Complex Numbers: 8.1.1 The Background

Chapter 8
Complex Numbers
8.1 Introduction
8.1.1 The background
Recall the quadratic formula

√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x= ,
2a
which gives us the solutions to the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0.
Recall also that if the discriminant b2 − 4ac is less than 0, then there
are no solutions to the quadratic equation, because we cannot take the
square root of a negative number —at least within the framework of the
mathematics we have studied so far.
For example, if we mechanically apply the quadratic formula to the
equations
x2 + 1 = 0 and x2 + x + 1 = 0,
it gives us the ‘solutions’
√
√ −1 ± −3
x = ± −1 and x = ,
2
respectively. But all our work to date tells us that neither
√ of these
√
expressions for x has any meaning, since the expressions −1 and −3
do not represent real numbers.
Copyright c 2004 by the School of Mathematics and Applied Statistics, Uni-
versity of Wollongong
8–1
8–2 CHAPTER 8. COMPLEX NUMBERS
It is because of issues like this that we introduce complex numbers.

Once we introduce them, we will find, amongst other things, that so-
lutions exist for every quadratic equation, regardless of the sign of the
discriminant.
8.1.2 The definition
We introduce first one special complex number, the most important

of them all. This number is denoted by i, √and is defined to be the
square root of −1; that is, in symbols, i = −1. Since by definition
the square root of −1 must square to give −1, our new number i has
the fundamental property that i2 = −1. In summary, we have:
The Complex Number i
The complex number i is defined by the equation

√
i = −1,
and has the property
i2 = −1.
Notation Using the special complex number i, we can define complex numbers
We typically use in general, as follows. A complex number is any number of the form
the symbols ‘z’
and ‘w’ for com- z = a + ib, where a and b are real numbers.
plex numbers—
just as we typically
The set of all complex numbers is denoted by C, so we could rephrase
use ‘x’ and ‘y’ for
our definition of complex numbers in the following equivalent condensed
real numbers.
form, using set notation:
C = {a + ib : a, b ∈ R}.
It turns out, as we foreshadowed earlier, that if we allow complex

numbers as possible roots of equations, then every quadratic equation
8.1. INTRODUCTION 8–3
has two solutions. Let us see this in the case of our earlier exam-
ples. The two quadratic equations we examined were x2 + 1 = 0 and
x2 + x + 1 = 0. For the first, we now have solutions
√
x = ± −1 = ±i,
and for the second, we have

√ √ √ √ √
−1 ± −3 −1 ± −1 · 3 −1 ± i 3 1 3
x= = = =− ± i.
2 2 2 2 2
8.1.3 Real and imaginary parts
For a complex number z = a + ib, the real number a is called the real
part of z, and is written Re z, and the real number b is called the
imaginary part of z, and is written Im z. Using this notation, we
could express any complex number z in the form
z = (Re z) + i(Im z).
It is important to note carefully here not only that the real part of z
a real number, as the name would suggest, but also that the imaginary
part of z is a real number too: the imaginary part of z is b, not ib.
Example 8.1 If
z1 = 2 + i, z2 = 3i (= 0 + 3i) and z3 = 5 (= 5 + 0i),
then
Re z1 = 2, Re z2 = 0, Re z3 = 5
and
Im z1 = 1, Im z2 = 3, Im z3 = 0.
We will sometimes say that a complex number written in the form

z = x + iy is in cartesian form or x, y-form. (So far, we have not
seen any other way of writing a complex number, but we will see other
forms shortly.)
8.1.4 A philosophical aside
Do complex numbers really exist? You might be sceptical, since we

introduced them in what might seem a rather artificial way, simply
by declaring that −1 now has the square root i, when we had always
insisted before that −1 had no square root at all. Also, the use of the
the word ‘imaginary’, especially when it is contrasted with the word
‘real’, might suggest that there is room for doubt about the reality of
complex numbers. In fact, this quaint terminology indicates something
of the history of complex numbers: it is a sign that mathematicians
themselves were once worried about the question!
But in fact, the hardest thing about the question is not to answer
it, but to work out what it means. We could just as well ask: Do
real numbers exist?, and this question is just as hard as the one about
complex numbers. In what sense does the number 1 exist? In what
sense does π exist, especially given that we would need to write down
an infinitely long decimal expansion to specify it exactly?
All these questions are in the end philosophical ones rather than
a mathematical ones, and most mathematicians nowadays would be
happy to say that complex numbers exist in exactly the same sense
that real numbers do—though they might disagree about what that
sense is.
8.1.5 A convention
Frequently in what follows, we will use phrases like ‘let z = a + ib be a

complex number’, or ‘let w = x + iy be a complex number’, and so on.
It is always understood in these circumstances that the a and the b, or
the x and the y, are real numbers, unless otherwise stated: we will not
normally bother to say explicitly ‘where a and b are real numbers’, or
‘where x and y are real numbers’, and so on.
We will see shortly that we can add and multiply complex numbers,
so that in an expression like a + ib it is perfectly possible for a and b to
be complex numbers—in which case we would have a = a1 + ia2 and
b = b1 + ib2 for some real numbers a1 , a2 , b1 and b2 —but if nothing
explicit is said about a and b, our convention will be as just explained.
8.2. MANIPULATION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS 8–5
8.2 Manipulation of Complex Numbers

