34

CHAPTER 2

PRODUCTION OF POROUS CASTINGS

2.1 CASTING

Casting is the most common practice often used for making

complex shapes that would be otherwise difficult or uneconomical to
manufacture by other manufacturing methods. The process usually involves
pouring of molten metal into a mould that contains hollow cavity of the
desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solidified part is known as a
casting, which is knocked out of the mould to complete the process. Then the
removed casting is taken for fettling process to remove Runners and Risers.
Finally the required quality of casting is obtained after the cleaning process.

According to Banhart and Baumeister (1998) casting of metal and

alloys around a filler material has attracted lot of interest in recent times. The
following are the three steps:

(i) Preparation of space-holder.

( ii ) By using organic or inorganic cores.

( iii) Infiltration of the filler material with metal and removal of

space holders.

It is a process of pouring the molten metal into a mould cavity,

which contains cores of desired shape, size and then allowed to solidify. After
 35

solidification the cores were removed and cavity of desired shape and size is
obtained.

Casting of metals and alloys around a filler material has recently

attracted a lot of interest, because it is potentially a very economic way to
create cellular structures of a wide range of metals and porosities. The filler
material can either consists of low density materials that remain in the
material or it consists of compact materials that can be removed after
solidification. The method practiced here is casting metal around granules as
this method produces an interconnected cellular (open cell) structures were
metal is introduced into the casting mould as shown in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1 Casting around granules

2.2 PRODUCTION OF POROUS GUNMETAL CASTINGS

In this research work four porous gunmetal castings were produced.

The steps involved in production of porous castings are shown in Figure 2.2.
 36

PRODUCTION OF POROUS GUNMETAL CASTINGS

PATTERN AND
MELTING OF METAL MOULD BOX MAKING

PREPARATION OF
SAND BALLS

MOULD MAKING

FILLING THE MOULD

WITH
SAND BALLS

POURING

POROUS
CASTING

KNOCK OUT

REMOVAL OF
GATES AND RISERS

CLEANING

Figure 2.2 Layout for production of gunmetal casting

2.2.1 Pattern Making

Pattern making is the first step in a casting process. Skilled pattern

maker builds a pattern of the object from the design provided using wood.
The metal to be cast contract during solidification and this may be non-
uniform due to uneven cooling. Therefore to compensate this reduction in size
 37

the pattern was slightly larger than the finished product, a difference known
as contraction allowance.

For easy removal of pattern from the mould and to avoid damages
during removal of pattern from the mould, pattern was slightly tapered. This
allowance is known as draft allowance. Also during removal of pattern, the
pattern is slightly shaken. This makes the size of the mould slightly larger. To
compensate the above oversize an allowance known as Rapping or Shaking
allowance considered and the pattern is under sized to compensate the above.
Contract level of each metal and alloy differs from one another, hence scaled
rules are different for each metals.

In this research work, a wooden pattern as shown in Figure 2.3 of

size 150mm X 150mm X 65mm was used to produce a mould, using green
sand with 5% Bentonite and 3.5% moisture. A multi-part moulding wooden
box of size 640mm X 640mm X 150mm was prepared to receive the pattern.
The moulding box made of two parts, the bottom part known as drag and the
upper part known as cope. The parting line or the parting surface is in line or
surface that separates the cope and drag.

Figure 2.3 Wooden pattern (gunmetal)

 38

2.2.2 Preparation of Sand Balls

Sand balls (cores) were used as space-holder filler. Sand balls were
prepared manually by using core box with a mixture consisting of silica sand,
Bentonite, clay and sodium silicate as additive material. The cavity in the
sand is formed by using a pattern that was typically made out of wood.

Percentage of Bentonite in sand mixture is an important factor in

this research for producing porous castings because the porosity of the
castings largely depends on the strength of the sand balls. Hence the sand
balls should be strong enough to create hollow cavity in castings, this can be
achieved only when the sand balls made with adequate amount of Bentonite
which holds the sand together by providing bonding action. Bentonite
composition used for making the sand balls given in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 Bentonite composition for gunmetal samples

S.No. Sand ball size, in mm Percentage of Bentonite by weight

1 15 6.5%

2 20 6.5%

3 25 7.0%

4 30 7.0%

To the above composition sufficient quantity of water was added.

From the mixture, round balls of sizes ranging from 15mm to 30mm were
made as shown in Figure 2.4 to Figure 2.7. These balls were dried and kept
ready for use in molten gunmetal casting.
 39

Figure 2.4 The picture of sand balls of size 15mm (gunmetal)

Figure 2.5 The picture of sand balls of size 20mm (gunmetal)

 40

Figure 2.6 The picture of sand balls of size 25mm (gunmetal)

Figure 2.7 The picture of sand balls of size 30mm (gunmetal)

 41

2.2.3 Mould Making

There are four basic steps in mould making process.

