Complex Analysis

Topic: Singularities
MA201 Mathematics III

Department of Mathematics
IIT Guwahati
August 2015

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Zeroes of Analytic Functions

A point z0 C is a zero of order (or multiplicity) m (m 1) of f if

f (z0 ) = f 0 (z0 ) = = f (m1) (z0 ) = 0, and f (m) (z0 ) 6= 0.

A zero of order 1 is called a simple zero.

Examples.
For f (z) = z(z 1)5 : z0 = 0 is a simple zero and z0 = 1 is a zero
of order 5.
z0 = n, n Z are simple zeroes of f (z) = sin(z).
f (z) = (z 2 z) sin(z) has zeroes of order two at z0 = 0 and .
f (z) = ez has no zeroes in C.
Every polynomial of order n 1 has zeroes in C with their total
multiplicity n.

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If z0 is a zero of a polynomial P (z) of multiplicity m, then
P (z) = (z z0 )m Q(z) where Q(z) is a polynomial. In general, we have
the following:
Theorem
Suppose f is analytic in a domain D, and z0 D. Then z0 is a zero of
order m for f if and only if f (z) = (z z0 )m g(z) for some function g
which is analytic in a neighborhood of z0 and g(z0 ) 6= 0.

Proof. ) Follows from the Taylor series

!
X f (n) (z0 )
f (z) = (z z0 )n .
n!
n=0

P n
) g(z) = n=0 bn (z z0 ) , where b0 = g(z0 ) 6= 0. Then,
f (z) = b0 (z z0 )m + b0 (z z0 )m + must be the Taylor series of f (z).
So, f (z0 ) = f 0 (z0 ) = = f (m1) (z0 ) = 0 and f (m) (z0 ) = (m!)b0 6= 0.
Complex Analysis Topic: Singularities 3 / 15
Theorem
For a function f , analytic on a domain D, the following are equivalent.
1 There is z0 D such that f (n) (z0 ) = 0 for n 0.
2 f 0 in D.
3 The set S = {z C : f (z) = 0} has a limit point in D.

Proof. (1) Taylor series about z0 is the zero series

f (z0 ) 0 in an open disc centered at z0 .
given z D keep shifting the disc towards z and get f (z) = 0 (2)
(2) (3) Trivial.
(3) (1) Suppose z0 is a limit point of S. We claim that f (n) (z0 ) = 0 for
all n 0. Suppose not. Let m be least such that f (m) (z0 ) 6= 0. Then
f (z) = (z z0 )m g(z) where g is analytic and g(z0 ) 6= 0. There is r > 0
such that g(z) 6= 0 in Br (z0 ), because g is continuous. Thus, f (z) 6= 0
for 0 < |z z0 | < r, a contradiction.

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Corollaries

For a non-constant function f on a domain D

A zero of infinite order is not possible.
Set of zeroes of f cannot have a limit point in D, i.e., each zero of f
is isolated.
If two functions f and g, analytic in a domain D, are such that the
set {z D : f (z) = g(z)} has a limit point, then f (z) = g(z) for all
z D.

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A point z0 C is a singular point or a singularity of a function f , if
1 f is not analytic at z0 , and
2 every neighborhood of z0 contains a point at which f is analytic.
1
Example. f (z) = has a singular point z0 = 0.
z
f (z) = cot(z) has singular points z = n, n Z.
Points on the negative real axis are singular points for
f (z) = Log (z).

A singular point z0 C is an isolated singular point of f , if there is a

deleted neighborhood 0 < |z z0 | < r of z0 throughout which f is
analytic. Otherwise, z0 is called a non-isolated singular point.
1 1/z sin(z)
Example. z0 = 0 is an isolated singular point for , e , .
z z
z0 = n are isolated singular points for cot(z).
0 and the points on the negative real axis are non-isolated
singular points for Log (z).
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Classification of isolated singular points

Let z0 be a singular point of f . Then

1 z0 is called a removable singular point, if lim f (z) exists and
zz0
equals a complex number a0 .
sin z ez 1
Example: z0 = 0 is a removable singular point of and .
z z
2 z0 is called a pole, if lim f (z) = .
zz0
1 1
Example: z0 = 0 is a pole for , and cot z.
z z2
3 z0 is called an essential singular point, lim f (z) does not exist.
zz0  
1/z 1
Example: z0 = 0 is an essential singular point of e and sin .
z

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Order of a pole

Note: A point z0 is a pole of f if and only if z0 is a zero of 1/f .

Definition
A pole z0 of f is said to be of order m 1 if z0 is a zero of order m of
the function 1/f .
A pole of order 1 is called a simple pole.