8.2.1 Equality of complex numbers
Consider two complex numbers z = a+ib and w = c+id. Then equality

between z and w is defined by specifying that
z=w if and only if a = c and b = d,
that is, if and only if the real parts are equal and the imaginary parts
are equal. This means in practice that to solve for the equality of two
complex numbers, we can proceed by equating real and imaginary parts.
Example 8.2 For example, when are the complex numbers 3 + ib and a + 4i equal?
By equating real and imaginary parts, we see that they are equal if and
only if a = 3 and b = 4.
8.2.2 Special complex numbers
Let z = a + ib. If b = 0, then z = a, which (by the convention

explained in section 8.1.5 above) is a real number. Thus, once we
have complex numbers at our disposal, a real number is just a special
kind of complex number —one in which the imaginary part is 0. In
set-theoretical notation, we can write R ⊆ C.
If on the other hand a = 0, then z = ib, and z is then called a
purely imaginary number.
Example 8.3 For example,
√ √
4 + 0i = 4 and − 3 + 0i = − 3
are real numbers, since their imaginary parts are 0, and
√ 4i π
3i, i 2, , i sin
3 4
are purely imaginary numbers, since their real parts are 0.
8.2.3 Arithmetic with complex numbers
Arithmetic with complex numbers is largely a common-sense extension

of arithmetic with real numbers—all the usual rules apply—the only
additional rule being that we can replace i2 by −1 whenever it occurs.
Let z = a + ib and w = c + id. Then, proceeding as just suggested,

the arithmetic operations are as follows. (We postpone discussion of
division for a moment.)
Addition:
z + w = (a + ib) + (c + id)
= a + ib + c + id
= (a + c) + i(b + d).
Why these steps?

How did we know exactly how to proceed here? After all, it is correct to
write just z + w = (a + ib) + (c + id) and to proceed no further.
The point is that we have a standard way of writing complex numbers,
namely, in the form x + iy for real numbers x and y—that is, in cartesian
form. The expression (a + ib) + (c + id) for the sum, though perfectly
correct, is not in cartesian form, so we continued with manipulations until
we arrived at the expression (a + c) + i(b + d), which is in cartesian form,
since a + c and b + d are both real numbers. Similar comments apply to
the other operations below.
Subtraction:
z − w = (a + ib) − (c + id)
= a + ib − c − id
= (a − c) + i(b − d).
Scalar Multiplication: Let c be a scalar, that is, let c ∈ R. Then
cz = c(a + ib)
= ca + icb.
Multiplication:
zw = (a + ib)(c + id)
= ac + iad + ibc + i2 bd
= ac + i(ad + bc) − bd
(using the definition of i)
= (ac − bd) + i(ad + bc).
Example 8.4 Let z = 3 + i and w = −2 − 3i. Then
z + w = 3 + i − 2 − 3i
= 1 − 2i,
w − z = −2 − 3i − (3 + i)
= −2 − 3i − 3 − i
= −5 − 4i,
−3z = −3(3 + i)
= −9 − 3i,
zw = (3 + i)(−2 − 3i)
= −6 − 9i − 2i − 3i2
= −6 − 11i − 3(−1)
= −3 − 11i.
8.2.4 The complex conjugate
Let z = a + ib be a complex number. The complex conjugate of z,

written z, is defined by
z = a − ib.
That is, to form z, we simply change the sign of the imaginary part
of z.
Example 8.5 Let z1 = 2 − i, z2 = 3i and z3 = 4. Then z1 = 2 + i, z2 = −3i and

z3 = 4.
Here are two important observations about the complex conjugate.
If z is a real number, then z = z. (Check this, noting the example

of z3 above.)
zz = (a + ib)(a − ib) = a2 − i2 b2 = a2 + b2 , and so, in particular,
zz is a real number.
8.2.5 Division of complex numbers
Division of complex numbers requires no rules that we have not already

introduced, but it does require us to perform a manipulative step which
we have not used before. Let us introduce the process using an example.
z1
Suppose that we want to calculate , where z1 = 3 + 4i and z2 = 2 − i.
z2
Then we proceed as follows:
z1 3 + 4i
=
z2 2−i
3 + 4i 2 + i
= ×
2−i 2+i
(multiplying top and bottom by 2 + i)
6 + 3i + 8i + 4i2
=
22 − i2
2 + 11i
=
5
2 11
= + i.
5 5
The key step here was to eliminate the occurrence of i in the de-
nominator. For this, we multiplied top and bottom by 2 + i. Why
2 + i? This number was chosen because it is the complex conjugate z2
of z2 = 2 − i, and the reason that the move was useful is explained by
referring to the second of the two observations we made in section 8.2.4
above about the complex conjugate: that zz is a real number, for any
complex number z. Because of this, multiplying top and bottom by
z2 = 2 + i will have the effect of eliminating the occurrence of i in
the denominator, after which obtaining the answer in cartesian form is
straightforward.
Example 8.6 1. Let z1 = 3 − 4i and z2 = 1 + i. Find

(a) Re(z1 + z2 ) (b) Im(z12 − z2 ).
2. Find the value of x and y when

(a) x + iy = (1 + 2i)(1 + 2i), (b) 6 + 5i = x(y + 3i).
Solution 1. (a) Re(z1 + z2 ) = Re(3 − 4i + 1 + i) = Re(4 − 3i) = 4.

(b) z12 − z2 = (3 − 4i)2 − (1 − i)

= 9 − 24i + 16i2 − 1 + i
= 9 − 24i − 16 − 1 + i
= −8 − 23i.
Therefore Im(z12 − z2 ) = Im(−8 − 23i) = −23.
2. (a) x + iy = (1 + 2i)(1 + 2i) = (1 + 2i)(1 − 2i) = 1 + 4 = 5.
Equating real and imaginary parts gives x = 5 and y = 0.
(b) 6 + 5i = x(y + 3i) = xy + 3xi. Equating real and imaginary
5
parts, we find 6 = xy and 5 = 3x. Hence, x = , and so
3
5 18 5 18
6 = y, giving y = . Therefore x = and y = .
3 5 3 5
Exercise 8A
1. Solve the following equations, expressing (a) z1 + z2 , (b) z2 − z3 ,

solutions in the form a + ib, for real num- (c) z4 , (d) Im(z1 +2z2 −z3 ),
bers a and b.
(e) z1 z4 , (f) Re(z1 z3 ),
(a) x2 + 2x + 1 = 0 z1
(g) , (h) z1 + (z2 )2 − z4 ,
(b) x2 + 2x − 1 = 0 z2
2z2
(c) x2 + 2x − 3 = 0 (i) 4z1 − .
z3
(d) x2 + 2x + 3 = 0
5. If z = a + ib, find expressions for a and b
(e) x3 + 5x2 + 10x + 6 = 0 in terms of z and z.
2. If z1 = 3 + 4i, z2 = a + 6i and z3 = 3 + bi, 6. Evaluate the following determinants.
find whether any values of a and b exist
making the following equalities hold:

3 4 + 2i
i
1 1

(a)
(b) 1 1 i
(a) z1 = z2 , (b) z1 = z3 , −i 2
0 2 + i −1

(c) z2 = z3 , (d) z1 = kz2 .
7. [Optional] Find the eigenvalues and eigen-
3. Write down the factors of
vectors of the following matrices.
(a) a2 − b2 , (b) a2 + b2 .

2 −5 1

4 −4
4. Given z1 = 2 − i, z2 = 3 + 4i, z3 = 2i and (a) (b)  2 −4 2 
2 0
z4 = 2, find 0 0 3
8.3 Polar Form
8.3.1 Representing complex numbers geometrically
It is useful to be able to represent complex numbers geometrically, just

as we are able to represent real numbers geometrically on the number
line. Moreover, we don’t need any genuinely new ideas to do this.
We know that each pair of real numbers (x, y) corresponds uniquely
to a point P (x, y) in the cartesian plane. To represent complex numbers
geometrically, we use the same representation: a complex number z =
x+iy is represented by the point P (x, y) in the plane, as in the following
diagram:
When the plane is used to represent complex numbers in this way,

it is called the complex plane or the Argand diagram.
Example 8.7 Plot the points z1 = 2 − 3i and z2 = 1 + i.
Solution Our solution is:

8.3. POLAR FORM 8–11
y
1 z 2 º 1+ i
2
1 x
-3
z 1 º 2-3 i
8.3.2 The polar form of a complex number
Let the point P (x, y) represent the pair (x, y) in the cartesian plane.
Recall that the polar form of the point (x, y) is a pair of numbers (r, θ)
with the property that
r is the distance of (x, y) from the origin, and
θ is the angle made with the positive x-axis by the line joining
(x, y) to the origin.
Negative r?
When we studied polar coordinates, we allowed the value of r to be negative
at times, in which case the distance of (x, y) from the origin was |r|, not r
itself. In the context of complex numbers, we will only consider non-
negative values of r; this means that it will always be correct to say that
r represents the distance of (x, y) from the origin.
Recall also that two of the fundamental equations relating the carte-
sian and polar representations of a point are
x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ.
We now convert these equations into a form appropriate for dealing
with complex numbers. If we substitute the above expressions for x
and y into the expression z = x + iy, we see that
z = r cos θ + ir sin θ = r(cos θ + i sin θ),
and we call either of these last expressions the polar form of z. In

summary:
Polar Form
The complex number z is said to be in polar form if

it is expressed in either of the forms
z = r cos θ + ir sin θ
or
z = r(cos θ + i sin θ).
The combination cos θ + i sin θ occurs very frequently in work on

complex numbers, and we will very often abbreviate the expression as
cis θ. Thus, in our abbreviated notation, z is in polar form if it is
expressed in the form
z = r cis θ.
The equations quoted earlier gave the cartesian coordinates x and y
in terms of the polar coordinates r and θ. You should again recall from
polar coordinate work that the inverse relations, expressing r and θ in
terms of x and y, are
−1 y
p
2 2
r = x + y and θ = tan ,
x
where θ is chosen in the appropriate quadrant, and where we must make
the restriction x 6= 0 in the second equation. (If x = 0 and y 6= 0, then
π π
we have θ equal either to − or , depending again on the quadrant.
2 2
If x = y = 0, then r = 0, and θ is normally taken as undefined.)
Use of all these equations allows us to convert freely between the
cartesian form and the polar form of a complex number.
√
Example 8.8 Express the complex numbers z1 = 1 − 3i and z2 = 3i in polar form.
Solution The first step is to make a rough sketch of the points, so that we know
which quadrants they are in. We have:
z2
3
} }
1
z1
} 3
and we see that z1 is in the fourth quadrant and that z2 is on the border
√
of the first and second quadrants. For z1 , we have x = 1 and y = − 3,
and so q √ √
r = 12 + (− 3)2 = 4 = 2
and √
− 3 √ 5π
θ = tan−1 = tan−1 (− 3) = .
1 3
5π 5π 5π
Therefore, z1 = 2 cos + i sin = 2 cis .
3 3 3
An alternative representation of z1 is
h π π i π
z1 = 2 cos − + i sin − = 2 cis − .
3 3 3
(Why?)
For z2 , we have x = 0 and y = 3, and so
√
r = 02 + 32 .
3
Now the expression tan−1 for θ is meaningless, since division by 0 is
0
impossible, but from the diagram we can read off the value of θ directly
π π π π
as θ = . Therefore, z2 = 3 cos + i sin = 3 cis .
2 2 2 2
8.3.3 Modulus and argument
The modulus and argument of a complex number z = x + iy are simply

the quantities r and θ which we have calculated in several examples
above, and which arise whenever we represent z in polar form. Sum-
marising, and introducing some new notation, the definitions are as
follows.
The modulus of a complex number z = x + iy, denoted by |z|, is
defined by p
|z| = x2 + y 2 .
From our knowledge of polar coordinates and their geometrical sig-
nificance, the modulus |z| is the distance of z from the origin in the
complex plane.
The argument of a complex number z = x + iy, denoted by arg z,
is defined by y
arg z = tan−1 ,
x
where the value of the inverse tangent function is chosen to match the
quadrant of the complex plane in which z lies. As in the case of polar
coordinates, this formula only makes sense when x 6= 0, and we must
assign the value of arg z directly by geometrical considerations when
x = 0.
Following the standard notation that we use when dealing with polar
coordinates, we often write
r = |z| and θ = arg z.
Example 8.9 Find the modulus and argument of
1. z1 = 4 − 3i, 2. z2 = −7.
Solution 1. For the modulus r, we have
p √ √
r = |z1 | = |4 − 3i| = 42 + (−3)2 = 16 + 9 = 25 = 5.
For the argument θ, we have
−3
tan θ = .
4
Now the point z1 lies in the 4th quadrant (draw a sketch to verify
this), and the 4th quadrant is also the quadrant in which the
function tan−1 will return its value in this case, so we have

