ARTICLE IN PRESS

Tribology International 42 (2009) 311–319

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Tribology International
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/triboint

Effects of friction laws on metal forming processes

M.S. Joun a,b,, H.G. Moon c, I.S. Choi d, M.C. Lee d, B.Y. Jun d
a
School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Gyeongsang National University, 900 Gazwa-dong, Jinju-City, GyeongNam 660-701, Republic of Korea
b
Research Center for Aircraft Parts Technology, Gyeongsang National University, Republic of Korea
c
FAG Schaeffler Korea Corporation, R&D Center, Republic of Korea
d
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Gyeongsang National University, Republic of Korea

a r t i c l e in fo abstract

Article history: In this paper, the Coulomb friction law and the constant shear friction law were compared and
Received 20 August 2007 investigated in detail using a rigid-plastic finite element method with emphasis on their application in
Received in revised form bulk metal forming. The ring compression test for two different materials was used to evaluate the two
19 June 2008
friction laws, and then their effects on metal flow lines and forming loads for various friction-sensitive
Accepted 24 June 2008
Available online 26 July 2008
metal forming processes including strip rolling, ring gear forging, multistep extrusion, and pipe
shrinkage and expansion were investigated. It was shown that considerable differences exist between
Keywords: the two friction laws, especially in friction-sensitive metal forming processes.
Bulk metal forming & 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Friction law
Friction-sensitive metal forming process
Coulomb friction law
Constant shear friction law

1. Introduction complex because it depends on various parameters including

Friction is a major factor in determining the characteristics of
metals as they are formed. Friction is essential in rolling because
the friction force maintains equilibrium against the backward
push force caused by the roll-separating force at the roll bite.
However, excessive friction in rolling increases the roll-separating
force and accelerates roller wear. In forging, friction is a key factor
in the pattern of metal flow and die wear. In general, excessive
friction has a negative influence on die wear, product quality,
product cost, and productivity. It is therefore common to use
various lubricants to reduce friction during the formation of
metals.
Major factors affecting friction include the normal stress along
the die–material interface, the lubrication condition, the relative
velocity, the temperature, the roughness, and the mechanical
properties of the material and/or the die. A detailed investigation
of these factors is not easy because the die–material interface in
metal forming is under high pressure and temperature. Thus,
friction in this area is still somewhat of a mystery even though
many researchers have studied on it in various ways for a long
time. For an example, the friction in hot rolling [1–4] is extremely
 Corresponding author at: School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering,
Gyeongsang National University, 900 Gazwa-dong, Jinju-City, GyeongNam 660-
701, Republic of Korea. Tel./fax: +82 55 751 5316.
E-mail address: msjoun@gsnu.ac.kr (M.S. Joun).
oxide scale, material composition, temperature and the like.
In metal forming simulations, friction has traditionally been
assumed to follow the Coulomb friction law [5–14] and the
constant shear friction law [15–20]. Several variations [21–25] of
these laws have been developed.
According to the Coulomb friction law, the frictional stress is
proportional to the normal stress or force, while the constant
shear friction law states that the frictional stress is a certain
fraction of the shear yield stress of the material, and does not
reflect the effects of the normal stress on the frictional stress. It is
clear that frictional stress is related to the normal stress, and that
the Coulomb friction law or its variants can describe the real
behavior of friction better than the constant shear friction law.
However, the constant shear friction law has been widely used in
simulations of bulk metal forming due to its theoretical simplicity
and numerical rigidity. At room temperature, the two laws give
nearly the same results for ring compression because the normal
stress distribution in this case is relatively uniform over the
contact area even though ring compression itself is very friction-
sensitive. Since the normal stress variation along the die–material
interface for rod drawing and streamlined die extrusion is
relatively small, the two friction laws predict similar results for
those cases. However, for rolling and complex forging in which the
normal stress may vary widely across the die–material interface,
the two friction laws may give results that are quite different.
Friction dominates not only the material flow, but also the die
wear. Despite the importance of the friction law, it is hard to find

0301-679X/$ - see front matter & 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.triboint.2008.06.012
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312 M.S. Joun et al. / Tribology International 42 (2009) 311–319

studies on the subject. In this study, we used a rigid-viscoplastic 70

finite element method to analyze the Coulomb friction law and m = 0.60
60 µ = 0.24

Reduction in minimum internal diameter,

the constant shear friction law to compare the results of several Coulomb friction
friction-sensitive metal forming processes. Constant shear friction m = 0.50
50 µ = 0.20

m = 0.40
2. Rigid-plastic finite element formulation with emphasis on 40 µ = 0.16
friction laws

