1544 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, VOL. PAS-88, NO.

10, OCTOBER 1969

NOMENCLATURE [4] G. E. Gardner, J. H. Holliday, and D. J. Johnson, "Series con-

nection of mercury are valves," IEE Conf. Pubi. 22, p. 212,
k XA/X 1966.
CA anode reactance of one converter arm [5] C. G. Dewey, M. A. Dranchak, et at., "A high voltage solid
2vc common reactance state valve for d.c. transmission, presented at the 1967 American
"
Power Conf.
C = XA + XC commutating reactance per phase [6] A. J. Maslin, "Three phase rectifier circuits," Electronics,
x per unit commutating reactance per phase December 1936.
[7] F. Busemann, "The theory of the control problem of h.v.d.c.
e a, eb, ec ac system phase EMFS transmission with rectifier and inverters in bridge circuit,"
IIV peak ac system phase voltage Electrical Research Assoc., Rept. Z/T74, 1948.
V,a, vb, vc, etc., voltage across element a, b, c, etc. [8] W. Dallenbach, "The current and voltage conditions in the
current through element a with 3, 4, etc., ele- Graetz three phase rectifier bridge circuit," Direct Current,
3S,ia 4ia, etc., vol. 4, December 1958.
ments conducting [9] F. Hoelters, "Current and voltage conditions from no-load to
a control angle short-circuit in three-phase bridge circuits," Direct Current, vol.
5, March 1961.
lXi, a2, a3 natural control angles [10] L. L. Freris, High Voltage Direct Current Convertors and Systems,
xi externally imposed control angle B. J. Cory, Ed. London: Macdonald, 1965, ch. 4.
C
y commutation angle [11] M. G. Shekhtman, "Operating cycles and external characteris-
tics of a twelve phase cascade bridge conversion unit," Izv.
a extinction angle Nauchn. Issled. Inst. Postoyan Toka, vol. 5, pp. 24-63, 1960.
;O value at which extinction angle should be kept [12] L. A. Kilgore, H. E. Spindle, and L. R. Rice, "Thyristor con-
constant vertors change h.v.d.c. parameters," Elec. World, vol. 165, pp.
56-57, February 1966.
instantaneous direct voltage [13] F. D. Kaiser, "Thyristor convertors change h.v.d.c. econom-
61 ics," Elec. World, vol. 165, pp. 116-117, February 1966.
average value of direct voltage
1TdO maximum no-load average direct voltage [14] T. Gilsig and T. R. Specht, "A new approach to high voltage
d.c. transmission," presented at the 1967 American Power
rd direct current Conf.
rdn rated direct current. [15] L. L. Freris, "Analysis of a hybrid bridge rectifier," Direct
Current, vol. 11, p. 22, 1966.
REFERENCES [16] L. L. Freris, "Effects of interaction among groups in a multi-
[11 L. A. Harris, "Methods of damping" in "High voltage d.c. group a.c.-d.c. convertor", Proc. IEE (London), vol. 114, pp.
transmission," IEE Conf. Publ. 22, p. 256, 1966. 965-973, July 1967.
[2] -, High Voltage Direct Current Convertors and Systems, [17] L. R. Neiman, S. R. Glinternik, A. V. Emelyanov, and V. G.
B. J. Cory, Ed. London: Macdonald, 1965, ch. 8, pp. 193-194. Novitski, D.C. Transmission in Power Systems (English transl.).
[3] F. G. Goodrich and S. Swensen, "Some special equipment for Israel Program of Scientific Translations.
d.c. transmission" in "High voltage d.c. trarmission," IEE [181 C. Adamson and N. G. Hingorani, High Voltage Diiect Current
Conf. Publ. 22, p. 235, 1966. Power Transmission. London: Garraway, 1960.

Real Time [of System Voltage

and Reactive Power
ICHIRO HANO, SENIOR MEMBER, IEEE, YASUO TAMURA, MEMBER, IEEE,
SEINOSUKE NARITA, MEMBER, IEEE, AND KIMIO MATSUMOTO

Abstract-This paper presents a centralized optimizing computa- INTRODUCTION

tional algorithm for the on-line control of voltage and reactive
power. The body of the paper is divided into two parts.
In Section I the fundamental linearized equation describing the
relation between the operation of regulating devices and the corre-
sponding changes in controlled variables, i.e., node voltage mag-
nitudes and line reactive power flows, is established. In Section II
an optimizing procedure for the real time computation of voltage
and reactive power control is presented based upon this linearized
equation.
Paper 69 TP 39-PWR, recommended and approved by the Power
System Engineering Committee of the IEEE Power Group for
presentation at the IEEE Winter Power Meeting, New York, N. Y.,
January 26-31, 1969. Manuscript submitted September 3, 1968;
made available for printing November 7, 1968.
The authors are with the Department of Electrical Engineering,
Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan.
A A POWER system becomes complicated and the number
of voltage regulating facilities installed in the system
increases, the voltage control problem tends to be more complex
and more difficult to handle. The system frequency is almost the
same throughout the network, whereas the voltage differs from
point to point in the system. In the past, the voltage control
problem has been considered separately from the problem of
minimizing transmission losses.
In recent years, it has become necessary to pay attention not
only to the voltage control problem but to a rational system
operation scheme that also minimizes transmission losses. How-
ever, it is extremely difficult to establish an integrated control
of voltage and reactive power because of the variety of voltage
and reactive power regulating devices involved, such as auto-
matic generator voltage regulators, rotary condensers, shunt

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 HANO et al.: CONTROL OF SYSTEM VOLTAGE AND REACTIVE POWER
capacitors, shunt reactors, and load ratio controllers distributed
at many points in the system to keep the voltages within allow-
able bounds.
In the first place, this paper assumes a reference voltage and
reactive power distribution, which we call the optimum operat-
ing pattern. The optimum operating pattern is a pattern of
desired voltage and reactive power flow distribution in the sense
that it minimizes the system operating costs. In the actual
operation of a power system, a variety of constraints in operation
exist, such as the upper and lower bounds of node voltages at
power plants, substations, and load points. Other constraints
should also be taken into account such as the amount of reactive
power sources available at substations and the upper and lower
bounds of reactive power output capabilities of generators,
i.e., the limits of over- and underexcitation of generators.
Because of the complexity caused by a variety of operating
restrictions and the capabilities and capacity of voltage and
reactive power regulating facilities installed in the system, it is
not easy to determine an optimum operating pattern of the
system. Many contributions to these problems have been
reported, some of which, although not exhaustive, are included in
[1]-[4].
The main objective of this paper is not to detail the problem
mentioined above but to consider the real time control of voltage
and reactive power. That is, we at first consider a reference or
optimum operating pattern which may be determined by use of
one of the approaches in [1]-[12]. Because of a variety of
disturbances occurring at many points in the system, the node
voltages tend to deviate from those specified by the optimum
operating pattern. The purpose of real time control of voltage
and reactive power flow to be detailed later is first to bring
back the disturbed node voltages (especially at load nodes) to
the region within a certain tolerance around the optimum node
voltages and then to minimize the transmission losses by a
proper operation of voltage and reactive power regulating devices
such as load ratio controllers (on-line tap-changing trans-
formers), static condensers, shunt reactors, excitation control of
generators and rotary condensers, etc. Because of the interaction
of the control effects of each regulating device, a local control
scheme often fails or is not appropriate from an overall point of
view.
Apart from the problem of voltage and reactive power control,
the tendency is now observed to install large-scale digital
computing facilities and system-wide data transmission channels
for the implementation of automatic load frequency control and
economic load dispatching functions that have so far been ac-
complished by analog-type controllers. In a broader sense, the
effectiveness of so-called total automation of system operation
including tariffication and system security control has been
recognized in many utility companies.
Essentially, the control methods for the appropriate main-
tenance of voltages and reactive power flows in power systems
may conveniently be classified into two groups, the centralized
and decentralized control methods. The former is also called the
direct control method because it determines the proper operating
value of each regulating device by a central digital computer on
the basis of information transmitted from each point within the
system. The direct control method is scheduled to be adopted by
Kyushu Electric Power Company in Japan [5]. The decentralized
control method is also called the indirect control method or the
desired value instructing method. This method decomposes a
power system into several blocks, each controlled by its own
controller. This control scheme has also already been employed
in part by a few utility companies.
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1545
In Section I the fundamental equations employed in the
optimizing computation of real time voltage and reactive power
control are given. The system variables involved in the descrip-
tion of system operating states are classified into three groups in
vector form, i.e., operating variable vector, controlled and
dependent variable vector, and parameter vector. Next, a set of
simultaneous linear equations is derived from the ordinary
nodal power flow equations having the coefficient matrix called
the sensitivity constant matrix. This is followed by the explana-
tion of a concrete computational procedure for the determination
of the sensitivity constants including the case where load ratio
controllers exist and the sensitivity constants for line reactive
power flows are required. Section I concludes with the description
of the programming technique to alleviate the computing time
required and of the numerical example for a sample system.
In Section II an optimizing procedure for the on-line computa-
tion of voltage and reactive power control is presented on the
basis of the fundamental linear relations developed in Section I.
First, the objectives of voltage and reactive power control are
described in some detail. After pointing out the fact that the real
time control problem of voltage and reactive power is a non-
linear mixed continuous-integer programming problem, Section
II considers as the first step the minimization of node voltage
deviations and as the second step the minimization of trans-
mission losses within the system by a proper control of voltage
and reactive power regulating devices. The first step is carried
out successfully by use of the conjugate gradient method.
Because some of the regulating devices such as load ratio con-
trollers, static condensers, and shunt reactors are allowed to
take on only integers, the second step of optimization, i.e.,
loss reduction, is treated by a direct search technique. A nu-
merical example for the optimization of voltage and reactivepower
control of an existing large-scale power system is given. The
computing algorithm of the conjugate gradient method is given
in the Appendix.
1. FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS FOR SYSTEM VOLTAGE AND
REACTIVE POWER CONTROL
A. Sensitivity Matrix with Respect to
Power Flow Equations [7], [8]
The power flow of the general N-node power system is de-
scribed by a set of N simultaneous complex equations
N
Pk + jQk = Ck + jDk + E1Z (Y1aEa)*, k = 1,2, ...
N
(1)
where
Pk active power generation at node k
Qk reactive power generation at node k
Ck active power consumption at node k
Dk reactive power consumption at node k
a set of nodes directly connected to node k including node
k itself
E1 voltage vector at node k
* conjugate value
Yka mutual admittance between nodes k and a(a = k)
Ykk self-admittance of node k.
Let the voltage vector Es at node k be expressed in polar form
Et = EkeJik
 1546 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, OCTOBER 1969

