ECE2314SURVEYINGIV

ECE 2314 SURVEYING IV

Aerial photography: Aerial Cameras, scale of photography, stereoscopy, heights from
photographs, parallax bar, flight planning, applications. Photo interpretation: principles,
image properties, applications. Introduction to Remote sensing, Hydrographic
surveying, and underground surveying.
Aerial photography
Defining Aerial Photography
The term "photography" is derived from two Greek words meaning "light" ( phos ) and
"writing" ( graphien ). From Greek pht-, the stem of phslight , which is a unit of
illumination.
Photography means the art, hobby, or profession of taking photographs, and developing
and printing the film or processing the digitized array image.
Photography is production of permanent images by means of the action of light on
sensitized surfaces (film or array inside a camera), which finally giving rise to a new
form of visual art.
Aerial Photography means photography from the air.
The word aerial originated in early 17th century. [Formed from Latin aerius , from
Greekaerios , from .ar air,
CHARACTERISTICS OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY
Synoptic viewpoint: Aerial photographs give a bird s eye view of large areas enabling us to see
surface features in their spatial context. They enable the detection of small scale features and
spatial relationships that would not be found on the ground.
Time freezing ability: They are virtually permanent records of the existing conditions on the
Earth s surface at one point in time, and used as an historical document.
Capability to stop action : They provides a stop action view of dynamic conditions and are
useful in studying dynamic phenomena such as flooding, moving wildlife, traffic, oil spills,
forest fires.
Three dimensional perspective: It provides a stereoscopic view of the Earth s surface and make
it possible to take measurements horizontally and vertically a characteristic that is lacking for the
majority of remotely sensed data.
Spectral and spatial resolution: Aerial photographs are sensitive to radiation in wavelengths
that are outside of the spectral sensitivity of the human eye (0.3 m to 0.9 m versus 0.4 m to
0.7 m).
They are sensitive to objects outside the spatial resolving power of human eye.
Availability: Aerial photographs are readily available at a range of scales for much of the world.

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Economy: They are much cheaper than field surveys and are often cheaper and more accurate
than maps.
Photogrammetry
Photogrammetry is the art, science and technology of obtaining reliable information about
physical objects and the environment through processes of Recording, measuring and
interpreting photographic images and patterns of recorded radiant electromagnetic energy and
other phenomena.
or
Photogrammetry is the science and technology of obtaining spatial measurements and other
geometrically derived products from aerial photographs (Lillisand et al., 2005).
Areas of Photogrammetry
Metric photogrammetry consists of making precise measurements from photographs etc. to
determine the relative positions of points and thus enables finding of distances, angles,
elevations, and the sizes and shapes of objects.
Interpretive photogrammetry deals with recognizing and identifying objects and their
significance through careful and systematic analysis.
It includes:
Photographic interpretation: the study of photographic images
Remote sensing: analysis of photography and use of data gathered from remote sensing
instruments, which are often carried in vehicles as remote as orbiting satellites
Photogrammetric analysis procedures range from obtaining distances, area, elevations using
hardcopy (analog) photographic products, equipment and simple geometric concepts to
generating precise digital elevation models (DEMs), orthophotos, thematic data and other
derived products/information through the use of digital images and analytical techniques.
Digital or soft copy photogrammetry refers to any photogrammetric operation involving the
use of digital raster photographic image.
Historically, one of the most widespread uses of photogrammetry is in preparation of
topographic maps. Today, photogrammetric operations are extensively used to produce a
range of GIS data products such as thematic data in 2D and 3D, raster image backdrops and
DEMs.
Categories of photogrammetry
1. Terrestrial photogrammetry Uses terrestrial photographs i.e. photos taken with the
camera close to the ground at a distance away from the object of about 30-300m.
2. Aerial photogrammetry Uses aerial photographs i.e. photos taken from an airborne
vehicle and this may be vertical or oblique aerial photos.

