Numerical Analysis of the Effect

of Machining on the Depth

of Yield, Maximum Firing
Amer Hameed
Pressure and Residual Stress
R. D. Brown Profile in an Autofrettaged Gun
J. G. Hetherington Tube
Engineering Systems Department,
Cranfield University, A multi-linear kinematic, two dimensional finite element model incorporating Bausch-
UK inger effect, developed using ANSYS commercial software is used to determine the effect
of machining both at the bore and at the outside diameter, on the depth of yield, maximum
firing pressure and final residual stress field present in an autofrettaged gun tube. The
model, which is in good agreement with experimental findings, clearly shows that the
reduction in maximum compressive circumferential stress is more sensitive to internal
machining than to external machining; the depth of yield remains stable and there is no
movement of the elastic-plastic interface, relative to its location before material removal.
If the internal machining removes material in which reverse yield has occurred, the
maximum firing pressure is not affected. The finite element analysis supported by experi-
mental evidence thus leads to an optimization technique for gun tube design.
DOI: 10.1115/1.1593081

Introduction
Gun tubes are autofrettaged to produce a compressive residual
stress field, which increases their working strength as shown in
Fig. 1. Removal of material by machining internally or externally
after autofrettage also removes some of the beneficial compres-
sive stress. Consequently, there is a decrease in the working
strength of the gun tube. The magnitude and depth of the com-
pressive stress become uncertain, leading to a greater uncertainty
in the final working strength of the gun barrel. Hence, the factor of
safety can only be conveniently justified if the actual residual
compressive stress in the final finished barrel is predicted accu-
rately. The precise measurement of the residual compressive stress
is also important because fracture and fatigue are significantly
influenced by the residual stresses.
Normally, the evaluation of stresses has been done either by the
successive cracking method 1, or the sequential removal of ma-
terial method 2. Mathematical models 3,4, assuming different
strategies, were used to evaluate the experimental findings. These
methods are time consuming and suffer from approximations. The
development of high speed computers and finite element codes
provide realistic analysis of the problem. The authors in an earlier
work 5 have discussed the validity of finite element analysis of
the process of autofrettage. This study develops a simulation
model to determine the effect of machining on the depth of yield,
maximum firing pressure and residual stress in autofrettaged gun
tubes due to internal and external machining using the finite ele-
ment technique assuming real material characteristics.
high yield strength and low strain gradient and sample C having
low yield strength and high strain gradient as shown in Fig. 2.
Sample A was assumed to have ideal material properties having a
high yield strength. In the present study autofrettaged gun barrels
with these material properties were machined externally and in-
ternally to determine the depth of yield, maximum firing pressure
and residual stress distribution. The material properties, Youngs
modulus, yield strength, and plastic modulus were taken from the
experimental values as shown in Fig. 2. These barrels were also
pressurised to a firing pressure of 500 MPa an arbitrary value,
before and after machining, to evaluate the working strength.
Machining Process. The incremental change in strain associ-
ated with machining was measured at each step. The cutting speed
was 115 rpm, with a feed of 0.88 mm per revolution. Compressed
air was used as a coolant during machining, while strain measure-
ments were made with the help of gauges EA-06-060LZ-60 from
Measurement Group Inc.. These were pasted at locations remote
from the ends of the samples to be free from end effects Fig. 3.
For measuring tangential strain, each row of gauges had four
gauges pasted in the circumferential direction and for the mea-
surement of axial strain, one gauge was pasted in the axial direc-
tion.
Finite Element Model. This study uses ANSYS FE software.
The solution is based on a mesh comprising 2400, four noded,
iso-parametric elements, representing one quarter of the barrel for
specimen CYL-B and 2000 elements for specimen CYL-A as
shown in Fig. 4.

Experiment
Materials. Typical gun steel samples, were subjected to heat
treatment 5 to produce different samples: sample B having a
Contributed by the Pressure Vessels and Piping Division for publication in the
JOURNAL OF PRESSURE VESSEL TECHNOLOGY. Manuscript received by the PVP
Division March 13, 2003; revision received May 6, 2003. Associate Editor: M. Perl.
Results
The relationship between autofrettage pressure and equivalent
firing stress for cylinders having wall ratios WR of 2.5 and 2.8
are given in Figs. 5 and 6, respectively. The values of circumfer-
ential stress assuming different material characteristics have been
plotted in Figs. 7 and 8. The effect on tangential stress due to
Bauschinger has been drawn in Figs. 8, 9, and 16. The strain

