INVESTIGATION, FORMULATION OF PROPOSAL AND

DESIGN OF BRIDGES
(ByR.Geetha Divisional Engineer (H) Designs, Chennai.)

INVESTIGATION, FORMULATION OF PROPOSAL AND DESIGN OF BRIDGES

THESE KEY NOTES ARE PREPARED TO PROVIDE AN OVERALL IDEA IN FORMULATING

THE PROPOSAL FOR DESIGN OF BRIDGES.

BRIDGES:

A bridge is a structure providing passage over an obstacle without closing the way beneath. This
may be for a road, railway, river channels etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF BRIDGES:

1. According to function:
 River bridge:
i. High level bridge
ii. Submersible bridge
 Road over bridge
 Road under bridge
 Fly over
 Foot over bridge
2. According to materials of construction:
 RCC bridge
 Prestress bridge
 Steel bridge
 Composite bridge
3. According to type of superstructure:
 Slab bridge
 T-beam cum Slab bridge
 Box girder
 Arch bridge
 Suspension bridge
 Segmental bridge
4. According to angle of crossing:
 Square bridge
  Skew bridge

INVESTIGATION OF BRIDGES:

1. SELECTION OF BRIDGE SITE:

Before a bridge can be built at a particular site, it is essential to consider the

following factors:

 Need for a bridge

 Present and future traffic
 Stream characteristics for river bridges
 Subsoil condition
 Alternate site
 Aesthetics
 Cost

2. FIELD AND ASSOCIATED ACTIVITIES:

2.1 Surveying
2.2 Alignment selection
2.3 Alignment proposal
2.4 Alignment Approval
2.5 Site plan
2.6 Sub soil exploration
2.7 Collection of Field particulars
2.8 Preparation of Drawings
2.9 Specification report

2.1 Surveying

a. Reconnaissance survey:

Reconnaissance survey is the first step to examine the general nature of the area for the
purpose of determining the most feasible route, for further detailed investigations.
In difficult hilly and forest terrain, assistance of Global Positioning System (GPS) which
utilize the satellites orbiting around the Earth is necessary.
Satellite remote sensing photographs such as, Google maps, help to identify factors which
call for rejection or modification of any of the alignment.

b. Preliminary Survey
 The preliminary survey is usually carried out by total station instrument for the purpose of
collecting all the physical features affecting the proposed location of a new highway or
improvements to an existing highway.

2.2 Alignment selection

The following factors are to be considered while selecting the alignment based
on the field observations.
 Right Angle Crossing is to be preferred. Crossing involving skew angle more than 30°
should be avoided.
 Curves in approaches and also in the length of the structure are to be avoided.
 The presence of high and stable bank is to be preferred.
 The possibility of using the existing bridge as diversion road may be explored on economical
basis, considering cost of forming diversion road in case of reconstruction of existing bridge in
case of river bridges.
 In ROB/RUB’s location of existing underground drainage system should be studied.
 In ROB/RUB’s, if the end of ramp portion is a junction, then sufficient length between the end
of the ramp and merging road shall be ensured.
 Provision for pedestrian subway shall be studied for public accessibility.
 As far as possible, alignment shall consist of minimum number of curves
 If curves are proposed, the circular curves shall be outflanked by spirals on both ends as far as
possible.
 Reverse curves shall be avoided.
 In the above case, the alignment should be shifted from the existing bridge in such a way that
the foundation of proposed bridge should not overlap the foundation of the existing bridge.
 Decision shall be taken either to change the highway alignment or shift the utility services /
water supply lines etc., based on study of the relative economics and feasibility.
 In the alignments, crossing of Electrical High Tension lines should be avoided. In
unavoidable circumstances, suitable vertical clearance should be ensured.
 Land acquisition to be avoided or possibly minimized.
 Public important places, monuments, religious structures, forest lands, wet lands, burials,
lakes, schools etc. shall be avoided.
 Minimum 15m straight shall be provided on the bridge approaches.

2.3 Alignment proposal

Minimum of three alternate alignments shall be proposed.

The proposal shall comprise of,
  Name of work
 Name of Scheme and G.O
 Classification of road and maintaining Authority
 Existing details
 Location
 Name of river / railway crossing number with railway kilometer
 Necessity
 Geometrical details of all alignments with their merits and Demerits
 Comparative statement of all proposed alignments with their merits and demerits.

