geosynthetics

Basal Reinforced Embankments over

Soft Foundations with Reference to
BS 8006:1995

Gue & Partners, May, 2007

geosynthetics

Presentation contents

z BS 8006:1995 - Introduction
z Types of soft foundation problems
z Basal reinforced embankments to control foundation stability
z Basal reinforced embankments to control stability and
settlements
‹ Basal reinforced embankments with prefabricated vertical drains
‹ Basal reinforced piled embankments
z Geosynthetics for basal reinforcement
‹ Types
‹ Properties of interest
‹ Specification
geosynthetics

BS 8006:1995 – Major features

Limit state code of practice

BRITISH STANDARD BS 8006 : 1995
z
‹ Ultimate limit states - collapse
Code of practice for

Strengthened/reinforced
modes
soils and other fills ‹ Serviceability limit states -
deformation modes
z Use of partial factors to generate
acceptable factors of safety
z Design equations generated by
calibration procedures
z Allows for all suitable reinforcement
types
STANDARDS
z Extensive use in many countries
geosynthetics

BS 8006:1995 – Subjects covered

BRITISH STANDARD BS 8006 : 1995

z Concepts and fundamental

principles
Code of practice for

Strengthened/reinforced z Materials
soils and other fills
z Design principles
z Design of retaining walls
z Design of slopes
‹ Reinforced fill
‹ Soil nailing
z Design of embankments
z Construction and maintenance
STANDARDS

No new information added since 1990

geosynthetics

Problems with construction of embankments over

soft foundations
Slip instability Embankment
z Instability occurs if soft foundation has
inadequate shear strength to support
the embankment loading
‹ A function of embankment weight
Soft foundation
and geometry, and rate of
application of load
a) Foundation has inadequate stability z Settlements occur due to
Embankment Settlement at embankment consolidation of the soft,
surface Original compressible foundation
embankment
‹ Not just the magnitude of
settlements but also the rate
‹ A function of embankment weight
Soft, compressible foundation and foundation soil geometry

b) Foundation is compressible
geosynthetics

3. Basal reinforced embankments to enhance

embankment stability
geosynthetics

Embankment construction to enhance stability

Embankment
stage constructed Geosynthetic separator

‹ Embankments may be
constructed by stage
Soft foundation
construction
„ Can take considerable time
a) Stage construction
to complete
Geosynthetic separator
Embankment ‹ Embankments may be
Berm Berm
constructed with berms
Soft foundation „ Can take up considerable
area
b) Berm construction ‹ Embankments may be
Embankment
Geosynthetic reinforcement constructed with basal
reinforcement
Soft foundation
„ Enables maximization of
embankment height and
minimization of area
c) Basal reinforcement construction
geosynthetics

Basal reinforced embankments on soft

foundations to enhance stability
z Technique used in Asia since
the late 1960’s, but really
gained prominence since
1980’s
z Various reinforcements used
‹ Woven and knitted
geotextiles
‹ Geogrids
z Enables combination of
construction speed along with
maintenance of stability
 geosynthetics

Mechanics of reinforced embankment on soft

foundation soil
Unreinfoced embankment Reinforced embankment ‹ For unreinforced
Geosynthetic embankment, combination
reinforcement
of vertical and outward
shear stresses decrease
bearing capacity of
Similar case to footing Similar case to rough
subject to outward footing - inward shear foundation
shear stress stress ‹ For reinforced embankment:
„ Reinforcement resists
outward shear stresses
Reduced bearing from embankment
N capacity from N
c

outward shear stress

c
„ Reinforcement may impose
inward shear stresses on
5.14 5.14 Increased bearing foundation which increases
capacity from
inward shear stress bearing capacity of
0
0 1.0
00 3 foundation
τ/s u o
τ/s u o
 geosynthetics

Basal reinforced embankments - load regime

in reinforcement
Geosynthetic reinforcement ‹ The load in the reinforcement
Embankment
increases to a maximum
during construction
‹ As the foundation
Soft foundation consolidates the
reinforcement carries less
Load applied to reinforcement, T

Construction period load

Tr
‹ When the foundation has
Time for consolidation
may be important
consolidated it carries all of
Shear strength of
foundation supports
the embankment load - the
embankment reinforcement is no longer
required
„ Temporary reinforcement
Time application - 1 to 10 years
 geosynthetics

Design load regime versus actual load regime

‹ To simplify the load regime
over time it is common to
Load applied to reinforcement, T