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3. Close range photogrammetry Uses photographs taken with a camera close to the object
i.e.<30m. Normally used for mapping small engineering projects and architectural
monuments.
4. Radargrammetry if the sensor in use is radar then we talk of radargrammetry.
Types of Photographs
Two basic classifications of photography used in the science of photogrammetry are terrestrial
and aerial photographs.
Terrestrial photographs are taken with ground based cameras, the position and orientation of
which are often measured directly at the time of exposure. Use is made of simple hobby cameras
which are hand-held to precise specially designed cameras mounted on tripods. These special
cameras are called phototheodolites.
An aerial photograph is that part of the earths surface and other objects on it taken on the air.
Depending on the size of the inclination of the optical axis away from the vertical at the instance
of exposure, the photograph can fall under vertical, tilted or oblique photographs.
(i) Vertical Photographs
Vertical photographs are those taken with the optical axis of the lens pointing vertically
downwards at the time of exposure
(ii) Titled (or near vertical) photograph
In practice the camera axis is rarely held perfectly vertical due to unavoidable aircraft tilts. When
the camera axis is unintentionally tilted slightly from the vertical, the resulting photograph is
called a tilted photograph. These unintentional tilts are usually less than 1 and seldom more
than3.
(iii) Oblique photograph
Are those taken with the optical axis of the lens intentionally deviated or tilted from the vertical
axis and the degree of tilt depends on the use.
A low oblique photograph has relatively small or low angle of deviation from the vertical
and doesnt include the apparent horizon.
A high oblique has a relatively large or high angle of deviation from the vertical and
includes the apparent horizon

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AERIAL CAMERAS
Aerial photographs can be made with any type of camera (e.g. 35 mm small amateur or 70 mm
or special cameras that are purpose built meant for mapping).
Many successful applications have employed aerial photography made from light aircraft with
handheld 35 mm cameras.
Requirements of aerial cameras
1. Because they must perform their function while moving in an aircraft at high speed, they
must have short cycling time, fast lens and efficient shutters
2. For the aerial study of large areas, high geometric and radiometric accuracy are required
and these can only be obtained from by using cameras that are purpose built.
3. Aerial camera are precision built and specifically designed to e expose a large number of
films/photographs in rapid succession with the ultimate in geometric fidelity and quality.
4. These cameras usually have a medium to large format, a high quality lens, a large film
magazine, a mount to hold the camera in a vertical position and a motor drive.
5. The camera should be capable to work in most extreme weather conditions.
Types of Aerial Cameras
There are five main types of aerial cameras:
Aerial mapping camera (single lens or frame camera),
Strip camera,
Panoramic camera,
Multilens camera, the multi camera array(multiband aerial camera) and
Digital camera.
a) Aerial Mapping (Single Lens) Camera
Are the most commonly used cameras exclusively for obtaining photographs for mapping
purposes. They expose a square shaped area of the ground all at one instance of time. The film is
held flat against the platen in the focal plane of the camera and fixed in position during exposure,
although it may be advanced slightly to compensate for image motion.

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Aerial mapping cameras (also called as metric or cartographic cameras) are single lens
frame cameras designed to provide extremely high geometric image quality.
They employ a low distortion lens system held in a fixed position relative to the plane of
the film.
The film format size is commonly a square of 230 mm on a side. The total width of the
film used is 240 mm and the film magazine capacity ranges up to film lengths of 120
metres.
A frame of imagery is acquired with each opening of the camera shutter, which is tripped
at a set frequency by an electronic device called an intervalometer.
They are exclusively used in obtaining aerial photos for remote sensing in general and
photogrammetric mapping purposes in particular.
Single lens frame cameras are the most common cameras in use today.

An aerial mapping camera (Carl ZerisRMK/A15/23) with automatic levelling and exposure
control. It is mounted on a suspension mount, between the remote control unit (left) and its
navigation telescope (right).Source: Curran, 1988).
b) Panoramic Aerial Camera

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In panoramic cameras the ground areas are covered by either rotating the camera lens or
rotating a prism in front of the lens.
The terrain is scanned from side to side, transverse to the flight direction. The film is exposed
along a curved surface located at the focal distance from the rotating lens assembly, and the
angular coverage can extend from horizon to horizon.
Camera with a rotating prism design contain a fixed lens and a flat film plane. Scanning is
accomplished by rotating the prism in front of the lens.