where holds. Let us assume that by changing the operating condition

of voltage and reactive power regulating devices (called simply
Ek voltage magnitude regulating devices hereafter), i.e., tap positionls of load ratio
Ok phase angle controllers, reactive power outputs of generators, number of
and the admittance Ykea in rectangular form static condenser or shunt reactor banks switched on or off, etc.,
the operating variable vector U has experienced a change
31ka = Gka + jBka AU from U0. If the control and dependent variable vector X
where changes from X0 to Xo + AX in accordance with the change
AU, then
GkCa conductance between nodes k and a
BkR susceptance between nodes k and a. G(Xo + AX,UO + AU,P) = 0. (7)
Then (1) is reduced to a set of 2N real simultaneous equations If AU is taken to be very small, then the variance AX is gen-
erally small. By applying the Taylor series expansion to (7)
G2/-1 = 0 G2k = 0 k = 1Y21 IN with Xo, U0,P as the reference state and neglecting higher
where order terms in AX and A U, we have
N
G(Xo,U0,P) + Gx(Xo,Uo,P)AX + GU(X0,Uo)P)AU = 0 (8)
G2C-1 = Ck - Pk + Ek [GkcCOS (Ok
Eca - a)
where Gx is the Jacobian matrix of G with respect to the con-
+ Bka sin (ok - f9a)] (2) trolled and dependent variable vector X. In mlathemnatical
N terms,
G2k = Dk- Qk + Ek>X Ea[Gka sin (0t - Ca)
- Bka cos (ok - 9a) ]. (3)
- O(GC,G2,
a(Xl,X2, .
*
. .
,G2N)
,X2N)
(9)
For simplicity, the variables and parameters involved in (2) and where x1,x2, * *42Nare the elements of X. In a similar manner,
(3), i.e., the active and reactive powers generated or consumed the Jacobian matrix
at every node, the voltage magnitudes and phase angles, and
the conductances and susceptances will be classified into three G O(GC,G2, * * ,G2N)
aUUGU21 )UM)
(10)
vectors.
..

1) Operating Variable Vector U: This is an M-dimensional is obtained. GU is not generally a square matrix and U1, U2, * , -

vector comprising of the operating (manipulated) variables in UM are the elements of the operating variable vector U. Since
system voltage and reactive power control, i.e., generator the first term of (8) diminishes,
terminal voltages or reactive power outputs, reactive powers
consumed or generated by the switching on or off of static AX = -GX-*CuG-AU (11)
condensers or shunt reactors, and tap positions of load ratio where Gx-C denotes the inverse of Gx.
controllers which do not appear explicitly in (2) and (3). Let
2) Controlled and Dependent Variable Vector X: This vector
consists of such unknown variables in usual power flow calcula- S _=-Gg-,-Gu. (12)
tions as voltage magnitudes and phase angles at load nodes,
reactive power flows of branches (lines) which do not appear Then ( 1) is rewritten as
explicitly, and such other dependent variables as voltage mag- AX = 8AU (13)
nitudes and phase angles not included in the operating variable
vector U. The total number of controlled and dependent vari- or more concretely in matrix form
ables explicit in (2) and (3) must equal 2N in order for the power Ax, S[1 S12 ...
SIM AU1]
flow to be specified uniquely. AXj S21 S22 ... S2M A U2
3) Parameter Vector P: The components of the parameter
vector P are the variables whose values are specified in load (14)
flow calculation excluding operating variables, conductances,
and susceptances not influenced by the change of tap positions
of load ratio controllers. LAX2Ni LS2N1 S2N2 82
SNMJ A UJ
By use of the three vectors X, U, and P defined above, (2) The 2N X 31 coefficient matrix S in (14) is called the sensitivity
and (3) are expressed by the simple vector equation
matrix of power flow with respect to the operating variable
G(X,U,P) = 0 (4) vector U. A brief reflection will show that (13) or (14) gives a
where G is a 2N-dimensional column vector function with linear relation between a small change in the operatinig vector
G2/c1 and C2/, k = 1,2, -* ,AN, as its components, or and the corresponding change in the controlled and dependent
variable vector. This linear relation is fully utilized in the
G = col (G,G2 * ,G2k-1,CG2k, jG. _ ,G2N) (5) optimizing computation of real time voltage and reactive power
Suppose that in an N-node power system, the operating condi- control to be detailed in Section II.
tion is such that X = Xo for a specified control vector U = Uo. Suppose that when a certain element Uj involved in vector U
Since the pair of vectors Xo and U0 satisfies the power flow equa- experiences a small change AUj, an element xi in vector X
tion (4), changes by Axi correspondingly. Then the ratio Axi/AUj is
given as the ijth element in the sensitivity matrix S. If for
G(XoUo,P) = 0 (6) example, the AUj and Axi are considered to be the newly switched

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 HANO et al.: CONTROL OF SYSTEM VOLTAGE AND REACTIVE POWER 1547

capacity of the shunt capacitor at node j and the corresponding For GX:
voltage change at node i, respectively, then the ijth element of a) When i = k,
sensitivity matrix S shows how the voltage at node i changes
a
due to the operation of the capacitor installed at node j. Namely, aG27C-1
dCk0 0C2k aG27 =_ (19)
when the controlled variables and the operating variables 0Q, o)Qi
in voltage and reactive power control appear explicitly as Ax1,
AX2, * *, AX2N on the left-hand side of (14) and AU1, AU2, * * * . aG2k-I _aG2i-i
AUM oni the right-hand side, respectively, the sensitivity con- adi dci
stants corresponding to these variables are obtained directly = -Ei Z Ea [Gia sin (ci - Ga)
from the sensitivity matrix S.
On the other hand, such variables as the tap positions of load - Bj, cos (Gi - Oa)] + Ei2Bii (20)
ratio controllers (operating variables) and the line reactive
power flows (controlled and dependent variables) are not 0C12k - 0C)2j
dG2z dcis
involved explicitly in the power flow equations (2) and (3)
which served as a basis for the derivation of (14), and the
sensitivity constaints for these variables are not given directly = Ei > Ea [GCi cos (Gi - Ga)
a
as some elements of the sensitivity matrix S of (14). In the
following section, a set of equations for the concrete calculation + Bi, sin (Oi - 0a,) I t E, Gii. (21)
of each element of Gx and Gu necessary for the construction of b) When i = a( k),
the sensitivity matrix S, as will as a means to resolve the problem
mentioned above, will be described.
B. Operating Conditions at Nodes and Calculation of Gx and Gu
aG2k_I
dcli
-
EkEi[Gki sin (ok-cj) Bki cos (ok- GO)] (22)
-

As was explained in the preceding section, the elements in-

volved in the controlled and dependent variable vector X and
C2Ik -
EkEi[-Gki cos (Gk- O,) Bki sin (Gk )].
- -

the operatinig variable vector U are determined both by the (23)

operating conditions at each node and by the topology of system
configurationi or the way each node is connected. c) When i = k and a,
1) Generator Terminal Voltage Is Operated: When the generator
terminal voltage Ei at node i is operated dG2k-1 dG2k = 0
elements in vector X Qi and Gi dQi dci
elements in vector U Et aG2k-1 = 0) -G = O. (24)
do0 ' oj
elements in vector P other variables and
parameters at node i. 2) Generator Reactive Power Output Is Operated: When the
reactive power output of generator Qi at node i is operated,
The elements of Gu and Gx are computed in the following man-
ner. elements in vector X Es and As
For Gu:
a) When i = k, elements in vector U Qi
elements in vector P other variables and
aG92k-1 dOG2i- parameters at node i.
dEi aEi
3) Reactive Power Source Is Operated: When the static con-
= E1 Ea[GCa cos (Gi - 0a) + Bia sin (ci - a) ] densers or shunt reactors at node i are operated, the reactive
power consumption Di at this node is a component of vector U,
+ EiGC1 (15)
namely at node i,
aG2t G2i
aGC2kl d9Gi
(25)
aD aD=
= E,, [GiCja sin (ci - Ga) -Bia cos (i - Ga) ]
for i = k. When i k, both terms above vanish.
-EiBfi. (16) 4) Load Ratio Controller Is Operated: When by the presence of a
b) Whein i = a (adjacent nodes to k, excluding k itself), load ratio controller, an off-nominal turns ratio of 1: n appears
between nodes i and j as shown in Fig. 1(a), it is convenient to
C
G2k1= Ek [Gkl cos (ok - cs) + Bki sin (k - ci)] (17) employ the corresponding equivalent circuit shown in Fig.
1(b) [9]. Y = G + jB stands for the leakage admittance of the
load ratio controller. A change in the tap position n of the
G, = Ek[GCk sin (Gk- cs) - Bki cos (Ok - 01)]. (18) load ratio controller influences the self-admittance at node
c Ei i, Yii = GC + jBXi, and the mutual admittance between nodes i
c) When i 0 kv and a, and j, Y2j = GCj + jB1j. Furthermore, if only the terms in Yi
and tjj related to tap position n are extracted and denoted as
aG2k aG2k =0
=
Y&J and Y1j', respectively, then from the equivalent circuit of
diC dCEi Fig. 1(b) and the definition of the self- and mutual admittances,