3
arg z1 = θ = tan −1
− .
4
2. For the modulus r, we have

p √ √
r = |z2 | = |−7| = |−7 + 0i| (−7)2 + 02 = 49 + 0 = 49 = 7.
For the argument θ, we have
0
tan θ = = 0,
−7
In this case, applying the function tan−1 directly would yield the
value θ = tan−1 0 = 0, which is incorrect, since the point z2 lies
on the negative real (or x-) axis (again, sketch the situation to
check this). Therefore, we must add π to the value 0 to get the
correct value of the argument, and we finally have
arg z2 = θ = π.
Referring to our knowledge of polar coordinates, we can see that

the value of the modulus is unique, given our convention that negative
values of r will not be used in the context of complex numbers, but that
the value of the argument is not unique. It follows that the polar form
of a complex number is not unique either. For example, if arg z = θ,
then we can also validly write
arg z = θ − 2π, θ + 2π, θ + 4π,
and so on, and in general, arg z = θ + 2kπ, for any integer k.
The normal convention with the argument is to fix a special interval
of length 2π, closed at one end and open at the other, and to take all
argument values θ to lie in this fixed interval. We will always use the
interval [0, 2π) for this purpose. Once the interval has been fixed, we
Other intervals say that the principal value of arg z is the unique value of θ = arg z
It is possible to use which lies in this interval.
any fixed interval
of length 2π for
the purpose. The Argument values other the principal value
interval [−π, π) is When our aim is just to specify a particular complex number, then there is
often used. generally no need to use any value of the argument other than the principal
value. But we will see applications shortly where it is important to be aware
of argument values other than the principal value, and of how the different
values are related. The key relation is the one quoted above: the expression
arg z = θ + 2kπ gives all of the argument values of z, as k runs through
the integers (positive, negative and zero).
8.3.4 A relation between |z| and z
Recall from section 8.2.4 that if z = x + iy, then z = x − iy, and so

zz = x2 + y 2.
p
Also, we know that |z| = r = x2 + y 2, and so, again as noted in
section 8.2.4,
|z|2 = r 2 = x2 + y 2 .
Thus, we have the following equation, which relates |z| and z:
|z|2 = zz.
8.3.5 The polar form of the complex conjugate
If z = r(cos θ + i sin θ), then

z = r(cos θ − i sin θ) = r cos(−θ) + i sin(−θ) .
Equivalently, using our standard ‘cis’ abbreviation, if z = r cis θ, then
z = r cis(−θ). (Check the details!)
√
−1 3
Example 8.10 1. Find two representations of the complex number − i in
2 2
polar form.
2. Express each of the following in the form a + ib.
√ 3π π
(a) 2 cis (b) 5 cis −
4 6
3. Find |z| and arg z in the following cases.

√
(a) z = 3 − i (b) z = (3 + 2i)(2 − 3i)
√
−1 3
Solution 1. For x + iy = − i, we have
2 2
s
2 √ 2 r
p −1 − 3 1 3
|z| = r = x2 + y 2 = + = + =1
2 2 4 4
and
√
y − 3/2 √ 4π
arg z = θ = tan−1
= tan −1
= tan−1 3 = +2kπ.
x −1/2 3
Therefore,
4π 4π
z = cos + i sin ,
3 3
where we take k = 0 to obtain the principal value. It would
be mathematically correct to take, for example, k = 1, giving
10π 10π 10π
z = cos + i sin , but the argument would no longer
3 3 3
be the principal value.
√ √

3π 3π 3π
2. (a) 2 cis = 2 cos + i sin
4 4 4
√ −1

1
= 2 √ + i√
2 2
= −1 + i.
π π
π
(b) 5 cis − = 5 cos − + i sin −
6 6 6
√
3 1
= 5 − i
2 2
√
5 3 5
= − i.
2 2
3. (a) For the modulus, we have

√ p q√ √
|z| = 3 − i = x + y = ( 3)2 + (−1)2 = 4 = 2
2 2
and for the argument,

√ 1 π
arg z = arg 3 + i = tan−1 √ = .
3 6
(b) First, we have
z = (3 + 2i)(2 − 3i) = 6 − 9i + 4i − 6i2 = 12 − 5i,
and hence
p
|z| = x2 + y 2
p
= (12)2 + (−5)2
√
= 169
= 13
and
arg z = arg(12 + 5i)

5
= tan−1 ,
12
where the value is chosen to lie in [0, 2π).
Exercise 8B
√
1. Find the polar
√ form for the complex
√ num- (a) 1 + i (b) − 3 + i
bers α√ = 3 − i, β = − 3 − i and
(c) −2i (d) 3
γ = − 3 + i.
1−i
Find the modulus and argument of α3 (e) −2 − 2i (f)
β2 1+i
and . √
αγ 1 3
(g) 3 + 4i (h) − − i
i(2 − i) 2 2
2. Write the complex number −(2−i) √ 2
1 + 2i

1 3
in the form r(cos θ + i sin θ). (i) − − i
2 2
3. Plot the following complex numbers in the
complex plane, and express them in polar
form.
8.4 Exponential Form

