Introduction to Geosciences

Claude Laffont – (IFP School)

 Uneven distribution of oil reserves

1
 Uneven distribution of gas reserves

2
 Increasing demand and limited reserves

3 sources give similar figures

 BP: 1 148 billions of barrels

 USGS: 1 000 billions of barrels
 Oil and Gas journal: 1265 billions of barrels

that is around 40 years of cumsumption with the

current rate.

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 we have to explore...

WHAT ?

WHERE ?

HOW ?

HOW LONG ?
=
4
 Organisation
Basics in geology
 Structure of the earth and plates tectonic
 Basins
 Rocks and sediments
 Environments of deposition
 Diagenesis
Petroleum system
 Hydrocarbons formation and migration
 Source-rock,
 Reservoirs,
 Seal,
 Traps
Basics in mapping (stratigraphy and geology)
Main tools (seismic reflexion and logging)
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 Basics in Geology

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 Tools and scales for observation

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 Origin of the universe

8
Gradstein et al., 2004

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 Geologic map

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 Absolute ages

radiochronology based on
radioactive elements in the
minerals

Mesozoic and Paleozoic:

U–Pb, 2 systems:
235U decaying to 207Pb
238U decaying to 206Pb

Mesozoic and Cenozoic:

K-Ar ,
and more recently 40Ar/39Ar

Quaternary:
14C/12C from Carbon in living

organism tests

11 (Gradstein et al., 2004)

 The Earth's inner structure
and
tectonic plates

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 The Earth from the space

JF Reese, NASA Database

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 The Earth's inner structure

Crust
in green: oceanic crust Lithosphere

in pink: continental crust

Upper Mantle
Asthenosphere

Vp: seismic wave velocity (km/s)

re
Co

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 Main tectonic units on Earth crust

15
 Lithospheric plates

Eurasian
North
plate
Juan de Fuca american
plate plate

Pacific
Pacific
plate
plate Arabic
plate Philippines
Caraïb plate
plate

Scale African
plate
Nazca South Indian
plate american plate
plate

Antartica
plate
Antartica plate
Medio-oceanic chains, rift
Oceanic troughs, subduction
Alpine collision

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 Map of the sea bottom

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 Rifting = continental crust breaking

 3 main stages
• before breaking: pre-rift (bulging due to increase thermic flux)
• thinning of the crust, due to faults: syn-rift (formation of a
graben)
• after the breaking, with active oceanic accretion: post-rift

 Very often associated with volcanism (partial melting of

the mantle)
 Current example: East Africa rift valley

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 Rifting and its consequences

1 - East African Rift Valleys stage

Thinning of the crust
Creation of faults 2 - Red Sea stage
Continent tears in 2
Basalt eruptions form oceanic crust

3 – Atlantic Ocean stage

The ocean widens, a mid-oceanic ridge develop
Continental sediment blanket the margins

19 (McGeary et al., 2004)

 Atlantic Ocean – age of the crust

to

180 Ma
(Toarcian)

The margins associated to ocean opening

20 are called passive margins.
 Evolution of plates geometry through time

21
 active margin

In a compressional context, denser oceanic crust may

go below lighter continental crust: this is called subduction

Example of Chile: Andean mountain range

strong coupling between the
2 plates, due to the low angle
of the subduction dip (due to
the "relatively light" oceanic
Nazca plate
lithosphere (younger)
South American plate
Consequence: compressive
stresses are transmitted into
Melting at a depth of 150 km the upper plate: a mountain
range forms.

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 Other processes

 After complete subduction of the oceanic crust, the

attached continental crust may collide with another
continental crust. This is a collision, that can produce
high altitudes mountain ranges (Himalaya is produced
by Indian plate going below Eurasia)

 In specific conditions, small pieces of oceanic crust may

override a continental crust ; this is called obduction,
and also generate mountain ranges (Alps).
Fragments of oceanic crusts within mountain ranges are
called ophiolites.

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 Sedimentary basins

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 Sedimentary Basin

Subsidence is a collapse/downward bending of the

lithosphere, which is due to
tectonic (crustal thinning),
and/or thermicity (oceanic lithosphere).
Subsidence allows sedimentation, in specific areas on the
earth surface, called sedimentary basins.
Subsidence is further enhanced by sediment loading.