The operating principle of a panoramic camera

c) Multi-lens frame camera
These have the basic characteristics of single-lens frame cameras except that they have two
or more lenses and expose two or more pictures simultaneously.
These cameras are used for environmental monitoring, mapping of natural and cultural
resources etc.
The different cameras contain films with emulsions that are sensitive to different regions of
the electromagnetic energy spectrum, hence are sometimes referred to as multispectral
cameras
d) Strip camera
Strip cameras expose a continuous photograph of a strip of terrain beneath the path of the
aircraft. This is accomplished by passing the film over a narrow slit opening in the focal
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plane of the camera at a rate synchronized with the speed of passage of ground images across
the focal plane.
The speed of the film across the slit is a function of the height of the camera above ground,
focal length of the lens and the ground velocity of the aircraft.
e) Digital Cameras
The technology used for digital photogrammetry is continuously changing, reason for which
the development of digital aerial cameras has advanced significantly over the past 4-5 years
and there has been a boom in sales due to the advantages offered by such cameras. Modern
aerial film cameras have reached a high level of development with very high spatial
resolution, geometric quality, a wide covering angle and an overall efficiency in capturing
images. All these performances of aerial film cameras are surpassed by the features of digital
aerial cameras which are capable of acquiring images of a resolution at least similar to that
achieved with film cameras, ensure a better accuracy, feature a cover angle comparable with
that of film cameras and captured images can be used for obtaining ortho-photos.
The use of digital cameras offers multiple advantages: the image quality and accuracy is
superior (2,5 x film), the interpreting of digital images is achieved at high level, the
longitudinal covering of successive images may reach 95%, high quality digital models of the
land are obtained, noise levels are low due to the absence of granularity, the inner orientation
is done automatically, images feature no distortions and duplicates may be obtained,
accuracy may be enhanced by acquiring images in different wavelengths, the image control
and quality enhancing may be operated in-flight; operations are performed automatically
based on digital techniques, starting with the image acquisition until their editing, no
consumables such as film are used and therefore there is no need of developing it, this
resulting in the reduction of the additional costs for obtaining images in infrared or duplicates
and in the reduction of manual work.
One of the greatest advantages of the digital camera technology is the increase in the number
of flight hours per day and in the number of days of aerial photography per year due to the
superior radiometric quality as compared to the film-based technology. In this sense, there is
the possibility to carry out flights under weak light conditions or at low sun angles meeting
the image quality requirements for mapping.
As compared to classical aerial images, which consider as parameters the square shape of the
images, the focal length and the field angle, in the case of digital images these parameters
neednt be given a special consideration. In the case of film-based cameras, wide-angle
lenses are used for economy purposes and for obtaining a smaller number of images for an
easier editing. Such is not the case with digital cameras, as the image editing is done
automatically. As for the angle of field of the lenses of digital cameras, even though it is low,
it has been noticed that the high number of images acquired does not significantly increase
the cost price of the records.

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Digital cameras are also available in modular form and the operating conditions are much
improved in the sense that certain aspects related to temperature and wetness do not
constitute any more restrictive factors as in the case of classical photogrammetry. The
diversification of these technical means gives the user the possibility to choose depending on
performance and costs. Moreover, software systems enabling the editing of aerial images
under different forms and for different purposes are available.
Digital camera systems
In principle, digital images may be obtained in two different ways, using analog systems
based on cameras with film and a scanner for digitizing the information stored in the image
and digital systems, based on linear sensor arrays capable of storing digital data directly in-
flight.
Pushbroom scanner systems (linear array sensor cameras): acquire data by scanning the
land with linear sensors transversely on the plane flight direction. The system consists of at
least three sensors, one looking to the front, a vertical one and one looking to the rear, which
makes possible the acquisition of three images with covering between them, thus permitting
to determine the dimensions. Moreover, it is possible to acquire multispectral images with a
more poor resolution than that of images in panchromatic or even with the same resolution.
In order to determine the position of the camera and the angles at the moment of capture, a
GPS/IMU integrated system is used, considering the fact that image acquisition is a
continuous process.
Area array systems: involve acquiring a sole image on the same area with an average
resolution or several images which merged form a larger overall image for the same area.
The image format is similar to that of images captured with aerial film cameras and is not
always square. The presence of the GPS/IMU system is not absolutely necessary in the case
of these cameras, but certain parts may be included as options.
The main features of linear array sensor cameras (pushbroom) are as follows:
The image is not a perspective projection, for which reason a special software is
required to edit these images;
The accuracy of image geometry is dependent on the quality of the GPS/IMU
positioning system;
The possibility to lose certain pixels is smaller than in the case of area array cameras.
This advantage is obstructed by the fact that in the case of occurrence of pixels
erroneously recorded only neighboring pixels can be used for interpolation in order to
reconstruct the lost data;
Linear sensors require capture in a broader dynamic range;
in principle, they are much more appropriate for images captured on small areas than
area array cameras due to the plane movement effects;
images with a 5 cm pixel size can be obtained;