1. Pattern placed in sand in the moulding box to create mould.

2. Incorporate the pattern and sand in the gating system.

3. Remove the pattern.

4. Fill the mould cavity with sand balls.

The type of sand used for moulding was Green sand. Green sand
is a mixture of silica sand, clay, moisture and other additives. The prepared
sand mixture was then compressed around the pattern forming a mould cavity.

The gating system (sprue and gates) serves as the path by which
molten metal flows into the pattern cavity and feeds the shrinkage which
develops during casting solidification. Proper design of gating system is
critical in meeting the three important requirements. Proper gating includes
runners and risers:

(i) Prevents short flow paths and fast flow prevents casting
misruns due to premature solidification.

(ii) Provide molten metal for feeding shrinkage during

solidification.

(iii) Removal of gas and steam.

The arrangement of mould cavity with gating, risering system

and sand balls is as shown in Figure 2.8.
 42

Figure 2.8 Mould showing the positioning of sand balls (gunmetal)

Moulding boxes are made in segments that may be latched to each

other and to end closures. For a simple object flat on one side the lower
portion of the box closed at the bottom, will be filled with prepared green
sand or casting sand. The sand was placed through a vibratory process called
ramming. The pattern is placed on the sand and additional sand was filled
around the pattern and rammed carefully. Excess sand was removed.

After ramming, a cover plate is placed on the box and the box
turned and unlatched. The two halves of the box, namely drag and the cope
were parted separately. Pattern with its sprue was removed carefully without
damaging the mould cavity. The two halves of the box are closed finally. This
forms a green mould which was dried to receive the hot metal. If the mould
is not dried adequately, a steam explosion can occur that can throw the molten
metal. The sand balls of required size were filled into the prepared mould
 43

cavity. The mould cavity and the sand balls were preheated to a temperature
of 200C.

2.2.4 Melting of Gunmetal

Alloys of copper with tin, zinc and lead have been used for at least
2000 years due to their ease of casting and good strength and corrosion
resistance. The use for cannons in mediaeval times led to the term
gunmetal.

Charge materials used in this research work for melting are:

i) Copper

ii) Tin

iii) Zinc

iv) Lead

Cuprit (neutral or reducing fluxes) was used as flux material. 1 kg of

cuprit required for 100 kg of metal. Cuprit form a protective blanket over the
metal during melting to prevent contamination of the melt from the furnace
atmosphere and to protect alloying elements, especially zinc, from oxidation,
thereby suppressing zinc fume and the formation of showers of zinc oxide in
the air.

In this research work, the melting was carried out using oil-fired
crucible furnace with capacity of 180 kgs shown in Figure 2.9. The charge
was carefully selected to avoid impurities. Before charging the crucible and
crucible lid were cleaned. The crucible was preheated before charging. The
flux placed in the bottom of the crucible prior to charging.
 44

Figure 2.9 Oil-fired crucible furnace

The crucible was charged with required composition to full and

ignited. When the charge in the furnace melts, the level of metal in the in the
crucible lowers. Metal was charged additionally through the opening found on
the lid. At 1100C metal completely melts and was ready for pouring.
Skimming was done to remove slag from the molten metal. Phosphorous
(deoxidant) added to the molten metal, which combine with all oxygen
present to form a fluid slag. After skimming the molten metal was poured in
to the mould using a ladle. Figure 2.10 shows the gunmetal undergoing
melting in oil fired crucible furnace.
 45

Figure 2.10 Melting of gunmetal

Melting point of gunmetal is around 999o C and at specific gravity

of 8.72x 10-6 kgmm-3. Table 2.1 shows the composition of gunmetal casting
used for this research work.

Table 2.2 Composition of gunmetal

Element weight in %

Copper Tin Zinc Lead

Sample
Cu Sn Zn Pb
Experiment 1 75.00 4.43 2.58 16.74

Experiment 2 72.91 4.51 5.54 16.22

Experiment 3 74.00 4.01 6.00 16.02

Experiment 4 74.1 3.99 0.69 19.68

.
 46

2.2.5 Pouring of Gunmetal

The soundness of castings depends on how the metal enters a mould

and solidifies. Proper care was taken in pouring the metal into the mould
cavity. A ladle was used to transfer molten metal furnace to the moulds. In
lip-pouring ladles are skimmed clean before pouring. Lesser the holding time
reduces the oxidation of metal.