A sedimentary basin also represents the content = the

sedimentary layers which are deposited through time in the
depression.
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 Paris basin: example of an emerged basin

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 Paris basin: cross-section

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 The concept of sedimentary basin
in extensive contexte

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 Extensional regime – where and when ?

 linked with plate tectonics:

• in active rift zones (Gulf of Suez)

• in intracratonic basins (aborted rifts: North sea, Paris basin) -

• in passive margins (Gulf of Guinea)

 but also linked with gravitational tectonics

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 The concept of sedimentary basin
in compressive contexte

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 Deformations inside the basins

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 Different stresses and
possible associated deformations

Normal faults Strike-slip faults Reverse faults

Vertical stresses are due to weight of overlaying sediments

Horizontal stresses are related to plates interactions
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 Structural geology:
science of rocks deformations

Different tools of study: outcrops, seismic, well logs...

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34
 Folds

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 Stratigraphy and tectonic

Normal and reverse series

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 AB

A B

Normal fault : a fault with a major dip-slip component in which the hanging wall is on
the downthrown side. Generally related to an extensional tectonic. Distance between
A and B increases
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 Extension – Normal faults

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 Normal faults and associated tilted blocks

Photo AM
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 Example of the North sea
Rifting generates:
- potential traps such
as tilted blocks behind
major normal faults,
- numerous secondary
faults that will form
compartments within
traps

Post rift

Post rift sediments provide:

- a seal above potential traps
- additional burial to potential
Pre & syn rift
source rocks.

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 Exercise: Draw the faults

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42
 AB

B A

Reverse fault : a fault with a major dip-slip component in which the hanging wall is on
the upthrown side. Related to a compressional tectonic.
Distance between A and B decreases
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 COMPRESSION : REVERSE FAULTS

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 Reverse fault and associated fold, metric scale

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 Reverse & Thrust faults

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 Dating tectonic deformations
from sedimentary sequences geometry

Post tectonic
Syn tectonic: growth strata (fan shape)

Pre tectonic

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 Reverse fault and associated fold,
kilometric scale

5 km

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 Horizontal displacements

49 http://medias.lepost.fr/ill/2010/02/14/h-20-1940519-1266139514.jpg
 Dating tectonic deformations from
sedimentary sequences geometry

Post tectonic

Syn tectonic: growth strata

Pre tectonic

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 Hanging wall and Foot wall

We classify faults by how the two rocky blocks on either side of a fault move relative to
each other. The one you see here is a reverse fault. Take a look at the side that shows the
fault and arrows indicating movement. See the block farthest to the right that is shaped
kind of like a foot? That’s the foot wall. Now look at the block on the other side of the
fault. See how it’s resting or hanging on top of the footwall block? That’s the hanging
wall.
Here’s another way to think of it: the hanging wall block is always above the fault plane,
while the foot wall block is always below the fault plane.

USGS definition images: http://hays.outcrop.org/GSCI100/lecture15s.html

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 Relationship between
sedimentation and tectonic

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 Exercise
Based on this cross-section, what can you tell about the fault activity ?
Draw sketches through time.

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 Start of extensional phase:
creation of a normal fault

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 Deposition of layer 1: the normal fault is possibly still active

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Deposition of layer 2: inactive fault
 Extensional phase:
normal faulting

Normal fault possibly still

active during deposition of
layer 3

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 Deposition of layer 4: the fault is inactive

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 Start of compressional phase: reverse
faulting

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= tectonic inversion
 Folding + Syntectonic sedimentation of layer 5
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 Stratigraphy

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 Stratigraphy

Stratigraphy is a branch of geology which studies rock layers and layering

(stratification).
Stratigraphy includes two related subfields: lithologic stratigraphy or
lithostratigraphy, and biologic stratigraphy or biostratigraphy.
We obseve the geometry of layers, and their succession: cross stratification,
unconformity etc.

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 Biostratigraphy

Ammonites:

Subclass of cephalopods,
which generally have plani-
spirally coiled shells,
with different chambers.

Ammonites range in age from

Devonian to late Cretaceous.
(Gradstein et al. 2004)

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 Biostratigraphy

Foraminifera:
Order of protozoans in
which the cell is protected
by a test consisting of one
to many chambers

Nanoplankton:
Marine planktonic
organism 2–20 μm
in size

(Gradstein et al. 2004)

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65
 Biostratigraphic importance of main groups of
invertebrates

Cenozoic

Cretaceous

Jurassic
Triassic
Permian
Carboniferous
Devonian
Silurian

Ordovician

Cambrian

(from C. Babin, 1980)

1 – correlations for long distance
66 2 – regional correlation
3 – small interest for correlations
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 Sedimentary gap and
unconformity

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 Lateral variation of the facies

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 Composition of the rocks

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 Different types of rocks.