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many linear systems are capable of acquiring only three images per point in the plane
flight direction, yet are capable of capturing multiple images transversely on the plane
flight direction.
The features of digital cameras equipped with frame sensors are as follows:
images are central perspectives just like classical aerial images captured on film and
their digital editing may be performed using standard programs;
present the possibility to compensate the forward motion;
are much more appropriate for extensive area flights;
although the number of erroneously recorded pixels is larger, there is a sufficient
number of neighboring pixels based on which interpolations can be made to
determine the values of the new pixels in the case of erroneous data;
area array formats are generally smaller than the formats of film-based cameras,
hence the b/h base ratio is small. This requires the acquisition of a larger number of
images with longitudinal coverage ranging between 80% and 90% in order to obtain a
b/h ratio similar to film-based cameras;
obtaining frame images permits to perform the aerial triangulation for a set of frame
images, this leading to reliable and high geometrical accuracies in determining
dimensions;
do not require a GPS/IMU system to determine the parameters of external orientation.
The use of a high quality GPS/IMU system for direct orientation enables the quick
performance of aerial triangulation and image editing in order to determine
dimensions and obtain ortho-photos immediately after data download.
The choice of digital camera is made taking into account the ground samples distance (GDS) or
the resolution in the field and not depending on the scale. The flight height, focal distance and
pixel size specific to the CCD sensor are parameters used for calculation in flight planning. As a
rule, Digital Mapping Camera (DMC) used to capture side and front images with coverage for
obtaining the stereoscopic effect observes, in principle, the same rules as film-based cameras. As
no materials are used, as in the case of film cameras, when planning the flight there may occur
situations in which successive images have a very large coverage, namely 80 90%. To obtain
ortho-photos, especially in urban areas, the high coverage percentage has become quite widely
used.
Digital camera types
Among the most advanced aerial digital camera systems available are Leica ADS 40,
VexcelUltraCamD and VexcelUltraCamX of recent manufacture (2007). These systems capture
images in several ways, with high accuracy, in infrared, RGB and panchromatic.

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Principal parts of the frame Aerial camera (single lens Camera)

The principal components of a single lens frame mapping camera

Lens Assembly

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The lens assembly contains a number of parts and serves several functions. Contained within this
assembly are the:
Lens,
Filter,
Shutter
Diaphragm.
The function of lens is to form an image of the ground being photographed in the focal plane.
Lenses are classified into narrow angle, normal angle, wide angle and super wide angle.
The shutter and the diaphragm together regulate the length of time a given amount of light is
allowed to pass through the lens to make the exposure. The shutter controls the length of time
that light is permitted to pass through the lens while the diaphragm controls the amount of light
passing through the lens by varying the size of the aperture opening.
The filter serves to reduce the effect of atmospheric haze, provide uniform light distribution and
protect lens from damage and dust.
The inner cone
This holds the lens assembly fixed w.r.t the upper surface called the focal plane. The focal plane
contains reference marks-the fiducial marks which define the coordinate axes of the resulting
photographs.
The focal plane
The focal plane is located at such a distance from the rear nodal point of the lens system so as to
give the best focus of the overall image.
The focal plane apart from carrying the fiducial marks also carries marginal information
containing altitude meter reading, camera number, focal length, photo number, level bubble, time
of day etc.
The focal plane is defined by the upper surface of the focal plane frame and this is the surface
upon which the film rests during exposure.
Outer cone and camera body
The main camera body is a one piece casting which houses the motor drives and other
mechanical components which are necessary to operate the film transporting mechanism and the
shutter.
The function of the outer cone and body of camera is to support the inner cone and hold the drive
mechanism and support the magazine.
The drive mechanism
Provides the motion necessary for the following cycle of camera operations
Releasing the film flattening device
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Advance the film