Minimum design strength

of reinforcement Critical load point assume constant
reinforcement design
strength over the time
Actual load carried period it takes foundation to
by reinforcement Design life of
reinforcement consolidate
‹ Critical load point coincides
at time of foundation
Time consolidation
‹ More rigorous designs may
approximate more closely
to actual load regime
 geosynthetics

Basal reinforced embankments - possible

limit states – after BS 8006:1995
Slip within Embankment Horizontal Embankment
embankment Embankment Reinforcement
Reinforcement movement Reinforcement
fill of fill

Soft foundation
a) Local stability c) Lateral sliding
b) Rotational stability

Lateral Embankment
extrusion of Reinforcement Embankment Reinforcement Embankment Reinforcement
foundation

d) Foundation extrusion f) Strain in reinforcement

Deep-seated
rotation

e) Overall stability
geosynthetics

Basal reinforced embankments - limit

equilibrium methods
Can the bond between the soft foundation and the
reinforcement be fully mobilised?

Slip circle centre Slice i Embankment

Reinforcement
Y

Soft foundation

Most critical
slip surface Tro is combination of outward
embankment thrust and foundation
Maximum force stability
Locus of required
tensile force
 geosynthetics

Three commercial limit equilibrium computer software

suitable for basal reinforced embankments
Name Type Details Contact

ReSSA V2.0 Limit equilibrium Internal stability ADAMA Engineering Inc.

analysed two-part 33 The Horseshoe
wedge and slip circle Newark, DE 19711
USA
methods email: adama@geoprograms.com

SLOPE/W Limit equilibrium Internal stability Geo-Slope International Ltd

analysed by slip circle 1400, 633-6th Avenue S.W.
methods Calgary, Alberta, T2P 2Y5
Canada
Email: info@geo-slope.com

SLOPE V8.23 Limit equilibrium Internal stability Geosolve

analysed by two-part 69 Rodenhurst Road
wedge or circular slip London SW4 8AE
UK
methods email:
Daniel@geosolve.demon.co.uk
geosynthetics

Example of use of limit equilibrium methods

geosynthetics

Sources of commercial continuum methods

computer software suitable for basal reinforced
embankments
Name Type Details Contact
SAGE-CRISP Finite element Complexity limited SAGE Engineering
by computer 1 Widcombe Parade
memory Bath BA2 4JT
U.K.
PLAXIS V8.2 Finite element Number of elements Plaxis BV
limited by computer Kleidijk 35
memory 3161 EK Rhoon
The Netherlands
FLAC V5 Finite difference Complexity limited Itasca Consulting Group
by computer Thresher Square East
memory 708 South Third Street
Minneapolis
Minnesota 55415
USA
geosynthetics

Example of use of continuum methods

Horizontal Displacement -
Unreinforced

Model
Setup

Horizontal Displacement -
Reinforced
geosynthetics

Basal reinforced embankments – maximum

geosynthetic strain
z A serviceability limit needs to be
evaluated – maximum strain in the
reinforcement
z Effect of reinforcement strain
Embankment Reinforcement ‹ The strain in the geosynthetic
reinforcement limits the
spreading of the embankment
‹ Geosynthetic reinforcement
strain ≤ 6% for short term
f) Strain in reinforcement applications
„ This limit has been derived from
field performance
‹ Can only be accounted for with
sophisticated analyses, e.g.
FEM or FDM
geosynthetics

Basal reinforced embankments - loads

carried by geosynthetic reinforcement

Tmin Tr,t

‹ In the direction across the embankment the geosynthetic

reinforcement has to support the lateral rotational stability
‹ In the direction along the embankment the geosynthetic
reinforcement has to support only the stresses caused by
the embankment fill construction procedure
geosynthetics

Basal reinforced embankments - Geosynthetic

reinforcement layout

z Geosynthetic reinforcement installed in direction across

the width of the embankment
‹ No joins in this direction
z Adjacent lengths can either be overlapped or sewn
‹ Amount of overlaps depends on softness of soil beneath
geosynthetic
‹ Sewing can only achieve a percentage of fabric strength
 geosynthetics

Basal reinforced causeway, Deep Bay,

Hong Kong

Seaward Landward
side side
Causeway
Revetment 6m

3m

35 m
Geotextile reinforcement, Settlement after
Tult = 200 kN/m consolidation
Very soft marine clay,
su = 5 - 10 kPa
 geosynthetics