When the finished mould is closed and ready for pouring, a weight
was placed on the top surface to stop the pressure of the molten metal lifting
the top of the mould and running out. Molten metal about 999C is poured
into the mould from a ladle. At this temperature the metal at fluid form and
will fill at the small detail in the mould. As the metal cools around 855C it
begins to solidify. As the metal changes from liquid to solid the volume of the
metal reduces, so more liquid metal is drawn from feeders (risers) to
compensate. Shrinkage porosity may occur if insufficient metal available to
fill the voids. To overcome the above, proper feeding arrangements are
designed.

2.2.6 Knockout

After the molten metal has been poured into the mould, it is allowed
to cool and solidify. When the casting has solidified, it is removed from (the
sand) the moulding box. This operation is called as knockout.

First the drag and the cope were separated. Castings were removed
manually by striking the sand with metal bar and pulled out of the sand with
the help of a hook bar. Proper care was taken to avoid any damage to the
casting during knockout.
 47

2.2.7 Removal of Gates and Risers

After removal of casting from the mould, the runners, gates and
risers were removed. Gates and risers were removed by chipping hammers.
Chipping hammer is used for copper alloy castings.

2.2.8 Cleaning

Cleaning is an important operation which helps casting in giving the

casting a good appearance after the same has been removed from the sand
mould. Cleaning involves removal of following items from the casting:

(i) Cleaning of exterior and interior of casting surface (including

the removal of core sand).

(ii) The removal of fins, wires and protuberances at gate and riser
location (Trimming).

(iii) Final surface cleaning, giving the casting its outward

appearance (Finishing).

In this research work, cleaning was done by shot blasting. Sand balls
responsible for formation of porosity in the casting have to be removed
clearly. Shot blasting provides higher rate of output than other process. Water
jet cleaning was employed for cleaning and removal of core sand (sand balls).
Only after removal of sand balls, formation of pores was analysed.

2.3 CHARACTERISATION OF POROUS GUNMETAL CASTINGS

To characterise the nature of pores formed, all the four porous

gunmetal castings were experimented. The density, percentage of porosity,
cut-section analysis and radiography tests were conducted to confirm the
 48

pores formed all through the castings. The hardness and compression tests
were carried out to examine the mechanical properties of porous gunmetal
castings. Figure 2.11 shows the characterisation of gunmetal foam castings.

Porous
Castings

Characterisation

Visual Radiogr Density Porosity Cut- Compressi Hardness

Exami aphy Measure Measure Section on Test
nation Test ment ment Test
Analysis

Figure 2.11 Characterisation of porous gunmetal castings

2.3.1 Visual Examination

Visual examination commonly defined as the examination of the

material, component or product for the condition or non-conformance using
light and the eyes. Visual examination typically means non-destructive testing
using only raw human senses by not using any specialized equipments. Also
visual inspection determines the surface problems or discontinuities over the
surface.

In this research work, the casting samples produced by using 15mm,

20mm, 25mm and 30mm sand balls were inspected (after cleaning and
removal of sand balls) to examine the formation of pores and nature of pores
 49

formed all through the casting samples. All the six faces of the castings were
manually inspected.

2.3.2 Radiography Test

Radiographic testing is a non-destructive testing method of

inspecting materials for hidden flaws using the ability of short wavelength
electromagnetic radiation (high energy photons) to penetrate various materials
by either an X-ray tube(radiographic machine), or gamma ray source.

In this research work gamma rays are passed through the test piece
and the intensity of transmitted rays was recorded on a photographic film.
Film is positioned behind the casting sections being radiographed. The
distance from source to casting, section thickness, exposure, and the time was
properly selected to give satisfactory results. Since most defects transmit the
short-wavelength light better than the sound metal. The film is darkened more
where the defects are in the line of source beam. Possible imperfections are
indicated as density changes in the film in the same manner as an X-ray
shown in the broken bones.

Porous gunmetal samples were subjected to radiographic inspection

for analysing the pores formed in the metal, the dark region (as like defects in
perfect castings) of the film represents the more penetrable part of the object
than the light rights which were more opaque. The dark regions represent the
pores formed in the casting. The following are the parameters used:

Source = Iridium 192

Film used = D7

Penerameter/ASTM = F40/50

Technique = SWSI
 50

2.3.3 Density Measurement

The density or mass density of a material is defined as its weight per

unit volume. In some cases density is also defined as mass per unit volume.
This quantity is more properly called as specific weight. Different materials
usually have different densities. So density is an important concept regarding
buoyancy purity and packaging. Less dense fluids float on more dense fluids,
if they do not mix. In some cases density is expressed as the dimensionless
quantities specific gravity or relative density.