Winding the shutter
Actuate the film flattening system
Trip the shutter
The magazine
This houses the reels which hold exposed and unexposed films. It also holds the film
advancing and film flattening mechanisms. For a 23x23cm format size, the magazine can
hold up to 120m of film which would provide about 475 exposures.
The film flattening in the magazine may be provided by the following
i. Apply tension during exposure.
ii. Pressing the film against the flat focal plane glass
iii. Applying air pressure into the camera cone to force the film against the focal plane.
iv. By drawing the film tightly up against a vacuum plate so that the surface lies in the
focal plane during exposure. The vacuum system is the mostly used technique
because it enables uniform flattening of the film to be achieved.
SCALE OF ARIAL PHOTOGRAPHS (PHOTOGRAPHIC SCALE)
The scale of a photograph expresses the mathematical relationship between a distance
measured on the photo and the corresponding distance measured on the ground.
A photograph scale is an expression that states one unit of distance on a photograph
represents a specific number of units of actual ground distance.
Scales may be expressed as unit equivalents (1 mm = 25 m), representative fractions
(1/25,000) or ratios (1: 25,000).
Unlike maps, which have a constant scale throughout, the aerial photographs have a
range of scales that vary in proportion to the elevation of the terrain involved.
The most straight forward method for determining photo scale is to measure the
corresponding photo and ground distances between any two points. The scale S is then
computed as the ratio of the photo distance d to the ground distance D. S = photo scale =
photo distance/ground distance = d/D
The scale of a photograph is determined by the focal length of the camera and the vertical
height of the lens above the ground.
The focal length (f) of the camera is the distance measured from the centre of the camera
lens to the film.
The vertical height of the lens above the ground (H-h) is the height of the lens above sea level
(H), minus the height of the ground above sea level (h), when the optical axis is vertical and the
ground is flat.
These parameters are related by formula:
S = f / (H h)

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For instance, if the photo scale were 1:63,360,, then 1 mm on the photo would represent
63,360 mm. The first number (map distance) is always 1. The second number (ground
distance) is different for each scale; the larger the second number is, the smaller the scale
of the map. I.e. Large is Small.
Quite often the terms large scale and small scale are confusing to those whose who are
not working with scale expression on a routine basis.
A convenient way to make scale comparisons is to remember that the same objects are
smaller on a smaller scale photograph than on a larger scale photo.
A large scale photograph will provide a detailed and high resolution view of a small
area.
Scale of vertical photograph over flat terrain

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Figure shows the side view of a vertical photograph taken over flat terrain. Since measurements
are normally taken from photo positives rather than negatives, the negative has been excluded
from this. The scale of a vertical photograph over flat terrain is simply the ratio of the photo
distance ab to the corresponding ground distance AB. That scale may be expressed in terms of
camera focal length f and flying height above ground H by equating similar triangles Lab and
LAB as follows

The scale of a vertical photo is therefore directly proportional to camera focal length (image
distance) and inversely proportional to flying height above ground (Object distance).
Example: a vertical aerial photograph is taken over flat terrain with a 6-in-(152.4mm) focal-
length camera from an altitude of 6000ft above ground. What is the photo scale?
Scale of a vertical photograph over variable terrain
If the photographed terrain varies in elevation, object distance will also be variable and photo
scale will likewise vary. Photo scale increases with increasing terrain elevation and decreases
with decreasing terrain elevation. Suppose a vertical photograph is taken over variable terrain
from exposure station L in figure below. Ground points A and B are imaged on the positive at a
and db, respectively. Photographic scale at h, the elevation of points A and B, is equal to the ratio
of photo distance ab to ground distance AB. By similar triangles Lab and LAB an expression for
photo scale SAB is

Also by similar traingles LOAA and Loa

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Substituting equation (b) into (a)

Considering line AB to be infinitesimal, equation (c) reduces to an expression for photo scale at
a point. In general, by dropping subscripts, the scale at any point whose elevation above datum is
h may be expressed as

In this equation, scale of a vertical photograph is seen to be simply the ratio of image distance to
object distance. The shorter the object distance (the closer the terrain to camera) the greater the
photo scale and vice versa. For vertical photographs taken over variable terrain, there is infinite
number of different scales.

Scale of a vertical photograph over variable terrain

Average photo scale

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It is often convenient and desirable to use an average scale to define the overall mean scale of a
vertical photograph taken over variable terrain. Average scale is the scale at the average
elevation of the terrain covered by a particular photograph and is expressed as

Stereoscopy
Depth of Perception in Nature
There are two ways of judging distances of objects:
(a) Monoscopic vision This is vision which involves viewing through use of only one eye.
Relative distances of objects can be judged on the following basis.
(i) the relative size of object
(ii) hidden object
(iii) use of shadows further objects have smaller shadows
(iv) Difference in focussing required in viewing objects at varying distances.
These allow only rough judgment or appreciation of depth.
(b) Stereoscopic vision
This involves the use of both eyes.