2.4 Alignment approval

Alignment proposal prepared as above should be submitted to the Alignment committee for
approval. The alignment committee comprises of at least three Superintending Engineers
including Superintending Engineer (H) concerned and Divisional Engineer (H), concerned
Investigation Division.
The committee after inspecting the site and considering the merits and demerits of each
alignment, give approval for one feasible economic alignment.

2.5 Site plan

 Site plan covering all observed details shall be prepared.

 It shall be drawn to a scale not less than 1 in 1000, for having legible reference.
 North direction of the map shall be marked on the top right corner.
 Site plan shall furnish name of the road, classification of road destination villages / towns /
districts.
 Location of the bridge with road km ascertaining the nomenclature shall be clear.
 In case of river bridges, name of the river crossing, flow direction ( i.e. Upstream and
Downstream of the proposed site), top bund level of the river, bed width, details of stream
entry and exit in the river course, stream or canals running parallel or running adjoining the
river course shall be furnished in the site plan.
 Site plan shall show the details of the site selected and up to an extent not less than 100m
upstream and downstream from the centre line of the crossing and covering the approaches to a
sufficient distance.
 Bench marks shall not be taken on KM and HM stones.
 Reduced levels and chainages of the both Permanent and Temporary bench mark shall be
furnished in the site plan.
 Bench Marks establish firm vertical control for location, design and construction. Hence bench
marks should be established on permanent structure.
2.6 Sub soil exploration

Preliminary sub soil exploration is to be conducted to determine the type of foundation and
span requirements.

Even though various methods of boring are available, rotary drilling is commonly used.

2.6.1 Spacing, location and depth of boring

1. The maximum interval between adjacent bores shall be judiciously fixed at regular intervals
covering the whole of the proposed length of the bridge. The subsoil strata profile then shall
be observed. If there is a substantial variation between any two adjacent bores, then extra
bores are required at midpoint of those two bores. However, confirmatory bores shall be
conducted at every pier/ abutment/ retaining wall location to assess exactly the sub soil
particulars under the sub structure

2. Once the number of bores has been decided, the location of bores with respect to chainage
shall be marked along the centre line of alignment. Due to site constraints, if it is not
possible to locate at the centre of the alignment, the location may be slightly shifted to left
hand side or right hand side.

3. Borings should push through every suitable/ unsuitable/ ambiguous stratum and also
sufficiently be deep enough into the stable/ suitable strata.

2.6.2 Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

During boring work, SPT test shall be conducted as follows:

i) SPT is conducted in all types of soil deposits met within the bore hole, to find the variation in
the soil by correlating with the number of blows required for unit penetration of a standard
penetrometer.
ii) The starting depth of performing SPT shall be either 1m or 1.5m depth below ground level.
The specification for equipments and other accessories, procedure for conducting the test,
presentation of test results and collection of disturbed soil samples etc., shall conform to IS:
2131.
iii) This test is conducted by driving a standard split spoon sampler in the borehole by means of
63.5kg hammer having a freefall of 75cm. The sampler is driven using the hammer for 45cm
penetration. While driving, the number of blows for every 15cm penetration will be
recorded. The SPT Values is number of blows for the last 30cm drive.
 iv) Test has to be discontinued when the blow count is equal to 100 and the penetration shall be
recorded. Refusal shall be considered to be met with, when the blow count is equal to 100.
At the location where the test is discontinued, the penetration and the corresponding number
of blows shall be reported.
v) Sufficient quantity of soil samples shall be collected from the split spoon sampler for
identification and laboratory testing. The samples have to be visually classified and recorded
at the site and shall be properly preserved and labeled for future identification and testing.

2.6.3 Soil Sampling

Soil samples shall be taken at every 1.5m intervals for the full depth of the boring. If
the strata changes within 1.5m, then sampling shall be done for every soil strata. Sample
recovery details shall also be taken for clayey soils and both disturbed and undisturbed
samples shall be taken as per the interval mentioned. If the sample is not able to be
collected, reason for the same shall be reported.

2.6.4 Rock Sampling

Rock core samples shall be collected continuously. Further, the length of the core in a
single run shall be reported. That is, the break up details of the length of core shall be
reported for the entire length.