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 1548 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, OCTOBER 1969

Leakage admittance OG2kE

dGk E [Gj sin
Ej (oi -0 )
node Y =G +jB node j
I:n
n L n

n
-j)I +
B cos (0, 2Ej2Bj. (35)
(a) b) When j =k
clG2k_
An
= E1Ej [-n cos (oi - 0j)
_ B..
Bt sin (oi o)- (36)
n

[_isinj(O2-O)
OG21 = E GE
n n
-jE-Bsi
. 1 o
(b) --
n
cos (0t- 0j) (37)
Fig. 1. Load ratio controller. (a) Original circuit. c) When i, j k
(b) Equivalent circuit.
dOGi,j-k =0 o G2k = 0.
(38)
we have an an
=Ij'= Gii' + jBii' = n2(G + jB) (26) By use of the equations derived so far, the sensitivity matrix
S with respect to the power flow equations will be calculated
YU' = Gi' + jBij' = -n(G + jB). (27) according to the following procedure.
Similarly, in the power flow equations (2) and (3), the equations a) From the knowledge of the line admittances and the node-
made up only of terms involving n are also primed. Then, from branch connection matrix, calculate the self- and mutual admit-
the power flow equations at node k, G2k-j and G2k, the following tances at each node.
relations are obtained. b) Set up the nodal power flow equations G2k_L and G2k at each
a) When i = k, node.
c) Calculate each element of Gx and Gu on the basis of the
G2c-1 = nEiEj[-G cos (oi - 03) operating conditions specified at each node and the node-branch
B sin (o2 oj)I + n2E,2G
- - (28) connection matrix.
d) Calculate the inverse of Gx.
G2k' = nEiE [-G sin (i- Oj) e) Calculate the sensitivity matrix by the relation S =
+ B cos (oi - j)]- n2E2B. (29) -Gx-, Gu.
The sensitivity constants for line reactive power flows can be
b) When j = k, determined in the following manner. Let Pkm + jQkcm be the line
power flow from node k to node m. Then
G2t1 ' = nEiE [-G cos (0i- j)
+ B sin (0i - oj)] (30) Pkm + JQkm =
Ek(Ek Em)* ( Ykm)* - (39)
In the practice of voltage and reactive power control, only the
G2k' = nEiEj[G sin (0i - 0)+ B cos (0i - 0j)]. (31) reactive power flow Qkm is of significance. From (39), we have
c) When i, j k,
Qkm = EkBk.m[Ek- Em cos (0k Om)]
G -1 I= 0, G2k' = 0. (32) + GkmEm sin (0k- Om) }. (40)
The partial derivatives of the original power flow equations at Suppose that when the Ek, Em, ok, and Om on the right-hand side
node k with respect to n are equal to those of (28)-(32) with of (40) change by zEk, AEm, AOk, and ,0m, respectively, the
respect to n. By differentiating the equations above with respect Qkm changes by AQkm. Then
to n and substituting the definition of the mutual admittance
when a load ratio controller is involved AQkm = AEk {Bkm[Ek -Em cOs (Ok -
Cm)]
+ GkmEm sin (Ok - Om) }+ Ek{Bkm[AEk
YIfj =
Gil + jB,j = -n(G + jB) (33)
- LAEm cOs (0k- Om)] + GkmAEm sin (0k - Om) }
into the resultant equations, (34)-(38) are obtained. Namely, + Ek{Bkm[Em sin (0k - 0m)((Ak - AOm)]
for the power flow equations at node k, G2k-1 and G2k.
a) When i k, + GkmEm cos (Ok - .m) (ACk AOm)}I (41)
OG2k-1 Note that the Ek, Em, and Cm corresponding to the unit
0k,

an E1Ej cos
C
(0i-0) amount of change in a regulating device can be known from the
elements in the sensitivity matrix S. Thus the sensitivity con-
+ -j sin (i- o0- 2E2GCj (34) stants for line reactive power flows can readily be calculated
n from (41).

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 HANO et al.: CONTROL OF SYSTEM VOLTAGE AND REACTIVE POWER 1549

When a load ratio controller appears between nodes k and m voltages and reactive powers, and the latter for active powers
or on line km, use either (42) or (43) to derive a relation similar and phase angles. Furthermore, divide the 2N nodal power
to (40), depending on the node number at which the off-nominal flow equations into two function vectors
turns ratio n appears.
When the tap ratio appears at node k, Geven = col (G2,G4, * ,G2k, * G2N) .
. (46)
Pkm + jQA= Ek(nEk Em) (kYm) * associated with reactive power flows and
= (42)
When the tap ratio appears at node m, Godd = col (G1,G3, * * G2k;-17 *. .*G2N-1) (47)
related to active power flows. Then the Jacobian matrix Gx is
Pkm + jQkm = Ek (- E m) (-m)*. (43) partitioned as
It must be noted at this point that the mutual admittance
a8Geven aGeven B
-A
Ykm is a function of n. dO2
(48)
C. Programming Technique Useful for Computation of 49G.dd -
Sensitivity Matrix S C
Lax, ax2
The rank of the Jacobian matrix Gx employed for the deter-
mination of the sensitivity matrix S is equal to 2N where N is the where A, B, C, and D are N X N Jacobian matrices. In a similar
total number of nodes, and it might be anticipated that the fashion, the Jacobian matrix with respect to the operating
computing time required for the calculation of the sensitivity variable vector U, Gu, is partitioned as
matrix of a large-scale power system would become prohibitively aiGeven
long because the inversion of Gx is involved. The computing aU
time necessary for the inversion of a matrix is generally con- (49)
sidered proportional approximately to the cube of its rank.
Thus, in the calculation of the sensitivity matrix S, especially
when the total number of nodes increases, instead of using the
direct method suggested by (12), the triangularization of the
clG0dd
LaU

where I and J are N X Ml matrices. Substitution of (48) and

Jacobian matrix to be detailed below greatly reduces the comput- (49) into (44) yields
ing time required. Namely, from (8)
AI B1FAX1
Gx*AX = -Gu AU (44) = AU. (50)
or in matrix form, LC DJLAX2
aG, aG1 aG, Ax1
FG,1 a 1 AU,
*9 . .

_I
ax, ax2 axIN

aG2 aG2 aG2 |0u1 OUM

AX2
aX1 aX2 aX2N aG2v adU2 A U2

aG2N aG2N
Ax2N
= -[G2N aG2PJAUM
-ax, aX2 aX2N

Since the Jacobian matrix Gx on the left-hand side of (45) If only the unit change AU3 at jth operating point is considered,
generally has many zeros or, in other words, is very sparse and the changes in other operating variables are taken to be
especially when the number of loops involved in the system is zero, then (50) may be written as
small, the triangularization of Gx can be carried out quite
efficiently making full use of the so-called optimal pivot ordering A |BF-AX,l F1
[10], [11]. _C D
LC _JL&-AXJ
2
_5 1=-_I-Ji- (51)
D. Modified Relations for Determination of Sensitivity Matrix S
where Ij and J, are N-dimensional vectors consisting of the
In general, the changes in active powers and voltage phase elements in the jth columns of I and J, respectively. Solving
angles caused by the operation of voltage and reactive power (51) for AX1,
regulating devices are very small compared with those in re-
active powers and voltage magnitudes. Therefore, the sensitivity AX, = -(A - BD-IC)-'(Ij - BD-'J). (52)
constants for the former class of system variables may be AX1 on the left-hand side of (52) represents the sensitivity
neglected in the practice of voltage and reactive power control; constants with respect to voltages and reactive powers for the
thus the direct use of the relations described in the preceding unit change at the jth operating variable. It must be noted that
sections may not be advantageous. the first term on the right-hand side can be determined inde-
Let us divide the controlled and dependent variable vector X pendently from the operating variables, and that its rank is
into two smaller vectors X1 and X2. The former stands for halved as compared with the original matrix Gx, thus reducing

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 1550 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, OCTOBER 1969

Fig. 2. Sample system studied in [9].