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Fig. 1 A general form of residual stress distribution in a gun
tube including the equivalent stress
determined at the end of each step has been plotted in Figs. 10, 11,
12, and 13. These plots represent the strain relaxation as the bore
diameter increases or external diameter decreases due to machin-
ing and also indicate a comparison between experimental and FE
analysis results. The stress distribution obtained after each incre-
mental machining is given in Figs. 14, 15, and 16. The effect on
strain as a result of machining is given in Fig. 17.
Fig. 2 Stress-strain plot for test cylinder under consideration
Fig. 3 Autofrettaged test samples
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Fig. 4 Finite element model representing a quarter of a gun
barrel developed in ANSYS
Discussion
Firing Strength. ANSYS APDL analysis evaluated the re-
sidual strength when fired at 500 MPa, assuming different mate-
rial characteristics. Figure 5 indicates that CYL-A, having a wall
ratio 2.5 and material properties of sample A has 800 MPa as the
limiting autofrettage pressure. Results show that increase in autof-
Fig. 5 Relationship between autofrettage pressure and
equivalent firing stress for a cylinder having a wall ratio 2.5
Fig. 6 Relationship between autofrettage pressure and
equivalent firing stress for cylinder having a wall ratio of 2.8
AUGUST 2003, Vol. 125 343