In the section of this subject on Taylor Series, you will find infinite series
expansions for an number of familiar functions including ex , sin x, and
cos x, where x is a real number. It is possible, though it lies outside the
scope of this course, to develop a similar theory of Taylor series for ez ,
sin z, and cos z, where z is a complex number. These expansions can
then be used to prove the following extremely important relationship
between these three functions, which is known as Euler’s formula.
8.4. EXPONENTIAL FORM 8–19
Euler’s Formula
The name
For all real numbers θ,
The formula is
named after the eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ.
great Swiss-born
mathematician
Leonhard Eu-
ler (1707–1783).
(The name ‘Eu-
Since we already know that the complex number z = x + iy can be
ler’ is correctly
expressed in polar form as z = r(cos θ + i sin θ), we see that we can now
pronounced some-
also write z = reiθ .
thing like ‘Oiler’.)
Exponential Form
The complex number z is said to be in exponential

form if it is expressed in the form
z = reiθ .
Because we can add multiples of 2π to the argument of a complex

number without changing the number itself, we have, in general,
z = r cos(θ + 2kπ) + i sin(θ + 2kπ) = rei(θ+2kπ) ,

for all integers k. Note also that if we replace θ by −θ, then we obtain
e−iθ = cos(−θ) + i sin(−θ) = cos θ − i sin θ = eiθ .
Example 8.11 1. Write the following complex numbers in the form x + iy.
iπ iπ
(a) z = 2e 6 (b) z = 3e− 2
iπ
2. Express (2e 8 )4 in the form x + iy.
√
3. Express (1 + 3i)8 in cartesian form.
π
Solution 1. (a) z = 2ei 6
π π
= 2 cos + i sin
6 6
√
3 1
= 2 +i×
2 2
√
= 3+i
π
(b) z = 3e−i 2
π
π
= 3 cos − + i sin −
2 2
π π
= 3 cos − i sin
2 2
= 3 (0 − i)
= −3i
π 4 π 4
2. 2ei 8 = 24 ei 8
Indices π
= 16ei 2
Recall the rules π π
for manipulating = 16 cos + i sin
indices: 2 2
(ab)x = ax bx , = 16 (0 + i)
(xa )b = xab . = 16i
√ 8 √
3. To calculate 1 + 3i , we first convert 1 + 3i to exponential
form. We have
√ q √ √
r = 1 + 3i = 12 + ( 3)2 = 4 = 2

and √
√ 3 π
θ = arg 1 + 3i = tan−1 = .
1 3
Therefore, in exponential form,
√ π
1 + 3i = 2ei 3 .
Hence
√ 8 π 8
1+ 3i = 2ei 3
8π
= 28 ei 3
8.4. EXPONENTIAL FORM 8–21
8π 8π
= 28 cos + i sin
3 3

8 2π 2π
= 2 cos + 2π +i sin + 2π
3 3
2π 2π
= 28 cos + i sin
3 3
1 √
3
= 28 − + i
2 2
√
= 27 −1 + i 3 .

8.4.1 Multiplication and division using exponential form
The last example above illustrates a very important point: that mul-
tiplication of complex numbers is straightforward if the numbers are
expressed in exponential form or polar form. A similar observation
holds for division. Let us examine the general case for each of these
operations.
Let
z1 = r1 (cos θ1 +i sin θ1 ) = r1 eiθ1 and z2 = r2 (cos θ2 +i sin θ2 ) = r2 eiθ2 .
Now
z1 z2 = r1 eiθ1 · r2 eiθ2
= r1 r2 ei(θ1 +θ2 )
(multiplying moduli, adding arguments)

= r1 r2 cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 )
Similarly,
z1
= r1 eiθ1 /r2 eiθ2
z2
r1 i(θ1 −θ2 )
= e
r2
(dividing moduli, subtracting arguments)
r1
= cos(θ1 − θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 − θ2 ) .
r2
In summary, we have:
Rules for Multiplication and Division

z1 z2 = r1 r2 cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 )
and
z1 r1
= cos(θ1 − θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 − θ2 ) .
z2 r2
We can summarise the main idea used here in words, as the com-
ments interspersed with the calculations indicated:
To multiply, multiply the moduli and add the arguments;

to divide, divide the moduli and subtract the arguments.
3π 3π π π
Example 8.12 If z1 = 4 cos + i sin and z2 = 2 cos + i sin , then
8 8 8 8
3π π
3π π
z1 z2 = (4 × 2) cos + + i sin +
8 8 8 8
π π
= 8 cos + i sin
2 2
= 8i
and
3π π
z1 4 3π π
= cos − + i sin −
z2 2 8 8 8 8
π π
= 2 cos + i sin
4 4

1 1
= 2 √ + i√
2 2
2 2
= √ + i√
2 2
√ √
= 2 + i 2.
8.5. DE MOIVRE’S THEOREM 8–23
8.5 De Moivre’s Theorem

If z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) = reiθ , then
n
z n = cos θ + i sin θ = (reiθ )n = r n ei(nθ) = r n (cos nθ + i sin nθ).
If we let r = 1 in this relation, then we have the very important result
known as de Moivre’s Theorem.
De Moivre’s Theorem
For any n,
(cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθ.
√
Example 8.13 1. Evaluate z 3 when z = 1 − 3i.
2. Use de Moivre’s theorem to prove the double-angle formulae
(a) sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ, (b) cos 2θ = cos2 θ − sin2 θ.
5π 5π
Solution 1. We find that z = 2 cos + i sin in polar form (you should
3 3
do the calculations to verify this). Therefore,
3
3 5π 5π
z = 2 cos + i sin
3 3

3 5π 5π
= 2 cos 3 × + i sin 3 ×
3 3
(by de Moivre’s theorem)
= 23 (cos 5π + i sin 5π)

= 23 cos(π + 4π) + i sin(π + 4π)

