than exclusion. As Bishop Sato once said, widen the circle of
Dharma.

Finally, regarding our services, American-born and educated Shin ministers are sorely needed.
What can we do to increase their numbers? Basically, we American Buddhists must
systematically work to encourage youth to consider the Jodo Shinshu ministry as a rewarding
life-option. A district-wide committee could be formed specifically for this purpose. We cant
wait for or rely on Honzan (our Japan-based headquarters) to do this. See the next section for
more ideas on this subject.
Some ideas from Mary Matsuda of Kaneohe Higashi Honganji, Hawaii:

Mary is the chairperson of Sangha 2020, which is a small group of forward-thinking Shinshu
Buddhists (from various Hawaii temples) who are working hard to find solutions to the
problems facing our temples today. I met Mary recently and had a discussion with her (and
Rinban Nori). She generously gave me a copy of her groups notes.

Mary: Some of these ideas may appear very ambitious, but I believe that it is necessary to
look at large scale projects and possibilities if Honzan is seriously looking at the survival of
Buddhism in Hawaii and North AmericaThese activities should be funded by our District
and/or by Honzan; if fund-raising is expected of the core group, it will discourage
participationfundraising activities are generally associated with clubs; this is not a club it
is an organizational program and must be respected as such.

One of their ideas is to initiate something called pastoral counseling, where a professional
social worker (of the Buddhist faith), sub-contracted by the temple, would help families to
cope with todays stresses and problems. There is currently a successful interfaith organization
in Hawaii known as the Samaritan Counseling Center, which Sangha 2020 is trying to find
funding (and district support) for. I believe there are branches here on the mainland that
WCBT might be able to work with.

More of Sangha 2020s ideas:

Organize Living Skills Workshops run by trained specialists: Christian churches are already
doing this. Possible workshops: Effective parenting, Teen Workshop (parent problems, identity,
improving grades, peer pressure), Caring for Aging Parents, Stress Management, Dealing with
Death.

Establish a bookstore/library where people are welcome to come and read, research, browse
and converse (who wouldnt enjoy hanging out at a sort of Buddhist Barnes & Noble-
Starbucks? -Ed.)

Work with Nishi temples locally and nationally: Join in Project Dana, participate in their
training seminars and invite them to ours; try to arrange to use the Nishis training center in
Berkeley (IBS) to train American ministers.

Develop professionally printed informational packets that address questions such as What is
Higashi Honganji? How is it different from other sects? How do I join and what can I expect as
a member of the church (why join?). And for those interested in the ministry: What are the
steps and how long will it take? What are the opportunities and compensation? Are there
scholarships?

Establish Buddhist Crisis Center and Hotline, and a Legal and Professional Hotline (Legal, real
estate, and financial matters and assistance in finding sources of goverment services, etc.)

Mary concludes: Implementing plans such as those above will give us the opportunity to give
back to the community and reach out to mankind. The present way churches organize their
activities encourages self-centeredness as each church is only involved in their own activities,
which can become self-serving.

Ideas from Ron Wakabayashi (Former JACL National Director, current Director of Los Angeles
County Commission of Human Relations). Ron recently spoke at the Board of Directors
Seminar in Newport Beach.

Ron: LA is the most diverse place147 nationalities co-exist here. How do you make this
work? This challenge is something Ron finds exciting and wonderful. Buddhism can play an
important role in building bridges between people. (Wouldnt this make a great theme for a
Buddhist Public Relations campaign?

Use brainstorming techniques to come up with creative solutions to the problems we facethe
key is to allow even critical, negative comments: Get it all out on the table.

Work on the negative image of Buddhism, which along with the Muslim religion, was at the
bottom of a recentLA Timessurvey on peoples attitudes to various religions.

Build Consensus: Facilitate friendlinessAccommodate by being flexibleMake the path to

membership easierAsk people to get involved.

Passion vs. Compassion: In carrying out your role of leaders, balance passion, which gets
things done but can get you in trouble, with compassion, which allows you to see things more
thoughtfully.

Besides the ideas of these forward-thinking Buddhists, I feel that we should also expand the
role of women: Allow and encourage women at the top levels of leadership. The ability of our
leadership to make wise decisions will be enhanced if the meeting environment is one where
both male and female are able to contribute at the top levels and to freely express their
opinions, knowing that their ideas will always be received with an open mind.

We also need to modernize the way we present Buddhism. I think that the success or failure of
any community outreach may largely depend, at least initially, on our public relations style.
You could take the ugliest thing and through slick marketing, create a line of people waiting to
buy it. On the other hand, the greatest treasure on earth (i.e., the Buddha-Dharma) could be
perceived as useless or even negative if misunderstood. We must try to clear up the many
commonly held misconceptions about Jodo Shinshu. We shouldnt assume any previous
knowledge about Buddhism.