Magmatic (endogen)
• Effusive or extrusive = volcanic: ex. basalt
• Intrusive = plutonic: ex. granite

Metamorphic rocks: transformation of preexisting rock (t°C)

Sedimentary rocks (exogen)

• Clastics
• Carbonates
• Evaporites

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 Classification of igneous rocks

J. Guillemot,1991

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 Mineralogy
 Siliciclastic rocks
• Silica : Quartz SiO2
• Silicates [SiO4]4- : Feldspars, Micas, Clays, Glauconite...

 Carbonates
• Dolomite (Ca,Mg)(CO3)2
• Calcite, Aragonite CaCO3
 Evaporites
• Chlorides : Halite NaCl, Sylvite KCl
• Sulfates : Anhydrite CaSO4, Gypsum CaSO4,2H2O

 Organic-rich rocks :
• Coal, Lignite...

Impact on reservoir quality and diagenetic evolution

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 Mineral and Crystal
A mineral is a naturally occurring solid chemical substance formed through
biogeochemical processes, having characteristic chemical composition, highly ordered
atomic structure, and specific physical properties. By comparison, a rock is an aggregate of
minerals and/or mineraloids and does not have a specific chemical composition. Minerals
range in composition from pure elements and simple salts to very complex silicates with
thousands of known forms.The study of minerals is called mineralogy.
A crystal structure is the orderly geometric spatial arrangement of atoms in the internal
structure of a mineral. (From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia )

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 The cycling of rocks

(from J. Guillemot, 1991)

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 Sediment and sedimentary rock
Sedimentary rocks are types of rock that are formed by the deposition of
material at the Earth's surface and within bodies of water.

Sedimentation is the collective name for processes that cause mineral

and/or organic particles (detritus) to settle and accumulate or minerals to
precipitate from a solution.

Particles that form a sedimentary rock by accumulating are called sediment.

Before being deposited, sediment was formed by weathering and erosion in a
source area, and then transported to the place of deposition by water, wind,
ice, mass movement or glaciers which are called agents of denudation.

Diagenesis transform sediment into sedimentary rocks

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 Origin of the sediments

 Siliciclastic (or detritic) sediments result from erosion, transport

and deposition of siliceous detritic material: conglomerates,
sandstones, silts and clays

 Carbonate sediments result from chemical or biochemical

precipitation of CaCo3 dissolved in water: limestones, dolomites

 Evaporites result from seawater evaporation: halite, gypsum…

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 Silico-Clastics sediments

 Origin: Erosional product

 Transport: by water, ice, wind

• over short or long distances
• decrease of energy thus grain size

 Deposition occurs in topographic lows = basins, that can be

hundreds of kms far from the place of erosion

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 Erosion of a sedimentary layer

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 Examples of Clastic Sedimentary rocks - Outcrops

Photo VV Photo VV

Conglomerates Sandstones

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Photo VV Shales
 How to describe sediments: granulometry

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 How to describe sediments:
shape and sorting

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 Carbonate Sediments

In most cases: no erosion and no transport, unlike

clastics,but a chemical precipitation in-situ, in a water
oversaturated in CaCO3.

CO2 + H2O = H2CO3 = H+ + HCO3- = CO3- - + 2 H+

CO3- - + Ca ++ = CaCO3 (calcite or aragonite)

Ca2+ + 2 HCO3- --> H20 + C02 + CaCO3

Ca2+ + CO32- --> CaCO3

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 Carbonates: 3 main minerals

 Calcite CaC03

 Aragonite CaCO3

 Dolomite (Ca, Mg)(CO3)2

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 Carbonate production
sources are mainly organic

 mainly linked with fauna activity:

• production of a shell to protect the animal (oysters, mussels,
urchins...)
• reefs are carbonate built by organisms (corals, sponges)
• some sediments may be reworked from the reef by storms:
skeletal fragments (bioclasts) are produced..

 they also may be inorganic:

• some grains (ooids)
• cements: minerals precipitated between grains

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 2 main types of carbonate grains

 Skeletal : derived from the skeletal material of microorganisms,

invertebrates or calcareous plants

 Non-skeletal
• Ooids, pisoids and oncoids
• Peloids
• Grain aggregates
• Clasts

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 Non-skeletal elements

Oncoids

Pisoids

Recent ooids

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 Biochemical carbonates

1.51.6mm
mm 1.11.1mm
mm

10 cm 3.2 mm AAPG Memoir 77, 2003

Modern skeletons - A.Arnaud

~ 0.65 mm
Photo Aurelia Wattine
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 Foraminifera

AAPG Memoir 77, 2003

89
 Molluscs

Gastropods Bivalves Cephalopods

Nautilus from the Pacific Ocean

Courtesy A. Arnaud
AAPG Memoir 77, 2003

Photo VV
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 Carbonate classification - DUNHAM