The foams are characterised in terms of their density, since the

mechanical properties of the metallic foams largely depend on the density.
The densities of the samples were determined by weighing the sample using a
digital balance and by measuring their dimensions. Multiplying the mean
value of the measured dimensions, the volume is obtained. The density is
calculated using the formula shown in Equation 2.1.

Weight of porous casting

Density (2.1)
Volume of produced sample

2.3.4 Porosity Measurement

Porosity is a measure of the void space in a material, and is a

fraction of the volume of voids over the total volume. Percent porosity is a
rough measure of the open volume equal to 100% minus the part density. The
total volumes of interconnected and isolated porosity are normally found out.

In this research work, the density of non-porous sample initially

taken as the bulk casting density. Experimentation was done with porous
models. Experiment conducted by varying the sizes from 15mm to 30mm.
Achieved density are calculated using Equation 2.1 and in the density of
produced porous castings. Soong-keun Hyun et al (2004) proposed that the
 51

strength of the foam depends mostly on the base material and the relative
density of the foam. Percentage porosity was calculated using the formula
shown in Equation 2.2.

Bulk casting density - Achieved density

% porosity X100 (2.2)
Bulk casting density

2.3.5 Visual Examination of Cut-section

Cut-section analysis is the most effective method to characterise the

nature and distribution of pores throughout the castings. It provides basic
information about the formation of pores inside the casting. It also provides
information about the distribution of pores. If pores are interconnected then it
is an open-cell foam casting. If the pores are not interconnected then it leads
to closed cell foam casting.

In this research work, all the foam castings with dimensions 150mm
x 150mm x 65mm produced by casting technique were cut in to four equal
halves to examine the distribution of pore structures and to confirm the
formation of interconnectivity of pores. Air jet was used to clean the pores.
The molten metal fills the voids in between the cores filled in the die and
nucleation starts at the surface of the cores used. So, the shape and size of the
pores depends directly on the size and geometry of the cores.

2.3.6 Compression Test

The compression test of metallic foams is considered as one of the

most applicable test for the characterisation of their metallic stability. It is the
method for determining the behaviour of materials under crushing loads. The
evaluation of the mechanical behavior of a sample under conditions of
compression can be performed to provide basic material property data that is
critical for component design and service performance assessment. The
 52

requirements for compression strength values and the methods for testing
these properties are specified in various standards for wide variety of
materials. Testing was performed on machined material samples or on full-
size or scale models of actual components. A compression test is a method for
determining the behaviour of materials under a compressive load.

In this research work tests were performed using a universal testing

machine made by Alfred J Amsler & Co, Schaffhausen, Switzerland as shown
in Figure 2.12. The cut-sections with dimensions 75mm x 75mm x 65mm
were placed between two plates, and then applying a force to the specimen by
moving the crossheads together. During the test, the specimens were
compressed, and deformation versus the applied load was recorded.

Figure 2.12 Compression testing machine

 53

2.3.7 Hardness Test

The Vickers hardness test method consists of indenting the test

material with a diamond indenter, in the form of a pyramid with a square base
and an angle of 136 degrees between opposite faces subjected to a test force
between 1gf to 100 kgf. The full load is normally applied for 10 to 15
seconds. In this research work 10 kgf load for 10 seconds was applied.

The advantages of the Vickers hardness test are that extremely

accurate readings can be taken, and just one type of indenter is used for all
types of metals and surface treatments. The Vickers method is capable of
testing the softest and hardest of materials, under varying loads. The Vickers
testing machine is shown in Figure 2.13.

Figure 2.13 Vickers Hardness tester

The specifications of Zwick hardness tester are given below:

Specification : Hardness Tester with objective lens and micro
load attachment

Intender : Diamond
Objective lens : 100x, 200x, 400 x and 600x
Load : 0.03 kg to 30kg.
 54

2.4 PRODUCTION OF POROUS STAINLESS STEEL CASTINGS

In this research work five stainless steel porous castings were

produced. Following steps are involved in production of porous castings as
shown in Figure 2.14.

PRODUCTION OF POROUS STAINLESS STEEL CASTINGS

PATTERN AND
MELTING OF METAL MOULD BOX MAKING

PREPARATION OF
SAND BALLS

MOULD MAKING

FILLING THE MOULD

WITH
SAND BALLS
POURING

POROUS
CASTING

KNOCK OUT

REMOVAL OF
GATES AND RISERS

CLEANING

HEAT TREATMENT

ACID PIC KLING AND

WATER J ET CLEANING

Figure 2.14 Layout for production of porous stainless steel casting

 55

2.4.1 Pattern Making

Pattern making is the first step in the development of porous

castings. A pattern maker builds a pattern of the object from the design
provided by using wood. While designing the pattern, required allowance are
taken in to consideration by following the scaled rules.