= 23 (cos π + i sin π)
= −8.
2. cos 2θ + i sin 2θ = (cos θ + i sin θ)2

(by de Moivre’s theorem)
= cos2 θ + 2i sin θ cos θ + i2 sin2 θ

= (cos2 θ − sin2 θ) + i(2 sin θ cos θ).
Equating real and imaginary parts now gives both

cos 2θ = cos2 θ − sin2 θ and sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ.
Exercise 8C
√2 √
2 12
1. Find ez for each of the following values of z. (c) − i
3π 2 2
(a) 1 − πi (b) 2 + i
4
π 3. Use the binomial theorem and de Moivre’s
(c) 2 − i (d) π − i
3 theorems to express
2. Write each of the following numbers in the (a) cos 5θ and sin 5θ as functions of sin θ
form a + ib. and cos θ,
√
(a) (−1 + i)7 (b) (− 3 − i)10 (b) cos 4θ as a polynomial in cos θ.
8.6 The nth Roots of a Complex Number

We are familiar with the fact that the real number 1 has two real square
roots, −1 and 1, but that −1 has no real square roots. (This is an
instance of the phenomenon that we examined earlier: that quadratic
equations may have zero or one or two real solutions.) Once we enlarge
the set of possible roots to include the complex numbers, however, the
picture becomes much simpler: Every complex number has exactly two
square roots.
More generally, if n is any positive integer, then we have: Every
complex number has exactly n nth roots. Thus, every complex number
has exactly two square roots, three cube roots, four fourth roots and
so on.
We will devote this section to techniques for finding the nth roots
of a given complex number. The main idea needed is one that we are
now familiar with: expressing a complex number in polar form.
8.6. THE NTH ROOTS OF A COMPLEX NUMBER 8–25
Example 8.14 Find the three cube roots of −1 + i.

Solution Let z represent a cube root of −1 + i, so that z satisfies the equation
z 3 = −1 + i.
Step 1: We express −1 + i in polar form, obtaining

p √
|−1 + i| = (−1)2 + (1)2 = 2
and
3π
arg(−1 + i) = tan−1 (−1) = + 2kπ,
4
for k an integer. Therefore,
√

3 3π 3π
−1 + i = z = 2 cos + 2kπ + i sin + 2kπ ,
4 4
for any integer k.
Step 2: As we remarked earlier, we are not normally interested in

argument values other than the principal value. But the present context
is one where we do need to pay attention to values other the principal
one. The reason for this is that here we need to find three answers, the
three cube roots of −1 + i. So we will take three different values of k
in the above expression for the polar form of −1 + i. Several choices
for the values of k are possible, but the most obvious choices are k = 0,
k = 1 and k = 2. Substituting these values into the expression (and
indicating the value by a subscript on z), we get
√
3
for k = 0: zk=0 = 2 cis 3π 4
,
√ √
3
for k = 1: zk=1 = 2 cis 3π 4
+ 2π = 2 cis 11π
4
,
√ √
3
= 2 cis 3π + 4π = 2 cis 19π

for k = 2: zk=2 4 4
.
Step 3: Taking the cube root of each of these answers, simply by

taking the cube root of the moduli and dividing the arguments by 3,
gives
√ 13 1 1
2 cis 3π = 2 6 cis 13 · 3π

zk=0 = 4 4
= 2 6 cis π4 ,
√ 31 1 1
2 cis 11π = 2 6 cis 13 · 11π = 2 6 cis 11π

zk=1 = 4 4 12
,
√ 31 1 1
2 cis 19π 1 19π
= 2 6 cis 19π

zk=2 = 4
= 2 6 cis
3
· 4 12
.
which are the required three cube roots.

There are two useful observations to make about this argument.
First, we are finished, at least purely logically, once we have com-

pleted Step 3: we have the three required roots. But since the
initial complex number was given to us in cartesian form, as −1+i,
we should, if it is possible and convenient, perform a final step to
convert our three answers back to the same form. In this example,
however, given the specific values of the argument that arose in
the solution, this turns out not to be very convenient, except for
the first of the three roots, which converts to the cartesian form
1 π 1
1 i
zk=0 = 2 cis = 2 √ + √ .
6 6
4 2 2
The exact values in surd form of the sines and cosines of the
11π 19π
arguments and are not quite so easy to calculate as
12 12
π
those of (though you could as an exercise try to find them
4
using appropriate half-angle formulae), so we will not attempt
the conversion to cartesian form for the second and third roots.
In general, you should make an effort to present the answers in
the form originally given, provided that the computational effort
is not excessive.
The second point is that it is of some interest to see what would
happen in Step 3 if we tried to find a fourth cube root. Taking
k = 3 in Step 3, for example, gives
3
√ 3π √ 27π
zk=3 = 2 cis + 6π = 2 cis ,
4 4
and therefore,
√ 27π 31
zk=3 = 2 cis
4
1
1 27π
= 2 cis
6 ·
3 4
1 9π
= 2 6 cis
4
1
π
= 2 6 cis + 2π
4
1 π
= 2 6 cis
4
= zk=0
—we have obtained zk=0 again. Our conclusion in general is that

taking further values of k will merely give us values which cycle
through the three roots already found. This reinforces the claim
made earlier that there are exactly three cube roots of any given
complex number—neither more nor less.
√
Example 8.15 Find all the fourth roots of −1 − 3i.
Solution There will be four fourth roots.