2.6.5 Handling of Samples

1. The samples shall be labeled and handled carefully.
2. The disturbed materials in the upper end of the tube shall be completely removed before
applying wax for sealing. The length and type of materials so removed should be recorded.
3. The soil at the lower end of the tube shall be reamed for a length of about 20mm. After
cleaning, both ends shall be sealed with wax applied in such a way that it does not enter the
sample. Wax used for sealing should not be heated to more than a few degrees above its
melting temperature. The empty space in the samplers, if any, should be filled with moist
soil or saw dust and the ends covered with tight fitting caps.
4. Appropriate laboratory tests shall be conducted on undisturbed/ disturbed soil sample and
rock cores as per latest relevant IS Codes.
5. For a clayey stratum, for every 1.5m depth, C and Φ value shall be furnished.
6. To find the bearing capacity of the rock strata, rock quality designation (RQD) and
core recovery, double tube core barrel shall be used for collecting samples.

2.6.6 Presentation of Data.

 1. The exact location & chainage should be marked in the drawing. The
ground level at the bore location with respect to the chosen bench
mark and levels of all individual strata need to be marked. The bores
shall be indexed correctly.

2. All material encountered in each boring shall be carefully examined

and visually classified. Thickness and depth of each layer shall be
reported sequentially in the log sheet. The description of layers like
colour, texture shall also be included.

3. Presence of water, water level/ ground level should be mentioned.

The 24 hour ground water level has to be observed and recorded.

A sub soil report shall comprise of

 Field test results
 Lab test results
 Combined bore chart
 Check list

2.7 Collection of field particulars

After approval of the alignment by the alignment committee and sub soil exploration of the
work, the collection of field particulars shall be done.

I. Field particulars for High Level Bridge

1. Levels along the approved alignment should be taken.

2. Levels along the stream and across the stream should be taken. At least 3 cross sections at
upstream and 3 cross sections at downstream and one at site shall be taken. If there is existing
structure, the cross section at site may be taken at 5m downstream of river.
3. Based on the levels taken, longitudinal section and Cross sections are prepared.
4. Cross drainage works which lies within the alignment with the details of type of structure, Bed
width, MFL, Sill level & chainage etc, shall be observed and noted.
5. Hydraulic particulars such as MFL, maximum discharge, bed width, bed level for the river
crossing should be obtained from the concerned Executive Engineer, PWD if the river is
controlled by PWD.
6. If any built up structure like infiltration well, pump house, burial shed etc., lies within the
stream, all the particulars about the structures should be observed and furnished.
7. Details of existing bridges such as span, type of foundation, carriageway width etc., existing in
the same river course of the proposed bridge site within 5km radius on both upstream and
downstream shall be furnished.
8. Any tributaries diverging and converging into the river on the upstream side between anaicut
and proposed site shall be observed and furnished.
9. The existence of religious monuments, hospitals and schools on both sides of proposed bridge
site shall be collected.
10. The nature of stream shall be studied.

II. Field particulars for road over/under bridges Fly over and bypass

a.ROB/RUB

1) Level crossing number (L.C No).

2) Nomenclature of the road with classification.
3) Location of LC with respect to railway kilometer /railway electric post number / road km.
4) Train vehicle units with date of observation (TVU).
5) Number of tracks available and proposal (future tracks), if any.
6) Track levels.
7) Details of up traffic / down traffic with route details.
8) Nearest stations on both sides.
9) Railway boundary details on both sides.
10) Existing carriageway width of the road.
11) Details of cross roads and cross drainage in the approaches of ROB/RUB.
12) Details of utility services / structures on both sides of the road as per the requirements
with right of way details.
13) In case of RUB, service road levels on both sides.
14) Further at Railway level crossings, the level of the top of the rail, and in the case of
subways, the level of the roof should be noted. On existing roads, levels should be taken
at all points of intersections in order to help the fixation of profile.
 By considering the above observations for the approved alignment, GAD shall be
prepared with the following details.

 Total length of the alignment.

 Length of railway portion in square (or) skew.
 Length of approach highway portion on both the sides of the level crossing with its
gradients.
 Vertical clearance over highest rail level with Bottom of Deck (BOD) level.
 Proposed railway portion of level crossing, shall be referred with approved Railway
GAD.
 Width of carriageway, Overall width in railway and highway portion and medians.
 Service road, Pedestrian crossing with details of Drainage / CD works.