Examples:
cot z has simple poles at the points z0 = n, n Z.
1
z0 = 1 is a pole of order 2 for the function f (z) = .
(z 1)2

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Singular points and Laurent series
Theorem
Suppose f has an isolated singular point at z0 . Let

X
f (z) = an (z z0 )n
n=

be the Laurent series of f about z0 , 0 |z z0 | < r for r > 0. Then

1 z0 is a removable singularity if and only if an = 0 for all n N.
2 z0 is a pole of order m if and only if am 6= 0 and an = 0 for all
n > m.
3 z0 is an essential singularity if and only if an 6= 0 for infinitely
many n N.

Note: If f has a removable singularity at z0 , then defining

f (z0 ) = lim f (z) = a0 , f becomes analytic at z0 .
zz0
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Examples

ez 1 z z2 z3
f (z) = =1+ + + + for 0 < z < .
z 2! 3! 4!
So, z0 = 0 is a removable singularity of f .
Note: Defining f (0) = 1 you get f analytic at z0 = 0.

1 1 X
f (z) = = (z 1)n for 0 < |z 1| < 1.
(z 1)(z 2) z1
n=0
So, z0 = 1 is a simple pole of f . Similarly, z0 = 2 is a simple pole
of f .
 n
2 1

2 1 X 1 1
f (z) = z exp z = z + z + + for |z| > 0.
2! (n + 2)! z
n=1
So, z0 = 0 is an essential singularity of f .

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Properties of Removable Singularity
Theorem
Suppose that f is analytic in 0 < |z z0 | < r for some r > 0, and z0 is a singular point
of f . Then the following are equivalent:
1 z0 is a removable singularity of f .

X
2 f (z) = an (z z0 )n for 0 < |z z0 | < r.
n=0

3 There is an analytic function g in |z z0 | < r such that g(z) = f (z) for

0 < |z z0 | < r.
4 lim f (z) exists and is finite.
zz0
 
5 lim (z z0 )f (z) = 0.
zz0

6 f is bounded in a deleted neighborhood of z0 .

X an X
Look at the Laurent series f (z) = + an (z z0 )n for 0 < |z z0 | < r.
n=1
(z z0 )n n=0
If (5) or (6) holds, then an must be zero for all n N.
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Properties of a Pole
Theorem
Suppose that f is analytic in 0 < |z z0 | < r for some r > 0. Then the following are
equivalent:
1 f has a pole of order m at z0 .
1
2 has a zero of order m at z0 .
f

X
3 f (z) = ak (z z0 )k for 0 < |z z0 | < r and am 6= 0.
k=m

g(z)
4 f (z) = , where g is analytic at z0 and g(z0 ) 6= 0.
(z z0 )m
5 The function (z z0 )m f (z) has a removable singularity at z0 .
6 limzz0 |f (z)| = .

0, if k > m,
k
7 lim (z z0 ) f (z) = am , if k = m,
zz0
, if k < m.

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Properties of Essential Singularities

Theorem
Suppose that f is analytic in 0 < |z z0 | < r for some r > 0. Then the following are
equivalent:
1 f has essential singularity at z0 , i.e., lim does not exist.
zz0

X
2 f (z) = ak (z z0 )k for 0 < |z z0 | < r and an 6= 0 for infinitely many
k=
n N.
3 f is neither bounded nor approaches as z z0 .

Theorem
Picards Great Theorem: Suppose has an essential singularity at z0 . Then in each
deleted neighborhood N (z0 ) of z0 , f assumes every complex number, with possibly
one exception, an infinite number of times, i.e., the image of 0 < |z z0 | < r under f
is an infinite number of copies of C \ {atmost one point}.

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Singularity at Point at Infinity ()

Definition
Suppose that
1

f is analytic in R < |z| < for some R 0. Define g by
g(z) = f z for 0 < |z| < 1/R. Then, f is said to have a removable
singularity / pole of order m / essential singularity at if g has a
removable singularity / pole of order m / essential singularity at 0,
respectively.

Examples. (1) If P (z) is a non-constant polynomial, then the function

1
f given by f (z) = has a removable singularity at z = .
P (z)
(2) Any non-constant polynomial P (z) has a pole at z = .
(3) ez , sin(z), cos(z), sinh(z) have an essential singularity at z = .

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Result
An entire function has removable singularity at if and only if it is a
constant function.
[Hint. For only if part, show that f is bounded.]
Result
An entire function has a pole of order m at if and only if it is a
polynomial of degree m.

Exercise. Analyze the nature of the point z = for the rational

P (z)
function R(z) = , where P (z) and Q(z) are polynomials of
Q(z)
degrees m and n, respectively.

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