Reinforced embankment - La Guardia Airport

extension, New York

End of
runway Hydraulic fill Geolon PET200

Previous fill

Soft organic clay

Glacial lake deposits

 geosynthetics

Reinforced embankments - Express Rail Link,

Malaysia

Rail tracks
Ballast Geolon PET200

11m Embankment fill

5m Sand fill

Soft foundation
geosynthetics

Basal reinforced embankments for soft

foundation stability - concluding remarks
z The use of geosynthetic
reinforcement can be used to
improve stability of embankments
constructed on soft foundations
z Reinforcement enables steeper
side slopes to be used and
enables embankments to be
constructed quicker
z The dominant reinforcement load
occurs in direction across the
width of the embankment
‹ The reinforcement load along
the length of the embankment
depends on construction
procedure
z Methods of design/analysis:
‹ Plasticity solutions enable quick
design calculations to be made
‹ Limit equilibrium methods are
most common, but care should be
taken:
„ when unusual geometries occur
‹ Continuum methods (FEM and
FDM) are powerful analysis tools,
however:
„ they require sophisticated soil
parameters
„ they need to accommodate large
strain models
geosynthetics

4. Controlling embankment settlements

and enhancing stability
z In many instances the control of
embankment settlements may not be
important as long as they are uniform
z However, for transportation
structures the control of differential
settlements is important where:
‹ There are major changes in
foundation strengths over short
distances
‹ Embankments over soft
foundations abut bridge (i.e. rigid)
structures
‹ New embankments are
constructed adjacent to old
embankments
 geosynthetics

Embankment construction to control compressibility

Geosynthetic reinforcement
Embankment „ Embankments can be
constructed and then wait for
settlement to occur before
Compressible foundation
completion
A) Construct embankment and wait for settlement ! Surcharging can help
Geosynthetic reinforcement
! Settlement times can be 2 to 10
Embankment years
„ Vertical drains (PVD’s) may be
inserted in the foundation to
Vertical Compressible
drains foundation accelerate settlement
B) Use vertical drains to accelerate settlement
! Surcharging can help
Geosynthetic reinforcement
! Reduce settlement times to 1 to
Embankment 2 years
„ Foundation treatment to prevent
settlement from occurring
Piles Compressible
foundation
! Piling most common
„ Excavate the compressible
C) Use foundation treatment (piling) to prevent foundation soil
settlement
 geosynthetics

Effect of presence of PVD’s on design life

of reinforcement
Embankment Geosynthetic reinforcement ‹ Since PVD’s accelerate the
rate of consolidation of
Soft foundation PVD’s
foundation soil the
foundation supports the
embankment in a shorter
period of time
Load applied to reinforcement, T

Construction period ‹ Thus, the geosynthetic

Tr
reinforcement is only
Consolidation required for this shorter
With PVD’s
Without PVD’s time without
Consolidation PVD’s
time period
time with
PVD’s ‹ This enables considerable
flexibility in choice of
Time reinforcement type
 geosynthetics

“Upside-down” construction when using

PVD’s z Where this can be avoided the
driving of PVD’s should not occur
Embankment fill through the geosynthetic
Reinforcement reinforcement
Drainage blanket
geotextile or geogrid
z Best practice is to use “upside-
down” construction
‹ geotextile separator placed on
soft foundation
Separation
‹ drainage blanket/working
geotextile
Soft platform constructed
foundation
‹ PVD’s installed
‹ geosynthetic reinforcement
placed on top of drainage
blanket
‹ embankment fill (and surcharge)
Wick drains placed on top of geosynthetic
reinforcement
geosynthetics

Foundation treatment, MRT depot, Singapore (1)

4m surcharge to be removed
after 10 months

Mirafi PET 200/50 geotextile

4m Granular fill

Marine clay
foundation

Wick drains
geosynthetics

Installation of prefabricated vertical drains

Installation of PVD’s through working
platform/drainage blanket into soft
foundation
geosynthetics

Foundation treatment, MRT depot, Singapore (2)

geosynthetics

6. Basal reinforced piled embankments

z Piled embankments used in
Asia since early 1970’s
z Basal reinforced piled
embankments used since early
1980’s
z Advantages:
‹ Reduces or eliminates
settlements in embankments
‹ Prevents differential
settlements between
embankments and piled
structures
‹ Enables embankments to be
constructed quickly
z Piles used – timber, concrete,
stone columns, concrete
columns, etc.
 geosynthetics