Based on the Highway GAD, the Railway GAD is prepared and got Approved by CBE
(Chief Bridge Engineer, Railways) and concurred by concerned Chief Engineer, Highways.

b.Flyover

Flyover is a form of intersection in which one or more conflicting movements on intersecting

ground transport facility are segregated in space.
The following particulars are to be observed.
1. Traffic details and pattern of flow for the proposed Flyover.
2. Right of way with location of all utility services.
3. Service road details, Pedestrian facilities.
4. Details of cross roads that interfere the approach of Flyover.
c. Bypass

A bypass is a road that avoids or bypasses a built up area, town, or village, to let through traffic
flow without interference from local traffic, to reduce congestion in built up area and to improve road
safety.
The following particulars are to be observed

1. List of beneficiary villages.

2. Details of major bridges and open wells.
3. Details of Details of special crossings like, railway lines, Petroleum and gas pipe lines.
2.8 Drawings

The following drawings are to be furnished:

1. Approved Alignment plan
 2. Index Map - Scale -1:50,000, showing the proposed location of the bridge
3. Key Map - Size of the drawing may be 594 x 420mm (A2) showing the location of the road
km and details of the bridge.
4. Site Plan – Scale -1:1000
5. Longitudinal Section along the alignment,
Horizontal Scale -1:1000, Vertical Scale – 1:100
6. Longitudinal Section of the Stream, in case of River bridges.
Horizontal Scale -1:1000, Vertical Scale – 1:100
7. Cross Section of the Stream, in case of River bridges
Horizontal Scale -1:1000, Vertical Scale – 1:100
At least 3 cross sections on U/S, 3 cross sections on D/S and 1 at site
8. Cross sections at solid ramp portion, in case of ROB.

9. Combined Bore Chart

A chart combining all the bores with chainage and RL at top and stratum encountered at
various levels.
10. General Arrangement Drawing
1. For River Bridges
Drawing showing proposed and existing longitudinal profile, superimposed with cross
section at site. Sill level, MFL, BOD and proposed road level shall be clearly marked.
A datum with chainage, existing and proposed level shall be marked.

2. For ROB
Drawing showing proposed and existing longitudinal profile, railway portion, Highway
portion, summit curve and valley curve and location of railway piers. A datum with
chainage, existing and proposed level shall be marked.

3. For RUB
Drawing showing proposed and existing longitudinal profile, railway portion, Highway
portion, valley curve and service road levels. A datum with chainage, existing and
proposed level shall be marked.

2.9 Specification report

 To be authenticated by the Superintending Engineer (H) of the execution wing.

 The specification report shall comprise of
 1. Name of work as per GO, Scheme and authority
2. Location and classification of road
3. Details of Traffic survey along with lane justification
4. Details of existing road
5. Necessity of the proposal
6. Details of the approved alignment
7. Exposure
8. Seismic zone
9. Benchmark
10. Sub soil particulars
11. Proposal in general including
a) Type of bridge
b) Proposed span and number of spans
c) Type of superstructure with details of Deck width,
Carriageway and Footpath, if required.
d) Tentative Road level including vertical clearance
12. Proposed foundation
13. Any specific requirement regarding materials to be used
14. NHAI concurrence if necessary

FORMULATION OF BRIDGE PROPOSAL

A.For River bridges

Sill level
Sill level of the river at the proposed site is generally taken as 0.3m below the lowest bed level
of levels at taken cross section of site, provided there is no much variation in the bed profile. Also it
must be ensured that the proposed sill level is in tune with the finalized bed slope. The sill level is an
important factor for deciding the depth of flow thereby the linear water way.

Bed slope
Bed slope is arrived by plotting the various levels taken at centre of cross sections and slope
line is drawn connecting the maximum points closer to the slope line.

MFL
MFL is the (maximum flood level) highest flood ever recorded in the 50 years return cycle
furnished by the PWD authorities and also ascertained by intelligent local observation at site in
addition to local enquiry.

