Getting started: CFD notation

 
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂2u ∂pu
PDE of p-th order f u, x, t, ∂x1 , . . . , , ,
∂xn ∂t ∂x1 ∂x2 , . . . , ∂tp =0

scalar unknowns u = u(x, t), x ∈ Rn , t ∈ R, n = 1, 2, 3

vector unknowns v = v(x, t), v ∈ Rm , m = 1, 2, . . .

∂ ∂ ∂
Nabla operator ∇ = i ∂x + j ∂y + k ∂z x = (x, y, z), v = (vx , vy , vz )

h iT
∇u = i ∂u ∂u ∂u
∂x + j ∂y + k ∂z =
∂u ∂u ∂u
∂x , ∂y , ∂z gradient
z
∂vx ∂vy ∂vz v
∇·v = ∂x + ∂y + ∂z divergence
   ∂vy

∂vz
i j k ∂y − ∂z k
    y
∇ × v = det  ∂ ∂ ∂ = ∂vx ∂vz curl i j

 ∂x ∂y ∂z   ∂z − ∂x


∂vy ∂vx
vx vy vz ∂x − ∂y x
∂2u ∂2u ∂2u
∆u = ∇ · (∇u) = ∇2 u = ∂x2 + ∂y 2 + ∂z 2 Laplacian
 Tensorial quantities in fluid dynamics

Velocity gradient
  0000000000000000
1111111111111111
∂vx ∂vy ∂vz 1111111111111111
0000000000000000
∂x ∂x ∂x
 ∂vy

∇v = [∇vx , ∇vy , ∇vz ] =  ∂vx ∂vz 
 ∂y ∂y ∂y 
∂vx ∂vy ∂vz v
∂z ∂z ∂z 0000000000000000
1111111111111111
1111111111111111
0000000000000000

Remark. The trace (sum of diagonal elements) of ∇v equals ∇ · v.

Deformation rate tensor (symmetric part of ∇v)

  

∂vx 1 ∂vy ∂vx 1 ∂vz ∂vx
 ∂x 2 ∂x + ∂y 2 ∂x + ∂z 
1 T  1

∂vx ∂vy

∂vy 1

∂vz ∂vy


D(v) = (∇v + ∇v ) =  ∂y + ∂x + 
2  2

 ∂y  2 ∂y ∂z 
1 ∂vx ∂vz 1 ∂vy ∂vz ∂vz
2 ∂z + ∂x 2 ∂z + ∂y ∂z

Spin tensor S(v) = ∇v − D(v) (skew-symmetric part of ∇v)

 Vector multiplication rules

Scalar product of two vectors

 
b1
 
a, b ∈ R3 , a · b = aT b = [a1 a2 a3 ] 
 b2  = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 ∈ R


b3

∂u ∂u ∂u
Example. v · ∇u = vx + vy + vz convective derivative
∂x ∂y ∂z

Dyadic product of two vectors

   
a1 a1 b1 a1 b2 a1 b3
   
a, b ∈ R ,3
a ⊗ b = abT = 
 a2  [b1 b2 b3 ] =  a2 b1
  a2 b2 ∈R
a2 b3 
3×3

a3 a3 b1 a3 b2 a3 b3
 Elementary tensor calculus
1. αT = {αtij }, T = {tij } ∈ R3×3 , α ∈ R

2. T 1 + T 2 = {t1ij + t2ij }, T 1 , T 2 ∈ R3×3 , a ∈ R3

 
t t t
 11 12 13  P 3
3. a · T = [a1 , a2 , a3 ]  t21 t22 t23  = ai [ti1 , ti2 , ti3 ]
i=1 | {z }
t31 t32 t33 i-th row
    
t t t a t
 11 12 13   1  P 3
 1j 
4. T · a =  t21 t22 t23   a2  =  t2j  aj (j-th column)
j=1
t31 t32 t33 a3 t3j
  
1 1 1 2 2 2
t11 t12 t13 t11 t12 t13  3
P

  
5. T 1 · T 2 =  t121 t122 t123   t221 t222 t223  = t1ik t2kj
k=1
t131 t132 t133 t231 t232 t233
3 P
P 3
1 2 1 2 T
6. T : T = tr (T · (T ) ) = t1ik t2ik
i=1 k=1
 Divergence theorem of Gauß

Let Ω ∈ R3 and n be the outward unit normal to the boundary Γ = Ω̄\Ω.