1- 2 3 4 5 6 /

-1 0E4 9004 OF6 g

a G
1 OG2 00 2 aG2 00 2
G
-1 OF~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4 9004 OF 6 90 02
03 003 003 aG03 00 3
0 2 OE3 0 3 OF5 00 4
2 004 004 a004 400 00C 4 6 '
00,0a66
t OaE3
a66 00 3
a66 aG 6 a66 OF 5 9006 ('~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ G
5 00G5 005 005 9G5 - '90
00 2 003 3 aa OF 4 9004
06
002
06
-f
OF,
006 0GE6
0903 OF 4
G6
0044
___6 aJ G11
I ____K 0 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~a7 007 00G7 007 00G 7 00G
OF3 003 OE4 9 04 F6 a- 02
__ P1 __ I02
E3
OF 03 OF4 000 4 OF6 I06 G\
00~~~~~~~~~~~~ 0 ~ ~ ~ a,9 99 009G00 009 G
5 I ~~~~~~900-2 OFE5 '9005 OF6 9006
0a10 0010o 0010 0010 0010
~~ E5 a005 OF6 00o6

6 OF~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~'9004
~ ~ ~94 OE5 a00 '9O9E6
06
00G12 0012 013G 001G2 00132 012
4 00 4 5 190 0 5 OE 6 (90 6
Q 02 j04
Q
2 O F , 1 0 3 ~~~~~~~~
O F O F

P F5 F6
0

1 2 E3 03 E4 05 06

Fig. 3. Jacobian matrix Gx for sample system.

the computing time appreciably. Since the second term can
readily be calculated because D-1 has already been prepared,
the total computing time becomes shorter. Remember at this
point that the matrices A, B, C, and D are also very sparse.
E. Illustrative Numerical Example
For the sake of simplicity and also for the purpose of illustra-
tion, let us consider the sample system of Fig. 2 treated exten-
sively in the power flow problem by Ward and Hale [9]. As the
variables involved in the operating variable vector U, i.e., the
voltage and reactive power regulating devices, we considered
1) the off-nominal turns ratio or tap position of the load ratio
controller installed between nodes 5 and 6 (line 4), n4, 2) the
terminal voltages at generators 1 and 2, E1 and E2, and 3) the
reactive power injections at nodes 4 and 6, D4 and D0. As the
controlled variables, the node voltage and phase angle at each
node, power output at generator 1, reactive power output at
generator 2, and changes in line reactive power flows were con-
sidered. The Jacobian matrix Gx for this model system looks like
the one shown in Fig. 3.
The sensitivity matrix calculated by the method elaborated in
the preceding sections is given in Table I, together with the
results obtained by the iterative use of an ordinary power
flow calculation program (shown in parentheses). The results of
Table I show the validity of the sensitivity matrix approach.
It is also seen from this table that the changes in phase angles
due to the changes in operating variables are very small. It
follows that, except for such a special case where phase-shifting
transformers are involved, the sensitivity constants for the
voltage and reactive power control problem need not be calcu-
lated as complex-valued quantities (voltage magnitudes and
angles).
F. Linearity of Fundamental Equation
So far we have described a method for determining the coef-
ficient matrix employed for the representation of the effects of
operating variables on the control variables in the linearized
equation (14). It was assumed at the very outset that the
changes in operating variables are small enough to allow us to
neglect the higher order terms.
In order for the linearized relation (and also the sensitivity
matrix elaborated so far) to be really useful in the optimizing
calculation of the voltage and reactive power control problem to
be detailed in section II, it is necessary to ascertain whether the
linearity of (14) holds with sufficient accuracy for a definite
amount of change in operating variables. To this end, we changed

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 HANO et al.: CONTROL OF SYSTriEM VOLTAGE AND REACTIVE POWER 1551

TABLE I
SENSITIVITY CONSTANTS*

A. For A\ccde Quantities

Controlled and Operating variables
dependent
variables
n
4 I E1 E2 D4 D6
E -0.112 0.842 0.484 0.236 0113
E3 (-0.113) ( 0.839) ( 0.481) ( 0.234 ) ( 0.112

E -0.104 0.838 0.360 0.234 0 .113

E4 (-0.105) ( 0.834) ( 0.357) ( 0.232 ) ( CA12
E 0.499 0.585 0.694 0.0800 0.195
5 ( 0.497) ( 0.582) ( 0.691) ( 0.0790) ( 0.193
E -0.230 0.812 0.425 0.114 0 .267
6 (-0.232) ( 0.809) ( 0.423) ( 0.113 ) ( 0.264
___ 4.72 45.3 -28.0 4.90 4.34
02 ( 4.53 ) (44.5 ) (-28.2 ) ( 4.74 ) ( 4.34
0.699 27.6 3.68 0.5|67 1.43
03 ( 0.596) (27.0 ) ( 3.37 ) ( 0467 ) ( 1.34
0.791 22.8 0.665 0 .710 0.751
l94 (_0-705) (22.3 ) ( 0.417) (-0.773 ) ( 0.682
0 414 32e8 O 272 2.46 1105
05 ( 0:278) (32.1 ) ( 00871) (2.34 ) 0(.928)
_ ~ ~ ~~
W -__ I______
06 0.552
(0.453) 29.9
(29.3 )_ 0.825
(0.553 ) (1.66
1e75
) 0|427
(0339) .

P0.0324 -0.149 -0.113 -0.0545 -0 e0706

1 (-0j0246) (-0.127) (-0.0952) (-0.0489) (-0:0647)
0.744 1.15 -1.83 -0o875 -0.838
__________(__ 0.750) ( 1.17 ) (-1.82 ) (-0.866 ) (-0.838 )
2
___________
-0,726
(-0.719)
-1.74
(-1.73 )
1.27
( 1.28 )
-0.350
(-0:346 )
-0.428
(-0.419

B. For Line React ive Power Flowst

Operating variables

Linumbe n4 E
E2 44 D6
0.455 -0.372 ) ( 0.529 -0.682 -0.837 0.660 -0.224 F 0.157 -0.526 0.416
1 ( 0.458 ) (-0.372 0.538) (-0.684) (-0.833) ( 0.662) (-0.222) ( 1.156)(-0.520) (0.416)
0.289 -0.245 0.689 -0.794 -0.996 0.791 -0.651 0 534 -0.312 0.240
( 0.292 ) (-0.245 ) ( 0.701) (-0.798) (-0.988) ( 0.790)I(-0.644) ( 0.534) (-0.308) (0.238)
0.276 -0.271 0.0992 -0.105 -0.147 0.146 0.275 -0.275 -0.339 0,334
0.277 ) (-0.271 ) ( 0.0916) (-0.105)I(-0.148) ( 0.147) ( 0.275) (-Oo274)1(-0.337)(o.334)
4 -0.600 0.627 -0.803 0.840 0.740 -0.779 -0.120 0.125 -0.256 0.268
(-0.600 )( 0.629 )j(-0.802) ( 0.840) ( 0.744) (-0.782) (-0.119)( 0.124) (-0.255) 1(0.267)
-0.787 0.600 -0.969 0.803 0.735 -0.740 -0.137 0.120 -0.317 0,256
_ (-0.782 ) ( 0.599 ) (-0.965) ( 0.801) ( 0.741) (-0 .745)j (-0.136) ( 0.118) '(-0.314) (0.255)
6 0.0618 - -0.0332 -0.771 0.751 0.535 -0.571 -0.212 0.204 -0.107 0.106
( 0.0632) (-0.0348) (-0.767) 1( 0.749) ( 0.541) (-0.576) (-0.210) ( 0.203)1(-0.105) (0.105)
0.0332 -0.0372 -0.751 0.747 0,571 -0.624 -0.204 0.204, -0.106 0.105
7 ( 0.0349) (-0.0387) (-0.751) 1 0.749) ( 0.574) (-0.626) (-0.204) ( 0.203) (-0105)7((0104)

*
Constants in parentheses are those computed by iterative load flow calculations.
t Constants in left-hand columns are for line reactive power flows from node i to nodej where
i <,j; power flow is reversed in right-hand columns.

by fairly large amounts some operating variables of the sample A few comments seem necessary on the calculation of the
system treated in the preceding section; e.g., the terminal voltage sensitivity matrix in an approximate fashion. If it is assumed
of generator 2, E2, and the tap position of the load ratio con- that
troller between nodes 4 and 6, n4. Figs. 4 and 5 show the results:
for a fairly large amount of change in the regulating devices, the 1) all resistive components in lines, transformers, etc. are

linearity holds with sufficient accuracy for the node voltages. neglected (thus all conductances diminish),
Although some phase angles and active powers change in a 2) cos (oi - oj) = 1 (53)
nonlinear fashion, the changes are negligibly small in magnitude.
Another check has been made, although not included in this sin (Oi - Oj) = 0 (54)
paper, to examine how much each element of the sensitivity for all i and j, and
matrix S changes for different power flow conditions; e.g., at 3) all voltage magnitudes and tap positions are unity,
heavy and light loads. It has been concluded that the sensitivity
matrix should be recalculated if the power flow condition then (16) is reduced to
changes appreciably, and that a few sets of sensitivity matrices
should be prepared beforehand for different representative IG2i= (-Bi.) -
=

(55)
power flow conditions or power flow patterns. rEi a

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 1552 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, OCTOBER 1969

TABLE II
ERRORS MADE IN SENSITIVITY CONSTANTS USING (57)*

________ | Controlled Variables

n -12.5 - I.l
Q)
0 =8_8-8 - OC0~~~~*/
8S E E6 Branc1h 3 Branch 4 Branch 6
CP
fi~
~ ~ ~ ~~~-9
,
a.CL -0.112
N4 (-0.0881) (0.516
0.499
)
-0.230
(-0.241 )
0.277
( 0.349)
-0.600
(-0.807 )
0.0618
( 0.0839)

