General Biology- I

Hand-out 4

Prepared by: Mr. John Paul A. Catipay, (BSBio), LPT

I- Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis the process by which plants, algae, and other microbes use to
harness solar energy by converting it into chemical energy. Photosynthesis is a
series of chemical reaction that use light energy to assemble CO2 into glucose
(C6H12O6) and other carbohydrates. Photosynthesis is an oxidation-reduction
process, oxidation means that electrons are removed from an atom or molecule,
reduction means electrons are added (redox). The plant uses water in the process
and releases Oxygen as a byproduct. These reactions of photosynthesis are
summarized thru this equation:

Light energy
6CO2 + 6H2O-------------------------C6H12O6 + 6O2

Photosynthesis is impossible without Chlorophyll- the photosynthetic pigment in

the chloroplasts of plants. There are several types of Chlorophyll:

1. Chlorophyll a= a green photosynthetic pigment in plants, algae, and

cyanobacteria.
2. Accessory pigment= is an energy capturing pigment molecules aside from
Chlorophyll a. Chlorophyll b, Carotenoids, Phytoerythrin, Xanthophyll and
others are accessory pigments.

Photosynthesis occurs in two processes:

1. Light reaction= convert light energy to chemical energy. In the

chloroplast’s thylakoid membrane, pigment molecules in two linked
photosystems capture kinetic energy from photons and store it as
potential energy in the chemical bonds of two molecules namely
ATP, and NADPH. ATP is a nucleotide that stores potential energy in
the covalent bonds between its phosphate groups ATP forms when
a phosphate groups is added to ADP. NADPH on the other hand is a
molecule that carries pairs of energized electrons.
The light reaction involves two main photosystems:
 1. In photosystem- I= NADP is reduced to NADPH
2. In photosystem- II= light strikes this photosystem, electrons get
excited providing energy to produce ATP.

2. Dark reaction = this phase is otherwise called as the Carbon reactions

or the Calvin cycle. In this phase the chloroplasts uses ATP, the high
energy electrons in NADPH, and CO2 to produce sugar molecules.
Once inside the leaf, CO2 diffuses into a mesophyll leaf cell and across
the chloroplast membrane into the stroma. The first step of the
Calvin cycle is carbon fixation which involves the initial incorporation
of CO2 into an organic compound, where CO2 bonds with a five-
carbon sugar with two phosphates- Ribulose biphosphate (RuBP) this
reaction is catalyzed by an enzyme called Rubisco.

Types of Carbon fixation pathways as a form of adaptation:

1. C3= this means Carbon-3 (PGA). Where the Calvin cycle is just
used for Carbon fixation. Almost all plants belong to this type.
2. C4= in this case CO2 combines with C3 forming a four-carbon
compound and moves into the bundle sheath and fixes another
CO2 to hasten Carbon-fixation.
3. CAM = Means Crassulacean Acid Metabolism. Plants using this
carbon fixation pathway only opens stomata at night fixes CO2
and fixes again in the Calvin cycle during the day.

II- Cellular Respiration

The chemical equation involved in this phase is the complete reverse of photosynthesis.
The raw materials in the reactant portion of photosynthesis are the products of cell
respiration (vice versa). Photosynthesis is a constructive process where sugar is formed,
whereas Cellular respiration is a destructive one, for sugar is broken down to create
ATP. The equation for Cellular respiration:

C6H12O6 + 6O2-------------------------6CO2 + 6H2O + 36 ATP produced

Cellular respiration includes three main processes:

1. Glycolysis= is the breaking of sugar molecules, a six-carbon sugar (Glucose) molecule

splits into pyruvic acid or pyruvate- a three-carbon sugar. Energy is yielded thru two
processes. The first process is when an electron from glucose is transferred to an
electron-carrier- NADPH, second is when two ATP’s are produced.
 2. Krebs cycle= or Citric Acid Cycle (CAC) is when pyruvate is oxidized and release CO2.
Molecules and atoms are re-arranged by enzymes to transfer the potential energy
of pyruvate and its electrons to ATP, NADPH, and FADH2. After this stage, the six-
carbons of glucose slowly liberates as CO2. The Krebs cycle is summarized into six
steps:
1. Acetyl CoA sheds the CoA (co-enzyme) and bonds with a four-carbon compound to form
Citrate.
2. Citrate, a six-carbon compound (citric acid) a carbon atom is released. And a five-carbon
compound is formed
3. Another carbon atom is released, thus forming CO2 . NAD becomes reduced as NADH. From
five-carbons now, four carbons are left.
4. Phosphorylation happens, where ADP becomes ATP. Still, four-Carbons are retained.
5. FAD is reduced into FADH2, a high energy molecule. Still, four-carbons are retained.
6. NAD is reduced into NADH. Still, four Carbons are retained.

3. Electron Transport Chain= is the final phase/stage of Cellular Respiration where 36-
39 ATP’s are produced. The most in the process.

Steps involved in ETC:

1. Electrons from NADH and FADH2 release energy as they travel along the
electron transport chain.
2. The electrons are eventually dumped on O2 producing H2O as a waste
product (end-product).
3. Membrane-bound enzymes use energy from the electrons to pump protons
(H+) from the matrix to the intermediate compartment l, establishing a
gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane
4. Meanwhile, the protons flow down their concentration gradient thru a
channel in ATP synthase. This action releases energy, which ATP synthases
use to generate ATP.

ATP synthase is an enzyme that changes the gradient’s potential energy unto
chemical energy to make ATP.

Conversion of ATP:

1. NADH =3 ATP
2. FADH2 = 2 ATP

Amount of ATP produced per phase:

1. Glycolysis= 2 ATP’s
2. Krebs Cycle= 2 ATP’s
3. Electron Transport Chain= 34 ATP’s

Total: 38 minus 2 ATP for NADH transport= 36 ATP’s

 III- Fermentation:

Fermentation is otherwise termed as and categorized as an Anaerobic reparation.

Almost all living organisms in the Biosphere use aerobic respiration. Nevertheless, life
thrives without Oxygen as well in tightly closed vessels, or vacuum in a conceptual
visualization, yet in real life in waterlogged soils, deep puncture wounds (puss), sewage,
as normal flora these microbes leave in our skin, colon, and vagina. In Fermentation
ATP yields is also possible. There are two ATP’s and 2 NADP’s formed plus two pyruvates
from the lysis of glucose. Unlike in aerobic respiration (cell respiration) NADH does not
donate its electrons to the ETC instead in fermentation, NADH is reduces pyruvate (C3).

There are typically two types of Fermentation (Anaerobic respiration) :

1. Lactic acid fermentation: is a type of anaerobic respiration in animal cells and tissues
where lactic acid (lactate) is formed when the Oxygen level in the muscle fibers is
depleted thus glucose retards and converts into lactic acid which is responsible for
fatigue in the muscles. Cells are supposed to reduce pyruvate using NADH. But, in
this case, it is transformed into NAD+ and lactate.
2. Alcoholic fermentation: is a type of fermentation in plants where when oxygen is
depleted, especially at nights, and is converted into Ethyl alcohol or ethanol (which
is also responsible to make fruits ripe). Pyruvic acid (pyruvate) is converted to
ethanol and CO2, while NADH is oxidized producing NAD+.

IV- Laws of Energy Transformation

Forms of Energy:
1. Kinetic energy
2. Thermal energy
3. Light energy
4. Potential energy
5. Chemical energy

Laws of Energy Transformation:

1. 1st Law: The energy of the Universe is constant

2. 2nd Law: Every energy transfer or transformation increases the energy of the Universe
Thermodynamics= is the study of energy transformation that occurs in a system (collection of
matter). Living systems are considered as open systems because energy and matter are
transferred between systems and the surroundings.

“Energy can neither be made nor destroyed.” = Einstein

Energy flow and Chemical recycling in ecosystems: Energy flows into ecosystem as sunlight and
ultimately leaves as heat, while the chemical Elements essential to life are recycled.