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Fran De Aquino

TOE
Theory of Everything

November
2012
Fran De Aquino

TOE
Theory of Everything

November
2012
ABSTRACT

This is a set of 25 articles, developed starting from the Relativistic


Theory of Quantum Gravity (first article). Together they form the
Theory of Everything.
CONTENTS
(421 pages)

1. Mathematical Foundations of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity

2. Gravity Control by means of Electromagnetic Field through Gas or Plasma at Ultra-Low Pressure

3. Physical Foundations of Quantum Psychology

4. The Gravitational Spacecraft

5. Possibility of controlled nuclear fusion by means of Gravity Control

6. High-power ELF radiation generated by modulated HF heating of the ionosphere can cause
Earthquakes, Cyclones and localized heating

7. The Universal Quantum Fluid

8. The Gravitational Mass of a Charged Supercapacitor

9. Beyond the Material Universe

10. On the Cosmological Variation of the Fine Structure Constant

11. The velocity of neutrinos

12. Proca Equations and the Photon Imaginary Mass

13. Gravity Control by means of Modified Electromagnetic Radiation

14. Transmission of DNA Genetic Information into Water by means of


Electromagnetic Fields of Extremely-low Frequencies

15. A Possible Explanation for Anomalous Heat Production in Ni-H Systems

16. Engineering the Ni-H Bomb

17. Gravitational Shockwave Weapons

18. A System to convert Gravitational Energy directly into Electrical Energy

19. Superconducting State generated by Cooper Pairs bound by Intensified Gravitational Interaction

20. Gravitational Separator of Isotopes

21. Gravitational Atomic Synthesis at Room Temperature

22. Ultrafast Conversion of Graphite to Diamond in Gravitational Pressure Apparatus

23. Artificial Gravitational Lenses

24. Gravitational Blueshift and Redshift generated at Laboratory Scale

25. Quantum Reversal of Soul Energy

*
* *
Mathematical Foundations of the
Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2008-2011 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved

Abstract: Starting from the action function, we have derived a theoretical background that leads to
the quantization of gravity and the deduction of a correlation between the gravitational and the inertial
masses, which depends on the kinetic momentum of the particle. We show that the strong equivalence
principle is reaffirmed and, consequently, Einstein's equations are preserved. In fact, such equations
are deduced here directly from this new approach to Gravitation. Moreover, we have obtained a
generalized equation for the inertial forces, which incorporates the Mach's principle into Gravitation.
Also, we have deduced the equation of Entropy; the Hamiltonian for a particle in an electromagnetic
field and the reciprocal fine structure constant directly from this new approach. It was also possible to
deduce the expression of the Casimir force and to explain the Inflation Period and the Missing Matter,
without assuming existence of vacuum fluctuations. This new approach to Gravitation will allow us to
understand some crucial matters in Cosmology.

Key words: Quantum Gravity, Quantum Cosmology, Unified Field.


PACs: 04.60.-m; 98.80.Qc; 04.50. +h

Contents

1. Introduction 3

2. Theory 3

Generalization of Relativistic Time 4

Quantization of Space, Mass and Gravity 6

Quantization of Velocity 7

Quantization of Time 7

Correlation Between Gravitational and Inertial Masses 8

Generalization of Lorentz's Force 12

Gravity Control by means of the Angular Velocity 13

Gravitoelectromagnetic fields and gravitational shielding effect 14

Gravitational Effects produced by ELF radiation upon electric current 26

Magnetic Fields affect gravitational mass and the momentum 27

Gravitational Motor 28

Gravitational mass and Earthquakes 28

The Strong Equivalence Principle 30


2

Incorporation of the Mach's Principle into Gravitation Theory 30

Deduction of the Equations of General Relativity 30

Gravitons: Gravitational Forces are also Gauge forces 31

Deduction of Entropy Equation starting from the Gravity Theory 31

Unification of the Electromagnetic and Gravitational Fields 32

Elementary Quantum of Matter and Continuous Universal Fluid 34

The Casimir Force is a gravitational effect related to the Uncertainty Principle 35

The Shape of the Universe and Maximum speed of Tachyons 36

The expanding Universe is accelerating and not slowing down 38

Gravitational and Inertial Masses of the Photon 39

What causes the fundamental particles to have masses? 40

Electron’s Imaginary Masses 41

Transitions to the Imaginary space-time 44

Explanation for red-shift anomalies 50

Superparticles (hypermassive Higgs bosons) and Big-Bang 51

Deduction of Reciprocal Fine Structure Constant and the Uncertainty Principle 53

Dark Matter, Dark Energy and Inflation Period 53

The Origin of the Universe 59

Solution for the Black Hole Information Paradox 61

A Creator’s need 63

The Origin of Gravity and Genesis of the Gravitational Energy 64

Explanation for the anomalous acceleration of Pioneer 10 66

New type of interaction 68

Appendix A 71

Allais effect explained 71

Appendix B 74

References 75
3

1. INTRODUCTION
b
S = −α ∫a ds
Quantum Gravity was originally
studied, by Dirac and others, as the where α is a quantity which
problem of quantizing General characterizes the particle.
Relativity. This approach presents In Relativistic Mechanics, the
many difficulties, detailed by Isham action can be written in the following
[1]. In the 1970's, physicists tried an form [3]:
t2 t2
even more conventional approach: S = ∫ Ldt = − ∫ αc 1 − V 2 c 2 dt
t1 t1
simplifying Einstein's equations by
assuming that they are almost linear, where
and then applying the standard L = −αc 1 − V 2 c 2
methods of quantum field theory to is the Lagrange's function.
the thus oversimplified equations. But In Classical Mechanics, the
this method, too, failed. In the 1980's Lagrange's function for a free-particle
a very different approach, known as is, as we know, given by: L = aV 2
string theory, became popular. Thus where V is the speed of the particle
far, there are many enthusiasts of
and a is a quantity hypothetically [4]
string theory. But the mathematical
given by:
difficulties in string theory are
formidable, and it is far from clear that
a=m 2
they will be resolved any time soon. where m is the mass of the particle.
At the end of 1997, Isham [2] pointed However, there is no distinction about
out several "Structural Problems the kind of mass (if gravitational
Facing Quantum Gravity Theory". At mass, m g , or inertial mass mi ) neither
the beginning of this new century, about its sign (±) .
the problem of quantizing the The correlation between a and
gravitational field was still open. α can be established based on the
In this work, we propose a new
fact that, on the limit c → ∞ , the
approach to Quantum Gravity.
relativistic expression for L must be
Starting from the generalization of the
reduced to the classic expression
action function we have derived a
theoretical background that leads to L = aV 2 .The result [5] is: L = αV 2 2c .
the quantization of gravity. Einstein's Therefore, if α = 2 ac = mc , we obtain
General Relativity equations are L = aV 2 . Now, we must decide if
deduced directly from this theory of m = mg or m = mi . We will see in this
Quantum Gravity. Also, this theory work that the definition of m g includes
leads to a complete description of the
Electromagnetic Field, providing a mi . Thus, the right option is m g , i.e.,
consistent unification of gravity with a = mg 2 .
electromagnetism.
Consequently, α = m g c and the
2. THEORY generalized expression for the action
of a free-particle will have the
We start with the action for a following form:
(1)
b
free-particle that, as we know, is S = −m g c ∫ ds
a
given by
or
4

t2
S = − ∫ mg c 2 1 − V 2 c 2 dt (2) sign if m g < 0 . Consequently, we will
t1 r
express the momentum p in the
where the Lagrange's function is
following form
L = −mg c 2 1 − V 2 c 2 . (3) r
r
m gV r
t2 p = = M gV (4)
The integral S = ∫t m g c 2 1 − V 2 c 2 dt , 1−V 2 c2
1
r
preceded by the plus sign, cannot The derivative dp dt is the
have a minimum. Thus, the integrand inertial force Fi which acts on the
of Eq.(2) must be always positive.
Therefore, if m g > 0 , then necessarily particle. If the force is perpendicular
to the speed, we have r
t > 0 ; if m g < 0 , then t < 0 . The r mg
possibility of t < 0 is based on the Fi =
dV
(5)
1 − V 2 c 2 dt
well-known equation t = ± t0 1 − V 2 c 2
However, if the force and the speed
of Einstein's Theory. have the same direction, we rfind that
Thus if the gravitational mass r mg
of a particle is positive, then t is also Fi =
dV
(6)
(1 − V c )
3
2 2
2
dt
positive and, therefore, given by
t = +t0 1−V 2 c2 . This leads to the From Mechanics [6], we know that
r r
well-known relativistic prediction that p ⋅ V − L denotes the energy of the
the particle goes to the future, if particle. Thus, we can write
V → c . However, if the gravitational r r mg c 2
mass of the particle is negative, then Eg = p ⋅ V − L = = M g c2 (7)
t is negative and given by 1 −V 2 c2
t = − t0 1 −V 2 c2 . In this case, the Note that Eg is not null for V =0, but
prediction is that the particle goes to that it has the finite value
the past, if V → c . Consequently,
m g < 0 is the necessary condition for E g 0 = mg 0 c 2 (8)
the particle to go to the past. Further Equation (7) can be rewritten in
on, a correlation between the the following form:
gravitational and the inertial masses mg c 2
will be derived, which contains the E g = mg c −
2
− mg c 2 =
possibility of m g < 0 . 1−V c 2 2

The Lorentz's transforms follow ⎡ ⎤


⎢ ⎞⎥
the same rule for m g > 0 and m g < 0 , mg ⎢ 2 ⎛⎜ mi c 2 2 ⎟⎥
= mi c + − mi c =
i.e., the sign before 1 − V 2 c 2 will be mi ⎢ ⎜ 1−V 2 c2 ⎟⎥
⎢ ⎝144424443⎠⎥
(+ ) when m g > 0 and (− ) if m g < 0 . ⎢⎣ EKi ⎥⎦
The momentum, as we know, mg m
r r = (Ei 0 + EKi ) = g Ei (9)
is the vector p = ∂L ∂V .Thus, from mi mi
Eq.(3) we obtain r By analogy to Eq. (8), Ei 0 = mi 0 c 2 into
r mgV r the equation above, is the
p = = M gV
± 1−V 2 c2 inertial energy at rest. Thus,
Ei = Ei 0 + EKi is the total inertial
The (+ ) sign in the equation above
will be used when m g > 0 and the (− )
energy, where E Ki is the kinetic
5

inertial energy. From Eqs. (7) and (9) ∂Φ Gm g


we thus obtain =
∂r r 2 1 − V 2 c 2
mi 0 c 2
Ei = = M ic2. (10) By definition, the gravitational
1−V c 2 2
potential energy per unit of
For small velocities (V <<c) , we gravitational mass of a particle inside
obtain a gravitational field is equal to the
Ei ≈ mi 0 c 2 + 12 miV 2 (11) gravitational potential Φ of the field.
Thus, we can write that
where we recognize the classical U (r )
expression for the inertial kinetic Φ=
m′g
energy of the particle.
The expression for the Then, it follows that
gravitational kinetic energy, E Kg , is
∂U (r ) ∂Φ m g m ′g
easily deduced by comparing Eq.(7) Fg = − = − m ′g = −G
with Eq.(9). The result is ∂r ∂r r 2 1 −V 2 c2
mg
EKg = EKi . (12)
mi If m g > 0 and m ′g < 0 , or m g < 0 and
In the presented picture, we
r m ′g > 0 the force will be repulsive; the
can say that the gravity, g , in a force will never be null due to the
gravitational field produced by a existence of a minimum value for m g
particle of gravitational mass M g ,
(see Eq. (24)). However, if m g < 0
depends on the particle's gravitational
and m ′g < 0 , or m g > 0 and m ′g > 0
energy, E g (given by Eq.(7)), because
the force will be attractive. Just
we can write
for m g = mi and m ′g = mi′ we obtain
Eg Mg c2
g = −G = −G 2 2 (13) the Newton's attraction law.
r 2c2 rc On the other hand, as we
Due to g = ∂Φ ∂r , the expression of know, the gravitational force is
the relativistic gravitational potential, conservative. Thus, gravitational
Φ , is given by energy, in agreement with the energy
GM g Gm g conservation law, can be expressed
Φ=− =− by the decrease of the inertial energy,
r r 1−V 2 c2 i.e.,
Then, it follows that ΔE g = −ΔEi (14)
This equation expresses the fact that
GM g Gmg φ
Φ=− =− = a decrease of gravitational energy
r r 1−V 2 c2 1−V 2 c2 corresponds to an increase of the
inertial energy.
where φ = − Gm g r . Therefore, a variation ΔEi in
Then we get E i yields a variation ΔEg = −ΔEi in E g .
∂Φ ∂φ Gm g Thus Ei = Ei0 + ΔEi ; Eg = Eg0 + ΔEg = Eg0 −ΔEi
= =
∂r ∂r 1 − V 2 c 2 r 2 1 − V 2 c 2 and
whence we conclude that
Eg + Ei = Eg 0 + Ei 0 (15)
Comparison between (7) and (10)
shows that Eg0 = Ei0 , i.e., m g 0 = mi 0 .
Consequently, we have
6

The minimum energy of a particle


Eg + Ei = Eg 0 + Ei 0 = 2 Ei 0 (16) is obviously its inertial energy at rest
However Ei =Ei0 +EKi.Thus, (16) becomes m g c 2 = mi c 2 . Therefore we can write
E g = Ei 0 − EKi . (17 ) n2h2
= mg c 2
Note the symmetry in the equations of 8m g L2max
Ei and E g .Substitution of Ei0 = Ei − EKi Then from the equation above it follows
into (17) yields that
E i − E g = 2 E Ki (18) mg = ±
nh
(23)
Squaring the Eqs.(4) and (7) and cLmax 8
comparing the result, we find the whence we see that there is a minimum
following correlation between value for m g given by
gravitational energy and momentum :
E g2 mg (min) = ±
h
(24)
= p + mg c .
2 2 2
(19) cLmax 8
c2 The relativistic gravitational mass
The energy expressed as a function of
the momentum is, as we know, called (
M g = mg 1 − V 2 c )
2 − 2
1
, defined in the
Hamiltonian or Hamilton's function: Eqs.(4), shows that
H g = c p + mg c .
2 2 2
(20 ) M g (min) = mg (min) (25)
Let us now consider the problem The box normalization leads to the
of quantization of gravity. Clearly there is conclusion that the propagation number
r
something unsatisfactory about the k = k = 2π λ is restricted to the
whole notion of quantization. It is
important to bear in mind that the values k = 2π n L . This is deduced
quantization process is a series of rules- assuming an arbitrarily large but finite
of-thumb rather than a well-defined 3
cubical box of volume L [8]. Thus, we
algorithm, and contains many
ambiguities. In fact, for electromagnetism have
we find that there are (at least) two L = nλ
different approaches to quantization and From this equation, we conclude that
that while they appear to give the same Lmax
theory they may lead us to very different nmax =
quantum theories of gravity. Here we will λmin
follow a new theoretical strategy: It is and
known that starting from the Schrödinger Lmin = nmin λ min = λ min
equation we may obtain the well-known
Since nmin = 1. Therefore, we can write
expression for the energy of a particle in
periodic motion inside a cubical box of that
edge length L [ 7 ]. The result now is Lmax = nmax Lmin (26)
n2h2 From this equation, we thus conclude
En = n = 1,2,3,... (21) that
8m g L2
2 2
L = nLmin (27 )
Note that the term h 8m g L (energy) or
will be minimum for L = Lmax where Lmax Lmax
is the maximum edge length of a cubical
L= (28)
n
box whose maximum diameter
Multiplying (27) and (28) by 3 and
d max = Lmax 3 (22) reminding that d = L 3 , we obtain
is equal to the maximum length scale of
the Universe.
7

d max From this equation one concludes


d = nd min or d= (29) that we can have V = Vmax or
n
Equations above show that the length V = Vmax 2 , but there is nothing in
(and therefore the space) is quantized.
between. This shows clearly that Vmax
By analogy to (23) we can also
conclude that cannot be equal to c (speed of light in
vacuum). Thus, it follows that
M g (max) =
nmax h
(30) n =1 V = Vmax
cLmin 8
n=2 V = Vmax 2
since the relativistic gravitational mass,
(
M g = mg 1 − V 2 c 2 )− 12
, is just a
n=3 V = Vmax 3 Tachyons
........ ..................
multiple of m g .
n = nx − 1 V = Vmax (nx − 1)
Equation (26) tells us that
Lmin = Lmax nmax . Thus, Eq.(30) can be −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
rewritten as follows n = nx V = Vmax nx = c ←
2 n = nx + 1 V = Vmax (nx + 1) Tardyons
M g (max ) =
n max h
(31)
cLmax 8 n = nx + 2 V = Vmax (nx + 2)
Comparison of (31) with (24) shows that ...............
...........................
M g (max ) = n 2
max m g (min ) (32 ) where nx is a big number.
which leads to following conclusion that Then c is the speed upper limit of
M g = n 2 m g (min ) (33) the Tardyons and also the speed lower
This equation shows that the limit of the Tachyons. Obviously, this limit
gravitational mass is quantized. is always the same in all inertial frames.
Substitution of (33) into (13) leads Therefore c can be used as a reference
to quantization of gravity, i.e., speed, to which we may compare any
speed V , as occurs for the relativistic
GM g ⎛ Gm g (min ) ⎞
g= = n 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟=
⎟ factor 1 −V 2 c2 . Thus, in this factor, c
r2 ⎝ (rmax n )
2