Fig. 7 Comparison of circumferential stress in cylinder
sample CYL-A, assuming different material characteristics
rettage pressure beyond limiting autofrettage pressure does not
reduce firing stresses. The specimen CYL-A, having a material
properties of sample C with a moderate strain hardening, predicts
similar results but with low residual strength for the reason that
the yield strength of the material decreases with the increase in
Fig. 8 Comparison of circumferential stress in cylinder
sample CYL-B, assuming different material characteristics
Fig. 9 Effect of Bauschinger on residual circumferential
stress assuming different material characteristics
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Fig. 10 Change in circumferential strain at the outside diam-
eter upon removal of material at the bore in sample CYL-A
strain hardening. The observations, in the case of cylinders having
a wall ratio 2.8 Fig. 6 also confirm these findings. For the strain
hardened material with no Bauschinger effect and for the material
having both Bauschinger effect and strain hardening, the firing
stresses are identical up to an autofrettage pressure of 700 MPa,
when the curves diverge. This divergence is due to the combined
effect of reverse yielding and Bauschinger effect. Thus it predicts
Fig. 11 Relaxation in residual circumferential strain at the
bore due to removal of material at the outside diameter in
CYL-A
Fig. 12 Change in circumferential strain at the outside diam-
eter upon removal of material at the bore in sample CYL-B
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 Fig. 13 Relaxation in residual circumferential strain at the
bore due to removal of material at the outside diameter in
CYL-B
that limiting autofrettage pressure, to avoid reverse yielding, is
700 MPa. However, for material exhibiting both the Bauschinger
and strain hardening effects, the working stress limit as explained
in Fig. 1 occurs at 800 MPa and thereafter the equivalent working
stress starts to decrease, because the Bauschinger effect, also a
function of plastic strain, exerts greater influence. It is concluded,
as shown in Fig. 5, that further increase in autofrettage pressure
has an adverse influence on the working strength of the barrel,
Fig. 14 Effect on internal and external machining on residual
circumferential stress in sample CYL-A
Fig. 15 Effect on internal and external machining on residual
circumferential stress in sample CYL-A
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Fig. 16 Comparison of circumferential stress at the bore of
CYL-B, evaluated assuming kinematic and isotropic hardening
causing a reduction in tube strength by 6.5% in comparison to
ideal material and 7% with respect to isotropic material.
Material Behavior. The exact magnitude of the yield
strength has the greatest influence on the residual strain upon re-
moval of pressure in modeling the material behavior. The simula-
tion predicts that the early part of the stress strain curve has a
significant influence both on the final external strain, while under
pressure, and on the residual strain upon removal of pressure. The
dependence of external strain with respect to initial curvature of
the stress strain curve is an interesting phenomenon and needs
further investigation. From the curves of Figs. 5 and 6 it is also
clear that material with high yield strength sample A is better
than material having moderate strain hardening with low yield
strength sample C.
Residual Stress. The circumferential stress developed in
CYL-A and CYL-B is shown in Figs. 7, 8, 9, and 16, respectively.
The results are interesting in the sense that they show a consider-
able difference in maximum compressive stress at the bore in the
case of CYL-B when real material characteristics are assumed.
There is a clear divergence in the depth of yielding, as shown in
Fig. 8. The slope of the tangential stress under pressure is flatter
and reverse yielding due to the Bauschinger effect is evident in the
multi-linear kinematic model CYL-B, sample C. These figures
show a pronounced effect in circumferential stress field across the
Fig. 17 Comparison of plastic strain in thick-walled cylinder,
due to internal and external machining, assuming isotropic and
kinematic hardening sample B
AUGUST 2003, Vol. 125 345
 Table 1 Elastic-plastic interface diameter assuming different
material characteristics
Depth of yield
Type of analysis mm
CYL-A 3537 experiment
Modified Tresca criterion 33
sample A
Sample A 33
Sample B 31.5
Sample C 32
CYL-B 34 38 experiment
Tresca criterion sample A 39.2
Modified Tresca criterion 33
sample A
Sample C 34
Sample B 35.5
Sample A 31.5
thickness of the cylinder due to strain hardening, which in the case
of material sample C cannot be ignored. Comparison of Figs. 7
and 8 demonstrate that the gradient of circumferential stress de-
pends upon the material strain hardening rate. Slope of circumfer-
ential stress tends to flatten as the hardening gradient increases.
Effect of Machining. The effect of machining, as highlighted
in Figs. 10, 11, 12, and 13, reveals that the results of the simulated
model are in reasonable agreement with the experimental findings,
especially in the case of CYL-B. The experimental values confirm
that the elastic-plastic interface diameter exists at 38 mm a point
at which no change in strain relaxation is observed upon further
machining. The residual strain induced due to the process of au-
tofrettage, is totally eased off as a result of material removal up to
this point, both in the case of CYL-A and CYL-B as shown in Fig.
17. However, Table 1 indicates the values of depth of yield
achieved, assuming different material characteristics.
It is evident from the above table that analysis based on a linear
kinematic hardening model sample B is closer to experimental
findings for CYL-B. These experimental values also verify the
simulated model based on the assumption of elastic unloading
upon machining the autofrettaged cylinder. Figures 14 and 15
clearly predict that the effect of internal machining on maximum
compressive residual circumferential stress is greater than external
machining. It is further observed that the depth of yield remains
stable during machining and there is no movement of the elastic-
plastic interface.
Bauschinger Effect. Figures 8, 9, and 16 highlight the circum-
ferential stress at the bore, due to reverse yielding and the Bausch-
inger effect. A sharp change in slope occurs in circumferential
stress at the bore when the model uses the Tresca criterion. How-
ever, the residual stress profile curve is much flatter in the case of
the distortion energy criterion. This is in line with the Parker 6,7.
The simulation model shows that the residual circumferential
stress due to Bauschinger is removed during the machining pro-
cess without causing any adverse effect on the overall stress field.
Plastic Strain. Figure 17 shows that the residual circumfer-
ential strain reduces by 2.53.0% at the new diameter, for every
0.5 mm of layer removal at the inner diameter. This change in
strain was only observed locally in the newly exposed layer and
the rest of the layers showed no change in the plastic strain. How-
ever, external machining caused only elastic relaxation, as shown
in Fig. 17.
Conclusion
The study of the effect of machining upon the residual stress
field of the autofrettaged cylinder, using a finite element analysis
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model, predicts values which are in good agreement with experi-
mental results. The assumption of elastic unloading upon machin-
ing seems valid, i.e., the new residual stress distribution is equal
to the residual stress minus the elastic stress due to the pressure at
the radius to which the cylinder is machined. However, the reduc-
tion in the circumferential stress distribution due to internal ma-
chining is greater than that due to external machining. Since the
internal machining removes material in which reverse yielding has
occurred, the strength of the autofrettaged barrel is not signifi-
cantly reduced. Finite element analysis gives a good representa-
tion of the stress intensity and stress distribution through the
thickness of the gun barrel. It can be utilised as a tool to optimize
gun barrel design.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to acknowledge the contribution made to this
work by Mr. Tony Andrews of DERA Fort Halstead and Mr. Guy
Fairweather of Royal Ordnance.
Nomenclature
AFP Autofrettage pressure
EP Ideal elastic-plastic material assumption:
this assumption was made based on the
yield strength obtained as a result of ten-
sile testing the test specimen
Equivalent
working/firing
stress is defined as 1/2( ( r ) 2 ( z) 2 ( z r) 2
ID Inside diameter dia
OD Outside diameter dia
LKIN & ISO Linear kinematic and linear isotropic ma-
terial assumptiontangent modulus was
obtained from tangent drawn to the plastic
part of the stress-strain curve
MKIN Multi-linear kinematic assumptionactual
stress-strain data were plotted
MISO Multi-linear isotropic hardening
assumptionactual stress-strain data were
plotted
Pa , Pf Autofrettage pressure and firing pressure
Normalized stress Stress/Sy
WR Wall ratio
Sy Yield strength
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