Here a wooden pattern of size 250mmx250mmx60mm as shown in

Figure 2.15 was used to produce the mould cavity with carbon dioxide process
by using a multi-part moulding steel box of size 500mmx600mmx150mm.

Figure 2.15 Wooden pattern (stainless steel)

2.4.2 Preparation of Sand Balls

In this research work sand balls were prepared by mixing 6.5 percent
of bentonite with silica sand by weight. To this correctly measured quantity of
mixture, sufficient quantity of water was added. From the prepared mixture
three sizes of sand balls with 7.5mm, 10mm and 15mm were made manually
as shown in Figure 2.16 to Figure 2.18. Sand balls were dried properly and
kept ready for use in preparation of porous stainless steel castings.
 56

Figure 2.16 The picture of sand balls of size 7.5mm (stainless steel)

Figure 2.17 The picture of sand balls of size 10mm (stainless steel)
 57

Figure 2.18 The picture of sand balls of size 15mm (stainless steel)

2.4.3 Mould Making

In this research work carbon dioxide process was used to make the
mould. In carbon dioxide process clean dry silica sand was first mixed with
liquid sodium silicate in a muller.

Moulding boxes are made in segments that were latched to each

other for complete closure. Pattern was placed inside the mould box, prepared
sand mixture filled and compressed around.

To harden the mould carbon dioxide gas was passed into the mould.
The sodium silicate present in the sand reacts with carbon dioxide gas and
forms a hard substance called silica gel. The silica gel is a hard substance like
cement and helps in binding of sand grains. The method of introducing the
gas must be simple, rapid and uniform throughout the sand body. Normally
the time taken to harden a medium size body is about 20 to 30 seconds.
 58

After the hardening process the boxes are unlatched and the two
halves were parted separately. Pattern with its sprue are removed carefully
without damaging the mould cavity. Any defect introduced by the removal of
the pattern were corrected and cleaned. Finally the mould and sand balls were
preheated to a temperature of 150C. Prepared sand balls were filled
completely in to the mould cavity as shown in Figure 2.19.

Figure 2.19 Mould cavity filled with sand balls (stainless steel)

2.4.4 Melting of Stainless Steel

Pure iron is too soft to be used for the purpose of structure, but by
addition of small quantities of other elements (chromium, nickel, silicon,
manganese etc) greatly increases the mechanical strength. This is because the
different atom sizes of other elements interrupts the orderly arrangement of
atoms in the lattice prevents them from sliding over each other. Alloying
elements have the capability to block slip planes.

Here in this research work stainless steel (CF8) was used for
production of porous castings. CF8 grade is corrosion resistant iron base
 59

alloy. The alloy find application in architectural hardware, food and beverage
processing equipments, pumps, valves, manifolds, transfer piping, impellers,
propellers, filter screens, agitators and scrubber components. Table 2.3 shows
the charge materials used for melting.

Table 2.3 Charge materials for stainless steel

Chromium Nickel Silicon Manganese Carbon Carbon Sulphur

In this research work CF8 stainless steel was melted using medium
frequency tilting type electric furnace of 150 kg capacity as shown in
Figure 2.20.

Figure 2.20 Stainless steel melting furnace

Raw material used for melting metal was SS304 scrap. SS304 scrap
was added in to the furnace and melted. Sample check was done when the
 60

melt in the furnace reaches 80% capacity of the furnace. At this point of time
virgin alloys like nickel, chromium, Ferro-silicon and low carbon Ferro-
manganese were added at correct proportions. Finally sample check was done
to confirm the composition. When the temperature reaches 1575C, pearlite
ore was added to the melt for removal of slag before tapping.

Table 2.4 shows the composition of materials with iron in stainless

steel castings used in this research work.