0-I0 E 0.842 0.585 0:812 ) 0.09921 -0.803 -0.771

LJ 0.653) (0.47
(
(0.112)_ (-0.734 ) (-0.622
g
__ 0)
- 1.05 0E0484
+s' 2 0.355 0.694 0.425 -0.147
0.740 0.535
(.37 0.320 -0.o16) ( 0.723 / 0.614 /
0.236 ) 0o0800 0.114 0.275 -0.120 -0.212
040.183 (0.0635) ( 0.0933) ( 0.276) (-0.0993) (-0.174
D6 ( 0.113 0.195 ) (
0.0828) (0.155 0.267
0.227 ) (-0.328) -0.256 )
-0.339 |(-o.241 -0.107
(-0.0789)

* Constants in parentheses are those computed by iterative load

-7.5 k 1.0 /. flow calculations.

and (18) to

-5 - 0.95k 49G2i-
8Ei
-Bki- (56)
Thus from (54)
AXi = -A-1-Ij (57)
-0.9- ____
1.10 1.14 1.18 122 1.26 130 ,_ where A-1 is(57)
the reactance matrix of the system. If, because of its
1.34 simplicity, is employed instead of (52), then the results
E2 in per unit become erroneous in many cases. As shown in Table II where the
sensitivity constants in parentheses are those calculated by the
simplified method of (57), a maximum error of approximately
40 percent is involved in the worst case.
1.0o II. OPTIMIZING PROCEDURE FOR REAL TIME CONTROL
0E3 OF VOLTAGE AND REACTIVE POWER
A. Centralized Control of System Voltage and Reactive Power
It was shown in Section I that the changes in controlled
6n,
0, variables corresponding to the operation of regulating devices
012.35
0' are describable by the following matrix equation:
0L
a)
-o C-
C C -Ax1 ] Sl S12 ..
SIM iFAU,1
Lu1 AX2 S21 5,
S22 .
S2M A U2
/~~~~~~
12a30 0.95F < :-~~~~~~~~

AX2NLS2N,1 S2N,2 S2NMiL A UMj

For the present purpose of development, it may be convenient to
partition the fundamental matrix equation into the form
12-25
,0* AE,
AE2
ra11 a12
a2l a22
alM
a2M
AU-
0 o 096
o o

AU,7
12.20F 0.9k AEm aml am2 ... amM
AAUi (59)
AQ1 b11 b12 . - blM
1.U25 1.045 1.065 1.065 1.105 1.125 1.145 AQ2 b2, b22 *-- b2M
Turns ratio
n4
Fig. 5. Linearity of (14) for change in n4.
LAQI ' -b6I, b12 ... b zm* LAUM-

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 HANO et al.: CONTROL OF SYSTEM VOLTAGE AND REACTIVE POWER
where
AE1 change in voltage at point i caused by operation of all
regulating devices (i = 1,2, *,m)
AQ1 change in reactive power flow on line k caused by
operation of all regulating devices (k = 1,2, *,l)
AUj operating value of regulating device at point j (j =
1,2,* ,M)
aij sensitivity constant for voltage at node i due to the
operation of regulating device at point j
bkj sensitivity constant for reactive power flow on line k
due to operation of regulating device at point j
M total number of regulating devices
m total number of voltage observed points
1 total number of main lines.
Generally, the voltage and reactive power control problem
has two objective functions and several constraints as stated
below.
1) Voltage Settling Condition: The voltages at main buses
(especially at load nodes) should be kept within a prescribed
tolerance by a proper operation of voltage and reactive power
regulating devices to cancel the voltage disturbances caused by
load changes and so on. Let the nodes where the voltages are
observed and controlled be numbered by i = 1,2, . . . ,m; and
let the voltage disturbance at node i, i.e., the deviation of node
voltage from its desired value at a certain instant before control,
be denoted by bi. Also, denote the tolerance by ±E. The primary
objective of voltage and reactive power control is to keep the
voltages within their tolerance by cancelling the voltage dis-
turbances by the AEi to be determined by (59). In other words,
at every n-ode where voltage is observed and controlled, the
following inequalities must be satisfied:
|Ei| <,E, i= 1,2, --,m
E, = ai + AEi.
These inequalities may be called the voltage settling condition.
2) Minimization of Transmission Losses: In deciding the
operating values of regulating devices for the minimization of
system transmission losses by a proper control of reactive
power flows, it is necessary to satisfy the voltage settling
condition at the same time.
Let the main lines be numbered by k = 1,2,- * ,I, and the
average voltage, current, active power flow, reactive power
flow, and resistance of line k be denoted by Vk, Ik, Pk, Qk, and
'Yk, respectively. Then the system transmission losses are given as
1
~~Pk2 +± Qk 2(1
L =
E 'YklIk22 = E (61)
k=1 k=1 V proach. In this paper, a new computing method for the real time
In the voltage and reactive power control problem, the active
power flow Pk is little influenced by the operation of regulating
devices. If the voltage Vk of each line is approximated as Vk
1.0 pu, then instead of (61) we may consider
L =3EykQt'.
k^=1
Let the reactive power flow on line k before the operation of
regulating devices be denoted by Qko. Then the reactive power
flow, after the operation of regulating devices Qk is
Qk = Qko + zQk
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1553
where AQk is given by imiatrix equation (59). In addition, the
restricting conditions in the operation of regulating devices
must be taken into account.
a) Load ratio controller: Let the tap position of the load
ratio controller at point j before control be denoted by njo and
assume that it is controlled by Anj from this value. Then the
admissible value of operation of the load ratio controller must be
an integer satisfying
nj <injo+ An <j (64)
where ij and nj are the upper and lower limits of the tap position
of the load ratio controller at point j.
b) Static condenser or shunt reactor: Similar to the above
case, the inequality
yj . YJo + Ayj <;Y3 (65)
should be fulfilled, where Ayj, yjo, y;, and Yj are the number of
static condensers or shunt reactors switched on or off, the
number of banks before control and the upper and lower bounds,
respectively. All variables must take on integers.
c) Generating station whose terminal voltage is regulated:
The inequality
El
E3o + AEj < Ej
< (66)
must be satisfied, where Ejo is the reference value of the generator
terminal voltage before control, AEj the operating amount of the
reference value of voltage, and E? and Fj the upper and lower
bounds of generator terminal voltage specified by overvoltage
and static and transient stability limitations.
d) Generating station or rotary condenser whose reactive
power output is regulated:
(60)
QJ < Qjo + AQ3 < 2j (67)
where Qj and Qj are the upper and lower bounds of the reactive
power output determined by the specification of the generator or
the rotary condenser and underexcitation limits.
As may be guessed from the relations derived so far, the
voltage and reactive power control problem is a quadratic non-
linear mixed continuous-integer programming problem to
minimize the transmission losses by a proper control of regulating
devices under the constraints imposed on the regulating devices
while satisfying the voltage settling condition. In the real time
control of voltage and reactive power, it is necessary to obtain a
feasible (and preferably optimal) solution to this problem within
a limited amount of time.
Several methods have been proposed, such as differentiation,
a trial-and-error method, and the integer programming ap-
control on a digital computer is described which aims at a
coordinated use of reactive power sources and voltage regulating
devices. In phase I the voltage and reactive power control is
considered as a multistage optimizing problem with each regu-
lating device considered as the stage number. This multistage
problem then is solved by use of the conjugate gradient method.
(62) A proper operating value of each regulating device satisfying
the voltage settling condition is calculated by an iterative
procedure. For those operating values requiring integer solu-
tions, e.g., static condensers, shunt reactors, and load ratio
controllers, the operating values thus obtained are rounded off.
In phase II the system transmission losses are minimized by a
(63) direct search technique, while satisfying the voltage settling
 1554 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, OCTOBER 1969