Z Z
Then ∇ · f dx = f · n ds for any differentible function f (x)
Ω Γ

Example. A sphere: Ω = {x ∈ R3 : ||x|| < 1}, Γ = {x ∈ R3 : ||x|| = 1}

√ p
where ||x|| = x·x= x2 + y 2 + z 2 is the Euclidean norm of x

Consider f (x) = x so that ∇ · f ≡ 3 in Ω and n = x

||x|| on Γ
Z Z  
4 3
volume integral: ∇ · f dx = 3 dx = 3|Ω| = 3 π1 = 4π
Ω Ω 3
Z Z Z Z
x·x
surface integral: f · n ds = ds = ||x|| ds = ds = 4π
Γ Γ ||x|| Γ Γ
 Governing equations of fluid dynamics

Physical principles Mathematical equations

1. Mass is conserved • continuity equation
2. Newton’s second law • momentum equations
3. Energy is conserved • energy equation

It is important to understand the meaning and significance of each equation

in order to develop a good numerical method and properly interpret the results

Description of fluid motion z

v

Eulerian monitor the flow characteristics (x1 ; y1 ; z1 )

in a fixed control volume k (x0 ; y0 ; z0 )

i j y
Lagrangian track individual fluid particles as
they move through the flow field x
 Flow models and reference frames

Eulerian Lagrangian

S S

integral
V V

fixed CV of a finite size moving CV of a finite size

differential
dS dS
dV dV

fixed infinitesimal CV moving infinitesimal CV

Good news: all flow models lead to the same equations

 Description of fluid motion
Trajectory of a fluid particle
z
x = x(x0 , t) dx
v = vx (x, y, z, t), x|t0 = x0
(x1 ; y1 ; z1 )
dt
x = x(x0 , y0 , z0 , t) dy
(x0 ; y0 ; z0 )
= vy (x, y, z, t), y|t0 = y0
k
y y = y(x0 , y0 , z0 , t) dt
i j
dz
z = z(x0 , y0 , z0 , t) = vz (x, y, z, t), z|t0 = z0
dt
x

Definition. A streamline is a curve which is tangent to the velocity vector

v = (vx , vy , vz ) at every point. It is given by the relation
y

dx dy dz v dy
=
vy
= = y(x) dx vx
vx vy vz
x

Streamlines can be visualized by injecting tracer particles into the flow field.
 Eulerian vs. Lagrangian viewpoint

d
Definition. Substantial time derivative dt is the rate of change for a moving
∂
fluid particle. Local time derivative ∂t is the rate of change at a fixed point.

Let u = u(x, t), where x = x(x0 , t). The chain rule yields
du ∂u ∂u dx ∂u dy ∂u dz ∂u
= + + + = + v · ∇u
dt ∂t ∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z dt ∂t
substantial derivative = local derivative + convective derivative

Reynolds transport theorem

Z Z Z
d ∂u(x, t)
u(x, t) dV = dV + u(x, t)v · n dS
dt Vt V ≡Vt ∂t S≡St

rate of change in rate of change in convective transfer

= +
a moving volume a fixed volume through the surface
 Derivation of the governing equations

Modeling philosophy Generic conservation law

Z Z Z
1. Choose a physical principle ∂
u dV + f · n dS = q dV
∂t V S V
• conservation of mass
S n
f = vu − d∇u
• conservation of momentum V
dS f
flux function
• conservation of energy
Divergence theorem yields
2. Apply it to a suitable flow model Z Z Z
∂u
• Eulerian/Lagrangian approach dV + ∇ · f dV = q dV
V ∂t V V
• for a finite/infinitesimal CV
Partial differential equation
3. Extract integral relations or PDEs ∂u
+∇·f =q in V
which embody the physical principle ∂t
 Derivation of the continuity equation