= n 4 g min (34 ) does not refer to maximum propagation
speed of the interactions such as some
From the Hubble's law, it follows that authors suggest; c is just a speed limit
Vmax = Hlmax = H (d max 2)
~ ~
which remains the same in any inertial
Vmin = Hl min = H (d min 2)
~ ~ frame.
The temporal coordinate x 0 of
whence
space-time is now x 0 = Vmax t ( x 0 = ct
Vmax d max
= is then obtained Vmax →c ).
when
Vmin d min
Equations (29) tell us that
~
Substitution of Vmax = nV = n Hl into this ( )
d max d min = nmax . Thus the equation ~ 0
equation yields t = x Vmax = 1 nH x l .
0
( )( )
above gives ~
On the other hand, since V = H l and
V max
V min = (35 ) V = Vmax n we can write that
( )
n max
l = Vmax H −1 n .Thus x 0 l = H (nt) = Ht max .
~ ~ ~
which leads to following conclusion
V max Therefore, we can finally write
V = (36 )
n
this equation shows that velocity is also (~
)( )
t = 1 nH x 0 l = t max n (37)
quantized.
which shows the quantization of time.
8

From Eqs. (27) and (37) we can


easily conclude that the spacetime is not Δp =
(m g − Δm g ) V
1 − (V c )
2
continuous it is quantized.
Now, let us go back to Eq. (20) From the Eq.(16) we obtain:
Eg = 2Ei 0 − Ei = 2Ei 0 − (Ei 0 + ΔEi ) = Ei 0 − ΔEi
which will be called the gravitational
Hamiltonian to distinguish it from the
inertial Hamiltonian H i : However, Eq.(14) tells us that −ΔEi = ΔEg ;
what leads to Eg = Ei0 + ΔEg or mg = mi0 + Δmg .
H i = c p 2 + mi 0 c 2 .
2
(38)
Thus, in the expression of Δ p we
( )
Consequently, Eq. (18) can be rewritten
in the following form: can replace m g − Δm g for mi 0 , i.e,
H i − H g = 2ΔH i (39) mi0 V
Δp =
where Δ H i is the variation on the
1 − (V c )
2

inertial Hamiltonian or inertial kinetic We can therefore write


energy. A momentum variation Δp yields
Δp
a variation Δ H given by: =
V c
(42)
mi 0 c 1 − (V c )
i 2

ΔHi = ( p + Δp) c2 + mi0 c4 − p2c2 + mi0 c4 (40)


2 2 2
By substitution of the expression above
By considering that the particle is into Eq. (41), we thus obtain:
initially at rest ( p = 0) . Then, Eqs. (20),
(38) and (39) give respectively: Hg = mgc , 2
⎢⎣
(
mg = mi 0 − 2⎡ 1 − V 2 c 2 ) − 12
− 1⎤mi 0
⎥⎦
(43)
Hi = mi0c2 and
For V = 0 we obtain mg = mi0 .Then,
⎡ 2 ⎤
⎢ ⎛ Δp ⎞
ΔH i = 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ mi 0 c 2 mg (min) = mi0(min)
⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ Substitution of m g (min ) into the quantized
By substituting H g , H i and ΔH i into expression of M g (Eq. (33)) gives
Eq.(39), we get
M g = n 2 mi 0(min )
⎡ 2 ⎤
⎛ Δp ⎞

mg = mi0 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥mi0. (41) where mi 0 (min ) is the elementary
⎢ ⎝ i0 ⎠
m c ⎥
⎣ ⎦ quantum of inertial mass to be
determined.
This is the general expression of the For V = 0 , the relativistic
correlation between the gravitational and
inertial mass. Note that expression M g = mg 1 −V 2 c2 becomes
for Δ p > m i 0 c ( )
5 2 , the value of m g Mg = Mg0 = mg0 . However, Eq. (43) shows
becomes negative. that m g 0 = mi 0 . Thus, the quantized
Equation (41) shows that mg expression of M g reduces to
decreases of Δm g for an increase of
mi 0 = n 2 mi 0 (min )
Δp . Thus, starting from (4) we In order to define the inertial quantum
obtain number, we will change n in the

p + Δp =
(m g − Δm g ) V expression above for ni . Thus we have

1 − (V c )
2

m i 0 = n i2 m i 0 (min ) (44 )
By considering that the particle is initially
at rest ( p = 0) , the equation above gives
9

which shows the quantization of accuracy of one part in 10 7 .


inertial mass; ni is the inertial Posteriorly, Eötvos experiment has
quantum number. been repeated with accuracy of one
We will change n in the quantized part in 10 9 . In 1963, the experiment
expression of M g for n g in order to was repeated with an even greater
define the gravitational quantum accuracy, one part in 1011 . The result
number. Thus, we have was the same previously obtained.
In all these experiments, the
M g = n g2 mi 0(min ) (44a ) ratio V 2 2c 2 is less than 10 −17 , which
is much smaller than the accuracy of
Finally, by substituting mg 10 −11 obtained in the previous more
given by Eq. (43) into the relativistic precise experiment.
expression of M g , we readily obtain Then, we arrive at the
conclusion that all these experiments
mg
Mg = = say nothing in regard to the relativistic
1−V 2 c2 behavior of masses in relative motion.

⎢⎣
(
= M i − 2⎡ 1 − V 2 c 2 )
− 12
− 1⎤ M i
⎥⎦
(45 ) Let us now consider a planet in
the Sun’s gravitational field to which,
in the absence of external forces, we
By expanding in power series apply Lagrange’s equations. We
and neglecting infinitesimals, we arrive at the well-known equation:
2 2
2 ⎛ dϕ ⎞
arrive at: ⎛ dr ⎞ 2GM i
⎜ ⎟ +r ⎜ ⎟ − =E
⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠ r
⎛ V2 ⎞
M g = ⎜1 − 2

⎟M i

(46) r2

=h
⎝ c ⎠ dt
where M i is the inertial mass of the
Thus, the well-known expression for Sun. The term E = − GM i a , as we
the simple pendulum know, is called the energy constant;
period, T =2π (Mi Mg )(l g) , can be rewritten a is the semiaxis major of the Kepler-
in the following form: ellipse described by the planet
l ⎛⎜ V2 ⎞ around the Sun.
T = 2π 1+ 2 ⎟ for V << c By replacing M i into the
g ⎜⎝ 2c ⎟

differential equation above for the
Now, it is possible to learn why expression given by Eq. (46), and
Newton’s experiments using simple expanding in power series, neglecting
penduli do not find any difference infinitesimals, we arrive, at:
between M g and M i . The reason is
due to the fact that, in the case of ⎛ dr ⎞
2
2 ⎛ dϕ ⎞
2
2GM g 2GM g ⎛ V 2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ +r ⎜ ⎟ − =E + ⎜ ⎟
penduli, the ratio V 2 2c 2 is less than ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠ r r ⎜⎝ c 2 ⎟⎠
10 −17 , which is much smaller than the
accuracy of the mentioned Since V = ωr = r (dϕ dt ) , we get
experiments.
Newton’s experiments have 2 2 2
⎛ dr ⎞ 2 ⎛ dϕ ⎞ 2GM g 2GM g r ⎛ dϕ ⎞
been improved upon (one part in ⎜ ⎟ +r ⎜ ⎟ − =E + ⎜ ⎟
⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠ r c 2 ⎝ dt ⎠
60,000) by Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel
which is the Einsteinian equation of the
(1784–1846). In 1890, Eötvos planetary motion.
confirmed Newton’s results with
10

Multiplying this equation by Gmg


(dt dϕ )2 and remembering that g =−
r 2 1 − V 2 c2
(dt dϕ ) = r
2 4 2
h , we obtain
⎛ dr ⎞
2
⎛ r 4 ⎞ 2GMg r3 2GMg r
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + r 2 = E⎜ 2 ⎟ + + where V is the velocity of the mass
⎝ dϕ ⎠ ⎜h ⎟ h2 c2
⎝ ⎠ mg , in respect to the observer. V is
Making r = 1 u and multiplying both
also the velocity with which the
members of the equation by u 4 , we
get observer moves away from mg . If
2 3
⎛ du ⎞ E 2GMgu 2GMgu the observer is inside the gravitational
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + u2 = 2 + +
⎝ dϕ ⎠ h h2 c2 mg , then, V
field produced by is the
This leads to the following expression
GMg ⎛ 3 u2h 2 ⎞
velocity with which the observer
d 2u ⎜1 + ⎟
+ u =
dϕ 2 h 2 ⎜⎝ c2 ⎟⎠ escapes from mg (or the escape
In the absence of term 3h 2 u 2 c 2 , the velocity from the gravitational field of
integration of the equation should be mg ). Since the gravitational field is
immediate, leading to 2π period. In
created by a particle with non-null
order to obtain the value of the
gravitational mass, then obviously,
perturbation we can use any of the
V < c . If V << c the escape velocity is
well-known methods, which lead to
given by
an angle ϕ , for two successive
perihelions, given by mg M g′
6G 2 M g2 1
M g′ V 2 = G
2π +
2
r
c 2h 2
Calculating per century, in the case of whence we obtain
Mercury, we arrive at an angle of 43”
for the perihelion advance. 2Gmg
This result is the best V2 =
theoretical proof of the accuracy of r
Eq. (45).
Now consider a relativistic By substituting this expression into
particle inside a gravitational field. the equation of g , above obtained,
The condition for it to escape from the the result is
gravitational field is that its inertial
kinetic energy becomes equal to the ∂Φ Gmg
absolute value of the gravitational g= =
∂r r 2 1− 2 Gm rc2
energy of the field, which is given g

GM g M ′g
U (r ) = − = whence we recognize the
r
Schwzarzschilds’ equation. Note in
Gmg M g′ this equation the presence of m g ,
=−
r 1−V 2 c2 whose value, according to Eq. (41)
can be reduced or made negative. In
Since Φ = U (r ) M g′ and g = ∂Φ ∂r
then, we get
11

this case * , the singularity g → ∞ , frequency of a wave, measured in units


produced by Schwzarzschilds’ radius of universal time, remains constant
r = 2Gmg c2 , (m g = m i ), obviously
during its propagation, and that it can be
expressed by
does not occur. Consequently, Black ∂ψ
ω0 =
Hole does not exist. ∂t
For V << c we get 1−V c ≅1+V 2c .
2 2 2 2 where dψ dt is the derivative of the
eikonal ψ with respect to the time.
Since V =2Gmg r , then we can write that
2
On the other hand, the frequency
Gmg φ of the wave measured in units of own
1−V 2 c2 ≅ 1+ 2
= 1+ time is given by
rc c2 ∂ψ
ω=
Substitution of 1−V 2 c2 =1+ φ c2 into the ∂T
well-known expression below Thus, we conclude that
ω ∂t
T = t 1− V 2 c2 =
ω 0 ∂T
which expresses the relativistic
whence we obtain
correlation between own time (T) and
ω t 1
universal time (t), gives = =
⎛ φ ⎞ ω0 T ⎛ φ ⎞
T = t ⎜1 + 2 ⎟ ⎜1 + 2 ⎟
⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠
It is known from the Optics that the By expanding in power series, neglecting
infinitesimals, we arrive at:
⎛ φ ⎞
*
This can occur, for example, in a stage of ω = ω 0 ⎜1 − 2 ⎟
gravitational contraction of a neutron star (mass > ⎝ c ⎠
2.4M~), when the gravitational masses of the In this way, if a light ray with a frequency
neutrons, in the core of star, are progressively ω 0 is emitted from a point where the
turned negative, as a consequence of the increase gravitational potential is φ1 , it will have a
of the density of magnetic energy inside the
neutrons, Wn = 12 μ0 Hn2 , reciprocally produced by frequency ω1 . Upon reaching a point
the spin magnetic fields of the own neutrons, where the gravitational potential is φ 2 its
( ) ( )
r r r frequency will be ω 2 . Then, according to
Hn = 12 μ0 Mn 2π rn3 = γ n eSn 4πmnrn3 due to the
equation above, it follows that
decrease of the neutrons radii, rn , along the very
⎛ φ ⎞ ⎛ φ ⎞
strong compression at which they are subjected. ω1 = ω 0 ⎜1 − 12 ⎟ and ω 2 = ω 0 ⎜1 − 22 ⎟
⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠
−6
Since Wn ∝ rn , and ρ n ∝ rn−3 , then Wn
Thus, from point 1 to point 2 the
increases much more rapidly – with the decrease frequency will be shifted in the
of rn – than ρ n . Consequently, the ratio interval Δω = ω1 − ω 2 , given by
Wn ρ n increases progressively with the ⎛φ −φ ⎞
Δω = ω 0 ⎜ 2 2 1 ⎟
compression of the neutrons star. According to ⎝ c ⎠
If Δω < 0 , (φ1 > φ 2 ) , the shift occurs in the
Eq. (41), the gravitational masses of the neutrons
can be turned negative at given stage of the
compression. Thus, due to the difference of direction of the decreasing frequencies
pressure, the value of Wn ρ n in the crust is (red-shift). If Δω > 0 , (φ1 < φ 2 ) the blue-
smaller than the value in the core. This means shift occurs.
that, the gravitational mass of the core becomes Let us now consider another
negative before of the gravitational mass of the consequence of the existence of
crust. This makes the gravitational contraction correlation between M g and M i .
culminates with an explosion, due to the repulsive
gravitational forces between the core and the Lorentz's force is usually written in
crust. Therefore, the contraction has a limit and, the following form:
consequently, the singularity does not occur.
12
r r r r
d p dt = qE + qV × B surface dA )is equal to the energy dU
r r absorbed per unit volume (dU dV ) .i.e.,
where p = mi 0V 1 − V 2 c 2 . However,
r
Eq.(4) tells us that p = mgV 1 − V c .
dP =
dU
=
dU
=
dU
(47)
dV dxdydz dAdz
2 2

Therefore, the expressions above must Substitution of dz = vdt ( v is the speed


be corrected by multiplying its members of radiation) into the equation above
by m g mi 0 ,i.e., gives
r r dU (dU dAdt ) dD
r mg
p =
mg mi 0V
=
mgV r
= p
dP = = = (48)
dV v v
mi 0 mi 0 1 − V 2 c2 1 − V 2 c2 Since dPdA = dF we can write:
and
r
dp d ⎛ r m g ⎞
dFdt =
dU
(49)
= ⎜⎜ p
r r r m
⎟ = qE + qV × B g
dt dt ⎝ mi 0 ⎟⎠ mi 0
( ) v
However we know that dF= dp dt , then
That is now the general expression for
Lorentz's force. Note that it depends on dp =
dU
(50)
v
mg . From Eq. (48), it follows that
When the force is perpendicular to dVdD
the speed, Eq. (5) gives dU = dPd V = (51)
v
( )
r r
dp dt = mg dV dt 1−V2 c2 .By comparing Substitution into (50) yields
dVdD
with Eq.(46), we thus obtain dp = (52 )
(mi0 1−V 2
c 2
)(r r
)
r r
dV dt = qE + qV × B
or
v2
Note that this equation is the expression Δp 1 D V
of an inertial force. ∫0 dp = ∫0 ∫0 dVdD
Starting from this equation, well- v2
known experiments have been carried whence
VD
out in order to verify the relativistic Δp = (53)
expression: m i 1−V
c . In general, 2 2 v2
This expression is general for all types of
the momentum variation Δp is waves including non-electromagnetic
expressed by Δp = FΔt where F is the waves such as sound waves. In this
applied force during a time interval Δt . case, v in Eq.(53), will be the speed of
Note that there is no restriction sound in the medium and D the intensity
concerning the nature of the force F , of the sound radiation.
i.e., it can be mechanical, In the case of electromagnetic
electromagnetic, etc. waves, the Electrodynamics tells us that
For example, we can look on the v will be given by
momentum variation Δp as due to dz ω c
v= = =
absorption or emission of dt κ r ε r μr ⎛ ⎞
⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎟
2
electromagnetic energy by the particle 2 ⎝ ⎠
(by means of radiation and/or by means
of Lorentz's force upon the charge of the where kr is the real part of the
r r
particle). propagation vector k ; k = k = k r + iki ;
In the case of radiation (any
type), Δp can be obtained as follows. It ε , μ and σ, are the electromagnetic
is known that the radiation pressure , characteristics of the medium in which
dP , upon an area dA = dxdy of a the incident (or emitted) radiation is
propagating ( ε = ε r ε 0 where ε r is the
volume d V = dxdydz of a particle( the
relative dielectric permittivity and
incident radiation normal to the
ε0 = 8.854×10−12 F / m ; μ = μ r μ 0 where
13