Geosynthetic reinforcement with piled, stone-

column or concrete-column foundations
Embankment
Large pile Raking z Piles or stone columns are used to
caps piles control settlement of embankment
z Conventional form - piles close
Soft
foundation together or large pile caps; also
raking piles used
Piles
A) Conventional piled embankment z Reinforced form - piles at maximum
spacing for load capacity; smaller
Embankment
Geosynthetic pile caps; no raking piles
Small pile reinforcement
caps
z Geosynthetic reinforcement
transfers embankment loading onto
Soft pile caps
Piles foundation
z Good where differential settlements
are to be prevented, e.g. bridge
B) Piled embankment with basal
abutments
reinforcement
geosynthetics

Basal reinforced piled embankments –

applications (1)
z Transition between non-piled and piled foundations
geosynthetics

Basal reinforced piled embankments –

applications (2)
z Stringent post construction settlement criteria
geosynthetics

Basal reinforced piled embankments –

applications (3)
z Steep side slope through narrow right of way
geosynthetics

Reinforcement loads over time in a basal

reinforced piled embankment

Embankment height (m)

Geosynthetic
reinforcement 6

Embankment loading
Embankment 4
profile

Pile 2
Piles caps
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
End of Time (months)

Reinforcement strain (%)

5
Reinforcement tension

construction T
r

4 Reinforcement strain
3 profile

2
1
0
3 40 15 62 7 8
Time Time (months)
a) Reinforcement tension regime in basal b) Example of reinforcement strain (tension)
reinforced piled embankment development in basal reinforced piled
embankment
 geosynthetics

Design load regime versus actual load regime

Minimum design strength

Critical load ‹ For simplification a
point
of reinforcement constant design load over
reinforcement, T

time is assumed
Load applied to

‹ Critical load point

coincides at end of
Actual load carried Design design life of piled
by reinforcement life embankment

Time
 geosynthetics

Basal reinforced piled embankments - limit states –

After BS 8006:1995
Reinforcement Reinforcement
Edge
Reinforcement Embankment instability Embankment
Embankment Vertical stress
profile

Piles Piles Piles

a) Pile group capacity b) Pile group extent c) Vertical load shedding

Reinforcement
Horizontal Reinforcement
Embankment Embankment
movement Embankment
of fill Reinforcement

Pile caps
Piles
Piles
Piles
d) Lateral sliding e) Overall stability f) Surface deformations
 geosynthetics

Piled embankments - 2-D or 3-D representation ?

a) Two-dimensional case b) Three-dimensional case

Embankment height, H Embankment height, H

Pile cap width, a Pile cap width, a

Pile spacing, s Pile spacing, s
geosynthetics

Piled embankments - arching distribution

within embankment fill
a) Two-dimensional case b) Three-dimensional case
geosynthetics

Reinforced piled embankments - deformed

shape of geosynthetic reinforcement

a) Two-dimensional case b) Three-dimensional case

Geosynthetic reinforcement Geosynthetic reinforcement

 geosynthetics

Reinforced piled embankments - geosynthetic

tension
a) Two-dimensional case b) Three-dimensional case

Geosynthetic tension (kN/m) Geosynthetic tension (kN/m)

500 500
400 400
a/s=0.1
300 300
a/s=0.2
200 200
a/s=0.5 a/s=0.9
a/s=0.1 a/s=0.2 a/s=0.5 a/s=0.9
100 100
0 0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
H/s H/s
 geosynthetics

2-D & 3-D piled embankment analytical arching

models 2-D arching model 3-D arching model
a) Arching ratio, after Rogbeck et al. (1998) a) Arching ratio, after Lawson (1995)

Embankment Embankment Embankment

30° fill not carried H
H by arch
p’f a
s-a
p’f a
s- a
Pile caps Soft
foundation
s
Piles

Arching ratio p’f /σ ’v Arching ratio p’f /σ ’v s

1.0 1.0
H/(s-a) = 1 H/(s-a) = 1
0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6
H/(s-a) = 2
H/(s-a) = 2
0.4 0.4 H/(s-a) = 4
H/(s-a) = 4
0.2 0.2
H/(s-a) = 6 H/(s-a) = 6
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
s /a s/a
geosynthetics

Reinforcement load between pile caps – analytical

methods

Embankment z Ac is relative coverage area

H of reinforcement
z For 2-D analysis:
p’f a
s-a ‹ Ac = 1.0
z For 3-D analysis:
s ‹ Ac > 1.0
Reinforcement tension, Trp ‹ BS 8006 : 1995, Ac = b/a
reinforcement strain, ε
– very conservative
‹ Rogbeck et al. (1998),
Ac (s - a ) p ' f 1 Ac = 1 + (s-a)/4a – good
Trp = 1+ approximation
2 6e
geosynthetics