Physical principle: conservation of mass

Z Z Z
dm d ∂ρ
= ρ dV = dV + ρv · n dS = 0
dt dt Vt V ≡Vt ∂t S≡St

accumulation of mass inside CV = net influx through the surface

Divergence theorem yields Continuity equation

Z  
∂ρ ∂ρ
+ ∇ · (ρv) dV = 0 ⇒ + ∇ · (ρv) = 0
V ∂t ∂t

Lagrangian representation
dρ
∇ · (ρv) = v · ∇ρ + ρ∇ · v ⇒ + ρ∇ · v = 0
dt
dρ
Incompressible flows: dt =∇·v =0 (constant density)
 Conservation of momentum

Physical principle: f = ma (Newton’s second law)

total force f = ρg dV + h dS, where h=σ·n

dS
dV n body forces g gravitational, electromagnetic,. . .
h surface forces h pressure + viscous stress
g
Stress tensor σ = −pI + τ momentum flux

For a newtonian fluid viscous stress is proportional to velocity gradients:

1 2
τ = (λ∇ · v)I + 2µD(v), where D(v) = (∇v + ∇vT ), λ≈− µ
2 3

Normal stress: stretching Shear stress: deformation

“ ”
∂vy ∂vx
τxx = λ∇ · v + 2µ ∂v
∂x
x y
τxy = τyx = µ ∂x
+ ∂y
y

yx
∂v
= µ ∂v ∂vz
` x ´
τyy = λ∇ · v + 2µ ∂yy τxz = τzx +
xx
“ ∂z ∂x ”
∂v
τzz = λ∇ · v + 2µ ∂v
∂z
z
τyz = τzy = µ ∂v
∂y
z
+ ∂zy
x x
 Derivation of the momentum equations

Newton’s law for a moving volume

Z Z Z
d ∂(ρv)
ρv dV = dV + (ρv ⊗ v) · n dS
dt Vt V ≡Vt ∂t S≡St
Z Z
= ρg dV + σ · n dS
V ≡Vt S≡St

Transformation of surface integrals

Z   Z
∂(ρv)
+ ∇ · (ρv ⊗ v) dV = [∇ · σ + ρg] dV, σ = −pI + τ
V ∂t V

∂(ρv)
Momentum equations + ∇ · (ρv ⊗ v) = −∇p + ∇ · τ + ρg
∂t
   
∂(ρv) ∂v ∂ρ dv
+ ∇ · (ρv ⊗ v) = ρ + v · ∇v + v + ∇ · (ρv) = ρ
∂t ∂t ∂t dt
| {z } | {z }
substantial derivative continuity equation
 Conservation of energy
Physical principle: δe = s + w (first law of thermodynamics)

dS δe accumulation of internal energy

dV n
s heat transmitted to the fluid particle
h
g w rate of work done by external forces

Heating: s = ρq dV − fq dS Fourier’s law of heat conduction

q internal heat sources fq = −κ∇T
fq diffusive heat transfer
the heat flux is proportional to the
T absolute temperature
local temperature gradient
κ thermal conductivity

Work done per unit time = total force × velocity

w = f · v = ρg · v dV + v · (σ · n) dS, σ = −pI + τ
 Derivation of the energy equation
|v|2
Total energy per unit mass: E =e+ 2
e specific internal energy due to random molecular motion
|v|2
2 specific kinetic energy due to translational motion

Integral conservation law for a moving volume

Z Z Z
d ∂(ρE)
ρE dV = dV + ρE v · n dS accumulation
dt Vt V ≡Vt ∂t S≡St
Z Z
= ρq dV + κ∇T · n dS heating
V ≡Vt S≡St
Z Z
+ ρg · v dV + v · (σ · n) dS work done
V ≡Vt S≡St