μ r is the relative magnetic permeability ⎧


⎪ ⎡ R4ω 4 ⎤ ⎫⎪
mg (disk ) ≅ ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 1.12 ×10−13 − 1⎥ ⎬mi 0(disk )
and μ 0 = 4π × 10 −7 H / m ; σ is the ⎪⎩ ⎢ f ⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭
electrical conductivity). For an atom Note that the effect of the
inside a body, the incident (or emitted) electromagnetic radiation applied upon
radiation on this atom will be propagating the disk is highly relevant, because in the
inside the body, and consequently, absence of this radiation the index of
σ=σbody, ε=εbody, μ=μbody. refraction, present in equations above,
It is then evident that the index of becomes equal to 1. Under these
refraction nr = c v will be given by circumstances, the possibility of strongly
reducing the gravitational mass of the
εμ
= r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ (54)
c
nr =
2
disk practically disappears. In addition,
v 2 ⎝ ⎠ the equation above shows that, in
On the other hand, from Eq. (50) follows practice, the frequency f of the
that radiation cannot be high, and that
U ⎛c⎞ U extremely-low frequencies (ELF) are
Δp = ⎜ ⎟ = nr most appropriated. Thus, if the frequency
v ⎝c⎠ c
of the electromagnetic radiation applied
Substitution into Eq. (41) yields
upon the disk is f = 0.1Hz (See Fig. I (a))
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ U ⎞ ⎪ and the radius of the disk is R = 0.15m ,

mg = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ n ⎟ − 1⎥⎬mi0
2 r⎟
(55)
⎢ ⎥⎪ and its angular speed

⎩ ⎣
⎝ mi0c ⎠
⎦⎭ (
ω = 1.05×10 rad / s ~ 100,000 rpm ,
4
) the
If the body is also rotating, with an result is
angular speed ω around its central axis, m g (disk ) ≅ −2.6mi 0(disk )
then it acquires an additional energy
This shows that the gravitational mass of
equal to its rotational energy
(E )
= 1 2 Iω 2 . Since this is an increase
k
a body can also be controlled by means
of its angular velocity.
in the internal energy of the body, and In order to satisfy the condition
this energy is basically electromagnetic, U << ΔU , we must have dU dt <<dΔU dt ,
we can assume that E k , such as U , where Pr = dU dt is the radiation power.
corresponds to an amount of By integrating this expression, we
electromagnetic energy absorbed by the get U = Pr 2 f . Thus we can conclude
body. Thus, we can consider E k as an
that, for U << ΔU , we must have
increase ΔU = E k in the electromagnetic
Pr 2 f << 12 Iω 2 , i.e.,
energy U absorbed by the body.
Consequently, in this case, we must Pr << Iω 2 f
replace U in Eq. (55) for (U + ΔU ) . If By dividing both members of the
U << ΔU , the Eq. (55) reduces to expression above by the area S = 4πr 2 ,
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ we obtain
⎪ ⎛ Iω 2 n r ⎞

m g ≅ ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎪⎬mi 0 Iω 2 f
⎜ 2m c 2 ⎟ ⎥ Dr <<
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ i0 ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭ 4πr 2
⎩ ⎣
For σ << ωε , Eq. (54) shows that Therefore, this is the necessary condition
in order to obtain U << ΔU . In the case
n r = c v = ε r μ r and n r = μσc 2 4πf in of the Mumetal disk, we must have
the case of σ >> ωε . In this case, if the D r << 10 5 r 2 watts / m 2( )
body is a Mumetal disk
( )
From Electrodynamics, we know
μ r = 105,000 at 100gauss; σ = 2.1 × 10 S.m −1
7
that a radiation with frequency f
( )
with radius R , I = 1 2 mi 0 R 2 , the equation
propagating within a material with
electromagnetic characteristics ε, μ and
above shows that the gravitational mass σ has the amplitudes of its waves
of the disk is
14

attenuated by e−1=0.37 (37%) when it ∇.DG = − ρ


penetrates a distance z, given by †
∂BG
z=
1 ∇ × EG = −
∂t
ω 1 2 εμ ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε )2 − 1⎞⎟ ∇.BG = 0
⎝ ⎠
For σ >>ωε , equation above reduces to ∂DG
∇ × H G = − jG +
z=
1 ∂t
πμfσ where DG = 4ε rG ε 0G E G is the
In the case of the Mumetal subjected to gravitodisplacement field ( ε rG is the
an ELF radiation with frequency
gravitoelectric relative permittivity of the
f = 0.1Hz , the value is z = 1.07 mm .
medium; ε 0G is the gravitoelectric
Obviously, the thickness of the Mumetal
disk must be less than this value. permittivity for free space and E G = g
Equation (55) is general for all is the gravitoelectric field intensity); ρ is
types of electromagnetic fields including the density of local rest mass in the local
gravitoelectromagnetic fields (See Fig. I rest frame of the matter;
(b)).
BG = μ rG μ 0G H G is the gravitomagnetic
Transmitter field ( μ rG is the gravitomagnetic relative
ELF electromagnetic radiation

permeability, μ 0G is the gravitomagnetic


permeability for free space and H G is
Mumetal disk the gravitomagnetic field intensity;
Motor
jG = −σ G E G is the local rest-mass
current density in this frame ( σ G is the
gravitoelectric conductivity of the
Balance medium).
Then, for free space we can write
(a)
that
⎛ GM ⎞
DG = 4ε 0G EG = 4ε 0G g = 4ε 0G ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ r ⎠
Gravitoelectric
Field But from the electrodynamics we know
that
q
D = εE =
Acceleration
4πr 2
By analogy we can write that
Mg
DG =
Gravitomagnetic 4πr 2
Field
By comparing this expression with the
(b) previous expression of DG , we get
Fig. I – (a) Experimental set-up in order to measure the 1
gravitational mass decreasing in the rotating Mumetal ε 0G = = 2.98 × 10 8 kg 2 .N −1 .m − 2
disk. A sample connected to a dynamometer can measure 16πG
the decreasing of gravity above the disk. (b) which is the expression of the
Gravitoelectromagnetic Field.
gravitoelectric permittivity for free
space.
The Maxwell-like equations for The gravitomagnetic permeability
weak gravitational fields are [9] for free space [10,11] is
16πG
† μ 0G = 2
= 3.73 × 10 −26 m kg
Quevedo, C. P. (1978) Eletromagnetismo c
McGraw-Hill, p.269-270.
We then convert Maxwell-like equations
15

for weak gravity into a wave equation for ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫


⎪ ⎢ ⎛ W ⎞ ⎥⎪
mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ G 2 ⎟ − 1⎥⎬mi0
free space in the standard way. We
conclude that the speed of Gravitational ⎜ρ c ⎟
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎪
Waves in free space is ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
1
v= =c ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
ε 0G μ 0G ⎪ ⎛ BG2 ⎞

= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥⎪⎬mi 0 (55a)
⎢ 2 ⎟ ⎥⎪
This means that both electromagnetic ⎪ ⎢⎣ ⎝ μ0G ρ c ⎠ ⎥⎦⎭
and gravitational plane waves propagate ⎩
at the free space with the same speed. where ρ = mi 0 V .
Thus, the impedance for free space is This equation shows how the
EG 16πG gravitational mass of a particle is altered
ZG = = μ0G ε 0G = μ0G c = by a gravitomagnetic field.
HG c
A gravitomagnetic field, according
and the Poynting-like vector is
r r r to Einstein's theory of general relativity,
S = EG × H G arises from moving matter (matter
For a plane wave propagating in the current) just as an ordinary magnetic
vacuum, we have E G = Z G H G . Then, it field arises from moving charges. The
Earth rotation is the source of a very
follows that
weak gravitomagnetic field given by
r 1 r 2 ω 2 r 2 c 2ω 2
S = EG = h = h0i
2
μ 0G ⎛ Mω ⎞
2Z G 2Z G 32πG BG ,Earth = − ⎜ ⎟ ≈ 10 −14 rad .s −1
16π ⎝ r ⎠ Earth
which is the power per unit area of a
harmonic plane wave of angular Perhaps ultra-fast rotating stars can
frequency ω . generate very strong gravitomagnetic
In classical electrodynamics the fields, which can make the gravitational
density of energy in an electromagnetic mass of particles inside and near the star
negative. According to (55a) this will
field, We , has the following expression
occur if BG > 1.06c μ 0G ρ . Usually,
We = 12 ε r ε 0 E 2 + 12 μ r μ 0 H 2
however, gravitomagnetic fields
In analogy with this expression we produced by normal matter are very
define the energy density in a weak.
gravitoelectromagnetic field, WG , as Recently Tajmar, M. et al., [12]
follows have proposed that in addition to
WG = 12 ε rG ε 0G EG2 + 12 μ rG μ 0G H G2 the London moment, B L ,
For free space we obtain ( )
( BL = − 2m* e* ω ≅ 1.1×10−11ω ; m and
*

μ rG = ε rG = 1 e* are the Cooper-pair mass and charge


ε 0G = 1 μ 0G c 2 respectively), a rotating superconductor
E G H G = μ 0G c should exhibit also a large
gravitomagnetic field, BG , to explain an
and
BG = μ 0 G H G apparent mass increase of Niobium
Cooper-pairs discovered by Tate et
Thus, we can rewrite the equation of WG al[13,14]. According to Tajmar and Matos
as follows [15], in the case of coherent matter, BG
2
⎛ 1⎞ 2 2 1 ⎛B ⎞ B2 is given by: BG = −2ωρc μ0G λ2gr where ρ c
WG = 1⎜ ⎟c BG + μ0G ⎜ G ⎟ = G
2⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎜ μ0G ⎟
⎝ μ0G c ⎠
2
⎝ ⎠ μ0G is the mass density of coherent matter
and λ gr is the graviphoton wavelength.
Since U G = WGV , (V is the volume of the By choosing λ gr proportional to the local
particle) and nr = 1 for free space we density of coherent matter, ρ c . i.e.,
can write (55) in the following form
16

1 ⎛ m gr c ⎞ By means of (55c) it is possible to


= ⎜⎜ ⎟ = μ 0G ρ c
⎟ check the changes in the gravitational
λ2gr ⎝ h ⎠ mass of the coherent part of a given
we obtain material (e.g. the Cooper-pair fluid). Thus
⎛ 1 ⎞ for the electrons of the Cooper-pairs we
BG = −2ωρc μ0G λ2gr = −2ωρc μ0G ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = have
⎝ μ0G ρ c ⎠
= −2ω ⎡ 2⎤
⎛ 2 ⎞
= mie + 2⎢1 − 1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎥m =
BG
and the graviphoton mass, m gr , is m ge 2 ⎟ ⎥ ie
⎢ μ ρ
⎢⎣ ⎝ 0G e ⎠ ⎥
c
m gr = μ 0 G ρ c h c ⎦
Note that if we take the case of no ⎡ 2⎤
⎛ 4ω 2 ⎞ ⎥
local sources of coherent matter (ρ c = 0 ) , ⎢
= mie + 2 1 − 1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟ m =
⎢ 2 ⎟ ⎥ ie
the graviphoton mass will be zero. μ ρ
⎝ 0G e ⎠ ⎥
c
⎣⎢ ⎦
However, graviphoton will have non-zero
mass inside coherent matter (ρ c ≠ 0 ) . = mie + χ e mie
This can be interpreted as a
consequence of the graviphoton gaining where ρ e is the mass density of the
mass inside the superconductor via the electrons.
Higgs mechanism due to the breaking of In order to check the changes in
gauge symmetry. the gravitational mass of neutrons and
It is important to note that the protons (non-coherent part) inside the
minus sign in the expression for BG superconductor, we must use Eq. (55a)
can be understood as due to the and BG = −2ωρμ 0G λ2gr [Tajmar and
change from the normal to the
coherent state of matter, i.e., a switch Matos, op.cit.]. Due to μ 0G ρ c λ2gr = 1 ,
between real and imaginary values that expression of BG can be rewritten in
for the particles inside the material the following form
BG = −2ωρμ 0G λ2gr = −2ω (ρ ρ c )
when going from the normal to the
coherent state of matter. Consequently,
in this case the variable U in (55) Thus we have
must be replaced by iU G and not by U G ⎡ 2 ⎤
⎢ ⎛ BG2 ⎞
only. Thus we obtain mgn = min − 2 1+ ⎜ ⎟ −1⎥min =
⎢ ⎜ μ ρ c2 ⎟ ⎥
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 0G n ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ UG ⎞ ⎪
mg = ⎨1− 2 1− ⎜⎜ n ⎟ −1⎥⎬mi0 (55b)
2 r⎟
⎢ ⎥ ⎡ ⎤
⎛ 4ω2 (ρn ρc )2 ⎞
2
⎪ ⎣ ⎝ mi0c ⎠ ⎦⎪⎭ ⎢
⎩ = min − 2⎢ 1+ ⎜ ⎟ −1⎥min =
⎜ μ ρ c2 ⎟ ⎥
Since U G = WGV , we can write (55b) ⎢⎣ ⎝ 0G n ⎠ ⎥⎦
for nr = 1 , in the following form
= min − χnmin
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ WG ⎞ ⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎟ − 1⎥⎪⎬mi 0
2
mg = ⎨1 − 2 1 − ⎜⎜ ⎢ ⎛ B2 ⎞
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ ρc c ⎠
2 ⎟ ⎥⎪ mgp = mip − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ G ⎟ −1⎥m =
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ ⎜ μ0G ρ p c ⎟
2 ⎥ ip
⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ B 2
⎞ ⎥⎪⎬m (55c)
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟ − ⎡ ⎤
( )2 ⎞⎟
G
2 ⎟
1 2
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ μ 0G ρ c c ⎠ ⎥⎪ i 0 ⎢ ⎛ 4ω 2 ρ p ρc ⎥
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ = mip − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ − 1⎥mip =
⎜ μ ρ c2 ⎟
where ρ c = mi 0 V is the local density ⎢ ⎝ 0G p ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
of coherent matter. = mip − χ p mip
Note the different sign (inside
the square root) with respect to (55a).
17

where ρ n and ρ p are the mass density Δm g = m g − m i 0 = − χ p m i 0


of neutrons and protons respectively.
In Tajmar’s experiment, induced By comparing this expression with
accelerations fields outside the Δm g ≈ 1 × 10 −4 mi which has been
superconductor in the order of 100 μg , at
obtained from Tajmar’s experiment, we
−1
angular velocities of about 500rad .s conclude that at angular velocities
were observed. ω ≈ 500rad .s −1 we have
Starting from g = Gm g (initial ) r we
χ p ≈ 1 × 10 −4
(
can write that g + Δg = G mg(initial) + Δmg r . ) From the expression of m gp we get
Then we get Δg = GΔmg r . For
⎡ 2 ⎤
⎢ ⎛ B G2 ⎞ ⎥
Δg =ηg =ηGmg(initial) r it follows that χ p = 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ =
⎜ μ 0G ρ p c ⎟
2
Δ m g = η m g (initial ) = η m i . Therefore a ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
variation of Δg = ηg corresponds to a ⎡ ⎤
( )
2
⎢ ⎛ 4ω 2 ρ p ρ c 2 ⎞ ⎥
gravitational mass variation Δmg = ηmi0 . = 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥
⎜ μ ρ c2 ⎟
Thus Δg ≈ 100μg = 1×10−4 g corresponds ⎢

⎝ 0G p ⎠ ⎥

to where ρ p = m p V p is the mass density
Δm g ≈ 1 × 10 −4 mi 0 of the protons.
On the other hand, the total In order to calculate V p we need
gravitational mass of a particle can be
expressed by to know the type of space (metric) inside
the proton. It is known that there are just
mg = Nnmgn + N pmgp + Nemge + N p ΔE c2 = 3 types of space: the space of positive
Nn (min − χnmin ) + N p (mip − χ pmip ) + curvature, the space of negative
curvature and the space of null
+ Ne (mie − χemie ) + N pΔE c2 = curvature. The negative type is
= (Nnmin + N pmip + Nemie ) + N pΔE c2 − obviously excluded since the volume of

− (Nn χnmin + N p χ pmip + Ne χemie ) + N p ΔE c2 =


the proton is finite. On the other hand,
the space of null curvature is also
= mi − (Nn χnmin + N p χ pmip + Ne χemie ) + N pΔE c2 excluded since the space inside the
proton is strongly curved by its enormous
where ΔE is the interaction mass density. Thus we can conclude that
energy; N n , N p , N e are the number of inside the proton the space has positive
neutrons, protons and electrons curvature. Consequently, the volume of
respectively. Since min ≅ mip and the proton, V p , will be expressed by the
ρ n ≅ ρ p it follows that χn ≅ χ p and 3-dimensional space that corresponds to
a hypersphere in a 4-dimentional space,
consequently the expression of mg i.e., V p will be the space of positive
reduces to curvature the volume of which is [16]
2ππ π
mg ≅ mi0 − (2Npχpmip + Neχemie ) + NpΔE c2 (55d ) Vp = ∫ ∫ ∫ rp sin
3 2
χ sin θdχdθdφ = 2π 2 r p3
000