√
Let z represent a√fourth root of −1 − 3i, so that z satisfies the
equation z 4 = −1 − 3i.
√
Step 1: Writing −1 − 3i in polar form, we have
√ q √ √
−1 − 3i = (−1)2 + (− 3)2 = 4 = 2
and
√
√ − 3 √ 4π
arg −1 − 3i = tan−1 = tan−1 3 = + 2kπ.
−1 3
√

4 4π
Therefore, −1 − 3i = z = 2 cis + 2kπ , for every integer k.
3
Step 2: We need four answers, so we take k = 0, 1, 2, 3, giving:

4
for k = 0: zk=0 = 2 cis 4π
3
,
4
for k = 1: zk=1 = 2 cis 10π
3
,
4
for k = 2: zk=2 = 2 cis 16π
3
,
4
for k = 3: zk=3 = 2 cis 22π
3
.
Step 3: We finally take the fourth root of each of these, by taking the
fourth root of the modulus and dividing the arguments by 4, to give
14
4π
zk=0 = 2 cis
3

1 1 4π
= 2 cis 4 ·
4 3
1 π
= 2 4 cis
3
√
1 1 3
= 24 +i ,
2 2
1
10π 4
zk=1 = 2 cis
3

1 1 10π
= 2 4 cis ·
4 3
1 5π
= 2 4 cis
6
√
1 − 3 1
= 24 +i ,
2 2
1
16π 4
zk=2 = 2 cis
3

1 1 16π
= 2 cis
4 ·
4 3
1 4π
= 2 4 cis
3
√
1
1 3
= 2 − −i
4
2 2
and
1
22π 4
zk=3 = 2 cis
3

1 1 22π
= 2 4 cis ·
4 3
1 11π
= 2 4 cis
6
√
1 3 1
= 24 −i .
2 2
Note here that we have converted all our answers to cartesian form,
since the calculations were straightforward.
Example 8.16 Solve the equation (z − 1)3 = i.
Solution Step 1: We first convert i to polar form. For the modulus, we have
√
|i| = 02 + 12 = 1.
For the argument, our usual inverse tangent formula cannot be applied,
since the real part of i is 0, but we observe that i lies on the boundary
of the first and second quadrants, and so we conclude that
π
arg i = + 2kπ,
2
for k an integer.
Step 2: Therefore,
π
3
(z − 1) = i = cis + 2kπ ,
2
and so
for k = 0: (z − 1)3 = cis π2 ,
for k = 1: (z − 1)3 = cis 5π
2
,
for k = 2: (z − 1)3 = cis 9π
2
,
Step 3: Therefore,
π 31
zk=0 − 1 = cis
2
π 1
= cis ·
2 3
π
= cis
6
√
3 i
= + ,
2 2
√
3 i
and so zk=0 = + 1 + . Similarly,
2 2
1
5π 3
zk=1 − 1 = cis
2
5π 1
= cis ·
2 3
5π
= cis
6
√
3 i
= − + ,
2 2
√
3 i
so zk=1 = − + 1 + . Finally,
2 2
1
9π 3
zk=2 − 1 = cis
2
9π 1
= cis ·
2 3
3π
= cis
2
= −i,
so zk=2 = 1 − i.
Thus the solutions to the equation (z − 1)3 = i are
√ √
3 i 3 i
+1 + , − +1 + and 1 − i.
2 2 2 2
8.6.1 The nth roots of unity
One particular class of nth roots is especially important: The n solu-

tions of the equation z n = 1, where n is a positive integer, are called
the nth roots of unity.
No new techniques are needed to find the nth roots of unity: we sim-
ply need to use the techniques already developed to solve the equation
z n = 1.
Proceeding as earlier, we have
√
|1| = 12 + 02 = 1
and
0
arg 1 = tan−1 = 0 + 2kπ
1
for any integer k. Therefore,

z n = 1 = cis(0 + 2kπ) = cis 2kπ,
for any integer k. Taking the nth root gives
1 1 2kπ
z = 1 n = cis 2kπ n = cis ,
n
for k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1, so that we have
1
for k = 0: 1 n = cis 0 = 1
1
for k = 1: 1 n = cis 2π
n
1 2
for k = 2: 1 n = cis 4π
n
= cis 2π
n
1 3
for k = 3: 1 n = cis 6π
n
= cis 2π
n
.. ..
. .
The symbol ω If we use the symbol ω to denote the root corresponding to k = 1
The symbol ω is above, that is, ω = cis 2π
n
, then the roots of unity become
the Greek letter 1, ω, ω 2, ω 3, . . . , ω n−1,
omega. Its use is
or, more symmetrically,
fairly standard for
the roots of unity. ω 0 , ω 1 , ω 2 , ω 3 , . . . , ω n−1 .
(Perhaps an even neater form is to write
ω 1 , ω 2 , ω 3 , . . . , ω n−1 , ω n ,
which is the same list of n roots in a different order, since ω n = 1 = ω 0 .)
Example 8.17 Letting n = 6, the six 6th roots of unity are 1, ω, ω 2, ω 3 , ω 4 and ω 5 ,
2π π
where ω = cis = cis . That is,
6 3
for k = 0: 1,
√
1 3
for k = 1: ω = cis π3 = 2
+i 2
,
√
3
for k = 2: ω 2 = cis 2π
3
= − 12 + i 2
,
for k = 3: ω 3 = cis π = −1,
√
for k = 4: ω 4 = cis 4π
3
= − 12 − i 2
3
,
√
for k = 5: ω 5 = cis 5π
3
= 1
2
−i 2
3
.
Diagrammatically:
2
w p w
3
p p
3
3 3
w 1
p p
3 3
p
w
4 3 w
5
Note that, geometrically, the roots are evenly spaced around the unit
circle in the complex plane, with the angle between each consecutive
1 π
pair being × 2π = .
6 3
Example 8.18 1. Find all solutions to the equation z 4 + 1 = 0, giving the answers
in the form a + ib.
2. Find the three cube roots of unity in cartesian form.
Solution 1. Now z 4 + 1 = 0 implies z 4 = −1, so we have to find all the 4th

roots of −1. We have
p
|−1| = (−1)2 + 02 = 1
and
0
arg(−1) = tan −1
= π + 2kπ,
−1
for k an integer, giving
z 4 = −1 = cis (π + 2kπ) .
Therefore, we find
for k = 0: z 4 = −1 = cis π,
for k = 1: z 4 = −1 = cis 3π,
for k = 2: z 4 = −1 = cis 5π,
for k = 3: z 4 = −1 = cis 7π,
and taking the 4th root of each of these gives