Design Discharge
 Design discharge for which the linear waterway of the bridge is to be designed shall be based
on maximum flood discharge of 50 years returns cycle. In case the requisite is not available, the design
discharge shall be the maximum estimated discharge determined by any rational method.
Discharge may be ascertained for the proposed bridge site by the following three methods at
least

a. Catchment area method( If catchment area method is available with PWD)

b. Area – Velocity method
c. Collection of data from PWD (PWD Discharge)
a. Catchment Area Method

Discharge by catchment area method may be adopted, if catchment area map for that particular
river course is available with PWD (for calculation refer IRC: 5-2015).

b. Area-Velocity Method
The calculation of the discharge involves minimum 7 cross sections across the river with
reference to MFL. The cross sections are to be plotted and the cross section area (A) in sq.m and
the wetted perimeter (P) in m are to be ascertained.
The hydraulic mean depth R = A/P in m
Similarly Velocity can be obtained from the following.

i. Manning’s Formula
Velocity, V = 1/n R2/3S1/2 in m/sec
R – Hydraulic Mean Depth
S – Bed Slope
n – Rugosity coefficient
Rugosity coefficient can be obtained from the table 5.1 of IRC.SP:13 – 2004.

ii. Kutters Formula

V = CRS
Where C is Kutter’s Constant,
C = (23+0.00155/s +1/n) / [1+ (23 + 0.00155/S)n/R]
Discharge Q = A.V

The discharge may be calculated adopting cross sectional area from all the 7 cross sections.
The maximum discharge among the discharges falling within the 10% variation of the average
discharge may be taken as discharge by Area-Velocity method.
 Maximum Discharge value obtained from the above three methods shall be taken as
design discharge

Linear water way (LWW)

The linear waterway required for a bridge depends on the discharge, nature of the channel, bed
width, MFL Spread, etc.

While deciding the linear water way, the following points are to be considered:

1. Linear water way of the existing bridges (Highway bridge/ Railway bridge) located within
1.60km either on the U/S or D/S, if any.
2. 90% of the MFL spread at the site, immediate U/S and immediate D/S.
3. Linear water way required by PWD and details should be obtained from concerned EE, PWD.
4. Theoretical linear water way required as per design discharge.
5. Bed width of river should be considered where defined and undisturbed bund is available.

Once the Linear Water Way (LWW) is decided, suitable span and no. of spans may be decided
depending upon the type of foundation.

Economical Span = 1.5x (Level of bottom of deck – foundation level)

Scour

Scour criteria plays vital role in deciding the depth of foundation. Similarly the silt factor plays
vital role in deciding scour depth.
The silt factor (ksf) is to be ascertained for the representative sample of the bed materials
obtained upto the maximum anticipated deepest scour
ksf – Silt factor = 1.76dm
dm – weighted mean dia of the bed material up to anticipated deepest scour (mm)
The Value of ksf for soil can be taken from of IRC: 78 – 2014
For Silt factor in respect of clay, IRC: 78-2014 may be referred and calculated accordingly.

Theoriticak scour depth is represented by dsm where,

dsm= 1.34 (Db2 / Ksf) (0.33)
Where, dsm = mean scour depth
Db = design discharge in (m3/sec) per m width
Ksf = Silt factor = 1.76 sqrt (dm)

The design discharge is increased by certain percentage according to the catchment area as per
IRC 78-2014 to have adequate margin of safety and adopted for foundation design.
B. Road over bridge / Road under bridge:

The following points are to be kept in mind while formulating the proposal

The train vehicle unit shall be more than 1 lakh. In general the vertical clearance from the
highest rail level to the bottom of deck 6.525m for ROB. The vertical clearance of RUB is 5.5m.This
may be reduced in case of limited use subway. The falling/raising ramp of approaches shall not be
steeper than 3.5%. Service roads are to be provided on both sides of ROB/RUB for a width of 5.5m.
Staircases should be provided for pedestrian movement. In case of RUB, service bridges shall be
provided for easy access of vehicles from one side to other at grade. Extra width and super elevation to
be provided in a carriage way at horizontal curves as per IRC: 38-1988.

BRIDGE COMPONENTS:

Foundation:

There are two different arrangement conditions in foundation viz

1. Foundation without bed protection,
2. Foundation with bed protection

Bed protection is a protective work to avoid scour and to protect the shallow foundation if the
velocity through the vent and discharge /metre at site is less than the permissible limit of 2.0m/sec and
3.0cumec respectively as per IRC 89-1997.

It may be of rigid or flexible apron constructed to a suitable length both on upstream and
downstream side with curtain walls.

Substructure:

The portion of the bridge structure below the level of bearing and above the foundation is
generally referred as substructure.