X 100%
30 m = 0.30

A plastic flow analysis problem in metal forming is to find the µ = 0.12

20
velocity field ni that satisfies the following boundary value

d0-d
problem. The material is denoted as the domain V with boundary

d0
10 m = 0.20
S. The boundary S can be divided into the velocity-prescribed µ = 0.08
boundary Svi , where the velocity is given as vi ¼ v̄i ; the traction- 0
n
prescribed boundary Sti , where the stress vector is given as t ni ¼ t̄ i ;
and the die–workpiece interface Sc, where the no-penetration -10
m = 0.10
condition, vn ¼ v̄n , is maintained when the interface is in
compression. It is assumed that the material is incompressible, -20
µ = 0.04
i.e., ni,i ¼ 0, isotropic, and rigid-viscoplastic. It is further assumed
-30
that the material obeys the Huber–von Mises yield criterion and 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
its associated flow rule, which is
h0-h
2s̄ Reduction in height, X 100%
s0ij ¼ _ _ ij (1) h0
3¯
where s0ij and _ ij are the deviatoric stress tensor and strain-rate Fig. 2. Friction evaluation curves for a material at the elevated temperature,
tensor, respectively. The flow stress s̄ in Eq. (1) is assumed to be a obtained by ring compression simulation.

C
L
h0

d0/2 dmin/2
h

70
µ = 0.24
Reduction in minimum in ternal diameter,

60 Coulomb friction m = 0.60

Constant shear friction m = 0.50
50 µ = 0.20
m = 0.40
40 µ = 0.16
30
X 100%

m = 0.30
µ = 0.12
20
d0-d
d0

10 m = 0.20
µ = 0.08
0

-10
m = 0.10
-20 µ = 0.04
-30
0 10 20 3040 50 60
h0-h
Reduction in height, X 100%
h0

Fig. 1. Friction evaluation curves for a material at the room temperature, obtained by ring compression simulation: (a) ring compression and (b) calibration curves.
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M.S. Joun et al. / Tribology International 42 (2009) 311–319 313

Fig. 3. Comparison of metal flow lines formed from compression of the ring with
small aspect ratio and small ratio of contact region: (a) Coulomb friction law and
(b) constant shear frictional law.

140

120 Coulomb friction law

Constant shear friction law

100
Load (kN)

80

60

Fig. 5. Comparison of metal flow lines formed from compression of the ring with
40 large aspect ratio and large ratio of contact region: (a) Coulomb friction law and (b)
constant shear friction law.

20
function of the effective strain ¯ and the effective strain rate _¯ , i.e.,
s̄ ¼ s̄ð¯; _¯ Þ. It is also assumed that the effect of acceleration
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 and gravity on force equilibrium is negligible, and that the
process is isothermal. Thus, the equation of equilibrium can be
Stroke (mm)
written as
Fig. 4. Stroke-forming load curves of the ring compression with small aspect ratio
and small ratio of contact region. sij;j þ f i ¼ 0 (2)
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314 M.S. Joun et al. / Tribology International 42 (2009) 311–319

750 40
µ = 0.1
µ = 0.2
Coulomb friction µ = 0.3
30 max
Constant shear friction µ = 0.4
600 Roll
µ = 0.5
µ = 0.6 
µ = 0.7 Strip
20 m = 1.0

x 100
450
Load (kN)

10

vt
|vt|
vt
300
0

150 -10

-20
0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0 5 10 15 20 25
Normalized angle of contact (/max)
Stroke (mm)
Fig. 7. Variation of sticking region with frictional conditions.
Fig. 6. Stroke-forming load curves of the ring compression with large aspect ratio
and large ratio of contact region.

Using the penalty method for the incompressibility condition, the 16c
weak form of the above boundary value problem can be written as µ = 0.1
Z Z Z µ = 0.2
XZ 14c µ = 0.3
s0ij o0ij dV þ K ii ojj dV  f i oi dV  t̄ i oi dS µ = 0.4
V V V Sti µ= 0.5
Z
12c µ = 0.6
 st ot dS ¼ 0 (3) µ = 0.7
Sc m = 1.0
10c sticking
Roll pressure