1
zk=0 = (cis π) 4 = cis π4 = √1 + i √12 ,
2
1
zk=1 = (cis 3π) 4 = cis 3π
4
= − √12 + i √12 ,
1
zk=2 = (cis 5π) 4 = cis 5π
4
= − √12 + i √12 ,
1
zk=3 = (cis 7π) 4 = cis 7π
4
= √1
2
− i √12 .
2π
2. The three cube roots of unity are 1, ω and ω 2 , where ω = cis
n
2π
and n = 3, that is, ω = cis . Now we have
3
√
2π 1 3
ω = cis =− +i
3 2 2
and √
2π 2 4π 1 3
2
ω = cis = cis =− −i .
3 3 2 2
Therefore the three cube roots of unity are
√ √
1 3 1 3
1, − + i and − − i .
2 2 2 2
Exercise 8D
√
1. (a) Find all the cube roots of the complex (a) −1, (b) 1 − i 3.
numbers
√ 3. Solve the equations
(i) −8, (ii) 4 2(i − 1).
(a) z 3 = −i, (b) (z + i)3 = 1.
Plot the roots on an Argand diagram.
4. If ω is a cube root of unity, show that
(b) Show that −1 + i is one cube root of
2 + 2i, and from it determine the oth- ω 2

1 ω
ers. ω ω2

1 = 0.
2. Find all the fourth roots of ω2 1 ω
The final set of exercises consists of some revision problems for the
whole Complex Numbers section, and some problems which extend the
ideas of the section a little further.
Exercise 8E
1. Find the complex number a, given that (b) z 3 − 2z 2 − 9z + 18 = 0

z = 1 is a solution of the following equa- (c) z 4 + 2z 3 + 4z 2 + 8z + 16 = 0
tion: [Hint: Factorise z 5 − a5 .]
z 3 + az 2 + (2 + 2i)z − 2i = 0. (d) (z 4 + 1)(z 6 + 1) = 0
2. Solve for z:
(a) z + z = 2, 5. Prove that |eiθ | = 1.
13 6. Find ez for each of the following values of z.
(b) 2z − 1 − z = .
2 + 3i 3π
b (a) 1 − πi (b) 2 + i
3. In the equation z 2 = a + , where a and b 4
z π
are real, one root is given to be z = 3 + 2i. (c) 2 − i (d) π − i
3
Find the other two roots, and the values
of a and b. 7. Sketch the locus of each of the sets of
4. Solve the following equations for z. points z described below.
(a) z 5 − z 4 + z − 1 = 0 (a) |z − 3i| = 2 (b) |z − i| = |z + 1|

Complex Numbers: 8.1.1 The Background

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Complex Numbers: 8.1.1 The Background

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Chapter 8

Recall the quadratic formula

It is because of issues like this that we introduce complex numbers.

8.1.2 The definition

We introduce first one special complex number, the most important

The Complex Number i

The complex number i is defined by the equation

and has the property

It turns out, as we foreshadowed earlier, that if we allow complex

and for the second, we have

8.1.3 Real and imaginary parts

z = (Re z) + i(Im z).

We will sometimes say that a complex number written in the form

8.1.4 A philosophical aside

Do complex numbers really exist? You might be sceptical, since we

Frequently in what follows, we will use phrases like ‘let z = a + ib be a

8.2 Manipulation of Complex Numbers

Consider two complex numbers z = a+ib and w = c+id. Then equality

8.2.2 Special complex numbers

Let z = a + ib. If b = 0, then z = a, which (by the convention

8.2.3 Arithmetic with complex numbers

Arithmetic with complex numbers is largely a common-sense extension

Let z = a + ib and w = c + id. Then, proceeding as just suggested,

Why these steps?

Scalar Multiplication: Let c be a scalar, that is, let c ∈ R. Then

= (ac − bd) + i(ad + bc).

Example 8.4 Let z = 3 + i and w = −2 − 3i. Then

8.2.4 The complex conjugate

Let z = a + ib be a complex number. The complex conjugate of z,

Example 8.5 Let z1 = 2 − i, z2 = 3i and z3 = 4. Then z1 = 2 + i, z2 = −3i and

If z is a real number, then z = z. (Check this, noting the example

8.2.5 Division of complex numbers

Division of complex numbers requires no rules that we have not already

Example 8.6 1. Let z1 = 3 − 4i and z2 = 1 + i. Find

2. Find the value of x and y when

Solution 1. (a) Re(z1 + z2 ) = Re(3 − 4i + 1 + i) = Re(4 − 3i) = 4.

(b) z12 − z2 = (3 − 4i)2 − (1 − i)

1. Solve the following equations, expressing (a) z1 + z2 , (b) z2 − z3 ,

8.3 Polar Form

8.3.1 Representing complex numbers geometrically

It is useful to be able to represent complex numbers geometrically, just

When the plane is used to represent complex numbers in this way,

Example 8.7 Plot the points z1 = 2 − 3i and z2 = 1 + i.

Solution Our solution is:

8.3.2 The polar form of a complex number

and y into the expression z = x + iy, we see that

z = r cos θ + ir sin θ = r(cos θ + i sin θ),

and we call either of these last expressions the polar form of z. In

The complex number z is said to be in polar form if

The combination cos θ + i sin θ occurs very frequently in work on

8.3.3 Modulus and argument

The modulus and argument of a complex number z = x + iy are simply

2. For the modulus r, we have

Referring to our knowledge of polar coordinates, we can see that

8.3.4 A relation between |z| and z

Recall from section 8.2.4 that if z = x + iy, then z = x − iy, and so

8.3.5 The polar form of the complex conjugate

If z = r(cos θ + i sin θ), then

3. Find |z| and arg z in the following cases.

3. (a) For the modulus, we have

and for the argument,

arg z = arg(12 + 5i)

where the value is chosen to lie in [0, 2π).