condition. The search for loss reduction is continued until no On the basis of the equations derived above, the computational
further change in the operation of regulating devices is allowed procedure of the conjugate gradient method proceeds as follows.
without violating the voltage settling condition and/or the 1) Assume certain initial operating values for all regulating
upper and lower bounds of regulating devices. devices; for example, take
B. Minimization of Voltage Deviations by Conjugate
Gradient Method [12]
(o)0'= 0, n= 1,2, *,>71IM.
The subscript in parentheses denotes the iteration number.
Since only voltage deviations are considered in phase I, the 2) Calculate the final voltage deviations xi .
upper half portion of the fundamental matrix equation (59) 3) Calculate the adjoint variables Zi by substituting xF
is extracted here: obtained by step 2) into (75).
FAE] all a12 ...aw ]AU1] 4) Calculate the conjugate veetor at the (i + 1)th itera-
AE2 a2l a2 .
a2M A U2
. .
tion according to
(1+ I)S = -( +i)g + (1+ )1n(1)S8 (77)
where
LAE)J La,,1, 2 a*aMi AU)
(UM (O)Sn = _(O)gn. (78)
In order to reduce (68) to a form to which the general form of the (i+2)13" in (77) is computed by
conjugate gradient method described in the Appendix is directly
applicable, (68) is rewritten as a multistage optimizing problem: (1+1)1 = ( (( ))g", (1i)g9) (79)
Xin X=
Xo- ± ai'on
=X n-1 + a" v" (69) where0 ((,)g", (1)g")
where
x,° = 61, i =1,2g,*,m, n =1,2,v*j,M (70)
(0)/3 = 0 (80)
where xi" stands for the voltage deviation at node i remaining M
after the regulating devices from points 1 to n have been operated, (81)
0" is the operating value of the regulating device at point n, ((1) v" (1)gn) = E ((i)g.)2
and ai" is equal to a j in the original nomenclature. (The operating
point of the regulating device j is considered as the stage number 5) Calculate a new sequence of "n?(, +,)0n, by
of this multistage optimizing problem hence superscript n (i +,)0 = (,)0n + (i)a(i)sn (82)
denotes the stage number.) Equation (70) means that the voltage
deviations before the control of regulating devices are equal to where (i) a is selected so that (+ 1)01 is substituted into (69) to
the initial voltage disturbances. The voltage settling condition obtain (i +l)xim to minimize J.
is taken into account as the problem of minimizing 6) Return to step b) and iterate the same procedure until
m convergence of the objective function J is attained.
J = Z (Xim)2, (71)
i=1 C. Minimization of Transmission Losses by
The reason for selecting (71) as the objective function to take Direct Search Technique
into account the voltage settling condition may be understood
by noting the relation Since the operating values of regulating devices obtained by
the conjugate gradient method employed in phase I are in
X1M = 6i + AEi. (72) general not integers, these values are then rounded off to obtain
In applying the conjugate gradient method to the problem at an integer solution, although this discretization is not necessary
hand, the Hamiltonian function of the problem, from equation for such variables as generator terminal voltages and reactive
(88), is power outputs. Past experience in the actual computation of the
voltage settling condition by use of the conjugate gradient method
m
Hfi = 1 Z"n(x1"-1 + a"0o) , n = 1,2, * M1. (73) off almostthatalways
reveals the resultant voltage deviations after rounding
satisfy the voltage settling condition for a
i=1 reasonable value of E, say ± 1 percent, and for reasonable voltage
From (89) the adjoint variables satisfy disturbances. In other words, the discretized values are always
OH"n feasible in the sense that they satisfy the voltage settling condi-
= Z." ZA = constant, i = 12, * m. tion.
In phase II of optimization, starting from these discretized
(74) values, the system transmission losses are minimized by a
direct search technique. Namely, the regulating device whose
Equation (90) specifies the final values of adjoint variables as eontrol effect in minimizing transmission losses is maximum is
selected and is operated by a unit amount, say, one tap or one
zAM = Zi = -N = 2x1M, i = 2, * m. (75) bank for those variables requiring integer solutions. For such
variables as generator terminal voltages and reactive power
Differentiation of the Hamiltonian H with respect to 0" yields outputs not requiring integer solutions, the admissible region of
operation between the upper and lower bounds is divided into
0n = 0" = E aimZi. (76) an appropriate number of discretized values. In the sample
system to be detailed in the next section, a reactive power

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 HANO et al.: CONTROL OF SYSTEM VOLTAGE AND REACTIVE POWER 1585

TABLE III
GENERATING PLANTS*

Upper and Lower

Bounds of Reactive
Regulating Rated Output Power Output
Qg9( Device (MW) (Mvar)
Qgl 530 0-300
Qg2 1400 0-840
Qg3 600 0-290
Quo 530 0-320
Qg5 350 0-210
Qa6 240 0- 90
Qq7 165 70-820
Qg8 920 0-450
Qag 175 0- 90
Fig. 6. Sample large-scale system. * Over- and undervoltage limitations 95-105 percent.

injection of 300 Mvar is taken as the unit of discretization for TABLE IV

all reactive power sources. STATIC CONDENSERS AND SHUNT REACTORS
Suppose that the operating value of nth regulating device
0i is increased or decreased by a unit amount A to examine how Installed Regulating
the transmission losses decrease. As may been seen from (69) Regulating Capacity Capabilities
and (71), the transmission losses are always expressed as a Device (Mvar) (Mvar)
quadratic function with respect to a specific regulating device. SCi 400 -40 X 1-40 X 1
In mathematical terms, the transmission losses directly related SC2 900 -40 X 1-40 X 1
to the nth regulating device can be expressed in the form SC3 1200 -40 X 2-40 X 2
SC4 700 -25 X 4-25 X 6
SC5 960 -40 X 3-40 X 5
f(0n) = a(0o)2 + bon + C
(83) SC6 480 -40 X 3-40 X 4
SC7 700 -25 X 1-25 X 1
where a, b, and c are independent of Because of the quadratic
0".
SC8 700 -40 X 1-40 X 1
form of f(0f), a minimum can always be selected from f(Ooo), Total 6040 -565-735
f(Oo' + A) and f(Oo' - A) where 0o" is the initial operating value
of fO'. Let the minimum be denoted by L'. This search is re-
peated for all regulating devices to calculate the sequence L1,L2, TABLE V
* ,LM. Then the regulating device yielding the minimum L REGULATING CAPABILITIES OF LOAD RATIO CONTROLLERS*
among L1,L2, ,LM is selected and operated by the unit
amount A in the direction appropriate to decrease transmission
losses. Since this change alters the values of the coefficients Regulating Total Regulating
Device Width (percent) Total Taps
a, b, and c, another new sequence of L',L2, *L. is calculated,
and the same search for a minimum and a change in a regulating Nl 7.5 17
N2 7.5 17
device is made until no such operation as this is admissible with- N3 t 10 17
out violating the upper and lower bounds of regulating devices N4 At 7.5 17
or the voltage settling condition. This operation also terminates
N5 ±t 7.5 13
N6 410 23
when no loss reduction is achieved by changing the operating
value of any regulating device. * Nominal turns ratio 275/147 kV/kV.

D. Numerical Example for Sample System A in Fig. 6). The sensitivity constants for the 11 node voltages
The sample system shown in Fig. 6 is considered to check if and those for the reactive power flows on the 19 main lines are
the computing algorithm detailed in the preceding sections calculated as shown in Tables VI and VII, respectively, where
works successfully. Among a number of generating stations the unit amount of operation is two taps for load ratio controllers,
involved in the system, the reactive power outputs of a total of one bank for static condensers and shunt reactors, and 300
nine generating stations (four hydro and five thermal stations) Mvar for the reactive power outputs of generating stations. All
are operated for the purpose of voltage and reactive power voltages are expressed in percent. The line resistances are given
control. Table III is a list of the rated output, over- and under- in Table VIII.
voltage limitations, and upper and lower bounds of reactive Suppose, for example, that the voltage deviations from the
power output at each of these generating stations. In addition, a desired values are such that a1, a4, a8 = 2 percent and a9 3 -

total of 15 regulating devices other than these generating stations percent, the voltage deviations at the remaining nodes being
participate in the control. Tables IV and V list the specifications assumed to be negligibly small.
of these regulating devices. There are 11 nodes at which the Fig. 7 shows the results obtained by the computing the
voltages are observed and controlled. These are marked by * algorithm explained in the preceding sections. Phase I, the
in Fig. 6; i.e., m = 11 in (69). Also, there are a total of 19 main conjugate gradient method, is employed to reduce the voltage
lines the reactive power flows on which are observed and properly deviations at all 11 nodes including the nodes where the initial
colntrolled in order to reduce the transmission losses (marked by voltage deviations are assumed, in order to obtain a solution

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 TABLE VI
SENSITIVITY CONSTANTS FOR NODE VOLTAGES a

N1 N2 N3 N4 N5 N6 SC1 SC2 SC3 SC4 SC5 SC6 SC7 SC8 Qgl Qg2 Qg3 Qg4 Qg5 Qg6 Qg 7 Qg9
Qg8 Qg O
4lV1 0.641 -0.037 -0.055 -0.018 -0.024 0.000 0.050 0.025 0.025 0 .000
0.000 0 .000 0.000 0.000 0 .0000 0.0144 0.0702 0.0858 0 .0693 0.0000 0,0000 0.0000
0.0000 0.0000
4V2 -0 .293 -0.183 -0.220 -0.147 -0.097 -0.018 1.350 0.125 0.075 0.025 0.040 0.030 0.000 0.040 0.0360 .033 9 0.1875 0.2058 0.1995 0.0045 0.0183 0 .0237 0.0000 0 .0000
JV3 -0.183 1.630 -0.220 -0.147 -0.097 -0.018 0.125 0.375 0.075 0.025 0.040 0.030 0.000 0.040 0.0360 0.0369 0.1173 0.1200 0.1386 0.0045 0.0183 0.0237 0.0000 0.0000
JV4 -0.- 10 -0 .110 1.356 -0.018 -0.146 -0.018 0.075 0.078 0.275 0.025 0.080 0.030 0.000 0.040 0.0360 0.0369 0.0702 0.0858 0.0693 0.0045 0.0363 0.0237 0.0057 0 .0279
JV5 -0.037 -0.037 -0.092 0.879 -0.146 -0.018 0.025 0.025 0.025 0 .225 .- 080 0.030 0.000 0.040 0.0360 0.0420 0.0234 0.0342 0.0231 0.0045 0.0363 0.0237 0.0057 0.0279
4%V -0.055
° -0.055 -0.147 -0.293 -0.268 -0.035 0 .025 0.050 0.050 0.050 0 .5fiO 0.060 0.025 0.080 0.0903 0.0999 0.0234 0.0342 0.0462 0.0087 0.0546 0.0591 0.0057 0.0279
4V%7 -0.055 -0.055 -0.128 -0.275 -0.390 -0.053 0.025 0.025 0.050 0.050 0.160 0.060 0.025 0.080 0.1083 0.1428 0.0234 0.0342 0.0462 0.0087 0.0546 0.0591 0.0111 0.0279
d8 -0 .018 -0.018 -0.055 -0.128 -0.268 -0.035 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.080 0.390 0.025 0.080 0.0903 0 .0999 0.0234 0 .0171 0.0231 0.0045 0 .0183 0.0237 0.0054 0.0279
4%9 -0.018 -0.018 -0.037 -0 .073 0.999 -0.018 0.000 0 .000 0 .025 0 .025 0.040 0.030 0.020 0.040 0.0720 0.0858 0.0000 0 .0171 0.0000 0.0000 0.0183 0.1170 0.0054 0.0000
dVjo -0.018 -0.018 -0.055 -0.128 -0.268 1.365 0 .025 0.025 0.025 0O025 0.080 0.060 0.020 1.280 0.0903 0 .0999 0.0234 0.0171 0 .0231 0.0045 0.0183 0.0237 0.0444 0.0279
4Vi -0.018 -0.018 -0.055 -0.128 -0.438 -0.035 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.080 0.060 0.050 0.080 0.4158 0.1713 0.0234 0.0171 0.0231 0.0045 0.0363 0.0237 0.0111 0.0279