Table 2.4 Composition of stainless steel samples

Chromium NickelSilicon Manganese Molybde num Carbon SulphurPhosphorus

Ite m
% % % % % % % %

Exp 1 19.05 8.26 1.18 1.12 0.202 0.051 0.006 0.013

Exp 2 18.73 8.38 1.13 1.05 0.163 0.040 0.004 0.014

Exp 3 18.88 8.28 0.900 1.19 0.164 0.049 0.004 0.010

Exp 4 18.88 8.28 0.900 1.19 0.164 0.049 0.004 0.010

Exp 5 18.88 8.28 0.900 1.19 0.164 0.049 0.004 0.010

2.4.5 Pouring of Metal

After removing the slag portion from the melt, molten metal was
poured in to the ladle at temperature of 1590C. 0.1% Ferro-Titanium, 0.1%
Ferro-Silico-Zirconium and 0.15% Calcium-Silicide was added as deoxidizers
in the ladle. The ladle was taken to the mould and the molten metal was
poured in to the cavity through the runner at temperature of 1540C. Molten
metal rises through the riser and confirms the filling of the cavity. Riser is
provided to know the filling of metal and to provide additional metal during
solidification to compensate for the solidification shrinkage.
 61

2.4.6 Knockout

Adequate time was given to the molten metal for solidification.

Solidification time purely depends on the shape and size of the metal. In this
research work fourteen hours was given to the metal to solidify. First the drag
and cope were separated and the knock out process was carried out manually,
by striking the sand with metal rod. Proper care was taken to avoid any
damage to the castings.

2.4.7 Removal of Gates and Risers

Gates and risers are pouring and feeding arrangements for castings,
till the metal solidifies. After removing the casting from the mould after
solidification, the runners, gates and risers are to be removed to give required
shape to the casting. Gates and risers were removed with the help of electric
arc cutting.

2.4.8 Cleaning

Cleaning is an essential process to give casting good appearance. In

this research work both exterior and interior cleaning is essential. The sand
balls responsible for formation of porosity were removed so as to effect
porosity to the developed castings. Shot blasting was carried out to clean the
surface of the casting and removal of sand balls from the castings to analyse
the nature of pores. Shot blasting provides higher rate of output than other
process and removes the core to the depth of interconnectivity. Grinding work
carried out to remove the projections and fins.

2.4.9 Heat Treatment

Heat treatment is a metal working process used to alter the physical,

sometimes chemical properties of a material. Heat treatment involves the use
 62

of heating or chilling, normally to extreme temperatures to achieve desired

results such as hardening or softening of a material. Heat treatment applies
only to the process where heating and cooling are done for the specific
purpose of altering the properties intentionally.

In this research work heat treatment was carried out to improve

corrosion resistance and mechanical properties. Castings heated to a
temperature of 1080C in an electric heat treatment furnace and soaked for
three hours and then quenched in water. By heat treatment process internal
stresses occurred, get relieved and the original mechanical properties of metal
established.

2.4.10 Acid Pickling

Stainless steel materials are naturally self-passivate whenever a

clean surface is exposed to an environment that can provide enough oxygen to
form the chromium rich oxide surface layer. Chromium in stainless steel is
primarily responsible for self-passivation mechanism.

Stainless steel cannot be considered corrosion resistant under all

service conditions. Depending on the type of steel there will be certain
conditions where the passive state is broken down and prevented from
reforming. In this state the surface becomes active resulting in corrosion.

Pickling is the removal of thin layer of metal from the surface of the
stainless steel. Mixture of nitric and hydrofluoric acids are usually used for
pickling stainless steels. Pickling is the process used to remove the heated
tinted layers from the surface of stainless steel fabrications, where the steels
surface level has been reduced. Pickling makes the layer passive to oxidation
(Roger Crookes 2007).
 63

In this research work porous stainless steel castings were placed in

the bath containing nitric acid, hydrofluoric acid and water in the ratio of
1:2:4. Castings were kept for 30 minutes in the solution. After 30 minutes the
castings were taken out and cleaned with water jet.

2.5 CHARACTERISATION OF POROUS STAINLESS STEEL

CASTINGS

Five samples of porous stainless steel castings were produced. In

one of the porous casting, acid pickling was not carried out for examination.
To characterise the nature of pores formed pores stainless steel castings were
experimented. The castings were visually examined for formation of pores.
The density and percentage of porosity were measured. Radiography tests
were conducted to confirm the formation of pores all through the castings.
Figure 2.21 shows the characterisation of stainless steel castings.

Figure 2. 21 Characterisation of porous stainless steel castings

 64

2.5.1 Visual Examination

Visual examination typically means non-destructive testing only by

raw human senses by not using any specialized equipments. Visual
examination also reflects the surface problems and discontinuities over the
surface. Visual inspection is commonly used for the examination of the
material component or product for the conditions using light and eyes.

In this research work five samples of stainless steel were produced

with three sand ball sizes, namely 7.5mm, 10mm and 15mm. The porous
samples after shot blasting, heat treatment and acid pickling process were
manually inspected for pore formation and nature of pores on all surfaces of
the porous castings.