Assuming that Ne χemie <<2Np χ pmip and In the case of Earth, for example,
ρ Earth << ρ p . Consequently the
Np ΔE c2 <<2Npχpmip Eq. (55d) reduces to
curvature of the space inside the Earth is
approximately null (space approximately
mg ≅ mi0 − 2Npχpmip = mi − χpmi (55e) flat). Then V Earth ≅ 3 π r Earth .
4 3

or
For rp = 1.4 ×10−15 m we then get
18

mp ⎡ 2⎤
ρp = ≅ 3 × 1016 kg / m 3 ⎛ ω 2 ⎞
Vp χ = 2⎢1 − 1 − ⎜⎜
* 4 ⎟ ⎥ = 0.84 × 10−4
⎢ * 2 ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ μ 0G ρ c ⎠ ⎥
Starting from the London moment ⎦
it is easy to see that by precisely From this equation we then obtain
measuring the magnetic field and the
angular velocity of the
superconductor, one can calculate the
ρ * ≅ 3 × 1016 kg / m 3
mass of the Cooper-pairs. This has Note that ρ p ≅ ρ * .
been done for both classical and high-Tc Now we can calculate the
superconductors [17-20]. In the
graviphoton mass, m gr , inside the
experiment with the highest precision to
date, Tate et al, op.cit., reported a Cooper-pairs fluid (coherent part of the
disagreement between the theoretically superconductor) as
predicted Cooper-pair mass in Niobium
of m* 2me = 0.999992 and its m gr = μ 0G ρ * h c ≅ 4 × 10 −52 kg
experimental value of 1.000084(21) ,
Outside the coherent matter (ρ c = 0 ) the
where me is the electron mass. This
graviphoton mass will be zero
anomaly was actively discussed in the
literature without any apparent solution (m gr = μ 0 G ρ c h c = 0 . )
−1
[21-24]. Substitution of ρp, ρc =ρ and ω ≈ 500rad.s
*
If we consider that the apparent
mass increase from Tate’s into the expression of χ p gives
measurements results from an increase
in the gravitational mass m*g of the χ p ≈ 1 × 10 −4
Cooper-pairs due to BG , then we can
write Compare this value with that one
obtained from the Tajmar experiment.
m *g m *g
= * = 1.000084 Therefore, the decrease in the
2m e mi gravitational mass of the superconductor,
expressed by (55e), is
Δm *g = m *g − m *g (initial ) = m *g − m i* =
m g ,SC ≅ mi ,SC − χ p mi ,SC
= 1.000084 m i* − mi* =
≅ mi ,SC − 10 − 4 mi ,SC
−4
= +0.84 × 10 mi* =χ *
m i* This corresponds to a decrease of the
−4
where χ = 0.84 × 10 .
* −2
order of 10 % in respect to the initial
From (55c) we can write that gravitational mass of the superconductor.
However, we must also consider the
⎡ 2⎤ gravitational shielding effect, produced
⎢ ⎛ 4ω 2 ⎞ ⎥ * −2
m*g = mi* + 2 1− 1− ⎜ ⎟ mi = by this decrease of ≈ 10 % in the
⎢ ⎜ μ ρ*c2 ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ 0G ⎠ ⎥ gravitational mass of the particles inside
⎦ the superconductor (see Fig. II).
= mi* + χ * mi* Therefore, the total weight decrease in
the superconductor will be much greater
−2
than 10 % . According to Podkletnov
where ρ * is the Cooper-pair mass
experiment [25] it can reach up to 1% of
density. the total weight of the superconductor
(5000rpm) . In this
Consequently we can write −1
at 523.6rad .s
experiment a slight decrease (up to
≈ 1% ) in the weight of samples hung
above the disk (rotating at 5000rpm) was
19

observed. A smaller effect on the order acceleration, g ′ , upon the particle m ′g ,


of 0.1% has been observed when the
r GM g
disk is not rotating. The percentage of is g ′ = − g = + μ̂ . This means that
weight decrease is the same for samples R2
of different masses and chemical in this case, the gravitational flux, φ g′ ,
compounds. The effect does not seem to
diminish with increases in elevation through the particle m ′g will be given by
above the disk. There appears to be a φ g′ = g ′S = − gS = −φ g , i.e., it will be
“shielding cylinder” over the disk that symmetric in respect to the flux when
extends upwards for at least 3 meters.
No weight reduction has been observed
m′g = mi′0 (third case). In the second case
under the disk. (m′g ≅ 0) , the intensity of the
It is easy to see that the decrease
gravitational force between m ′g and M g
in the weight of samples hung above the
disk (inside the “shielding cylinder” over will be very close to zero. This is
the disk) in the Podkletnov experiment, equivalent to say that the gravity
is also a consequence of the acceleration upon the particle with mass
Gravitational Shielding Effect showed in m ′g will be g ′ ≅ 0 . Consequently we can
Fig. II.
write that φ g′ = g ′S ≅ 0 . It is easy to see
In order to explain the
Gravitational Shielding Effect, we start that there is a correlation between
with the gravitational field, m ′g m i′0 and φ g′ φ g , i.e.,
r GM g
g=− μ̂ , produced by a particle
R2 _ If m ′g mi′0 = −1 ⇒ φ g′ φ g = −1
with gravitational mass, M g . The
gravitational flux, φ g , through a spherical _ If m ′g m i′0 = 1 ⇒ φ g′ φ g = 1
surface, with area S and radius R ,
concentric with the mass M g , is given _ If m ′g m i′0 ≅ 0 ⇒ φ g′ φ g ≅ 0
by
r r Just a simple algebraic form contains the
φ g = ∫ gdS = g ∫ dS = g S = requisites mentioned above, the
S S
correlation
=
GM g
2
(4πR ) = 4πGM
2
g
φ g′
=
m ′g
R
φ g mi′0
Note that the flux φ g does not depend on
By making m ′g mi′0 = χ we get
the radius R of the surface S , i.e., it is
the same through any surface concentric
with the mass M g . φ g′ = χ φ g
Now consider a particle with
gravitational mass, m ′g , placed into the This is the expression of the gravitational
flux through m ′g . It explains the
gravitational field produced by Mg.
Gravitational Shielding Effect presented
According to Eq. (41), we can in Fig. II.
have m′g mi′0 = −1, m′g mi′0 ≅ 0 ‡ , m′g mi′0 = 1, As φg = gS and φ g′ = g ′S , we obtain
etc. In the first case, the gravity

‡ g′ = χ g
The quantization of the gravitational mass
(Eq.(33)) shows that for n = 1 the gravitational This is the gravity acceleration inside m ′g .
mass is not zero but equal to mg(min).Although the Figure II (b) shows the gravitational
gravitational mass of a particle is never null,
shielding effect produced by two particles
Eq.(41) shows that it can be turned very close to
zero.
at the same direction. In this case, the
20

gravity acceleration inside and above the flux on the surface α returns from O′ to
second particle will be χ 2 g if m g 2 = m i1 . O and is detected by the
These particles are representative galvanometer G . That is, there is no
of any material particles or material deflection for the cathodic rays. Then it
r r
substance (solid, liquid, gas, plasma, follows that eVB = eEy since FB = FE .
electrons flux, etc.), whose gravitational
mass have been reduced by the Then, we get
factor χ . Thus, above the substance, the Ey
V =
gravity acceleration g ′ is reduced at the B
same proportion χ = m g mi 0 , and, This gives a measure of the velocity of
the electrons.
consequently, g ′ = χ g , where g is the Thus, by means of the
gravity acceleration below the substance. experimental set-up, shown in Fig. III, we
Figure III shows an experimental can easily obtain the velocity V of the
set-up in order to check the factor χ electrons below the body β , in order to
above a high-speed electrons flux. As we calculate the theoretical value of χ . The
have shown (Eq. 43), the gravitational experimental value of χ can be obtained
mass of a particle decreases with the
by dividing the weight, Pβ′ = m gβ g ′ of
increase of the velocity V of the particle.
~
Since the theory says that the the body β for a voltage drop V across
factor χ is given by the correlation the anode and cathode, by its
m g mi 0 then, in the case of an electrons weight, Pβ = m gβ g , when the voltage
flux, we will have that χ = mge mie where ~
V is zero, i.e.,
m ge as function of the velocity V is Pβ′ g′
χ = =
given by Eq. (43). Thus, we can write Pβ g
that
According to Eq. (4), the gravitational
mass, M g , is defined by
m ge ⎧⎪ ⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎫⎪
χ= = ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ − 1⎥ ⎬ mg
mie ⎪⎩ ⎢
⎣ 1−V c
2 2
⎥⎦ ⎪⎭ Mg =
1 − V 2 c2
Therefore, if we know the velocity V of
the electrons we can calculate χ . ( mie is While Eq. (43) defines m g by means of
the electron mass at rest). the following expression
When an electron penetrates the ⎧⎪ ⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎫⎪
electric field E y (see Fig. III) an electric m g = ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ − 1⎥ ⎬mi 0
r r ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 1 − V 2 c 2 ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
force, FE = −eE y , will act upon the
r In order to check the gravitational mass
electron. The direction of FE will be of the electrons it is necessary to know
r the pressure P produced by the
contrary to the direction of E y . The
r electrons flux. Thus, we have put a
magnetic force FB which acts upon the piezoelectric sensor in the bottom of the
r glass tube as shown in Fig. III. The
electron, due to the magnetic field B , is electrons flux radiated from the cathode
r r
FB = eVBμ̂ and will be opposite to FE is accelerated by the anode1 and strikes
because the electron charge is negative. on the piezoelectric sensor yielding a
By adjusting conveniently B we pressure P which is measured by
r r means of the sensor.
can make FB = FE . Under these
circumstances in which the total force is
zero, the spot produced by the electrons
21

g g′ < g g′ < 0

mg = mi mg < mi mg < 0

g g g

(a)

Particle 2 P2 = mg 2 g′ = mg 2 ( x g )
mg 2
g′ < g due to the gravitational
g′ shielding effect produced by mg 1

mg 1 = x mi 1 ; x < 1
Particle 1
mg 1 P1 = mg 1 g = x mi 1 g
g

(b)

Fig. I I – The Gravitational Shielding effect.


22

Let us now deduce the correlation piezoelectric sensor is the resultant of


between P and M ge . all the forces Fφ produced by each
When the electrons flux strikes electrons flux that passes through
the sensor, the electrons transfer to it each hole of area S φ in the grid of the
a momentum Q = neqe = ne MgeV . anode 1, and is given by
Since Q = FΔt = 2Fd V , we conclude that ⎛ αnSφ ⎞ ~ 32
F = nFφ = n(PSφ ) = ⎜⎜ ⎟
2 ⎟
M VV
⎛F⎞
2d ⎝ 2ed ⎠
ge

M ge = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
V2
⎝ ne ⎠ where n is the number of holes in the
The amount of electrons, ne , is given grid. By means of the piezoelectric
sensor we can measure F and
by ne = ρSd where ρ is the amount of
consequently obtain M ge .
electrons per unit of volume
We can use the equation
(electrons/m3); S is the cross-section
above to evaluate the magnitude of
of the electrons flux and d the
the force F to be measured by the
distance between cathode and
piezoelectric sensor. First, we will find
anode.
the expression of V as a function of
In order to calculate ne we will ~
V since the electrons speed V
start from the Langmuir-Child law and ~
the Ohm vectorial law, respectively depends on the voltage V .
given by We will start from Eq. (46)
~ 3 which is the general expression for
and J = ρ cV , (ρ c = ρ e )
V2
J =α Lorentz’s force, i.e.,
r
( )
d dp r r r mg
where J is the thermoionic current = qE + qV × B
− 32
dt mi 0
density; α = 2.33 × 10 − 6 A.m −1 .V is
~ When the force and the speed
the called Child’s constant; V is the have the same direction Eq.
r r (6) gives
voltage drop across the anode and dp mg dV
=
cathode electrodes, and V is the dt (1 − V 2 c 2 )2 dt
3

velocity of the electrons.


By comparing the Langmuir- By comparing these expressions we
Child law with the Ohm vectorial law obtain r
we obtain mi 0 dV r r r
~ = q E + q V ×B
( )
3

αV
3

1 − V 2 c 2 2 dt
2

ρ= 2
ed V In the case of electrons accelerated
Thus, we can write that by a sole electric field (B = 0) , the
~ 3

αV S 2
equation above gives
ne = r r ~
( )
edV r dV eE 2eV
and a= = 1−V c
2 2

dt mie mie
⎛ 2ed 2 ⎞
M ge = ⎜⎜ ~ 3 ⎟⎟ P Therefore, the velocity V of the
⎝ α VV 2 ⎠ electrons in the experimental set-up
Where P = F S , is the pressure to be is
~
measured by the piezoelectric
( 2eV
)
3

V = 2ad = 1 − V 2 c 2 4
sensor. mie
In the experimental set-up the
From Eq. (43) we conclude that
total force F acting on the
23

Dynamometer (D)

d
~
Collimators g’= χ g ↓g + Vy
Grid d Collimators B
O’ +
α γ
F
e V
y Ey O⋅ e

Anode 1 Filaments Cathode Anode 2


Piezoelectric − G ↓iG
sensor
- +

~
V

+ −

Fig. III – Experimental set-up in order to check the factor χ above a high-speed electrons flux.
The set-up may also check the velocities and the gravitational masses of the electrons.
24

mge ≅ 0 when V ≅ 0.745c . Substitution If we have nSφ ≅ 0.16m 2 and


of this value of V into equation above d = 0.08m in the experimental set-up
~
gives V ≅ 479.1KV . This is the then it follows that
~
F = 1.82 × 1014 M geVV
3
voltage drop necessary to be applied 2

across the anode and cathode ~


electrodes in order to obtain mge ≅ 0 . By varying V from 10KV up to 500KV
we note that the maximum value for
Since the equation above can ~
be used to evaluate the velocity V of F occurs when V ≅ 344.7 KV . Under
~ these circumstances, V ≅ 0.7c and
the electrons flux for a given V , then
M ge ≅ 0.28mie . Thus the maximum
we can use the obtained value of V to
r value for F is
evaluate the intensity of B in order to
produce eVB = eE y in the Fmax ≅ 1.9 N ≅ 190 gf
~
experimental set-up. Then by Consequently, for Vmax = 500 KV , the
adjusting B we can check when the piezoelectric sensor must satisfy the
electrons flux is detected by the following characteristics:
galvanometer G . In this case, as we
have already seen, eVB = eE y , and − Capacity 200gf
the velocity of the electrons flux is − Readability 0.001gf
calculated by means of the
expression V = E y B . Substitution of Let us now return to the
explanation for the findings of
V into the expressions of m ge and
Podkletnov’s experiment. Next, we
M ge , respectively given by will explain the decrease of 0.1% in
⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤ ⎫⎪ the weight of the superconductor
1
mge = ⎨1 − 2⎢ − 1⎥ ⎬mie when the disk is only levitating but not
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 1 − V 2 c 2 ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭ rotating.
Equation (55) shows how the
and gravitational mass is altered by
m ge electromagnetic fields.
M ge = The expression of nr for
1−V 2 c2 σ >> ωε can be obtained from (54),
yields the corresponding values of in the form
m ge and M ge which can be compared μσ c 2
nr =
c
= (56 )
with the values obtained in the v 4πf
experimental set-up:
Substitution of (56) into (55) leads to
(
m ge = χmie = Pβ′ Pβ mie ) ⎧


μσ ⎛ U ⎞
2 ⎤⎫


mg = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬mi 0
F ⎛ 2ed 2 ⎞ ⎪ ⎢ 4πf ⎝ mi c ⎠ ⎥⎪
M ge = ⎜ ⎟ ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
~3 ⎜ αnS φ ⎟
VV 2 ⎝ ⎠ This equation shows that atoms of
ferromagnetic materials with very-
where Pβ′ and Pβ are measured by high μ can have gravitational
the dynamometer D and F is masses strongly reduced by means
measured by the piezoelectric of Extremely Low Frequency (ELF)
sensor. electromagnetic radiation. It also
shows that atoms of superconducting
25

materials (due to very-high σ ) can other hand the transition temperature,


also have its gravitational masses for high critical temperature (HTC)
strongly reduced by means of ELF superconducting materials, is in the
electromagnetic radiation. order of 10 2 K . Thus (58a) gives
Alternatively, we may put ⎧ ⎡ ⎫
⎪ ~ 10−9 ⎤⎪
Eq.(55) as a function of the power mg,CPfluid = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2 −1⎥⎬mi,CPfluid (58b)
density ( or intensity ), D , of the ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ρCPfluid ⎥⎦⎪

radiation. The integration of (51)
Assuming that the number of Copper-
gives U =VD v . Thus, we can write
pairs per unit volume is N ≈ 10 26 m −3
(55) in the following form:
[27] we can write that
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
ρ CPfluid = Nm* ≈ 10 −4 kg / m 3
2
⎪ ⎛ nr2 D ⎞ ⎪
mg = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ 3 ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬mi 0
⎢ (57)
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ ρc ⎠ ⎥⎪ Substitution of this value into (58b)
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ yields
where ρ = mi 0 V .
For σ >> ωε , nr will be given by mg,CPfluid = m − 0.1 mi,CPfluid
i,CPfluid
(56) and consequently (57) becomes
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ This means that the gravitational
⎪ ⎛ μσ ⎞ ⎪
⎟⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬mi 0 (58)
D
mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜ masses of the electrons are
⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝ 4πfρc ⎠ ⎥⎪ decreased of ~10%. This
⎣ ⎦⎭
corresponds to a decrease in the
In the case of Thermal gravitational mass of the
radiation, it is common to relate superconductor given by
m g ,SC N (m ge + m gp + m gn + ΔE c 2 )
the energy of photons to
temperature, T, through the = =
relation, mi , SC N (mie + mip + min + ΔE c 2 )
hf ≈ κT ⎛ m ge + m gp + m gn + ΔE c 2 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟=
where κ = 1.38 × 10 −23 J / °K is the ⎜ m + m + m + ΔE c 2 ⎟
⎝ ie ip in ⎠
Boltzmann’s constant. On the other
hand it is known that ⎛ 0.9mie + mip + min + ΔE c 2 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟=
D = σ BT 4 ⎜ m + m + m + ΔE c 2 ⎟
⎝ ie ip in ⎠
where σ B = 5.67 × 10 −8 watts / m 2 ° K 4 = 0.999976
is the Stefan-Boltzmann’s constant. Where ΔE is the interaction energy.
Thus we can rewrite (58) in the Therefore, a decrease of
following form (1 − 0.999976) ≈ 10 , i.e., approximately
−5

⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ μσσ 3
⎞ ⎪ 10 −3% in respect to the initial
⎢ − 1⎥⎬mi0 (58a)
⎜ hT ⎟
mg = ⎨1 − 2 1 + B
⎢ ⎜ 4πκρ c ⎟ ⎥ gravitational mass of the

⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭ superconductor, due to the local
Starting from this equation, we can thermal radiation only. However, here
evaluate the effect of the thermal we must also consider the
radiation upon the gravitational mass gravitational shielding effect
of the Copper-pair fluid, m g ,CPfluid . produced, in this case, by the
Below the transition temperature, Tc , decrease of ≈ 10 − 3% in the
gravitational mass of the particles
(T Tc < 0.5) the conductivity of the inside the superconductor (see Fig.
superconducting materials is usually II). Therefore the total weight
larger than 10 22 S / m [26]. On the decrease in the superconductor will
26
r r
be much greater than ≈ 10 − 3% . This J = Δ eVd
can explain the smaller effect on the where Δe is the density of the
order of 0.1% observed in the
free electric charges ( For cooper
Podkletnov measurements when the
disk is not rotating. conductors Δe = 1.3 × 1010 C / m 3 ).
Let us now consider an electric Therefore increasing Vd produces an
current I through a conductor increase in the electric current I .
subjected to electromagnetic Thus if mge is reduced 10 times
radiation with power density D and
frequency f .
(m ge ≈ 0.1me ) the drift velocity Vd is
Under these circumstances the increased 10 times as well as the
gravitational mass mge of the electric current. Thus we conclude
that strong fluxes of ELF radiation
electrons of the conductor, according upon electric/electronic circuits can
to Eq. (58), is given by suddenly increase the electric
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ currents and consequently damage
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ μσD ⎞ ⎪
m ge = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬m e these circuits.
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ 4πfρc ⎠ ⎥⎪ Since the orbital electrons
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
−31 moment of inertia is given
where me = 9.11 × 10 kg .
by I i = Σ (mi ) j rj , where mi refers to
2

Note that if the radiation upon


the conductor has extremely-low inertial mass and not to gravitational
frequency (ELF radiation) then mge mass, then the momentum L = I iω of
can be strongly reduced. For the conductor orbital electrons are not
affected by the ELF radiation.
example, if f ≈ 10−6 Hz , D ≈ 10 5 W / m 2
Consequently, this radiation just
and the conductor is made of copper affects the conductor’s free electrons
( μ ≅ μ0 ; σ = 5.8×107 S / mand velocities. Similarly, in the case of
ρ = 8900kg / m3 ) then superconducting materials, the
⎛ μσD ⎞ momentum, L = I iω , of the orbital
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ≈ 1 electrons are not affected by the
⎝ 4πfρc ⎠
gravitomagnetic fields.
and consequently mge ≈ 0.1me . r r
The vector D = (U V )v , which we
According to Eq. (6) the force
may define from (48), has the same
upon each free electron is given by r
direction of the propagation vector k
r and evidently corresponds to the
r m ge dV r r
Fe = = eE
(1 − V c2 ) 2
Poynting vector. Then D can be
2
3
dt r r
replaced by E× H .Thus we can write
D = 12 EH = 12 E(B μ) = 12 E[(E v) μ] = 12 (1 vμ)E2 .
where E is the applied electric field.
For σ >> ωε Eq. (54) tells us that
Therefore, the decrease of mge
v = 4πf μσ . Consequently, we obtain
produces an increase in the velocity
V of the free electrons and σ
D = 12 E 2
consequently the drift velocity Vd is 4πfμ
also increased. It is known that the This expression refers to the
density of electric current J through instantaneous values of D and E .
a conductor [28] is given by The average value for E 2 is equal to
1 E 2 because E varies sinusoidaly
2 m
27

( E m is the maximum value for E ). penetrates the magnetic field, its


Substitution of the expression of D negative inertial mass increases, but
into (58) gives its total inertial mass decreases, i.e.,
⎧ although there is an increase of
⎡ 3 ⎤⎫
μ ⎛σ ⎞ E
2
⎪ ⎪
⎟⎟ 2 − 1⎥⎬mi0 (59a)
inertial mass, the total inertial mass
mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 2 ⎜⎜
⎪⎩ ⎢ 4c ⎝ 4πf ⎠ ρ ⎥⎪ (which is equivalent to gravitational
⎣ ⎦⎭ mass) will be reduced.
Since E rms = E m 2 and E = 12 E m2 we 2
On the other hand, Eq.(4)
can write the equation above in the shows that the velocity of the body
following form must increase as consequence of
⎧ ⎡ the gravitational mass decreasing
3 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ μ ⎛ σ ⎞ Erms 2

−1⎥⎬mi0 (59a)
since the momentum is conserved.
mg = ⎨1− 2 1+ 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 4c ⎝ 4πf ⎠ ρ 2
⎥⎪ Consider for example a spacecraft
⎦⎭ with velocity Vs and gravitational
Note that for extremely-low
mass M g . If M g is reduced to m g
frequencies the value of f − 3 in this
then the velocity becomes
V s′ = (M g m g )V s
equation becomes highly expressive.
Since E = vB equation (59a)
can also be put as a function of B , In addition, Eqs. 5 and 6 tell us that
i.e., the inertial forces depend on m g .
⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎛ σ ⎞ B4 ⎤⎫⎪ Only in the particular case of
mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟
2 ⎟ 2
− 1⎥⎬mi 0 (59b) m g = m i 0 the expressions (5) and
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 4πfμc ⎠ ρ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
(6) reduce to the well-known
For conducting materials with Newtonian expression F = mi 0 a .
σ ≈ 10 S / m ; μ r = 1 ; ρ ≈ 10 kg / m3
7 3
Consequently, one can conclude that
the expression (59b) gives the inertial effects on the spacecraft
⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎛ ≈ 10 −12 ⎞ 4 ⎤ ⎫⎪ will also be reduced due to the
mg = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜
⎢ ⎟⎟ B − 1⎥ ⎬mi 0 decreasing of its gravitational mass.
⎪⎩ ⎢
⎣ ⎝ f ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
Obviously this leads to a new
This equation shows that the concept of aerospace flight.
decreasing in the gravitational mass Now consider an electric
of these conductors can become current i = i0 sin2πft through a
experimentally detectable for
conductor. Since the current density,
example, starting from 100Teslas at r r r r
10mHz. J , is expressed by J = di dS = σE ,
One can then conclude that an then we can write that
interesting situation arises when a E = i σS = (i0 σS ) sin 2πft . Substitution
body penetrates a magnetic field in of this equation into (59a) gives
the direction of its center. The ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤⎫⎪
i4μ
gravitational mass of the body mg = ⎨1−2⎢ 1+ 3 20 2 4 3 sin4 2πft −1⎥⎬mi0 (59c)
decreases progressively. This is due ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 64π c ρ S f σ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
to the intensity increase of the If the conductor is a supermalloy rod
magnetic field upon the body while it
penetrates the field. In order to
(1 × 1 × 400mm) then μr = 100,000
understand this phenomenon we (initial); ρ = 8770kg / m 3 ; σ = 1.6 ×106 S / m
might, based on (43), think of the and S = 1 × 10 −6 m 2 . Substitution of
inertial mass as being formed by two these values into the equation above
parts: one positive and another yields the following expression for the
negative. Thus, when the body
28

gravitational mass of the supermalloy Δp P2


rod =
m i 0 c 2 ρ 2 cv 3

⎩ ⎢⎣
( )
mg(sm) =⎧⎨1−2⎡ 1+ 5.71×10−12i04 f 3 sin42πft −1⎤⎫⎬mi(sm)
⎥⎦⎭
Substitution of this expression into
(41) gives
Some oscillators like the HP3325A ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ P2 ⎞ ⎪
(Op.002 High Voltage Output) can mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ 2 3 ⎟ −1⎥⎥⎬mi 0 (60)
generate sinusoidal voltages with ⎜ 2ρ cv ⎟
⎪ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
extremely-low frequencies down to ⎩
f = 1 × 10 −6 Hz and amplitude up to This expression shows that in the
case of sound waves the decreasing
20V (into 50Ω load). The maximum
of gravitational mass is relevant for
output current is 0.08 App . very strong pressures only.
Thus, for i0 = 0.04 A (0.08 A pp ) It is known that in the nucleus
and f < 2.25 × 10 −6 Hz the equation of the Earth the pressure can reach
values greater than 1013 N / m 2 . The
above shows that the gravitational
mass of the rod becomes negative at equation above tells us that sound
waves produced by pressure
2πft = π 2 ; for f ≅ 1.7 × 10−6 Hz at
variations of this magnitude can
t = 1 4 f = 1.47 × 10 5 s ≅ 40.8h it shows cause strong decreasing of the
that m g ( sm ) ≅ − mi ( sm ) . gravitational mass at the
This leads to the idea of the surroundings of the point where the
Gravitational Motor. See in Fig. IV a sound waves were generated. This
type of gravitational motor (Rotational obviously must cause an abrupt
Gravitational Motor) based on the decreasing of the pressure at this
possibility of gravity control on a place since pressure = weight /area =
ferromagnetic wire. mgg/area). Consequently a local
It is important to realize that instability will be produced due to the
this is not the unique way of opposite internal pressure. The
decreasing the gravitational mass of conclusion is that this effect may
a body. It was noted earlier that the cause Earthquakes.
expression (53) is general for all Consider a sphere of radius r
types of waves including non- around the point where the sound
electromagnetic waves like sound waves were generated (at ≈ 1,000km
waves for example. In this case, the depth; the Earth's radius is 6 ,378km ).
velocity v in (53) will be the speed of If the maximum pressure, at the
sound in the body and D the intensity explosion place ( sphere of radius r0 ),
of the sound radiation. Thus from (53) is Pmax ≈ 1013 N / m 2 and the pressure
we can write that
at the distance r = 10km is
Δp V D D
= = Pmin = (r0 r ) Pmax ≈ 10 N / m then we can
2 9 2
mi c mi c ρcv 2
consider that in the sphere
It can easily be shown that
D = 2π 2 ρf 2 A 2 v where A = λP 2πρv 2 ; P = PmaxPmin ≈ 10 N / m .Thus assuming
11 2

A and P are respectively the v ≈ 103 m / s and ρ ≈103 kg/ m3 we can


amplitude and maximum pressure calculate the variation of gravitational
variation of the sound wave. mass in the sphere by means of the
Therefore we readily obtain equation of m g , i.e.,
29

⎧ ⎡ i4μ ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎪
α = ⎨1 − 2 1 + − 1⎥ ⎬
⎪⎩ ⎢ 64π c ρ S f σ
3 2 2 4 3
⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭
Axis
of the
Rotor
Ferromagnetic wire F = mg g = α mi g

P = mi g

~ One plate of ferromagnetic wire


of the Rotor
ELF current
source

Several plates of
ferromagnetic wire

Rotor of the Motor

Fig. IV - Rotational Gravitational Motor


30

r
force, Fi , is given by Eq.(6), and from
Δmg = mg (initial) − mg = Eq.(13) we can obtain the
r r r
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ gravitational force, Fg . Thus, Fi ≡ Fg
⎪ ⎛ P2 ⎞ ⎪
= mi 0 − ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ 2 3 ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬mi 0 = leads to

⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝ 2ρ cv ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭ mg r m′g mg
a ≡G ≡

⎛ P2 ⎞
2 ⎤ 1−V c (
2 2 2
3
) ⎛
⎜ r′ 1−V c ⎟
2 2 ⎞
2
1 −V 2 2
c
= 2⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜ 2 3 ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ ρV ≈ 1011 kg ⎝ ⎠
⎢ ⎝ 2 ρ cv ⎠ ⎥ ⎛ m′g ⎞ mg mg
⎣ ⎦ r
≡ ⎜⎜G 2 ⎟⎟ ≡g (61)
The transitory loss of this great ( )
⎝ r′ ⎠ 1−V 2 c2 2
3
( 3
)
1−V 2 c2 2
amount of gravitational mass may whence results
r r
evidently produce a strong pressure a≡g (62 )
variation and consequently a strong
Consequently, the equivalence is
Earthquake.
evident, and therefore Einstein's
Finally, we can evaluate the
equations from the General Relativity
energy necessary to generate those
continue obviously valid.
sound waves. From (48) we can write
The new expression for Fi
D max = Pmax v ≈ 10 16 W / m 2 . Thus, the
released power is P0 = Dmax(4πr02 ) ≈ 1021W
(Eqs. (5) and (6)) shows that the
inertial forces are proportional to the
and the energy ΔE released at the gravitational mass, m g . This means
time interval Δt must be ΔE = P0 Δt . that these forces result from the
Assuming Δt ≈ 10 s we readily obtain
−3
gravitational interaction between the
ΔE = P0 Δt ≈ 1018 joules ≈ 10 4 Megatons particle and the other gravitational
This is the amount of energy released masses of the Universe, just as
by an earthquake of magnitude 9 Mach’s principle predicts. Therefore
(Ms =9) , i.e., E = 1.74×10(5+1.44Ms ) ≅ 1018 joules. the new expression for the inertial
forces incorporates the Mach’s
The maximum magnitude in the principle into Gravitation Theory, and
Richter scale is 12. Note that the sole furthermore reveals that the inertial
releasing of this energy at 1000km effects upon a particle can be
depth (without the effect of reduced because, as we have seen,
gravitational mass decreasing) the gravitational mass may be
cannot produce an Earthquake, since reduced. When m g = mi 0 the
the sound waves reach 1km depth
with pressures less than 10N/cm2. nonrelativistic equation for inertial
r r
Let us now return to the Theory. forces, Fi = mg a , reduces to
The equivalence between r r
Fi = mi 0 a . This is the well-known
frames of non-inertial reference and
gravitational fields assumed m g ≡ mi Newton's second law for motion.
In Einstein's Special Relativity
because the inertial forces were given Theory the motion of a free-particle is
r r
by Fi = mi a , while the equivalent described by means of δS = 0 [29].
r r Now based on Eq. (1), δS = 0 will be
gravitational forces, by Fg = mg g .
given by the following expression
Thus, to satisfy the equivalence
r r r δS = − m g cδ ∫ ds = 0. (63 )
( a ≡ g and Fi ≡ Fg ) it was necessary
which also describes the motion of
that m g ≡ mi . Now, the inertial the particle inside the gravitational
31

field. Thus, Einstein's equations from number n is very large (Classical


the General Relativity can be derived limit). Therefore, just under these
starting from δ (S m + S g ) = 0 , where circumstances the Einstein's
S g and S m refer to the action of the equations from the General Relativity
can be used in order to “classicalize”
gravitational field and the action of the quantum theory by means of
the matter, respectively [30]. approximated description of the
The variations δS g and δS m can spacetime.
be written as follows [31]: Later on we will show that the

∫( )
c3 length d min of Eq. (29) is given by
δSg = Rik − 12 gik R δg ik − g dΩ (64)
16πG ( )
1
≈ 10 −34 m (70)
~ ~
d min = k l planck = k Gh c 3 2
1
(65 )
2c ∫
δS m =− Tik δg ik − g dΩ (See Eq. (100)). On the other hand,
where Rik is the Ricci's tensor; g ik the we will find in the Eq. (129) the length
scale of the initial Universe, i.e.,
metric tensor and Tik the matter's dinitial ≈10−14m. Thus, from the Eq. (29)
energy-momentum tensor:
we get: n = dinitial dmin = 10−14 10−34 ≈ 1020
Tik = (P + ε g )μ i μ k + Pg ik (66 )
this is the quantum number of the
where P is the pressure and εg = ρgc2 spacetime at initial instant. That
is now, the density of gravitational quantum number is sufficiently large
energy, E g , of the particle; ρ g is then for the spacetime to be considered
the density of gravitational mass of approximately “continuous” starting
the particle, i.e., M g at the volume from the beginning of the Universe.
Therefore Einstein's equations can be
unit. used even at the Initial Universe.
Substitution of (64) and (65) into Now, it is easy to conclude why
δS m + δS g = 0 yields the attempt to quantize gravity
c3
16πG
( 8πG
)
∫ Rik − 2 gik R − c 4 Tik δg − g dΩ = 0
1 ik
starting from the General Relativity
was a bad theoretical strategy.
Since the gravitational
whence,
interaction can be repulsive, besides
⎛⎜ R − 1 g R − 8πG T ⎞⎟ = 0 (67)
⎝ ik 2 ik c4
ik

attractive, such as the
electromagnetic interaction, then the
because the δg ik are arbitrary.
graviton must have spin 1 (called
Equations (67) in the following form graviphoton) and not 2.
Rik − 12 g ik R = 8π4G Tik (68) Consequently, the gravitational forces
c
are also gauge forces because they
or
are yielded by the exchange of the
Rik − 12 gδ ik R = 8π4G Tik . (69) so-called "virtual" quanta of spin 1,
c
are the Einstein's equations from the such as the electromagnetic forces
General Relativity. and the weak and strong nuclear
It is known that these equations forces.
are only valid if the spacetime is Let us now deduce the Entropy
continuous. We have shown at the Differential Equation starting from Eq.
beginning of this work that the (55). Comparison of Eqs. (55) and
spacetime is not continuous it is (41) shows that Unr = Δpc . For small
quantized. However, the spacetime velocities, i.e., (V << c ) , we have
can be considered approximately
Unr << mi 0 c 2 . Under these
“continuous” when the quantum
32

circumstances, the development of T (∂Ei ∂T ) = 2EKi (77)


( )
Eq. (55) in power of Unr mi 0 c 2 gives However, Eq.(18) shows that
⎛ Unr ⎞
2 2EKi =Ei −Eg .Therefore Eq.(77) becomes
mg = mi 0 − ⎜⎜ ⎟ mi 0
2 ⎟
(71) Eg = Ei − T (∂Ei ∂T ) (78)
⎝ i0 ⎠
m c
In the particular case of thermal Here, we can identify the energy E i
radiation, it is usual to relate the with the free-energy of the system-F
energy of the photons to the and E g with the internal energy of
temperature, through the relationship the system-U. Thus we can write the
hν ≈ kT where k = 1.38×10−23 J K is Eq.(78) in the following form:
the Boltzmann's constant. Thus, in U = F − T (∂F ∂T ) (79)
that case, the energy absorbed by the This is the well-known equation of
particle will be U = η hν ≈ ηkT , Thermodynamics. On the other hand,
where η is a particle-dependent remembering that ∂Q = ∂τ +∂U (1st
absorption/emission coefficient. principle of Thermodynamics) and
Therefore, Eq.(71) may be rewritten F = U − TS (80)
in the following form: (Helmholtz's function), we can easily
⎡⎛ nrηk ⎞2 T 2 ⎤ obtain from (79), the following
mg = mi0 − ⎢⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎥mi0 (72) equation
⎢⎣⎝ c ⎠ mi0 ⎥⎦ (81)
2
∂Q = ∂τ + T∂S .
For electrons at T=300K, we have For isolated systems, ∂τ = 0 , we have
⎛ nrηk ⎞ T 2
2
∂Q = T∂S (82)
⎜ 2 ⎟ ≈ 10 −17
⎝ c ⎠ me which is the well-known Entropy
2

Comparing (72) with (18), we obtain Differential Equation.