where the weighting function oi is arbitrary except that it

vanishes on Svi and that on ¼ 0 on Sc; oij ¼ ð1=2Þðoi;j þ oj;i Þ and
w0ij ¼ wij  ðwkk =3Þdij ; and K is a large positive number called the 8c
penalty constant, which approximately maintains the incompres-
sibility condition and has a physical meaning of K _ ii ¼ sjj =3. 6c
The Coulomb friction law and the constant shear friction law
are shown in Eqs. (4) and (5), respectively:
4c
st ¼ msn gðvt  v̄t Þ (4)
2c
st ¼ mkgðvt  v̄t Þ (5)
where m, m, and k mean the Coulomb friction coefficient, the shear 0c
factor, and the shear yield stress, respectively. The term gðvt  v̄t Þ 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
in the above equation reflects the direction of the frictional stress Angle of contact (°)
st with respect to the relative velocity vt  v̄t , and thus in the
Fig. 8. Variation of roll pressure with frictional conditions.
strict sense can be defined as
(
1 if vt 4v̄t
gðvt  v̄t Þ ¼ (6)
1 if vt ov̄t Note that Eq. (8) is effective in keeping the frictional stress
from being greater than k when the Coulomb friction law is used.
If no slippage occurs between the die and the material, that is, if If jmsn j exceeds k, then jvt  v̄t j should be small enough to meet
sticking occurs, the following condition should be taken into the requirement of Eq. (7). Thus, sticking or related behavior
account for the Coulomb friction law: should occur in that case. Indeed, jst jpk is maintained if the finite
jst jpk if vt ¼ v̄t (7) element solutions are obtained from Eq. (1). Therefore, using
Eqs. (4) and (8) together is based on the assumption [27] that
The function gðvt  v̄t Þ defined in Eq. (6) can cause numerical sticking or very small slippage occurs if jmsn j exceeds k. This
problems for computer simulations if jvt  v̄t j becomes too small. assumption is appropriate for predicting sticking-like behaviors in
To avoid this difficulty, Chen and Kobayashi [26] proposed the hot metalworking [28,29].
following smoothing function:
 
2 vt  v̄t
gðvt  v̄t Þ ¼  tan1 (8) 3. Friction evaluation curve
p a
where a is a positive constant that is small compared to jv̄t j. Ring compression has been widely used to evaluate friction
Eq. (8) converges to Eq. (6) as a goes to zero. because the ring is very sensitive to deformation under friction
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M.S. Joun et al. / Tribology International 42 (2009) 311–319 315

Fig. 9. Variation of metal flow lines with the two frictional laws: (a) Coulomb friction law and (b) constant shear friction law.

12000

Coulomb friction
10000
Constant shear friction

8000
Load (kN)

6000

4000

2000

0 10 20 30 40 50
Stroke (mm)
Fig. 10. Detailed comparison of metal flow lines: (a) Coulomb friction law and (b)
constant shear friction law. Fig. 11. Comparison of forming loads in the ring gear forging, predicted by the two
different frictional laws.

conditions [10,30–34]. Specifically, the inner and outer radii of the finite element analysis, one can construct the friction evaluation
deformed ring vary with respect to its height, and the deformation curves by plotting the minimum ring radius versus height. For
pattern is highly dependent on the friction conditions. Through example, Fig. 1 shows the friction evaluation curves for a material
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316 M.S. Joun et al. / Tribology International 42 (2009) 311–319

with a flow stress of s̄ ¼ 50:3ð1 þ ¯ =0:05Þ0:26 MPa. Thus, ring

compression tests can be used to estimate the Coulomb friction C
L
coefficient or friction factor by comparing the experimental curve
of the minimum ring radius versus height to the theoretical Punch
friction evaluation curves.
Note that the initial ratio of the outer diameter to the inner
diameter to the height of the ring is 6:3:2.  = 0.02
Fig. 1 shows a set of friction evaluation curves at room 0.1
temperature and Fig. 2 shows the same curves for a material at an
0:195
elevated temperature, where the flow stress is s̄ ¼ 66:0_¯ MPa. Plastic
region
To obtain Fig. 2, we used the following conditions: initial outer
diameter of the ring, 60 mm; height of the ring, 40 mm; punch 0.1
0.3 0.3  = 0.1
velocity, 200 mm/s; and reduction ratio, 60%.
0.04 0.7
Comparing the slopes of the curves in Figs. 1 and 2 show that
0.5
the Coulomb friction law and the constant shear friction law 0.5
produce nearly the same results, especially for a smaller reduction 0.7 0.7
and lower friction. However, as friction and reduction increase, 0.06
the difference in the slope of the friction evaluation curves
1.0
increases. This is because the Coulomb friction law reflects the 1.0
0.7
normal stress variation at high friction and high reduction, while
the constant shear friction law does not.
0.08

1.0 1.0
4. Effects of friction laws and conditions Die

The aspect ratio of the process is defined as the width of the
material divided by its height. The ratio of the contact region is
the area of the die–material interface divided by the entire surface
area of the material.
Fig. 12. Variation of plastic region and effective strain with the Coulomb friction
coefficients: (a) variant Coulomb friction coefficient and (b) constant Coulomb
friction coefficient.