The substructure consists of,

1. Abutment and return wall

2. Pier
a. Wall type pier
b. Column pier
3. Bed block cum Dirt wall over abutment
4. Capping beam over pier
Bearings:

Bearings are provided in bridges to transmit the load from the superstructure to substructure in
such a manner that the bearing stresses induced in the substructure are within the permissible limit.
For the bridges with slab spans, no special bearings are usually provided. A Kraft paper is inserted
between the slab and substructure at the support. For Girder bridges, generally the following two types
of bearings are provided.

1. Elastomeric bearing (Spans upto 25m)

2. POT cum PTFE bearings (spans >25m)

Span arrangement:

Suitable span and no of spans may be decided depending upon the type of foundation to
accommodate the linear waterway.

1. Clear span
Clear distance between the adjacent piers or clear distance between the face of
abutment and adjacent pier.

2. Effective span

Distance between the c/c of width of deck seating in case of solid slab and c/c of
bearing in case of T-Beam Bridge.

Superstructure:

The type of superstructure may be RCC solid slab for spans up to 10m, RCC T- beam for spans
from 10m to 25m and RCC box girder for spans from 25m to 45m. For longer spans, prestressed
bridges shall also be constructed.

Exposure:

Exposure condition of particular bridge location is either severe or moderate. If the bridge site is
located within 15km from the sea coast, the condition of exposure is severe and if it exceeds 15km
from sea coast, then the condition is moderate. For severe condition of exposure, approved type of
anticorrosive treatment to steel is recommended.

Expansion joints:

Expansion joint ensures the bridge movement and guarantees smooth transition of vehicles.
Road Level:

Road level is fixed by adding depth of superstructure and thickness of wearing coat to the BOD.

Approach Slab:

RCC approach slab is usually provided on either side of bridge to function as interface between
the bridge structure and approach roadway. The minimum length of approach slab is 3.5m

Wearing coat:

Wearing coat is provided over bridge deck to protect the structural concrete from the direct
wearing effects of traffic. The wearing coat may be asphaltic concrete or cement concrete.

Drainage arrangement:

Drainage spout with grating should be provided at equal intervals for proper drainage of water
from the Deck.

Seepage pipes: Adequate number of weep holes not exceeding 1m spacing in both the
direction should be provided to prevent any accumulation of water behind walls.

Filter media: Filter media to a thickness of not less than 600mm well packed over the entire
Surface behind abutment and wings to the full height shall be provided.

Carriageway:

The width of carriageway

1. Depends on the intensity and volume of traffic anticipated to use the bridge
2. Expressed in terms of traffic lanes
3. Maximum width of carriageway is
a. 4.250m for single lane (3.75m+0.25m shyness on both sides)
b. 7.5m for two lane (7.0m+0.25m shyness on both sides)
4. For every additional, lane a minimum 3.5m must be allowed.
5. Three lane bridges should not be constructed, as these will be conducive to occurrence of
accident.
6. For multiple lanes – a central median of 1.2m width shall be provided to separate the two
opposing lines of traffic.
7. Minimum of two lanes of traffic on either side of the median.
8. Footpath of minimum 1.5m width to be provided on both side of carriageway.
9. RCC crash barrier to safe guard against errant vehicles and to separate the main
carriageway from footpath.(refer IRC:5-2015)
10. Hand rails at the edge of superstructure to be provided.
 Retaining wall/Reinforced Earth wall:

In the approaches, beyond the bridge portion, to retain the earth, Retaining wall/
Reinforced Earth wall shall be proposed depending upon the location and subsoil condition.

DESIGN OF BRIDGES:

For designing the bridges, following loads, forces should be considered where applicable.

 Dead load
 Live load
 Impact load
 Wind load
 Braking force
 Frictional resistance
 Horizontal force due to water current
 Buoyancy
 Earth pressure
 Temperature effects
 Seismic force
 Combinations of the above

Dead load = Self weight

Live loads:

Live loads are those caused by vehicle which pass over the bridge and are transient in
nature. There are four types of standard loadings for which bridge are designed.

a. IRC Cl. AA loading

b. IRC Cl .70R loadings
c. IRC Cl. A loading
d. IRC Cl. B loading

Impact effect:

Live load trains produce higher stresses than those which would be caused if the
loading vehicles were stationary. In order to take into account the increase in stresses due to
 dynamic action impact allowance is made. The impact allowance is expressed as a fraction or
% of the applied live load.

Wind load:

All bridge structures shall be designed for the wind forces though the wind forces are
dynamic in nature. The forces can be approximated as equivalent static loads. These forces are
considered to act horizontally and in such a direction have to cause the maximum stresses in
the member under consideration.