Let us now consider the
1 ⎛ nrηk ⎞ T 2
2

EKi = ⎜ ⎟ . (73) Eq.(55) in the ultra-relativistic case


2 ⎝ c ⎠ mi 0 where the inertial energy of the
The derivative of E Ki with respect to particle E i = M i c 2 is much larger than
temperature T is its inertial energy at rest mi 0 c 2 .
∂E Ki
= (nrηk c ) (T mi 0 ) (74) Comparison of (4) and (10) leads to
2

∂T Δp = EiV c 2 which, in the ultra-


Thus, relativistic case, gives
∂E
T Ki = r 2
(n ηkT)2 (75) Δp = EiV c ≅ Ei c ≅ Mi c . On the other
2

∂T mi0 c hand, comparison of (55) and (41)


Substitution of EKi = Ei − Ei0 into (75) shows that Unr = Δpc . Thus
gives Unr = Δpc ≅ Mi c2 >> mi0c2 . Consequently,
⎛ ∂Ei ∂Ei 0 ⎞ (nrηkT )
2

T⎜ + ⎟= (76) Eq.(55) reduces to


⎝ ∂T ∂T ⎠ mi 0 c 2
By comparing the Eqs.(76) and (73) m g = mi 0 − 2 Un r c 2 (83 )
and considering that ∂Ei0 ∂T = 0
because E i 0 does not depend on T , Therefore, the action for such
particle, in agreement with the Eq.(2),
the Eq.(76) reduces to is
33

t2
S = −∫t mgc2 1 − V 2 c2 dt = complete description of the
1 electromagnetic field. This means
t2
( )
= ∫t − mi + 2Unr c2 c2 1 −V 2 c2 dt = that from the present theory for

[ ]
1
gravity we can also derive the
= ∫t − mic2 1 − V 2 c2 + 2Unr 1 − V 2 c2 dt. (84)
t2
equations of the electromagnetic
1
field.
The integrant function is the Due to Un r = Δpc ≅ M i c 2 the
Lagrangean, i.e.,
second term on the right hand side of
L = −mi0c2 1−V 2 c2 + 2Unr 1−V 2 c2 (85) Eq.(86) can be written as follows
Starting from the Lagrangean we can
find the Hamiltonian of the particle, by Δpc⎢
(
⎡ 4V 2 c 2 − 2 ⎤
⎥=
)
means of the well-known general ⎢⎣ 1 − V 2 c 2 ⎥⎦
formula:
H = V (∂L ∂V ) − L.
=⎢
( )
⎡ 4V 2 c 2 − 2 ⎤
⎥M i c 2 =
The result is ⎢⎣ 1 − V c ⎥⎦
2 2

H=
mi0c2
+ Unr ⎢
(
⎡ 4V 2 c2 − 2 ⎤
⎥.
)
(86) = Qϕ =
QQ′
=
QQ′
1−V c2 2

⎣ 1−V c ⎦
2 2
⎥ 4πε0 R 4πε0 r 1 − V 2 c 2
The second term on the right hand whence
QQ ′
side of Eq.(86) results from the
particle's interaction with the (4V 2
)
c 2 − 2 M ic 2 =
4πε 0 r
electromagnetic field. Note the
similarity between the obtained (
The factor 4V 2 c 2 − 2 becomes )
Hamiltonian and the well-known equal to 2 in the ultra-relativistic case,
Hamiltonian for the particle in an then it follows that
QQ ′
electromagnetic field [32]: 2M i c 2 = (88 )
4πε 0 r
H = mi0c2 1 − V 2 c2 + Qϕ. (87) From (44), we know that there is a
minimum value for M i given by
in which Q is the electric charge and M i (min) = mi (min) . Eq.(43) shows that
ϕ , the field's scalar potential. The mg (min) = mi0(min) and Eq.(23) gives
quantity Q ϕ expresses, as we mg (min) = ± h cLmax 8 = ± h 3 8 cdmax .
know, the particle's interaction with
Thus we can write
the electromagnetic field in the same
way as the second term on the right Mi(min) = mi0(min) = ± h 3 8 cdmax (89)
hand side of the Eq. (86). According to (88) the value 2M i (min )c 2
It is therefore evident that it is
the same quantity, expressed by is correlated to (QQ′ 4πε0r)min =Qmin2
4πε0 rmax,
different variables. i.e.,
2
Thus, we can conclude that, in Q min
= 2 M i (min )c 2 (90 )
ultra-high energy conditions 4πε 0 rmax
( 2 2
)
Unr ≅ M i c > mi 0 c , the gravitational where Qmin is the minimum electric
and electromagnetic fields can charge in the Universe ( therefore
be described by the same equal to minimum electric charge of
Hamiltonian, i.e., in these
the quarks, i.e., 13 e ); rmax is the
circumstances they are unified !
It is known that starting from maximum distance between Q and
that Hamiltonian we may obtain a Q ′ , which should be equal to the so-
34

called "diameter", dc , of the visible matter in the


Universe is
nU VU ≅ 10 particles/ m
46
we can 3
conclude
Universe ( d c = 2lc where l c is obtained
that these particles fill all space in the
from the Hubble's law for V = c , i.e., Universe, by forming a Continuous 4
~
l c = cH −1 ). Thus, from (90) we readily Universal Medium or Continuous
obtain Universal Fluid (CUF), the density of
which is
Qmin = πε 0 hc 24 (dc d max ) = nU m i 0(min )
ρ CUF = ≅ 10 − 27 kg / m 3
( ~
= πε 0 hc 2 96H −1 d max = ) VU
Note that this density is much smaller
= 13 e (91) than the density of the Intergalactic
whence we find (
Medium ρ IGM ≅ 10 −26 kg / m 3 . )
d max = 3 .4 × 10 30 m The extremely-low density of the
This will be the maximum "diameter" that Continuous Universal Fluid shows that its
the Universe will reach. Consequently, local gravitational mass can be strongly
Eq.(89) tells us that the elementary affected by electromagnetic fields
quantum of matter is (including gravitoelectromagnetic fields),
pressure, etc. (See Eqs. 57, 58, 59a,
mi 0(min) = ± h 3 8 cdmax = ±3.9 × 10−73 kg 59b, 55a, 55c and 60). The density of
this fluid is clearly not uniform along the
Universe, since it can be strongly
This is, therefore, the smallest indivisible compressed in several regions (galaxies,
particle of matter. stars, blackholes, planets, etc). At the
Considering that, the inertial mass normal state (free space), the mentioned
of the Observable Universe is fluid is invisible. However, at super
MU = c 2H0G ≅10 kg and that its volume
3 53 compressed state it can become visible
by giving origin to the known matter
is V U = 4
3
π R U3 = 4
3
π (c H 0 )3 ≅ 10 79 m 3 , since matter, as we have seen, is
where H 0 = 1.75 × 10 −18 s −1 is the Hubble quantized and consequently, formed by
an integer number of elementary
constant, we can conclude that the
number of these particles in the quantum of matter with mass mi 0(min ) .
Observable Universe is Inside the proton, for example, there are
nU =
MU
≅ 10125 particles n p = m p mi0(min) ≅ 1045 elementary quanta
mi 0(min ) of matter at supercompressed state, with
By dividing this number by VU , we get volume V proton n p and “radius”
nU
≅ 10 46 particles / m 3 Rp 3 n p ≅ 10 −30 m .
VU
Therefore, the solidification of the
Obviously, the dimensions of the
matter is just a transitory state of this
smallest indivisible particle of matter
Universal Fluid, which can back to the
depend on its state of compression. In
primitive state when the cohesion
free space, for example, its volume is
conditions disappear.
VU nU . Consequently, its “radius” is
Let us now study another aspect
RU 3 nU ≅ 10 −15 m . of the present theory. By combination of
If N particles with diameter φ fill gravity and the uncertainty principle we
will derive the expression for the Casimir
all space of 1m 3 then Nφ 3 = 1 . Thus, if force.
φ ≅ 10 −15 m then the number of particles, An uncertainty Δmi in mi
with this diameter, necessary to fill produces an uncertainty Δp in p and
all 1m 3 is N ≅ 10 45 particles . Since the
number of smallest indivisible particles of 4
At very small scale.
35

therefore an uncertainty Δmg in m g , ⎛ 2 ⎞ hc


ΔF = −⎜ ⎟ l2 =
⎝ π ⎠ (Δr )
4 planck
which according to Eq.(41) , is given
by
⎛ π ⎞ hc ⎡⎛ 960 ⎞ 2 ⎤
⎡ ⎤ = −⎜ ⎟ ⎢⎜ π 2 ⎟l planck ⎥ =
⎝ 480 ⎠ (Δr )
2
⎛ Δp ⎞ 4
⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎦

Δmg = Δmi − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ Δmi (92)
⎢ Δ
⎝ i ⎠
m c ⎥ ⎛ πA ⎞ hc
⎣ ⎦ = −⎜ 0 ⎟ (97 )
⎝ 480 ⎠ (Δr )
4
From the uncertainty principle for
position and momentum, we know or
that the product of the uncertainties of ⎛ πA ⎞ hc
the simultaneously measurable F0 = −⎜ 0 ⎟ 4 (98)
⎝ 480 ⎠ r
values of the corresponding position which is the expression of the Casimir
and momentum components is at
least of the magnitude order of h , (
force for A = A0 = 960 π 2 l planck
2
. )
i.e., This suggests that A0 is an
Δ p Δr ~ h elementary area related to the
Substitution of Δp ~ h Δr into (92) yields existence of a minimum length
~
⎡ ⎤ d min = k l planck what is in accordance
h Δmi c ⎞
2

Δmg = Δmi − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥Δmi (93) with the quantization of space (29)

⎣ ⎝ Δr ⎠ ⎥
⎦ and which points out to the existence
Therefore if of d min .
h
Δr << (94 ) It can be easily shown that the
Δmi c minimum area related to d min is the
then the expression (93) reduces to: area of an equilateral triangle of side
2h
Δm g ≅ − (95) length d min ,i.e.,
Δrc
Note that Δmg does not depend on
( )
Amin = 43 d min
2 ~ 2
( )
= 43 k 2 l planck
On the other hand, the maximum
mg . area related to d min is the area of a
Consequently, the uncertainty sphere of radius d min ,i.e.,
ΔF in the gravitational ~ 2
Amax = πd min
2
= πk 2 l planck
force F = − Gmg m′g r , will be given by
2

Thus, the elementary area


Δmg Δm′g A0 = δ A d min
2 ~ 2
= δ A k 2l planck (99)
ΔF = −G =
(Δr )2 must have a value between Amin and
Amax , i.e.,
⎡ 2 ⎤ hc ⎛ Gh ⎞
= −⎢ 2⎥ 2 ⎜ 3 ⎟
(96) <δA <π
3

⎣π (Δr ) ⎦ (Δr ) ⎝ c ⎠
4
The previous assumption that
(
A 0 = 960 π l planck
2 2
) shows that
( ) 1
The amount Gh c 3 2 = 1.61 × 10 −35 m ~2
δ A k = 960 π 2 what means that
is called the Planck length, l planck ,( the ~
5 .6 < k < 14 .9
length scale on which quantum
fluctuations of the metric of the space Therefore we conclude that
time are expected to be of order
~
d min = k l planck ≈ 10 −34 m. (100 )
unity). Thus, we can write the The n − esimal area after A0 is
expression of ΔF as follows
36

A = δ A (ndmin ) = n 2 A0 (101) we conclude that Lmax ≅ 1030 m . From


2

It can also be easily shown that the Hubble's law and (22) we have
the minimum volume related to d min that

( )
is the volume of a regular tetrahedron
Vmax = Hlmax = H (d max 2 ) =
~ ~ ~
of edge length d min , i.e., 3 2 HLmax
( )
Ω min = 122 d min3
( ) ~
= 122 k 3 l 3planck ~
where H = 1.7 × 10−18 s −1 . Therefore we
The maximum volume is the volume
obtain
of a sphere of radius d min , i.e.,
Vmax ≅ 1012 m / s .
Ω max = ( 43π )d min = ( 43π )k 3l 3planck
3 ~

Thus, the elementary volume This is the speed upper limit imposed
~3 3
Ω 0 = δ V d min = δ V k l planck must have a
3
by the quantization of velocity (Eq.
36). It is known that the speed upper
value between Ω min and Ω max , i.e.,
( )< δ
limit for real particles is equal to c .
2
12< 43π V However, also it is known that
On the other hand, the n − esimal imaginary particles can have
volume after Ω 0 is velocities greater than c
(Tachyons). Thus, we conclude that
Ω = δ V (ndmin )3 = n3Ω0 n = 1,2,3,...,nmax . Vmax is the speed upper limit for
The existence of nmax given by imaginary particles in our ordinary
(26), i.e., space-time. Later on, we will see that
nmax = Lmax Lmin = d max d min = also exists a speed upper limit to the
= (3.4 × 1030 ) k l planck ≈ 1064
~ imaginary particles in the imaginary
space-time.
shows that the Universe must have a Now, multiplying Eq. (98) (the
finite volume whose value at the expression of F 0 ) by n 2 we obtain
present stage is
Ω 0 = (d p d min )3 δ V d min
⎛ πn2 A0 ⎞ hc ⎛ πA ⎞ hc
Ω Up = nUp = δ V d 3p F = n2 F0 = −⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 4 = −⎜ ⎟ 4 (102)
3 3

⎝ 480 ⎠ r ⎝ 480 ⎠ r
where d p is the present length scale
This is the general expression of the
of the Universe. In addition as
( )
Casimir force.
12 < δ V < 3
2 4π
we conclude that the Thus, we conclude that the
Universe must have a polyhedral Casimir effect is just a gravitational
space topology with volume between effect related to the uncertainty
the volume of a regular tetrahedron principle.
of edge length d p and the volume of Note that Eq. (102) arises only
the sphere of diameter d p . when Δmi and Δmi′ satisfy Eq.(94). If
A recent analysis of only Δ m i satisfies Eq.(94), i.e.,
astronomical data suggests not only Δmi <<h Δrc but Δmi′ >> h Δrc then
that the Universe is finite, but also Δm g and Δm′g will be respectively
that it has a dodecahedral space
given by
topology [33,34], what is in strong
accordance with the previous
Δ m g ≅ − 2 h Δ rc and Δ m ′g ≅ Δ mi
theoretical predictions.
From (22) and (26) we have
that Lmax = dmax 3 = nmaxdmin 3 . Since Consequently, the expression (96)
becomes
(100) gives dmin ≅ 10−34 m and nmax ≅ 10 64
37

hc ⎛ GΔmi′ ⎞ hc ⎛ GΔmi′c 2 ⎞ Δmi >> h Δrc


ΔF = ⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟=
(Δr )3 ⎝ πc 2 ⎠ (Δr )3 ⎜⎝ πc 4 ⎟⎠ Δmi′ >> h Δrc
hc ⎛ GΔE ′ ⎞ In this case, Δmg ≅ Δmi and
= ⎜ ⎟ (103)
(Δr )3 ⎝ πc 4 ⎠ Δm ′g ≅ Δmi′ . Thus,
However, from the uncertainty
ΔF = −G
Δmi Δmi′
= − G
(ΔE c 2 )(ΔE ′ c 2 ) =
principle for energy and time we know (Δr )2 (Δr )2
that
⎛ G ⎞ (h Δt ) ⎛ Gh ⎞ hc ⎛ 1 ⎞
2
ΔE ~ h Δt (104) = −⎜ 4 ⎟ = −⎜ 3 ⎟ 2 ⎜ 2 2 ⎟
=
⎝ c ⎠ (Δr ) ⎝ c ⎠ (Δr ) ⎝ c Δt ⎠
2
Therefore, we can write the
expression (103) in the following ⎛ 1 ⎞ hc 2
= −⎜ ⎟ l =
⎝ 2π ⎠ (Δr )
4 planck
form:
hc ⎛ Gh ⎞⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ π ⎞ hc ⎛ 960 2 ⎞ ⎛ πA ⎞ hc
ΔF = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟= = −⎜ ⎟ 4 ⎜ 2 planck ⎟
l = −⎜ 0 ⎟
(Δr )3 ⎝ c 3 ⎠⎝ πΔt ′c ⎠ ⎝ 1920 ⎠ (Δr ) ⎝ π ⎠ ⎝ 1920 ⎠ (Δr )
4