2.5.2 Radiography Test

In this research work all the five porous stainless steel castings were
subjected to radiographic inspection to confirm the formation of pores. Pores
are the open volume within a metal matrix or network. The dark region on the
film represents the formation of pores, because the light penetration was more
and opaque. The following are the parameters used.

Source = Iridium 192

Film used = D7

Penerameter/ASTM = F40/50

Technique = SWSI
 65

2.5.3 Density Measurement

Density is a physical property of matter, as each element and

compound has a unique density associated with it. Density defined in
qualitative manner as a measure of relative heaviness of the objects with a
constant volume. Density may also refer to how closely packed or crowded
the material appears to be.

Density is a measure of the mass of the substance in a standard unit

of volume. Foams are characterised in terms of their density, since
mechanical properties of foams depend on density. Density of the samples can
be determined by weighing the porous samples with a digital balance and by
measuring the dimensions. Volume is obtained by multiplying the mean value
of the measured dimensions. The density can be calculated by using the
formula from Equation 2.1.

2.5.4 Porosity Measurement

Percentage of porosity is a rough measure of the open volume equal

to 100% minus the part density. The total open volumes of the interconnected
and isolated porosity are normally included in this value. Distribution is
critical factors only when describing the open volume available.

For calculating the porosity of samples in this research work, the

density of non-porous sample was taken as the bulk casting density.
Experiments were conducted by varying the sand ball sizes from 7.5mm to
15mm and porous castings developed. Percentage of porosity was calculated
using the formula shown in Equation 2.2 for all the five stainless steel
samples.
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2.6 PRODUCTION OF POROUS ALUMINIUM CASTINGS

In this research five aluminium castings were produced by

permanent mould casting process. Following steps were involved in the
production of process castings as shown in Figure 2.22.

PRODUCTION OF POROUS ALUMINIUM CASTINGS

DIE MAKING
MELTING OF METAL

PREPARATION OF
SAND BALLS

FILLING THE MOULD

WITH
SAND BALLS

POURING

POROUS
CASTING

SEPARATION OF DIE
AND CASTING

REMOVAL OF
GATES AND RISERS

CLEANING

Figure 2.22 Layout for production of aluminium casting

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2.6.1 Die Making

Permanent mould casting (Gravity die casting) is a versatile process

for producing engineered metal parts by pouring molten metal into reusable
metal moulds. The moulds are called dies. The die was designed to produce
complex shapes with a high degree of accuracy and repeatability. Parts were
defined with smooth textured surfaces and are suitable for variety of attractive
finishes. Mostly this process is suitable for non-ferrous metals like
aluminium. This process is suitable for large quantity of small to medium
sized castings.

Benefits of permanent mould castings:

1. Excellent dimensional accuracy.

2. Smooth surface finish.

3. Thinner walls can be cast as compared to sand castings.

4. Reduces or eliminates secondary operations.

5. Rapid production rate.

In this research work, the die was made using cast iron plates of
25mm thickness with dimensions 250mmx250mmx60mm. The die had a
runner at the centre and four risers on all the four corners of the as shown in
Figure 2.23. The risers at the four corners of the die cavity were provided to
ensure complete filling of the molten metal and to provide extra metal during
solidification.
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Figure 2.23 Cast iron die

2.6.2 Preparation of Sand Balls

In this research work four sizes of sand balls were prepared. Sand
balls with 10mm, 15mm, 20mm and 25mm were prepared by mixing
Bentonite with silica by weight as shown in Table 2.5.

Table 2.5 Bentonite composition for aluminium samples

S.No. Sand ball size, in mm Percentage of Bentonite by weight

1 10 6.5%

2 15 6.5%

3 20 6.5%

4 25 7.0%

To this correctly measured quantity of mixture sufficient water was

added. From this mixture round balls of sizes 10mm, 15mm, 20mm and
 69

25mm were prepared as shown in Figure 2.24 to Figure 2.27. These balls
were dried and kept ready for use in aluminium castings.

Figure 2.24 The picture of sand balls of size 10mm (aluminium)

Figure 2.25 The picture of sand balls of size 15mm (aluminium)

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Figure 2.26 The picture of sand balls of size 20mm (aluminium)

Figure 2.27 The picture of sand balls of size 25mm (aluminium)

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2.6.3 Filling of Sand Balls

For the development of porous castings, the selected sizes of dried

sand balls were filled in the die completely. The shape and size of the pores
required directly depend on the shape and size of the sand balls used for the
experiment. Volume of cores used was kept maximum to have maximum
percentage of porosity, so that minimum amount of liquid metal was required
to fill the voids.