91
 Dead Sea: evaporites

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 Sedimentary environments

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 Sedimentary environments

marine environment Continental environment

Abyssal Continental slope Continental shelf Coastal Mountain

plain plain range

94
 Parameters for deposition

Eustatism Sediment input

Primary
production
Available space

Sea Level
for sedimentation

Crustal deformation: tectonics

95
 Where do siliciclastic rocks form ?

96
 Clastic sedimentation may be very diverse

 Continental
• Aeolian (dunes in deserts)
• Glacial (due to glaciers movements)
• Lacustrine
• Fluvial

 Marine
• Shallow marine deposits
• Deep marine deposits (turbidites)

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98
 Example of sediments deposition in a river

99
 Sedimentation in a different type of river

100
 Sea level / sediment ratio

Sea level rise

Sea level fall

Constant Sea Level

low quantity of sediment high quantity of sediment

101
 A great variety of physical processes

COLD (ice, frost…) Glacial and periglacial environments

GRAVITY
- subaerial (rock fall, scree, debris flow) Alluvial fans
- subaqueous (slide, slump, debris flow) Slopes and deep marine plains

WIND Eolian environments

FLOODS Alluvial, lacustrine, deltaic environments…

TIDES Coastal, deltaic / estuarine environments…

WAVES Coastal to shelf environments

Time-scale? few seconds to 100's years !

102
 Different possible types of transportation
produce different geometries of deposits

Tractive transport
 Particles roll or skip on the sediment surface
 Motion: rolling carpets or turbid clouds
 Decrease of velocity downstream
Geometry of deposits: oblique laminae

Transport in suspension
 Particles are in suspension in the water
 Motion: ascentional motion due to turbulence
 Decrease of turbulence produces vertical decantation
Geometry of deposits: horizontal laminae

103
 Gravity movements
(Middleton 1969)

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 Main sedimentary processes

105
 3 environments of
deposition for carbonates

 Shallow marine

 Deep marine

 Lacustrine (minor volumes)

106
 Shallow water carbonate
production controlling factors

 Light: importance of the photic zone limit

 Temperature: the main production (carbonate factory) occurs
under low latitudes (<30°)
 Marine water chemistry: [CaCO3], PCO2, salinity (must be
stable),
 Hydrodynamism

 Highest rates of productivity are in water depth <15 m:

« the carbonate factory » (Kendall and Schlager, 1981)
 Highest rates of productivity are under low latitudes (<30°), but
deposits from molluscs and red algae do exist in Norway
(temperate carbonates)

107
 Carbonate sand or mud producers

AAPG Memoir 77, 2003

108
 Reefs

Photo VV

109
 Reef zones

110
 Deep water carbonates

Photo VV

Vocontian facies - Aptian Les Serres - SE France

111
 Modern calcareous planctonic foraminifers

AAPG Memoir 77, 2003

112
 Evaporite: marine sedimentation models

113
 Dead Sea: Evaporites

114
 Sedimentary rocks formation and environment

Carbonates

Evolution of porosity and permeability

Chemical Limest.-Dolom.
Precipitation
Solution Water Silica
Silex, etc.

Compaction - cimentation
Evaporation Evaporites

Compaction - cimentation
Salts, gypsum...
Water
Wind Rocks Clastic
Ice
S Big Conglomerates
Gravity o Angular - round
r
Solids Water Gravity t Medium Sandstones
Wind deposit i
Ice n
g Siltstones
Small
Argillite
Mustone, clays

Continental Marine
Aerial
animals, plants
Fluviatil Continental
Lacustrine Lagoonal shelf Slope Basin
Biochemical diagenesis

Organic remains Hydrocarbons

Coal
Migrations

Resevoirs - traps

115
 Correlations between wells

116
 Well 1 Well 2

6
5

4
6
3

2
5
1
4

117
 Well 1 Well 3 Well 4 Well 2

6
6
5
6 5
4
6 4
3
5 3
2
5 2
4
1
4 1
3
3
2
2
1
1

118
 Well 1 Well 3 Well 5 (Well 4) Well 2

6
6 5
6
4
6
4
3
5 3 2
5
4 2
1
4
3 1
3
2
2
1
1

119
 Well 1 (Well 3) Well 6 Well 5 (Well 4) Well 2

6
6 5
6
4
6
4
5 3
3
2
4
5
2
1
3
4
2 1
3 1

120
 Well 1 Well 3 Well 6 Well 5 Well 4 Well 2

6
6
6 5
6 6 5
4
6 4
4
3
5
5 3
3 2
5 4 2
4 2
1
4 3 1
3 2 1
3 1
2
2
1
1

121
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