⎛ 1 ⎞ whence
=
hc
3 planck ⎜
l2 ⎟ (105) ⎛ πA ⎞ hc
(Δr ) ⎝ πΔt ′c ⎠
F = −⎜⎜ ⎟ 4 (107)
From the General Relativity Theory ⎟r
⎝ 1920⎠
we know that dr = cdt − g 00 . If the The force will be attractive and its
field is weak then g 00 = −1 − 2φ c and 2 intensity will be the fourth part of the
dr = cdt (1 + φ c 2 ) = cdt (1 − Gm r 2c 2 ) .
intensity given by the first expression
(102) for the Casimir force.
For Gm r 2 c 2 <<1 we obtain dr ≅ cdt . We can also use this theory to
Thus, if dr = dr′ then dt = dt ′ . This explain some relevant cosmological
means that we can change (Δt ′c ) by phenomena. For example, the recent
(Δr ) into (105). The result is discovery that the cosmic expansion
of the Universe may be accelerating,
hc ⎛ 1 2 ⎞ and not decelerating as many
ΔF = 4 ⎜
l planck ⎟ =
(Δ r ) ⎝ π ⎠ cosmologists had anticipated [35].
We start from Eq. (6) which
⎛ π ⎞ hc ⎛ 480 2 ⎞ r
= ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 2 l planck ⎟ =
⎝ 480 ⎠ (Δ r )
shows that the inertial forces, Fi ,
⎝1π4 2 4 3⎠
4

1
A0
whose action on a particle, in the
2
case of force and speed with same
⎛ π A 0 ⎞ hc direction, is given by
= ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 960 ⎠ (Δ r ) r
4
mg r
Fi = a
or (1 − V 2 c 2 )3
2

⎛ π A 0 ⎞ hc
F0 = ⎜ ⎟ 4 Substitution of m g given by (43) into
⎝ 960 ⎠ r
the expression above gives
whence
r ⎛ ⎞
⎛ πA ⎞ hc Fi = ⎜
3

2 ⎟ m ar
F = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 4 (106) ⎝ (
⎜ 1−V 2 c2 )3
2
(1 − V 2
c )
2 2 ⎟ i0

⎝ 960⎠ r
Now, the Casimir force is repulsive, whence we conclude that a particle
and its intensity is half of the intensity with rest inertial mass, mi 0 , subjected
r
previously obtained (102). to a force, Fi , acquires an
Consider the case when both Δmi r
acceleration a given by
and Δmi′ do not satisfy Eq.(94), and
38
r
r Fi
a =
⎛ 3 2 ⎞
⎜ − ⎟m
⎝ (
⎜ 1−V 2 c2 )
3
2
(1 − V 2
c2 )
2 ⎟ i0

δ
By substituting the well-known
β
expression of Hubble’s law for
~ ~ S C β
velocity, V = Hl , ( H = 1.7 × 10 −18 s −1 is
the Hubble constant) into the Photons
r
expression of a , we get the
acceleration for any particle in the
expanding Universe, i.e., Fig. V – Gravitational deflection of light about
r
r Fi the Sun.
a= Since δ and β are very small we can
⎛ ⎞
⎜ 3

2 ⎟ write that
~ 2 2 2 2 ⎟mi 0
⎝(
⎜ 1− H l c ) (
~ 2 2 2 32
1− H l c ⎠ ) δ = 2β and β =
Vy
Obviously, the distance l increases c
with the expansion of the Universe. Then
Under these circumstances, it is easy 2V y
to see that the term δ=
c
⎛ ⎞
⎜ 3

2 ⎟ Consider the motion of the
⎝ (
⎜ 1− H~2 2 2 2
l c
3

) ( ~2 2 2 2 ⎟
1− H l c ⎠ ) photons at some time t after it has
passed the point of closest approach.
decreases, increasing the acceleration of We impose Cartesian Co-ordinates
the expanding Universe. with the origin at the point of closest
Let us now consider the approach, the x axis pointing along its
phenomenon of gravitational path and the y axis towards the Sun.
deflection of light. The gravitational pull of the Sun is
A distant star’s light ray, M gS M gp
under the Sun’s gravitational force P = −G
field describes the usual central force r2
hyperbolic orbit. The deflection of the where M gp is the relativistic
light ray is illustrated in Fig. V, with gravitational mass of the photon and
the bending greatly exaggerated for a M gS the relativistic gravitational mass
better view of the angle of deflection.
The distance CS is the of the Sun. Thus, the component in a
distance d of closest approach. The perpendicular direction is
angle of deflection of the light ray, δ , F y = −G
M gS M gp
sin β =
is shown in the Figure V and is r2
δ = π − 2β . M gS M gp d
where β is the angle of the = −G
d +c t
2 2 2
d + c 2t 2
2
asymptote to the hyperbole. Then, it
follows that According to Eq. (6) the expression of
tan δ = tan(π − 2 β ) = − tan 2 β the force Fy is
From the Figure V we obtain ⎛ ⎞ dV
⎜ m gp ⎟ y
Vy Fy = ⎜ ⎟⎟ dt
tan β = ⎜ (1 − V 2 c 2 )2
3
.
c ⎝ y ⎠
By substituting Eq. (43) into this
expression, we get
39

⎛ ⎞ m gp = +
4 ⎛ hf ⎞
⎜ 3 2 ⎟ dV y ⎜ ⎟i
Fy = ⎜ −
⎜ (1 − V y c ) (1 − V 2 c 2 )2 ⎟
2 2 3
⎟ M ip 3 ⎝ c2 ⎠
dt
⎝ y ⎠ This means that the gravitational and
For V y << c , we can write this inertial masses of the photon are
imaginaries, and invariants with
expression in the following form
F y = M ip (dV y dt ). This force acts on
respect to speed of photon, i.e.
M ip = mip and M gp = m gp .On the other
the photons for a time t causing an
hand, we can write that
increase in the transverse velocity
2 ⎛ hf ⎞
Fy mip = mip (real ) + mip (imaginary ) = ⎜ ⎟i
dV y = dt 3 ⎝ c2 ⎠
M ip
and
Thus the component of transverse 4 ⎛ hf ⎞
velocity acquired after passing the mgp = mgp(real ) + mgp(imaginary) = ⎜ ⎟i
3 ⎝ c2 ⎠
point of closest approach is
M gp (
d − GM gS ) This means that we must have
Vy = ∫ dt = mip (real ) = m gp (real ) = 0
(d )
3
M ip 2
+ c 2t 2 2 The phenomenon of gravitational
− GM gS ⎛ M gp ⎞ − GM gS ⎛ m gp ⎞ deflection of light about the Sun
= ⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟ shows that the gravitational
dc ⎜⎝ M ip ⎟ dc ⎜ mip ⎟
⎠ ⎝ ⎠ interaction between the Sun and the
Since the angle of deflection δ photons is attractive. Thus, due to the
is given by gravitational force between the Sun
2V y and a photon can be expressed by
δ = 2β =
c F = −G M g (Sun ) m gp (imaginary ) r 2 , where
we readily obtain m gp (imaginary ) is a quantity positive and
2V y − 2GM gS ⎛ m gp ⎞
δ= = ⎜ ⎟ imaginary, we conclude that the
c 2 ⎜ m ⎟
c d ⎝ ip ⎠ force F will only be attractive if the
If m gp mip = 2 , the expression above matter ( M g (Sun ) ) has negative
gives imaginary gravitational mass.
4GM gS The Eq. (41) shows that if the
δ =− inertial mass of a particle is null then its
c2d gravitational mass is given by
As we know, this is the correct m g = ± 2Δp c
formula indicated by the experimental where Δp is the momentum variation due
results.
to the energy absorbed by the particle. If
Equation (4) says that
the energy of the particle is invariant,
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ then Δp = 0 and, consequently, its
⎛ Δp ⎞
m gp
⎪ ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎪⎬mip
⎜ mip c ⎟ ⎥ gravitational mass will also be null. This

⎩ ⎢

⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭ is the case of the photons, i.e., they have
Since m gp mip = 2 then, by making an invariant energy hf and a momentum

Δp = h λ into the equation above we h λ . As they cannot absorb additional


energy, the variation in the momentum
get
will be null (Δp = 0) and, therefore, their
2 ⎛ hf ⎞
mip = + ⎜ ⎟i gravitational masses will also be null.
3 ⎝ c2 ⎠ However, if the energy of the
Due to m gp mip = 2 we get particle is not invariant (it is able to
absorb energy) then the absorbed
energy will transfer the amount of motion
40

(momentum) to the particle, and making the vortex (particle) gain or lose
consequently its gravitational mass will mass. If real motion is what makes real
be increased. This means that the mass then, by analogy, we can say that
motion generates gravitational mass. imaginary mass is made by imaginary
On the other hand, if the motion. This is not only a simple
gravitational mass of a particle is null generalization of the process based on
then its inertial mass, according to Eq. the theory of the imaginary functions, but
(41), will be given by also a fundamental conclusion related to
2 Δp the concept of imaginary mass that, as it
mi = ± will be shown, provides a coherent
5 c explanation for the materialization of the
From Eqs. (4) and (7) we get fundamental particles, in the beginning of
⎛ Eg ⎞ ⎛p ⎞ the Universe.
Δp = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ΔV = ⎜ 0 ⎟ΔV
It is known that the simultaneous
⎝c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠
disappearance of a pair
Thus we have (electron/positron) liberates an amount of
⎛ 2p ⎞ 2 ⎛p ⎞ energy, 2mi 0e(real )c 2 , under the form of
mg = ±⎜ 20 ⎟ΔV and mi = ± ⎜⎜ 20 ⎟⎟ΔV
⎝ c ⎠ 5⎝c ⎠ two photons with frequency f , in such a
Note that, like the gravitational mass, the way that
inertial mass is also directly related to the
motion, i.e., it is also generated by the
motion. 2mi 0e(real )c 2 = 2hf
Thus, we can conclude that is the Since the photon has imaginary masses
motion, or rather, the velocity is what associated to it, the phenomenon of
makes the two types of mass. transformation of the energy 2mi 0e(real )c 2
In this picture, the fundamental
particles can be considered as into 2hf suggests that the imaginary
immaterial vortex of velocity; it is the energy of the photon, mip (imaginary )c 2 ,
velocity of these vortexes that causes the
fundamental particles to have masses. comes from the transformation of
That is, there exists not matter in the imaginary energy of the electron,
usual sense; but just motion. Thus, the mi 0e(imaginary )c 2 , just as the real energy of
difference between matter and energy the photon, hf , results from the
just consists of the diversity of the motion
transformation of real energy of the
direction; rotating, closed in itself, in the
electron, i.e.,
matter; ondulatory, with open cycle, in
the energy (See Fig. VI).
Under this context, the Higgs 2m i 0 e (imaginary )c 2 + 2m i 0 e (real )c 2 =
mechanism † appears as a process, by
= 2m i 0 p (imaginary )c 2 + 2 hf
which the velocity of an immaterial vortex
can be increased or decreased by

Then, it follows that



The Standard Model is the name given to
the current theory of fundamental particles and mi 0e(imaginary ) = − mip (imaginary )
how they interact. This theory includes: Strong
interaction and a combined theory of weak and
electromagnetic interaction, known as The sign (-) in the equation above, is due
electroweak theory. One part of the Standard to the imaginary mass of the photon to
Model is not yet well established. What causes be positive, on the contrary of the
the fundamental particles to have masses? The imaginary gravitational mass of the
simplest idea is called the Higgs mechanism. This matter, which is negative, as we have
mechanism involves one additional particle, already seen.
called the Higgs boson, and one additional force
type, mediated by exchanges of this boson.
41

Real Particles Imaginary Particles


(Tardyons) (Tachyons)

Real Inertial Mass Imaginary Inertial Mass

Non-null Null Non-null Null

V<c c < V ≤ Vmax*


v=∞
**
v=c
V 0≤v<c V 0≤v<c V 0≤v<Vmax V 0≤v<Vmax

Vortex Anti-vortex Vortex Anti-vortex


(Particle) (Anti-Particle) Real Photons (Particle) (Anti-particle) Imaginary Photons
( “virtual” photons )

(Real Bodies) (Real Radiation) (Imaginary Bodies) (Imaginary Radiation)

* Vmax is the speed upper limit for Tachyons with non-null imaginary inertial mass. It has been previously
~
(
obtained starting from the Hubble's law and Eq.(22). The result is: Vmax = 3 2 HLmax ≅ 10 12 m. s −1 . )
**
In order to communicate instantaneously the interactions at infinite distance the velocity of the quanta
(“virtual” photons) must be infinity and consequently their imaginary masses must be null .

Fig. VI - Real and Imaginary Particles.

Thus, we then conclude that Thus, the electron, the neutron


and the proton have respectively,
mi0e(imaginary) = −mip(imaginary) = the following masses:
Electron
=− 2
3
(hf c ) i =
e
2
mi 0e(real) = 9.11×10−31 kg

=− 2 (h λec) i = − 23 mi0e(real)i
3 mi 0e(im) = − 2 mi 0e(real)i
3

where λe = h mi0e(real) c is the Broglies’


⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
wavelength for the electron. ⎪ ⎢ ⎛ U e(real) ⎞ ⎥⎪
mge(real) = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ −
By analogy, we can write for
⎜m 2⎟
1⎥⎬mi 0e(real) =
the neutron and the proton the ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ i 0e(real) ⎠
c ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
following masses:
= χ e mi 0e(real)
mi 0neutron(imaginary ) = − 2 mi 0 neutron(real ) i
3

mi 0 proton(imaginary ) = + 2 mi 0 proton(real ) i
3 ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ U e(im) ⎞ ⎥⎪
The sign (+) in the expression of mge(im) = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ −
mi 0 proton (imaginary ) is due to the fact ⎜m 2⎟
1⎥⎬mi 0e(im) =
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ i 0e(im) ⎠
c ⎥⎪
that mi 0 neutron(imaginary ) and ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
= χ e mi 0e(im)
mi 0 proton (imaginary ) must have contrary
signs, as will be shown later on.
42

where η n , η pr and η e are the


Neutron absorption factors respectively, for the
mi0n(real) = 1.6747×10−27 kg neutrons, protons and electrons;
k = 1.38 × 10 −23 J /º K is the Boltzmann
constant; Tn , T pr and Te are the
mi0n(im) = − 2 m
3 i0n(real)
i
temperatures of the Universe,
respectively when neutrons, protons
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ and electrons were created.
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ Un(real) ⎞
mgn(real) = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎜ ⎟ −1⎥⎪m In the case of the electrons, it
⎜m 2⎟ ⎥⎬ i0n(real) = was previously shown that η e ≅ 0.1 .
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ i 0n( )
real c ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ Thus, by considering that
= χn mi0n(real) Te ≅ 6.2 ×10 K , we get
31

U e(im ) = η e kTe i = 8.5 × 10 7 i


⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ It is known that the protons were
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ Un(im) ⎞ ⎥⎪
mgn(im) = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎜ ⎟ − created at the same epoch. Thus, we
⎜m 2⎟
1⎥⎬mi0n(im) = will assume that
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ i0n(im) ⎠
c ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ U pr (im ) = η pr kT pr i = 8.5 × 10 7 i
= χn mi0n(im) Then, it follows that
Proton χ e = −1.8 × 10 21
mi0pr(real) =1.6723×10−27kg
χ pr = −9.7 × 1017
mi0pr(im) = + 2
3 i0 pr(real)
m i Now, consider the gravitational forces,
due to the imaginary masses of two
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎛⎜ U pr(real) ⎞⎟ ⎥⎪ electrons, Fee , two protons, F prpr , and
mgpr(real) = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ −1⎥⎬mi0pr(real) =
⎜ 2⎟ one electron and one proton, Fepr , all at
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi0pr(real)c ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ rest.
= χ prmi0pr(real) 2
m ge (im )
(− 2 mi 0e(real )i )
2