Piled embankments - embankment lateral thrust

Surcharge, ws
Embankment

Outward shear stress

Fill: γ, φ 'cv ‹
Geosynthetic reinforcement
Pfill
H
carries outward thrust of
Le Reinforcement
Lb embankment
Lp Tds
‹ One technique for achieving
Pile caps
Soft foundation adequate bond length at
Piles edge of embankment is to
use a “thrust block” along
outer pile caps
Resulting tensile load in geosynthetic
reinforcement due to outward thrust of
embankment: For adequate bond at edge of embankment:

. Ka f f (γ H + 2ws ) H
Tds = 05 (Tds + Trp ) f n
Le ≥
0.5γ H α ' tan φ 'cv
ff = 1.3 for ultimate case, =1.0 for serviceability
case fn = 1.1
Ka = active earth pressure coefficient α’ = bond coefficient = 0.8 (conservative)
geosynthetics

Piled embankments - loads carried by

geosynthetic reinforcements
‹ In the direction across the
embankment the geosynthetic
reinforcement has to support
the arching load plus the
embankment lateral thrust
‹ In the direction along the
embankment the geosynthetic
reinforcement has to support
Trp + Tds
Trp the arching load only
‹ In general, geosynthetic
strain, at working load, should
be limited to ≤ 6%, and long
term creep strain < 2%
 geosynthetics

Serviceability limits for low-height reinforced

piled embankments

Plastic deformations at
surface due to deformations
Embankment at base of embankment

Pile caps
Geosynthetic
Piles reinforcement
geosynthetics

Serviceability limits according to surface

differential deformations
H/(s-a) ratio
5.0
Differential surface
deformation, ds/Ds ds/Ds = 0.5%
Ds 4.0

H ds 3.0
a ds/Ds = 1%

2.0
Reinforcement ds/Ds = 2%
stiffness, J
1.0

s ds/Ds = 4%
0
1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000
Reinforcement stiffness J (kN/m)
geosynthetics

Reinforcement layout to efficiently carry

tensile loads

a) Bi-directional reinforcement layout b) Uni-directional reinforcement layout

Direction of Embankment Embankment

reinforcement Direction of
layout reinforcement
Two layers of layout
reinforcement Single layer of
reinforcement

Individual pile caps

Connecting beams
 geosynthetics

Piled bridge abutment, Toa Payoh overpass,

Singapore, 1982

Bridge Embankment
structure
Woven PP
Concrete slab geosynthetic Timber piles

Soft
foundation
geosynthetics

Schematic, Wat Nakorn-In piled embankments,

Bangkok
Basal reinforced piled embankments constructed between piled bridge
structures and light-weight fill embankments

Geogrid
reinforcement Pavement Grassed
Pavement side slopes

Basal
geotextile
reinforcement

Piles Concrete connecting

beam
geosynthetics

Basal reinforced piled embankments,

Wat Nakorn-In, Bangkok (1)
geosynthetics

Basal reinforced piled embankments,

Wat Nakorn-In, Bangkok (2)
geosynthetics

Basal reinforced piled embankments,

Wat Nakorn-In, Bangkok (3)
geosynthetics

7. Summary of geosynthetic reinforcement

requirements for basal reinforced embankments

Basal reinforced embankments with and Basal reinforced piled embankments

without PVD’s
Tensile load – rated at end of design life Tensile load – rated at end of design life
(Tr,t) (Tr,t)
Tensile strain – rated at end of design life Tensile strain – rated at end of design life
(εt = 6%) (εt = 6%)
Design life – rated at end of consolidation Tensile stiffness (for low-height
of foundation embankments) – rated at maximum strain
of 6% and end of design life (Jsec6,t)
Design life – rated at end of consolidation
of foundation

Fundamental requirements: Fundamental requirements:

Load – strain – design life Load – strain – stiffness - design life
geosynthetics

8. Geosynthetics for basal reinforced

embankments
 geosynthetics

Types of geosynthetic reinforcements

used for basal reinforcement applications

For basal reinforcement:

Geosynthetic Basic structure Polymeric load carrying
reinforcement type elements used
Woven and knitted Textile-based Polyester or polypropylene
geotextiles
Geogrids (a) Extruded and drawn Polyethylene
sheet
(b) Textile-based Polyester
(c) Composite Polyester
Geocomposite Fibres with matrix or casing Polyester
reinforcements
geosynthetics