4.1. Low aspect ratio cylinder compression

Fig. 3 shows the predicted results of metal flow lines formed by

compressing a cylinder with a relatively low aspect ratio and a
CL
low contact ratio. The process information used for the simulation
was the same as that for obtaining the friction evaluation curves
in Fig. 2. Fig. 3(a) shows the results obtained with m ¼ 0.2, while
Fig. 3(b) gives the results for m ¼ 0.48. The friction factor CL
m ¼ 0.48 corresponds closely to the Coulomb friction coefficient
of m ¼ 0.2 shown in Fig. 2. The metal flow lines in Fig. 3 indicate
that the Coulomb friction law and the constant shear friction law
predict very similar results when the aspect ratio and the contact
ratio are both small. This can also be seen in the forming load
curves in Fig. 4.

4.2. Compression of a cylinder with a large aspect ratio

Gap
The process information to simulate the compression of a l
cylinder is same as that used to obtain the friction evaluation
curves in Fig. 2. Figs. 5 and 6 show the analysis results of a cylinder
compression process when the aspect ratio of the cylinder is
relatively large. Fig. 5(a) shows the results obtained with m ¼ 0.2
while Fig. 5(b) gives the results for m ¼ 0.48. Fig. 6 shows
the variation of forming load. Together, these figures indicate
that the results are nearly the same in the beginning stroke but
that differences in both metal flow lines and forming loads
become more pronounced as the stroke proceeds. This implies
that the difference between the two friction laws increases as
the aspect ratio of the material and the contact ratio of the region
increase.
d

4.3. Hot strip rolling

Hot strip rolling is a representative example of a process with a Fig. 13. A long-pipe simultaneously shrinking and expanding process: (a) initial
large aspect ratio and a large contact ratio. Thus, it is the extreme and (b) final.
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M.S. Joun et al. / Tribology International 42 (2009) 311–319 317

 = 0.25 m = 0.43  = 0.05 m = 0.096

 = 0.75 m = 0.153

Fig. 14. Simulation results: (a) simulation results for m (m) ¼ 0.025(0.043), (b) simulation results for m (m) ¼ 0.050(0.096), and (c) simulation results for m
(m) ¼ 0.075(0.153).

case in studying the two friction laws. The parameters we used for
the hot strip rolling process were roll diameter, 400 mm; initial
strip thickness, 2 mm; reduction ratio, 40%; strain-rate hardening
0:196
exponent, 0.195 (flow stress: s̄ ¼ c_¯ where c is a material
constant); and roll speed, v̄t ¼ 1256:64 mm=s. This example was
solved using the penalty rigid-viscoplastic finite element method
[27] for calculating the normal stress accurately without any
iteration.
Fig. 7 shows the relative velocity of the material with respect to
the roll along the roll–material interface. From the figure, we can
see that the results obtained for m ¼ 1.0 are nearly the same as for
m ¼ 0.2. This can be seen again in Fig. 8, which shows the roll
pressure distribution or the friction hill. The predicted results
demonstrate that the sticking region increases as the Coulomb
friction coefficient increases but that the constant shear friction
law cannot predict the distinct sticking phenomena even with the
maximum value of m ¼ 1.0. Fig. 8 shows that the constant shear
friction law imposes excessive friction around the exit and entry
but that it reduces the friction in the middle region near the
neutral point.
We therefore concluded that the friction evaluation curves are
irrelevant to hot strip rolling.
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318 M.S. Joun et al. / Tribology International 42 (2009) 311–319

4.4. Ring gear forging simulation Friction factor

0 0.043 0.096 0.153 0.214
Forging disks or ring gears is a process that also has a relatively 40
large aspect ratio and a large contact ratio. We selected a ring gear
forging process for this study. The process parameters are as Coulomb friction
follows: strain-rate hardening exponent, 0.195; Coulomb friction Constant shear friction
coefficient, m ¼ 0.1; friction factor, m ¼ 0.2; and punch speed,
500 mm/s. These two friction conditions are almost equivalent 30
according to the evaluation curve in Fig. 2. The finite element