2.6.4 Melting of Aluminium

Here in this research work LM6 aluminium alloy was used for
production of porous castings. LM6 alloy exhibits excellent resistance to
corrosion under both ordinary atmospheric and marine conditions. LM6 alloy
was melted using electric resistance furnace of 50 kg capacity as shown in
Figure 2.28.

Figure 2.28 Aluminium melting furnace

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Raw material used for melting the metal was LM6 Ingots. LM6
ingots was added into the furnace and melted. When the metal melts and
reaches a temperature of 710 C sodium chloride flux was added to the melt to
remove the slag portion. After removing the slag to achieve high integrity
from atmosphere, melt was degassed by adding chloroethane base. Table 2.6
shows the material composition in percentage with aluminium used in this
research work.

Table 2.6 Composition of materials with aluminium

Item %Cu %Mg %Si %Fe %Mn %Ni %Zn %Pb

Exp 1 0.08 0.09 12 0.5 0.5 0.09 0.09 0.08

Exp 2 0.09 0.08 11 0.6 0.4 0.08 0.08 0.09

Exp 3 0.09 0.08 11 0.6 0.4 0.08 0.08 0.09

Exp 4 0.08 0.07 13 0.5 0.5 0.09 0.09 0.08

Exp 5 0.08 0.07 13 0.5 0.5 0.09 0.09 0.08

2.6.5 Pouring of Metal

After removal of slag and degassing, the molten metal was poured
into the ladle at a temperature of 690 C. The ladle was taken to the die and
the molten metal was poured into the cavity through the runner. Molten metal
rises through the risers and confirms the filling of the cavity. Riser also
provides additional metal during solidification to compensate for the
solidification shrinkage. The metal starts freezing at 575 C and solidifies.
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2.6.6 Separation of Die and Poured Castings

Adequate time was given for solidification of the metal. Castings

along with gating and risering were removed from the die after the molten
metal gets solidified.

2.6.7 Removal of Gates and Risers

After removing the casting from the die, the runner and risers were
removed with help of wooden hammer.

2.6.8 Cleaning

Cleaning is an important process to give casting good appearance. In

this research work in addition to exterior cleaning, the sand balls responsible
for formation of porosity were also to be removed. Shot blasting was carried
out to remove sand balls as well as to clean surface of the castings. Finally
grinding was carried out to remove the fins and projections.

2.7 CHARACTERISATION OF POROUS ALUMINIUM

CASTINGS

Five samples of porous aluminium castings were developed. All the

porous castings were visually examined for the formation of pores. The
density and the percentage of porosity were measured. Radiography tests also
were conducted to confirm the formation of pores all through the castings.
Figure 2.29 shows the characterisation of aluminium castings.
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Figure 2. 29 Characterisation of porous aluminium castings

2.7.1 Visual Examination

Visual examination is commonly used for the examination of the

material for conditions using light and eyes. Before examination, the castings
are cleaned completely with shot blasting and air jet cleaning.

In this research work five aluminium samples were produced using

sand ball sizes ranging from 10mm to 25mm. Experiment 1 was conducted
with sand ball size of 10mm, experiment 2 and experiment 3 with sand ball
size of 15mm, experiment 4 was conducted with sand ball size of 20mm and
experiment 5 was conducted with sand ball size of 25mm.

2.7.2 Radiography Test

The porous aluminium samples were subjected to radiographic

inspection for analyzing the formation of pores in the developed porous
aluminium castings. Following are the parameters used in radiographic
technique.
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Source = Iridium 192

Film used = D7

Penerameter/ASTM = F40/50

Technique = SWSI

The dark regions of the film represent penetrable part of the object
(void) than the light regions which were opaque (metal).

2.7.3 Density Measurement

Foams are characterised in terms of their density, since the

mechanical properties of the foam largely depend on density. Density defined
in qualitative manner as a measure of relative heaviness of the objects with a
constant volume.

Density of the samples can be determined by weighing the pores

samples with a digital balance and by measuring the dimensions. Volume is
obtained by multiplying the mean value of the measured dimensions. The
density can be calculated by using the Equation 2.1.

2.7.4 Porosity Measurement

Percent porosity is a rough measure of the open volume equal to

100% minus the part density. The total volume of interconnected and isolated
porosity is normally included in this value. Initially bulk density was taken as
the density of non-porous sample and the achieved density arrived by
Equation 2.1.

Percent porosity of the five alminium samples can be found using

the Equation 2.2.