Longitudinal forces:

The longitudinal forces are caused in the road bridges due to any one or more of the following:

a. Tractive effort cause through acceleration of the driving vehicle

b. Braking effects due to application of brakes to the wheel
c. Frictional resistance offered to the movement of three bearing due to change of
temperature or any other causes.
d. The force due to braking effect shall be assumed to act along a line parallel to
the roadways and 1.2m above it, while transferring the forces to the bearings.
The change in the vertical reactions at the bearing should be taken into
account.
e. The longitudinal forces due to friction at a free bearing is to be limited to the
sum of the Dead loads and live load reactions at the bearing multiplied by the
appropriate coefficients of frictions.

Centrifugal Force:

a. Where a road bridge is located on a curve, the effect of centrifugal forces due
to movement of vehicles should be taken into account.
b. The centrifugal forces assumed to act at height of 1200mm above the level of
the carriageway.
c. No increase for impact effect shall be made on the stress due to centrifugal
action

Horizontal forces due to water current:

 Any part of bridge structures which may be submerged in running water should be
designed to sustain safely the horizontal pressure due to the forces of current. On piers parallel
to the direction of the water current the intensity of pressure is given by equation P= 0.5 k v2.

Buoyancy effect:

Wherever submersion of a part or whole of the structure in water is possible, the force due
to buoyancy should be considered. In case of submersible bridges; full buoyancy should be
considered for the super structure, pier and abutment. For High level bridge, buoyancy forces
due to submerged part of the substructure and foundation should be taken into account.

Earth pressure:

Earth pressures computed according to a rational theory should be considered in the case
of structures designed to retain earth fill.
All Abutments and return walls should be designed for live load surcharge equivalent to
height of earth fill.

Seismic force:

If a bridge is located in a region subjected to earthquake, allowance should be made in

design for the seismic force and earthquake resistant features should be incorporated in the
structural details of design.
For the purpose of determining the earthquake force, the Indian codes (IS 1893-1984 and
IRC- 6: 1966) divide the country into five zones designated as zone I to V.

Temperature effect:

Suitable provision should be made for stresses resulting from variation in temperature.

Cover:

The minimum cover to any reinforcement shall be 40 mm for moderate exposure and
45mm for severe exposure and 75mm in case of foundation.

Concrete grade:

The minimum concrete grades shall be M25 for moderate exposure and M30 for severe
exposure for all components except piles for which the minimum grade of concrete is M35.

Reinforcement:

The reinforcement shall be designated as per IRC 112 -2011.

CODES TO BE FOLLOWED:
 IRC: 5 -2015 – GENERAL FEATURES OF DESIGN

 IRC:6 -2014 – LOADS & STRESSES

 IRC:112 -2011 – LIMIT STATE DESIGN

 IRC:78 -2014 – FOUNDATION & SUBSTRUCTURES

 IRC:83 -2015 I - BEARINGS

 IRC:38 -1988 – HORIZONTAL CURVES

 IRC:73- 1980 – GEOMETRIC DESIGN FOR RURAL HIGHWAYS

 IRC:86-1983 - GEOMETRIC DESIGN FOR URBAN ROADS

 IS -2911-2010 – PILE FOUNDATION

 IRC-SP 13 – SMALL BRIDGES & CULVERTS

 IRC-SP 20 – RURAL ROADS MANUAL

 IRC:92 – DESIGN OF INTERCHANGES IN URBAN AREAS

 IRC-SP-90 –2010 GRADE SEPARATORS AND ELEVATED STRUCTURES

 IRC:103-2012- PEDESTRIAN FACILITIES

 IRC:106-1990-CAPACITY OF URBAN ROADS

 IRC SP:56-2011 – STEEL PEDESTRIAN BRIDGES

 IRC:65-1976- TRAFFIC ROTARIES

 IRC:32-1969- HORIZONTAL CLEARANCES OF OVERHEAD ELECTRIC

POWER AND TELECOMMUNICATION LINES

 IRC 89 - 1997 – RIVERTRAINING WORKS

 IRC SP-23-1983 - VERTICAL CURVES FOR HIGHWAYS

 IS 1893 - 2002 - SEISMIC DESIGN

 MORT&H: SPECIFICATION FOR ROAD AND BRIDGE WORKS.

Revision-V