TABLE VII
SENSITIVITY CONSTANTS FORLINE REACTIVE POWER FLOWS bik

Nl N2 N3 N4 N5 N6 sCi SC2 SC3 SC4 SC5 SC6 SC7 SC8 Qgl QgF Qg3 Qg4 Qgs Qg6 Qg7 Qgs Qg9 Qgio N
zJQl 0.037 -0.018 -0.073 -0.128 -0.073 -0.018 0.000 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.040 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.0180 0.0285 0.0000 0.0171 0.0231 1.7823 -0.6546 -0.2127 0.0000 -0.1389
4Q2 -0.055 -0.055 -0.165 -0.348 -0.219 -0.018 0.050 0.075 0.075 0.075 0.160 0.060 0.050 0.080 0.0903 0.0999 0.0468 0.0513 0.0693 -0.1740 -0.5454 -0.0591 0.1110 -0.0834 N
JQ3 -0.073 -0.055 -0.165 -0.348 -0.244 -0.035 0.050 0.050 0.075 0.075 0.160 0.060 0.025 0.080 0.0723 0.0858 0.0468 0.0513 0.0462 -1.2606 -0.2547 -0.0591 0.0555 -0.0279
4Q4 -0.256 -0.238 -0.623 -1.264 1.413 0.195 0.150 0.150 0.020 0.200 0.280 -0.300 0.150 -0.400 -0.4518 -0.2286 0.1407 0.1713 0.1614 0.3042 0.1818 0.1299 -0.4446 0.0834 z
dQ5 1.026 0.989 2.546 -1.776 -1.267 -0.195 -0.675 -0.700 -0.925 0.300 0.720 0.240 0.100 0.320 0.03795 0.4572 -0.6564 -0.7200 -0.7383 0.4347 0.291O 0.2730 0.3333 0.1668 H
4Q6 -0.092 -0.092 -0.256 -0.513 -0.487 -0053 0.075 0.100 0.100 0.100 0.420 0.120 0.075 0.160 0.1806 0.2001 0.0939 0.0687 0.0924 0°0000 -0.2181 -0.7677 0.1668 -0,.4722 z0z
4Q7 0.147 0.147 0.348 0.696 -0.950 -0.124 -0.075 -0.075 -0.100 -0.100 -0.560 0.210 0.100 0.280 0.3072 0.3714 -0.0702 -0.0858 -0.0924 -0.1740 -0.1455 -0.1773 0.2778 -0.1110 0
0.128 0.128 0.055 0.660 -0.901 -0.124 -0.100 -0.100 -0.124 -0.125 -0.560 0.180 0.425 0.240 0.0903 0.3285 -0.0939 -1.0290 -0.0924 -0.1740 N
aQs -0.1455 -0.1773 0.2223 -0.1110
2dQs -0.037 -0.037 -0.075 -0.147 -0.293 1.064 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.080 0.060 0.025 -1.960 0.0903 0.1143 0.0234 -0.0171 0.0231 -0.4350 0.0183 0.0237 -1 .0557 0.0000 t-
4Qjo -0.018 -0.018 -0.055 -0.092 -0.195 0.124 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.040 0.030 0.000 -0.240 0.0543 0.0573 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0183 0.0117 -1.4328 0.0000 I'd
H7
aQ, 0.385 0.385 0.991 1.997 -4.482 0.603 -0.250 -0.250 -0.325 -0.325 -1.080 -0.840 0.450 -1.080 1.4277 1.7001 -0.2343 -0.2571 -0.2538 -0.4782 -0.3636 -0.3660 1-l .1667 -0.2223
a4Q12 -0.165-0.147 -0.403 -0.824 -1.218 -0.248 0.100 0.100 0.150 0.150 0.440 0.360 0.275 0.480 0.8493 -0 .8571 -0.0939 0.1200 0.1155 0.2175 0.1455 0 .15361 0.4461 0.1110 3-C

,Q,1 0.110 0.110 0.275 0.586 1.876 0.177 -0.075 -0.075 -0.100 -0.100 -0.320 -0.240 -0.175 -0.320 2.8914 0.6999 -0.0939 1.6455 -0.2193 -0.1305 -0 .1092 -0.1062 -0.3333 -0.0565
Q 14 0.000 0.000 -0.018 -0.037 -0.097 -0.355 0.025 -0.025 0.025 0.025 0.040 0.030 0.025 0.720 0.0363 0.0429 0.0234 0.0171 -0.0231 0.0435 0.0183 0.0117 -1.3890 0.0834
(7i
4Q75 1.063-0.769 -0.953 -0.623 0.438 -0.071 0.150 0.175 0.025 0.100 0.240 0.090 0.025 0.080 0.1266 -0.0429 -0.6798 -0.7542 -0.3231 0 .1305 0.0909 0.0945 0.1110
0.0555 H
.Qv; 0.256 -0.403 -0.256 -0.311 -0.219 -0.035 0.125 0.2750.175 0.050 0.120 0.030 0.025 0.040 0.0723 0.0858 -0.1641 -0.1887 -0.7443 0.0870 0.0546 0.0474 0.0555 0.0834
JQ17 -0.275 0.202 0.238 0.147 0.122 0.018 1.375 -0.125-0.075 -0.025 -0.040 -0.030 0.000 -0.040 0.0363 -0.0429 0.1875 0.2058 0.0924 -0.1305 -0.0183 -00237 0.0000 0.0000
dQ18 0.256 -0.202 -0.256 -0.165 -0.122 -0.018 1.075 0.150 0.075 0.025 0.080 0.030 0.000 0.040 0.0363 0.0429 -0.1641 -1.2387 -0.0O;93 0.1305 0.0183 0.0237 0.0000 0.0000 0-
N
JQis -0.934 -0.311 -0.202 -0.256 -0.172 -0.018 0.325 0.175 0.125 0.050 0.120 0.030 0.025 0.040 0.0543 0.0429 -2.9064 0.5513 -0.5079 0.1305 0.0363| 0.0354 0.0555| 0.0834 N-
 HANO et al.: CONTROL OF SYSTEM VOLTAGE AND REACTIVE POWER 1557

C
7.(
a)
0

TABLE VIII 61(

LINE RESISTANCES
va
c
0

5.1

Li ne Resistance K-QV 0

nission Losses
0
TI 5.37 4.1
11 .39
~~E,
a
T2

3 11.29 0

T4 2.33 3). --- E4

7r5 1.01 -o
-Ea
E9
0
---
5.21
r7 2.11
T iI

78 1 .11

Ti3
Ts 4.36
TI4
Ti0 11.54
0 .31
TI2 0.42 25
TI3 1 .01 of Iteration
2r14 7 .84
1 .21 --I 0 --

3.21
I-- PhQse n
rTI 1.32
rUs 1 .76 Fig. 7. Minimization of voltage deviations and transmission losses.
0.52

satisfying the voltage settling condition (tolerance of voltage

deviations taken as 1 percent), which in turn serves as the
TABLE IX initial values for the minimization of transmission losses in
OPTIMUM OPERATING VALUES OF phase II. The effectiveness of the conjugate gradient method may
REGULATING DEVICES be recognized by the rapid decrease of the objective function
J= Ei (E)2.
Regulatting device
Optimal operat- When J converges with prescribed accuracy, phase I ter-
ing value (oPI) minates and the operating values thus obtained are rounded off
Nl -2 to obtain an integer solution. This is followed by the minimization
N2 0
of transmission losses in phase II, where the direct search tech-
N3 1
Taps nique explained before is employed to reduce the transmission
N4 -1 losses while satisfying the voltage settling condition. After a
N5 -2 total of 15 iterations, phase II terminates with a remarkable
N6 -2
decrease in transmission losses. The optimum operating values
SC1 0
of regulating devices are given in Table IX. The computing
SC2 -1
time on an IBM 7090 (FORTRAN-Iv basis) required for the
SC3 -2
SC4 -1
optimization in phases I and II was 8.4 seconds.
SC5 -2
Banks
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
-1
SC7 -1 The real time control scheme of voltage and reactive power
SC8 -1 for large scale power systems has been described. In Section I
Qgl the fundamental linear equation describing the relation between
Qg2 -1 the operation of the regulating devices and the corresponding
Qg3 -1 change in controlled variables has been given. The optimizing
Qg4 -1 procedure for the real time control of minimizing both voltage
Qgs -1 X300 deviations and transmission losses has been presented in Section
Mvar
Qg6 1 II. The practicability of this approach has been proven by a
Qg7
o
0
numerical example for a large-scale existing system. In what
-2
Qg8 follows, a few comments are made on some other applications
-3
Qgis of the fundamental linear equation and also on the actual
Qglo -1
implementation of the control scheme presented here.
Although not detailed here, the sensitivity matrix S can also
be utiiized to determine the optimum operating condition of a
system [6]. The fundamental linear relation can be extended to
the case where a phase-shifting transformer exists in a system to
control the active power flows for the minimization of trans-