Nose length (mm)

solutions were obtained using the AFDEX 2D forging simulator
[35,36].
From the results shown in Figs. 9 and 10, a big difference in 20
plastic flow exists around the symmetric axis, indicating that the
constant shear friction law reduces friction in the central region
near the axis of symmetry while imposing excessive friction on
the edge region, that is, the boundary of the die–material
interface. Fig. 11 shows the difference in the forming load between 10
the two friction laws. The Coulomb friction law predicted a
forming load about 30% larger than that predicted by the constant
shear friction law.
0
4.5. Cold extrusion of long billet 0 0.025 0.05 0.075 0.1
Coefficient of Coulomb friction
Friction is also a difficult problem when the contact ratio is Fig. 15. Variation of predicted nose length d with friction.
large even though the aspect ratio is small. A typical example is
the multistep extrusion shown in Fig. 12. The flow stress of
shown in Fig. 14. The effects of the two friction laws were
material used for this study is s̄ ¼ 50:3ð1 þ ¯ =0:05Þ0:26 MPa. The
quantitatively evaluated by the length of nose d defined in Fig. 13
Coulomb friction coefficient was assumed to be 0.1. The finite
and summarized in Fig. 15. It can be seen from Figs. 14 and 15 that
element solutions were obtained using the AFDEX 2D forging
no similarity exists between the two friction laws.
simulator [35,36].
The simulation results in Fig. 12(a) show that a more or less
abnormal plastic deformation region induced by frictional stress
5. Conclusions
was predicted by the Coulomb friction law even though the
Coulomb friction coefficient used was not very large. This
In this study, we investigated in detail the effects of friction
phenomenon was caused by excessive friction resulting from the
laws and friction conditions on finite element predictions in metal
Coulomb friction law. To avoid this problem, we recommend
forming. We studied the similarities and differences between the
dividing the contact region into several subregions and assigning
Coulomb friction law and the constant shear friction law by
different friction coefficients to each subregion appropriate to the
comparing their related finite element solutions, which included
effective strain and/or pressure there. For example, the friction
upsetting processes with different aspect ratios, as well as
coefficient in the container is relatively small because the
friction-sensitive metal forming processes involving strip rolling,
lubricant film is rarely damaged there. As the material moves
ring gear forging, multistep extrusion, and pipe shrinkage and
outward from the container, friction may increase due to the
expansion.
higher contact pressure or damage of the lubricant film. Yet such a
We showed through simulating the upsetting process that the
problem does not occur when using the constant shear friction
two friction laws predict nearly the same results when the aspect
law. However, it is not realistic to assume that the frictional stress
ratio and the contact ratio are both small, and the friction is low.
is constant along the entire contact region, and the inappropriate
In contrast, they predict quite different results when the aspect
choice of the friction factor can cause an unrealistic forming load.
ratio and the contact ratio are large, and the friction is relatively
high.
4.6. Simultaneous expansion and shrinkage of a long pipe Note that the constant shear friction law cannot predict the
sticking region near the neutral point in hot strip rolling even
A simultaneous expansion and shrinkage of a long, thin pipe is though the maximum friction factor of unity is used. Furthermore,
very sensitive to friction laws because the normal stress along the predictions of forming loads in the hot forging of ring gear differ
die–material interface is relatively small while the contact surface from each other by nearly 30% depending on which friction law is
is large. Therefore, we selected the process shown in Fig. 13 to used.
study the effect of friction laws on the metal flow and the forming We also showed that an excessive Coulomb friction coefficient
load in such a case. In this process, the pipe ends are formed can cause an abnormal plastic region when it is applied to a
simultaneously; the upper side is expanded while the lower side multistep cold extrusion process. In that case, the Coulomb
is shrunk. If the friction is large, the middle region of the pipe will friction coefficient should be considered as a function of the strain
expand, and contact will take place. Because the contact region is and normal stress. We also investigated the simultaneous
large, the material should be influenced significantly by the shrinkage and expansion at both ends of a long pipe, and
friction laws and friction conditions. The flow stress of the demonstrated that this process can be classified as one of the
material was s̄ ¼ 61:7¯0:25 . The finite element solutions were friction-sensitive metal forming processes.
obtained using the AFDEX 2D forging simulator [35,36]. In this study, we emphasized the importance of the friction
The process was simulated under various friction conditions laws and friction conditions in metal forming simulations,
using both friction laws. Their results of the deformed shapes are especially for friction-sensitive metal forming processes, which
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
M.S. Joun et al. / Tribology International 42 (2009) 311–319
have aspect ratios that are larger or smaller than normally
encountered.
Acknowledgment
This study was supported by Grant no. RTI04-01-03 from the
Regional Technology Innovation Program of the Republic of Korea
Ministry of Commerce, Industry and Energy.
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