Community outreach ideas:

I feel it is time for WCBT to introduce itself to our community. Not everyone winds up at
WCBT because, already being a Japanese Buddhist family, they heard about WCBT and came
because it sounded comfortable. Some of our families discovered us in the Yellow pages.
Doesnt this make you wonder how many more nice families are out there? Look at your
neighbors. Most are not of Japanese ancestry or from a Buddhist background, and yet dont
you feel most parents would want the same things out of a church experience on Sunday?
Perhaps its fellowship, or maybe its a yearning for a teaching or way of looking at life that
can enhance and enrich their lives and the lives of their children. Such a teaching is Buddhism.

Im not suggesting we try and convert people; simply offer those interested and curious
about Buddhism an easy and non-threatening way to sample it. My suggestion is to hold a free
open house or hospitality night in the gym. It could possibly be a lecture series: Lets pick
3 or 4 English-speaking lecturers that we feel can communicate to such an audience. These
lecturers might, for example, be asked to present answers to the question, What does
Buddhism offer you and your family today? After the presentations, complimentary coffee
and pastries could be served. Also available free would be Welcome Booklets, Newsletters, a
mailing list signup sheet, other printed materials about Buddhism, Temple and Study Class
schedules.

We would certainly want to get the message of this event out to as many as possible. With that
in mind, we could do what one hugely successful contemporary Christian church recently did
in my neighborhood: Send out a flyer announcing the lecture series to virtually everyone in the
neighborhood via bulk mail.
Another promising idea is to organize something Dr. Bloom calls Ko Fellowships. These are
small, informal, intimate gatherings at someones house. These types of gatherings can
produce unusually rich and provocative discussions. This is not a new idea, but actually an
idea that Rennyo Shonin employed with astounding success 500 years ago. Yet it has much
appeal today, especially if we consider that families who come to Buddhism from other
religions might find our services too different or even intimidating at first. The Ko Fellowship
is just a group that gets together, generally without any chanting, singing of songs, etc.
Perhaps refreshments or a dessert potluck could be arranged. A brief talk on a contemporary
topic could be given by a minister or lay person. Then everyone could freely discuss the topic.

Finally, what can you do? Get involved. Lets try to stop complaining about what someone else
said, did, or didnt do. Lets try to see that we are the problem. Or more accurately, I am the
problem. I say try, because this is the most difficult thing about being a Buddhist for all of
us. However, if I am not doing something positive to help, then I may possibly be part of the
problem. Another way of putting this is that, once we accept personal responsibility for our
problems, we can then easily become part of the solution.

In closing, I want to say that I wasnt born a Buddhist. I only (grudgingly) became a Buddhist
because my wife kept nagging me about how we should start attending a Buddhist temple
for our kids sake (I later learned it was for my sake too). I am not an expert or scholar on
Buddhism; I am a musician. That is why, in writing these articles, I have so frequently used the
quotes of those more knowledgeable than myself.

I consider all the people I have quoted to be my teachers, but in particular, I would like to
express my appreciation to the following people, without whom, these articles could never
have been written: WCBT and the North American District for giving me the opportunity to
participate, as a member of the religious committee, in the intense Dobo Series retreats of
1991-93 (special thanks to Rev. Gyoko Saito and Rev. Sen-ei Tsuge for their truly memorable
lecturesI am still thinking about what they said), to Dr. Alfred Bloom, whom Ive quoted so
frequently from (and have met via the internets Shinshu Forum), for his uncanny ability to
make the most difficult Shinshu concepts understandable in plain English, and to Rinban Nori
Ito and Rev. Motohiro Kiyota, for their constant and generous wisdom and guidance. Lastly, I
owe a special debt of gratitude to Dr. Nobuo Haneda. I was very fortunate to have heard him
speak at my first retreat in San Luis Obispo in 1989. I feel that it was through him that I was
able to meet the Dharma. His interpretation of the teachings have left a deep and lasting
impression on me.
My main purpose in writing this series of articles was to try to fill a gap I perceived
particularly regarding the deep and compelling reasons why we should not only care about
the future of our Shinshu tradition, but also why we should take action, and what sorts of
forms our actions might possibly take. But these articles have only scratched the surface; there
are still many unanswered questions, as well as great ideas waiting to be discovered. Our
temples need your energy and creativity. I invite and look forward to your comments,
criticisms and participation.