Transformation of surface integrals

Z   Z
∂(ρE)
+ ∇ · (ρEv) dV = [∇ · (κ∇T ) + ρq + ∇ · (σ · v) + ρg · v] dV,
V ∂t V

where ∇ · (σ · v) = −∇ · (pv) + ∇ · (τ · v) = −∇ · (pv) + v · (∇ · τ ) + ∇v : τ

 Different forms of the energy equation

Total energy equation

∂(ρE)
+ ∇ · (ρEv) = ∇ · (κ∇T ) + ρq − ∇ · (pv) + v · (∇ · τ ) + ∇v : τ + ρg · v
∂t
   
∂(ρE) ∂E ∂ρ dE
+ ∇ · (ρEv) = ρ + v · ∇E + E + ∇ · (ρv) = ρ
∂t ∂t ∂t dt
| {z } | {z }
substantial derivative continuity equation
dv
Momentum equations ρ = −∇p + ∇ · τ + ρg (Lagrangian form)
dt
dE de dv ∂(ρe)
ρ =ρ +v·ρ = + ∇ · (ρev) + v · [−∇p + ∇ · τ + ρg]
dt dt dt ∂t
Internal energy equation

∂(ρe)
+ ∇ · (ρev) = ∇ · (κ∇T ) + ρq − p∇ · v + ∇v : τ
∂t
 Summary of the governing equations

1. Continuity equation / conservation of mass

∂ρ
+ ∇ · (ρv) = 0
∂t

2. Momentum equations / Newton’s second law

∂(ρv)
+ ∇ · (ρv ⊗ v) = −∇p + ∇ · τ + ρg
∂t

3. Energy equation / first law of thermodynamics

∂(ρE)
+ ∇ · (ρEv) = ∇ · (κ∇T ) + ρq − ∇ · (pv) + v · (∇ · τ ) + ∇v : τ + ρg · v
∂t
|v|2 ∂(ρe)
E =e+ , + ∇ · (ρev) = ∇ · (κ∇T ) + ρq − p∇ · v + ∇v : τ
2 ∂t
This PDE system is referred to as the compressible Navier-Stokes equations
 Conservation form of the governing equations
Generic conservation law for a scalar quantity
∂u
+ ∇ · f = q, where f = f (u, x, t) is the flux function
∂t

Conservative variables, fluxes and sources

     
ρ ρv 0
     
U =  ρv  , F = 
  ρv ⊗ v + pI − τ ,
 Q=
 ρg 

ρE (ρE + p)v − κ∇T − τ · v ρ(q + g · v)

Navier-Stokes equations in divergence form

∂U
+∇·F=Q U ∈ R5 , F ∈ R3×5 , Q ∈ R5
∂t

• representing all equations in the same generic form simplifies the programming
• it suffices to develop discretization techniques for the generic conservation law
 Constitutive relations

Variables: ρ, v, e, p, τ , T Equations: continuity, momentum, energy

The number of unknowns exceeds the number of equations.

1. Newtonian stress tensor

1 2
τ = (λ∇ · v)I + 2µD(v), D(v) = (∇v + ∇vT ), λ≈− µ
2 3

2. Thermodynamic relations, e.g.

p = ρRT ideal gas law R specific gas constant
e = cv T caloric equation of state cv specific heat at constant volume

Now the system is closed: it contains five PDEs for five independent variables
ρ, v, e and algebraic formulae for the computation of p, τ and T . It remains to
specify appropriate initial and boundary conditions.
 Initial and boundary conditions

Initial conditions ρ|t=0 = ρ0 (x), v|t=0 = v0 (x), e|t=0 = e0 (x) in Ω

Boundary conditions Let Γ = Γin ∪ Γw ∪ Γout

w

Inlet Γin = {x ∈ Γ : v · n < 0}

ρ = ρin , v = vin , e = ein in out

prescribed density, energy and velocity

w

Solid wall Γw = {x ∈ Γ : v · n = 0} Outlet Γout = {x ∈ Γ : v · n > 0}

v=0 no-slip condition v · n = vn or −p + n · τ · n = 0
T = Tw given temperature or v · s = vs or s·τ ·n=0
∂T

fq
prescribed velocity vanishing stress
∂n = − κ prescribed heat flux

The problem is well-posed if the solution exists, is unique and depends continuously
on IC and BC. Insufficient or incorrect IC/BC may lead to wrong results (if any).