Typical ultimate tensile strength and strain

properties of geosynthetic reinforcements used
for basal reinforcement applications

Geosynthetic Ultimate Extension

reinforcement type tensile at max.
strength1 load1
kN/m %
Woven and knitted 40-1200 10-30
geotextiles
Geogrids:
(a) Polymeric sheets 10-200 20-30
(b) Textile-based 20-600 10-20
(c) Polymeric strips 20 - 400 10 - 20
bonded
Geocomposite
reinforcements:
(a) Linked 100 - 1200 10-15
geosynthetics

Geosynthetic reinforcements -
fundamental requirements
z Geosynthetics reinforcements are required to carry
tensile loads, at defined strains, over long design
lives
z These three attributes can be grouped into two sets of
properties:
‹ Tensile load capability over time
„ Initial strength, creep, installation damage, durability
‹ Tensile strain capability over time
„ Initial strain, creep
 geosynthetics

Tensile load capability over time

Reduction in strength due to
visco-elastic nature of geosynthetic
Geosynthetic ultimate
tensile strength Reduction in strength due to installation
damage and environmental effects
Tult
Ta =
Tult
Geosynthetic tensile strength

TB fcr f cr x f mr

fmr or
Ta

TB
Geosynthetic long term design strength
Ta =
Design life f mr

where,
td
f mr = f mr11 x f mr12 x f mr 21 x f mr 22
Time
geosynthetics

Tensile strain capability over time

‹ Geosynthetic strain can
change over time – due to Load
Initial Creep Time t==00
creep
strain strain
‹ Geosynthetics strain over Time t== t1
time best described by Time t== tn
isochronous creep curves
‹ Various strain components
can be interpreted over time
‹ Depending on type of
reinforced soil structure may
need to control initial strain,
creep strain, or total strain
Strain
 geosynthetics

Isochronous creep curves for two specific

types of woven geotextile

Woven Polyester at 30°C Woven Polypropylene at 30°C

Time t = 0

Percentage of initial tensile strength (%)

Percentage of initial tensile strength (%)
Initial Creep 100 100
strain strain
Time t = t1 t=0 t=0
80 80
t = 10yrs
Geosynthetic tension

Time t = tn
t = 60yrs t = 10yrs
60 60
t = 120yrs

40 40 t = 60yrs

20 20
t = 120yrs

Strain 0 0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 0 4 8 12 16 20 24
a) Typical isochronous creep curves for geosynthetic Strain (%) Strain (%)
reinforcement showing strain levels at different times b)Isochronous creep curves for woven polyester and polypropylene geotextiles
 geosynthetics

Determination of allowable reinforcement strength

according to design load and design strain
Geosynthetic reinforcement Required design life
Geosynthetic reinforcement tension

Geosynthetic reinforcement tension

ultimate tensile strength of reinforcement Time t = 0
Tult Time t = td
fcr
Time t = tn
fmr [Ta]strain
[Ta]load
Maximum strain
Geosynthetic allowable limit for basal
strength based on load reinforced
Required design life embankments
of reinforcement
0 td 6%
Time Strain

a) Allowable strength according to load b) Allowable strength according to strain

carrying capability over time carrying capability over time
Use the smaller value of [Ta]load and [Ta]strain as allowable strength
geosynthetics
Specification of geosynthetic reinforcement
properties
z EITHER:
‹ Specify the relevant long term
properties of the geosynthetic
reinforcement
‹ Simple form: “a tensile load of x
kN/m at y% strain over z years at
25°C”
‹ Suppliers then submit products for
approval and supply test data to
support the conversion of short
term properties into required long
term properties
‹ Can be left open to abuse if a
third party is doing the approvals
z OR:
‹ Specify the relevant short term
properties after converting from
the required long term
properties
‹ Designer carries out the
conversion of required long
term properties to short term
properties
‹ Normally restricts the type of
geosynthetic reinforcement to
be used (but no surprises!!)
geosynthetics

Conclusions
z Geosynthetic reinforcement can be used to enhance
stability and control settlements of embankments
constructed over soft foundations
‹ When enhancing stability geosynthetics behave as
reinforcement to resist destabilising forces
‹ When controlling settlements geosynthetics can be used
to either accelerate the rate of settlement or prevent
settlements from occurring
z While there are many types of geosynthetics available,
woven and knitted geotextiles, geogrids and
geocomposite reinforcements are the most efficient for
the basal reinforcement of embankments