INTRODUCTION

Hazardous-waste management, the collection, treatment, and disposal of waste material that, when
improperly handled, can cause substantial harm to human health and safety or to the environment.
Hazardous wastes can take the form of solids, liquids, sludge, or contained gases, and they are
generated primarily by chemical production, manufacturing, and other industrial activities. They
may cause damage during inadequate storage, transportation, treatment, or disposal operations.
Improper hazardous-waste storage or disposal frequently contaminates surface and groundwater
supplies. People living in homes built near old and abandoned waste disposal sites may be in a
particularly vulnerable position. In an effort to remedy existing problems and to prevent future
harm from hazardous wastes, governments closely regulate the practice of hazardous-waste
management.

Hazardous wastes are classified on the basis of their biological, chemical, and physical
properties. These properties generate materials that are either toxic, reactive, ignitable, corrosive,
infectious, or radioactive. Toxic wastes are poisons, even in very small or trace amounts. They
may have acute effects, causing death or violent illness, or they may have chronic effects, slowly
causing irreparable harm. Some are carcinogenic, causing cancer after many years of exposure.
Others are mutagenic, causing major biological changes in the offspring of exposed humans and
wildlife.

Reactive wastes are chemically unstable and react violently with air or water. They cause
explosions or form toxic vapors. Ignitable wastes burn at relatively low temperatures and may
cause an immediate fire hazard. Corrosive wastes include strong acidic or alkaline substances.
They destroy solid material and living tissue upon contact, by chemical reaction.
STERILIZATION METHOD

Sterilization (or sterilisation) refers to any process that eliminates, removes, kills, or deactivates
all forms of life and other biological agents (such as fungi, bacteria, viruses, spore forms, prions,
unicellular eukaryotic organisms such as Plasmodium, etc.) present in a specified region, such as
a surface, a volume of fluid, medication, or in a compound such as biological culture media.

Sterilization can be achieved through various means, including: heat, chemicals, irradiation, high
pressure, and filtration. Sterilization is distinct from disinfection, sanitization, and pasteurization
in that sterilization kills, deactivates, or eliminates all forms of life and other biological agents
which are present.

Health care waste is a source of generation of hazardous biomedical waste. According to WHO
Fact Sheet, of the total waste generated by healthcare activities, about 80% is general waste. The
remaining 20% is considered hazardous that may be infectious, toxic or radioactive. Most medical
and surgical devices used in healthcare facilities are made of materials that are able to go under
steam sterilization. However, since 1950, there has been an increase in medical devices and
instruments made of materials (e.g., plastics) that require low-temperature sterilization. Ethylene
oxide gas has been used since the 1950s for heat- and moisture-sensitive medical devices. Within
the past 15 years, a number of new, low-temperature sterilization systems (e.g., hydrogen peroxide
gas plasma, peracetic acid immersion, ozone) have been developed and are being used to sterilize
medical devices. Steam sterilization is the most widely used and the most dependable. Steam
sterilization is nontoxic, inexpensive, rapidly microbicidal, sporicidal, and rapidly heats and
penetrates fabrics.

There are three types of sterilization that we would elaborate briefly, which are;

1. Steam sterilization (Autoclave)

2. Dry Heat
3. Chemical sterilization
Steam Sterilization (Autoclave)

A widely used method for heat sterilization is the autoclave, sometimes called a converter or steam
sterilizer. Autoclaves use steam heated to 121-134 °C under pressure. Autoclaves are closed
chambers that apply both heat and pressure, and sometimes steam, over a period of time to sterilize
medical equipment. Autoclaves have been used for a century to sterilize medical instruments for
re-use. Surgical knives and clamps, for instance, are put in autoclaves for sterilization.

For medical waste that will be disposed of, autoclaves are a heat treatment are used to destroy
microorganisms that may be present in medical waste before disposal in a traditional landfill.
Autoclaves are best for wastes that are unlikely to produce combustion or substantial off-gas.
While incinerations can be built with pollution abatement systems, autoclaves are smaller and it is
not economical to unit make a treatment system for vapors emitting from the unit.

Autoclaved medical waste is usually compacted after it cools down. Compacting involves
compression to reduce volume and the compaction process may include shredding before the
compression. The compaction process reduces the volume of the treated waste significantly.

After treatment and compaction, the treated waste can be combined with general waste and
disposed of in traditional manners. Waste that is treated using an autoclave is still recognizable
after treatment, and therefore must be shredded to allow for disposal with general waste. Proper
autoclave treatment will inactivate all resistant bacterial spores in addition to fungi, bacteria, and
viruses, but is not expected to eliminate all prions, which vary in their resistance.

Figure 1: Autoclave
Dry Heat Sterilization

Dry heat is less effective than wet heat for sterilizing hazardous materials. Dry heat was the first
method of sterilization and is a longer process than moist heat sterilization. The destruction of
microorganisms through the use of dry heat is a gradual phenomenon. With longer exposure to
lethal temperatures, the number of killed microorganisms increases. Forced ventilation of hot air
can be used to increase the rate at which heat is transferred to an organism and reduce the
temperature and amount of time needed to achieve sterility. At higher temperatures, shorter
exposure times are required to kill organisms. This can reduce heat-induced damage to food
products.

The standard setting for a hot air oven is at least two hours at 160 °C. A rapid method heats air to
190 °C for 6 minutes for unwrapped objects and 12 minutes for wrapped objects. Dry heat has the
advantage that it can be used on powders and other heat-stable items that are adversely affected by
steam (e.g. it does not cause rusting of steel objects).

Figure 2: Dry Heat

Chemical Sterilization

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) gas is a rapid and effective sterilant for use against a wide range of
microorganisms, including common bacteria, viruses, and spores. The unique physical properties
of NO2 gas allow for sterilant dispersion in an enclosed environment at room temperature and
ambient pressure.

Ethylene oxide (ETO) gas is lethal to all microorganisms. Because it is also a known carcinogen
and potentially explosive (freon and carbon dioxide mixtures are stable), minimize your exposure
and use extreme care when working with this gas. Ethylene oxide sterilizers and aerators must be
properly vented. Ethylene oxide gas is most effective with heat-resistant organisms and heat
sensitive equipment. The effectiveness of ethylene oxide gas may be affected by temperature,
humidity, concentration and time.

The combination of rapid lethality and easy removal of the gas allows for shorter overall cycle
times during the sterilization (or decontamination) process and a lower level of sterilant residuals
than are found with other sterilization methods.

Figure 3.0: ETO Sterilizer