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 1558 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, OCTOBER 1969

mission losses. In this case, the operating variable representing In applying the conjugate gradient method to this problem,
the phase-shifting transformer becomes a complex quantity the following assumptions are made: 1) that given a sequence of
such that AU = ei0 where 0 stands for the shifting angle. control variables 0", (86) can be solved for a unique x" = T7
In evaluating the computing time required for the optimizing (0"), and 2) thus J = J(0") is a function of 09 alone. Further-
control of voltage and reactive power of a power system, the more, the existence of the gradient VJ(0") = g(0") is assumed.
total computing time is conveniently divided into two parts, T, The objective function of (87) may include penalty function
for the voltage settling by the conjugate gradient method terms to account for constraints.
and T2 for the loss minimization by the search method. Because
of the outstanding advantageous feature of the conjugate B. Algorithm
gradient method, the number of iterations does not exceed the The conjugate gradient algorithm requires the computation
total stage number; that is, the total number of regulating of the gradient trajectory. We first assume a Hamiltonian
devices M. In additions, the computing time for each iteration is function H of the system
known to be approximately proportional to 3' + 11M + 3m. s
It follows that T. <lc(3mM + 11M + 3') seconds, where past Hn(Xn-l,on8,Zn) = Z"n. T.n(xn-l,An) (88)
experience reveals that k = 2 X 10-4 for an IBM 7090. On the i=l
other hand, estimation of the computing time T2 becomes quite where Zir are the adjoint variables corresponding to the state
involved because of a variety of conditions. Experience in the variables xi',
actual computation for several existing large-scale systems
shows that the inequality T2 < 3T1 generally holds. Further-
more, the number of iterations in T, is less than five times in
Z n--1 E
j=l
Z n
ITX.nx-19)
XI
(89)
many cases. Thus no difficulty caused by computing time limi-
tations will be encountered in the actual implementation of the
present optimizing algorithm for the real time (on-line) control
zi = a-N i = 1,2, .. ,s. (90)
of existing large-scale systems. In the real time control project Then the gradient is
at Kyushu Electric Power Company, the voltage deviations are
scheduled to be corrected every 10-15 minutes during heavy- g(On) =O(9H
a30n
(91)
load periods and every 30 minutes during light-load periods;
transmission losses are to be minimized every hour. Thus the Let (i)0' be the ith approximation to the optimal control O.ptn'
computing time required for the voltage and reactive power The corresponding gradient g((Q)0n) is computed by solving
control occupies only a very small fraction of the total computer state equation (86) forward with 0n = (,)On, solving the adjoint
time. equations (89) and (90) from (91).
The algorithm proceeds as follows.
APPENDIX
1) Assume (0)0, n = 1,2, . ,N.
SOLVING MULTISTAGE OPTIMIZING PROCESS BY CONJUGATE 2) Compute (0)0n = gn((o)0 ) by (91).
GRADIENT METHOD 3) An initial value for the conjugate vector is taken to be
A. Formulation of Problem
(0)Sn = - (O)gn. (92)
An N-stage optimizing process is considered. Let the state of
system at the nth stage (n = 1,2,* * ,N) be expressed by an 4) Choose a = (jca to minimize
s-dimensional state vector as J((i)0" + (i)a(i)Sn). (93)
X' = (Xl,,x2', * ,x1"
Xi ..*Xs ) (84) 5) Compute the (i + 1) th approximation of the control vari-
where superscript n stands for the stage number and subscript i ables by
for the component of the state vector. xi(i = 1,2, *., s) are -

(i,+)On = (,)On + (i)aS(1)Sn. (94)

called the state variables. The state vector is transformed at
every stage according to the transformation 6) Compute
Xin = Tin(x1,n-lX2n-"1, ... , X,n-j,n,0i2n, ..,Tn) (85) ((i+l)g9, (i+l)gn) (95)
(i)0 (( )gn, ( )g,)
where 0jn(j = 1,2, ... ,y) are the components of control vector
0" at the nth stage. In addition, it is assumed that the trans- where
forms Ti" have the first partial derivatives with respect to the (1 1)gn = gn(( )an) (96)
components of xn-' and 0n". Equation (85) can be more concisely
N
expressed in vector form as ((o)g,, (j)g,) = Z ((.)gnl)2 (97)
xn n(Xn-l_en)
_= (86)
7) Compute the (i + I)th conjugate vector
where T' is the transformation operator at the nth stage. In
the multistage optimizing process formulated above, consider an (i+I)Sn = - (,+±)gn + (1)3(0)Sn. (98)
objective function of the form Note that the new direction of search (i+l)S' is not the negative
s gradient direction - (1+1)g' but is computed via (98). The dis-
J = E Ci x = min, C, constants. (87) tance traveled in this direction is determined by the one-dimen-
i= 1 sional minimization in (93).
Equation (87) implies the minimization of a weighted sum of the By repeating the procedure above, we obtain the control
state variables at the final state N. variables 0n to minimize the objective function J.

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 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPA.tRATUS AND SYSTEMS, VOL. PAS-88, NO. 10, OCTOBER 1969
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
In the preparation of the manuscript, the authors were greatly
indebted to Dr. T. Umezu and Dr. K. Ode of the Central Research
Institute of the Electric Power Industry (CRIEPI) who initially
have proposed the linear equation approach developed. The
authors also wish to extend their gratitude to Dr. K. Song, of
the Korean Electric Power Company. Finally, the cooperation
in numerical computation offered by Mr. K. Tada and Mr.
M. Fujiwara is greatly appreciated.
REFERENCES
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[2] J. Carpentier, "Contribution 'a l'etude du dispatching econ-
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[4] R. B. Squires, "Economic dispatch of generation directly from
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Electricity Supply in the South of
G. T. SHEPHERD
Abstract-The South of Scotland Electricity Board with an
installed capacity of 3850 MW of generating plant and a maximum
demand of 3460 MW is about the same size as many North Ameri-
can undertakings, and information regarding design and operating
practices peculiar to this Board may be of interest. The organization
and system of this all-purpose Board, with a mixture of conven-
tional, gas turbine, nuclear, and hydro plant is therefore briefly
described. Information concerning availability is provided. Then
an indication is given of the Board's plans for future extensions
and choice of fuels, having regard to the relatively high proportion
of nuclear plant already supplying the system. In 1967-1968 22
percent of units sold came from this source. An account is given of
the standards of security of supply which are a guide for the design
of the transmission and distribution systems and also the basis of
interconnection with neighboring systems. Some of the switching
arrangements are described, including the use of switching isola-
tors. Finally the results of operating experience in the form of fault
statistics and costs are dealt with.
Paper 69 TP 152-PWR, recommended and approved by the Power
Generation Committee of the IEEE Power Group for presentation
at the IEEE Winter Power Meeting, New York, N. Y., January
26-31, 1969. Manuscript submitted August 29, 1968; made avail-
able for printing November 22, 1968.
The author was with the South of Scotland Electricity Board,
Glasgow, Scotland. He is now with the London Electricity Board,
London, England.
Authorized licensed use limited to: PONTIFICIA UNIVERSIDADE CATOLICA DO RIO DE JANEIRO. Downloaded on November 18, 2009 at 00:05 from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
1559
Apparatus and Systems), vol. 79, pp. 1235-1245, 1960 (February
1961 sec.).
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[6] I. Hano, Operating Characteristics of Electric Power Systems
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[7] J. Peschon et al., "Sensitivity in power systems," 1967 PICA
Conf. Rec., pp. 209-220.
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Scotland
INTRODUCTION: PRESENT SYSTEM AND COSTS
THE South of Scotland Electricity Board (SSEB) is re-
sponsible for the generation, transmission, and distribution
of electricity in the South of Scotland, an area of 8300 mi2 in-
cluding the cities of Edinburgh and Glasgow.
The area of supply and the location of its principal power
stations are shown in Fig. 1, which has also been marked to show
the variation in load density in 1968. Table I shows the main
statistics of the Board relevant to the subject of this paper.
The present (1968) capacity of the Board's generating plant is
made up from a mixture of coal-fired, hydro, nuclear, and gas
turbines, as shown in Table II. There is also a 400-MW pumped
storage scheme at Cruachan owned by the North of Scotland
Hydro-Electric Board (NSHEB) but connected to and operated
in accordance with the instructions of the SSEB. A 150-MW
magnox-type nuclear power station at Chapeleross is operated
by the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority to supply
energy to the Board.
The transmission system is shown in Fig. 2 and comprises
890 circuit miles of line operating at 275 kV but capable of being
uprated to 400 kV and 900 circuit miles of 132-kV line.
Distribution voltages have been standardized at 33 and 11 kV,
and the distribution system comprises 16 200 miles of overhead
lines or cables. There are, however, still some existing 6.6-kV
networks where the changeover to 11 kV is not yet complete.