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Rays of light emanate from the object to the observers eye. The closer the object the larger the
angle subtended. These angles are known as parallactic angles and depth is appreciated on the
basis of variation of these angles. Stereo vision is facilitated by the separation of the eyes, called
the eye base (63 69 mm). This method of vision has a higher accuracy than the monoscopic
method.
The human eye obeys the lens equation:

Since q is constant, in order to accommodate the objects at varying distances the focal length
must be altered in a process called accommodation. The thickness of the human eye lens is
changed by the eye muscles thus accommodating the required value.
Stereoscopes
Stereoscopes are the optical devices which allow simultaneous viewing of a stereopair. There are
two basic types of stereoscopes:
a). lens stereoscope
b). mirror stereoscope
a) The Lens Stereoscope
The lens stereoscope consist of 2 simple convex lenses mounted on a frame supported affixed
distance above the table top this is originally less than the focal length to the lenses so that rays
entering the lens from the table top appear to come from some finite distance. The separation of
the lenses can be varied to accommodate the inter-pupillary distance of each individual user, for
comfortable viewing the photographs must be separated so that corresponding points called
conjugate points are separated by a distance approximately equal to or slightly less than the eye
base of the order of about 50 mm.

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Lens stereoscopes magnify images by about twice. For a standard 23 23 cm format

photographs with a 60% overlap, the overlap area is about 140 mm. If the separation between
conjugate points for viewing with a lens stereoscope is about 50mm or so, 90mm area will have
to be obscured by one photograph lying on another thereby preventing stereo-viewing.
b) The Mirror Stereoscope.
The mirror stereoscope eliminate the problem by permitting the two photographs to be
completely separated when viewing stereoscopically.

The diagram above illustrates the operating principle of the mirror stereoscope The mirror
stereoscope consist of two large wing mirrors and two smaller eyepiece mirrors all mounted at
45 to the horizontal .

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The light rays are reflected as shown above thereby creating stereovision. The mirror stereoscope
allows the viewing of the entire overlap area. The focal length of the eyepiece lenses is slightly
greater than the total path of the reflected ray thus achieving the same purpose as the lens
stereoscope. Mirror stereoscopes can also be fitted with binoculars of high magnification power.
Other Methods of Image Separation for Stereoscopic Viewing
(i) Anaglyphic Viewing
This is a system where two images of the same object printed in two complimentary colours are
viewed simultaneously. In this respect separation of the eyes is achieved by using the appropriate
filler for each eye. Most often the complimentary colours used are red and blue - green. Viewing
is thus achieved by seeing the red image with a red filter and the bluegreen image with a blue
green filter.
For Digital Photogrammetric Workstations the most popular methods are the LCS Principle and
polarising filters:
(ii) Liquid Crystal Shutter (LCS) Principle (active glasses)

Stereoscopic view on the monitor is obtained by using active glasses that alternately display the
two images. The right image appears in each second line on the screen then left image appears in
each odd line of the screen (interlaced mode) in alternation with a frequency of 2 x 60 Hz. The
display and the glasses are synchronized by an infrared emitter which is located on the monitor
so that several people can watch the stereo model.
The glasses require frequent change of batteries. Glasses cost about 1500 $.

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There is possibility to change between ortho/ pseudo mode. Several observers possible.
(iii) Polarising Filters (passive glasses)
The object in image using polarised light 90 to each other at two points and by using polarised
filters to view the images stereo-viewing is effected.

Equipment is cheaper. Glasses dont require batteries. Several observers possible. Glasses are
smaller than active glasses. Stronger ghost images, possibly stereo-partner can be slightly seen
always.
Orienting a Pair of Photographs for Stereoscopic Viewing
In stereoscopic viewing it is important to orient the photographs so that the left eye sees only the
left photograph and the right eye sees only the right photograph. If the photographs are
interchanged, i.e. the right with the left and vice versa, then pseudoscopic view results, i.e.
depressions become crests and crests become depressions.
Accurate and comfortable stereo viewing requires that the eye base is parallel to the flight line.

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ECE2314SURVEYINGIV

This condition is fulfilled by adopting the following procedure:

1. Identification of the principal points on the photographs (this is achieved by intersecting the
fiducial lines)
2. Determine the conjugate principal points of overlapping photographs i.e. locations of principal
points of adjacent photographs.

This may be done approximately by identifying features surrounding each principal point and
finding those positions on adjacent photographs.
3. Joining the principal points and their corresponding conjugate points.

Where o1and o2are the principal points of the left and right photographs and o1 and o2 are the
corresponding conjugate points respectively.
4. Orient the photographs so that o1, o2, o1 and o2 all lie on a straight line.

21|P a g e
BScCivilEngineering
NotesbyP.N.Wafula.(pnyongesa@gmail.com)