−Gχ e2
3
Fee = −G = =
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ r2 r2
⎪ ⎢ ⎛⎜ U pr(im) ⎞⎟ ⎥⎪
mgpr(im) = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ −1⎥⎬mi0pr(im) = mi20e(real ) + 2.3 ×10 −28
⎜ 2⎟ 4
= + Gχ e2 =
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi0pr(im)c ⎠ ⎥⎪ ( repulsion)
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ 3 r2 r2
= χ prmi0pr(im) 2
2 ⎛⎜ + 2
mi0 pr(real)i ⎞⎟
mgpr(im) 2 ⎝ ⎠
= −Gχ pr
3
where U (real ) and U (im ) are Fprpr = −G 2 2
=
r r
respectively, the real and imaginary 4 mi0 pr(real) + 2.3 ×10−28
2

energies absorbed by the particles. = + Gχ 2pr = (repulsion)


3 r2 r2
When neutrons, protons and
electrons were created after the Big-
mge(im)mgpr(im)
bang, they absorbed quantities of Fepr = −G =
electromagnetic energy, respectively r2
given by ⎛⎜ − 2
i ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ + 2
i ⎞⎟
3 i0e(real) ⎠ 3 i 0 pr(real) ⎠
m m
U n(real ) = η n kTn U n(imaginary) = η n kTn i = −Gχe χ pr ⎝ ⎝ =
r2
U pr (real ) = η pr kT pr U pr (imaginary) = η pr kT pr i
4 mi0e(real)mi0 pr(real) − 2.3×10−28
= − Gχe χ pr =
U e(real ) = η e kTe U e(imaginary) = η e kTe i 3 r2 r2
(atraction)
43

Note that charge of the neutron is null. Thus, it is


−28
e 2
2.3 × 10 necessary to assume that
Felectric = =
4πε 0 r r2 2
qn = qn+ + qn− = 4πε0 G mgn
+
(imaginary) i +
Therefore, we can conclude that
e2 −
Fee = F prpr ≡ Felectric = + (repulsion) + 4πε0 G mgn(imaginary) i =
4πε 0 r 2
and = 4πε 0 G ⎛⎜ χ n mi+0n(imaginary) i ⎞⎟ +
⎝ ⎠
Fep ≡ Felectric = −
e2
4πε0r 2
(atraction) (
+ 4πε0 G χ n mi−0n(imaginary) i = )
These correlations permit to define the = 4πε G [χ (+
0 n
2
mi0n i )+ χ (−
2
n
2 )]
mi0n i 2 = 0
3 3
electric charge by means of the
following relation:
We then conclude that in the neutron,
half of the total amount of elementary
q= 4πε 0 G m g (imaginary ) i quanta of electric charge, q min , is negative,
while the other half is positive.
For example, in the case of the In order to obtain the value of
electron, we have the elementary quantum of electric
charge, q min , we start with the
qe = 4πε 0 G m ge(imaginary) i = expression obtained here for the
electric charge, where we
(
= 4πε 0 G χ e mi 0e(imaginary)i = ) change mg (imaginary) by its quantized
(
= 4πε 0 G − χ e 2
mi 0e(real)i 2 = ) expression mg (imaginary) = n 2 mi0(imaginary)(min) ,

4πε G (χ )
3

= 0 e
2 mi 0e(real) = −1.6 ×10−19 C derived from Eq. (44a). Thus, we get
3
In the case of the proton, we get q = 4 πε 0 G m g (imaginary ) i =

q pr = 4πε 0 G mgpr(imaginary) i = = 4 πε 0 G n 2 m i 0 (imaginary )(min )i =

(
= 4πε 0 G χ pr mi 0 pr(imaginary)i = ) = 4 πε 0 G [n (±2 2 m i 0 (min )i )] i =
( )
3

= 4πε 0 G + χ pr 2 mi 0 pr(real)i 2 = = m 2 4 πε 0 G n 2 m i 0 (min )


4πε G (− χ )
3 3
= 0 pr
2 mi 0 pr(real) = +1.6 ×10−19 C
3
This is the quantized expression of the
electric charge.
For the neutron, it follows that For n = 1 we obtain the value of
q n = 4πε 0 G m gn (imaginary ) i = the elementary quantum of electric
(
= 4πε 0 G χ n m i 0 n (imaginary )i = ) charge, q min , i.e.,

(
= 4πε 0 G − χ n 2 m i 0 n (real )i 2 = ) q min = m 2 4πε 0 G mi 0(min ) = m3.8 × 10 −83 C
4πε G (χ )
3 3
= 0 n
2 m i 0 n (real )
3
where mi0(min) is the elementary
However, based on the quantization of
the mass (Eq. 44), we can write that quantum of matter, whose value
previously calculated, is
χ n 2 mi0n(real) = n 2 mi0(min) n≠0 −73
3 mi0(min) = ±3.9 ×10 kg .
Since n can have only discrete values
The existence of imaginary mass
different of zero (See Appendix B), we
associated to a real particle suggests
conclude that χ n cannot be null. the possible existence of imaginary
However, it is known that the electric
44

particles with imaginary masses in the whole space must be finite −


Nature. inasmuch as the particle is somewhere.
In this case, the concept of wave On the other hand, if
associated to a particle (De Broglie’s +∞
waves) would also be applied to the ∫−∞ Ψ
2
dV = 0
imaginary particles. Then, by analogy, the interpretation is that the particle will
the imaginary wave associated to an not exist. However, if
imaginary particle with imaginary +∞
masses miψ and m gψ would be ∫−∞ Ψ
2
dV = ∞ (108)
described by the following expressions The particle will be everywhere
r r simultaneously.
pψ = hkψ In Quantum Mechanics, the wave
Eψ = hωψ function Ψ corresponds, as we know,
to the displacement y of the
Henceforth, for the sake of simplicity,
we will use the Greek letterψ to stand undulatory motion of a rope.
r However, Ψ , as opposed to y , is not a
for the word imaginary; pψ is the
measurable quantity and can, hence,
momentum carried by the ψ wave and be a complex quantity. For this reason,
r
Eψ its energy; kψ = 2π λψ is the it is assumed that Ψ is described in the
x − direction by
propagation number and λψ the −(2π i h )( Et − px )
Ψ = Ψ0 e
wavelength of the ψ wave; ωψ = 2πfψ This is the expression of the wave
is the cyclical frequency. function for a free particle, with total
r
According to Eq. (4), the energy E and momentum p , moving in
r
momentum pψ is the direction + x .
r r As to the imaginary particle, the
pψ = M gψ V
imaginary particle wave function will be
where V is the velocity of the ψ denoted by Ψψ and, by analogy the
particle. expression of Ψ , will be expressed by:
By comparing the expressions of
r
pψ we get − (2π i h )(Eψ t − pψ x )
Ψψ = Ψ0ψ e
h
λψ =
M gψ V Therefore, the general expression of
It is known that the variable the wave function for a free particle can
quantity which characterizes the De be written in the following form
Broglie’s waves is called wave function,
−(2π i h )(E( real )t − p( real ) x )
usually indicated by symbol Ψ . The Ψ = Ψ0(real )e +
wave function associated with a
− (2π i h )(Eψ t − pψ x )
material particle describes the dynamic + Ψ0ψ e
state of the particle: its value at a
particular point x, y, z, t is related to the It is known that the uncertainty
probability of finding the particle in that principle can also be written as a
place and instant. Although Ψ does function of ΔE (uncertainty in the
not have a physical interpretation, its
energy) and Δt (uncertainty in the
square Ψ 2 (or Ψ Ψ * ) calculated for a time), i.e.,
particular point x, y, z, t is proportional
to the probability of finding the particle ΔE.Δt ≥ h
in that place and instant.
Since Ψ 2 is proportional to the This expression shows that a
probability P of finding the particle
variation of energy ΔE , during a
described by Ψ , the integral of Ψ 2 on
45

time interval Δt , can only be


χ = ⎧⎨1 − 2⎡ 1 + (Δp mi 0 c ) − 1⎤ ⎫⎬
2
detected if Δt ≥ h ΔE . Consequently, ⎩ ⎢ ⎣ ⎥ ⎦⎭
a variation of energy ΔE , during a
time interval Δt < h ΔE , cannot be Since the condition to make
experimentally detected. This is a the particle imaginary is
limitation imposed by Nature and not
by our equipments. λg
λi <
Thus, a quantum of energy 2π
ΔE = hf that varies during a time and
interval Δt = 1 f = λ c < h ΔE (wave
period) cannot be experimentally λg h h λ
= = = i
detected. This is an imaginary 2π M g c χM i c 2πχ
photon or a “virtual” photon.
Now, consider a particle with Then we get
energy M g c 2 . The DeBroglie’s
gravitational and inertial wavelengths 1
χ< = 0.159
are respectively λ g = h M g c and 2π
λi = h M i c . In Quantum Mechanics,
However, χ can be positive or
particles of matter and quanta of
negative ( χ < +0.159 or χ > −0.159).This
radiation are described by means of
wave packet (DeBroglie’s waves) means that when
with average wavelength λi .
− 0.159 < χ < +0.159
Therefore, we can say that during a
time interval Δt = λi c , a quantum of
the particle becomes imaginary.
energy ΔE = Mgc2 varies. According Under these circumstances, we can
to the uncertainty principle, the say that the particle made a
particle will be detected if Δt ≥ h ΔE , transition to the imaginary space-
time.
i.e., if λi c ≥ h M g c 2 or λi ≥ λ g 2π .
Note that, when a particle
This condition is usually satisfied becomes imaginary, its gravitational
when M g = M i . In this case, λ g = λi and inertial masses also become
and obviously, λi > λi 2π . However, imaginary. However, the factor
χ = M g (imaginary ) M i (imaginary ) remains
when M g decreases λ g increases
real because
and λ g 2π can become bigger than
λi , making the particle non- M g (imaginary ) M gi Mg
χ = = = = real
detectable or imaginary. M i (imaginary ) M ii Mi
According to Eqs. (7) and (41)
we can write M g in the following
form:

mg χ mi
Mg = = = χM i
1−V 2
c 2
1−V 2
c 2

where
46

Body
χ Ordinary Space-time
0≤V < c
+0.159
0≤V ≤ ∞

Imaginary Body

0 Imaginary Space-time

“Virtual” Photons ( V = ∞ )
−0.159
Ordinary Space-time

Real Photons ( V = c )

Fig. VII – Travel in the imaginary space-time. Similarly to the “virtual” photons,
imaginary bodies can have infinite speed in the imaginary space-time.
47

Real particle Real particle


Δt1 ΔE

Δt2 c (speed upper limit)

Δt3

(a)

Imaginary Space-time Ordinary Space-time

Δt3

Δt2 Vmax
(speed upper limit)

ΔE
Δt1
Imaginary particle Imaginary particle
(b)
Fig. VIII – “Virtual” Transitions – (a) “Virtual” Transitions of a real particle to the imaginary
space-time. The speed upper limit for real particle in the imaginary space-time is c.
(b) - “Virtual” Transitions of an imaginary particle to the ordinary space-time. The
speed upper limit for imaginary particle in the ordinary space-time is Vmax ≈ 1012m.s−1
Note that to occur a “virtual” transition it is necessary thatΔt=Δt1+ Δt2+ Δt3 <ℏ/ΔE
Thus, even at principle, it will be impossible to determine any variation of energy in
the particle (uncertainty principle).
48

Thus, if the gravitational mass of the mg (imaginary)


particle is reduced by means of the M g (imaginary) = =
absorption of an amount of 1−V 2 c2
mg i mg i
electromagnetic energy U , for = =
example, we have i V 2 c2 −1 V 2 c2 −1
This expression shows that
χ=
Mg ⎧
= ⎨1 − 2⎡⎢ 1 + U mi0 c 2 ( )2 ⎫
− 1⎤⎥⎬ imaginary particles can have
Mi ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ velocities V greater than c in our
ordinary space-time (Tachyons).
This shows that the energy U of the The quantization of velocity (Eq. 36)
electromagnetic field remains acting shows that there is a speed upper
on the imaginary particle. In limit Vmax > c . As we have already
practice, this means that calculated previously, Vmax ≈ 1012m.s−1 ,
electromagnetic fields act on (Eq.102).
imaginary particles. Note that this is the speed
The gravity acceleration on a upper limit for imaginary particles in
imaginary particle (due to the rest of our ordinary space-time not in the
the imaginary Universe) are given imaginary space-time (Fig.7)
by because the infinite speed of the
“virtual” quanta of the interactions
g ′j = χ g j j = 1,2,3,..., n. shows that imaginary particles can
have infinite speed in the imaginary
where χ = M g (imaginary ) M i (imaginary ) space-time.
While the speed upper limit
and g j = − Gm gj (imaginary ) r . 2
j Thus, for imaginary particles in the
the gravitational forces acting on the ordinary space-time is
particle are given by Vmax ≈ 10 m.s , the speed upper limit
12 −1

for real particles in the imaginary


Fgj = M g (imaginary) g ′j =
space-time is c , because the
(
= M g (imaginary) − χGmgj (imaginary) r j2 = ) relativistic expression of the mass
( )
= M g i − χGmgj i r j2 = + χGM g mgj r j2 .
shows that the velocity of real
particles cannot be larger than c in
any space-time. The uncertainty
Note that these forces are real. principle permits that particles make
Remind that, the Mach’s principle “virtual” transitions, during a time
says that the inertial effects upon a interval Δt , if Δt < h ΔE . The
particle are consequence of the “virtual” transition of mesons emitted
gravitational interaction of the from nucleons that do not change of
particle with the rest of the Universe. mass, during a time interval
Then we can conclude that the
Δt < h mπ c 2 , is a well-known
inertial forces upon an imaginary
particle are also real. example of “virtual” transition of
Equation (7) shows that , in particles. During a “virtual”
the case of imaginary particles, the transition of a real particle, the
relativistic mass is speed upper limit in the imaginary
space-time is c , while the speed
upper limit for an imaginary particle
49

in the our ordinary space-time is of the bodies ;


Vmax ≈ 1012m.s−1 . (See Fig. 8). M i 2 = mi 2 1 − V2 c and mi 2 is the
2 2

There is a crucial total inertial mass of the bodies of


cosmological problem to be solved: region 2.
the problem of the hidden mass. Now consider that from
Most theories predict that the Eq.(7), we can write
amount of known matter, detectable Eg M gc2
and available in the universe, is only ξ = = = ρgc2
about 1/100 to 1/10 of the amount V V
needed to close the universe. That where ξ is the energy density of
is, to achieve the density sufficient matter.
to close-up the universe by Note that the expression of ξ
maintaining the gravitational only reduces to the well-known
curvature (escape velocity equal to expression ρc 2 , where ρ is the
the speed of light) at the outer sum of the inertial masses per
boundary. volume unit, when m g = mi .
Eq. (43) may solve this
problem. We will start by substituting Therefore, in the derivation of the
the expression of Hubble's law for well-known difference
~ 8πGρU ~ 2
velocity, V = Hl , into Eq.(43). The −H
expression obtained shows that 3
particles which are at distances which gives the sign of the curvature
( )( ) ~
l = l0 = 5 3 c H =1.3×1026 m have
of the Universe [36], we must use
ξ = ρ gU c 2 instead of ξ = ρ U c 2 .The
quasi null gravitational mass
m g = m g (min ) ; beyond this distance, result obviously is
8πGρ gU
the particles have negative ~
− H2 (109)
gravitational mass. Therefore, there 3
are two well-defined regions in the where
M gU M g1 + M g 2
Universe; the region of the bodies
ρ gU = = (110)
with positive gravitational masses VU VU
and the region of the bodies with
M gU and VU are respectively the
negative gravitational mass. The
total gravitational mass of the first total gravitational mass and the
region, in accordance with Eq.(45), volume of the Universe.
will be given by Substitution of M g 1 and M g 2
mi1 into expression (110) gives
M g1 ≅ M i1 = ≅ mi1
1 − V1 2 c 2 ⎡ ⎤
3 2
miU + ⎢ − m − m ⎥
⎢ ⎥
i2 i2
where mi1 is the total inertial mass 1−V22 c2 1−V22 c2
ρgU = ⎣ ⎦
of the bodies of the mentioned VU
region; V1 << c is the average
velocity of the bodies at region 1. where miU = mi1 + mi 2 is the total
The total gravitational mass of the
inertial mass of the Universe.
second region is
The volume V1 of the region 1
⎛ ⎞
M g 2 = 1 − 2⎜
1
− 1⎟ M i 2 and the volume V 2 of the region 2,
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1 − V2 c
2 2
⎠ are respectively given by
where V2 is the average velocity
50

V 1 = 2π 2 l 03 and V 2 = 2π 2 l c3 −V 1 the anomalies in the spectral red-


shift of certain galaxies and stars.
~ Several observers have
where l c = c H = 1.8 × 10 26 m is the noticed red-shift values that cannot
so-called "radius" of the visible be explained by the Doppler-
Universe. Moreover, ρ i1 = mi1 V1 and Fizeau effect or by the Einstein
ρi 2 = mi 2 V 2 . Due to the hypothesis effect (the gravitational spectrum
shift, supplied by Einstein's theory).
of the uniform distribution of matter
This is the case of the so-
in the space, it follows that
called Stefan's quintet (a set of five
ρi1 = ρi2 .Thus, we can write
galaxies which were discovered in
m i1 V 1 ⎛ l 0 ⎞
3
1877), whose galaxies are located
= = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.38
mi 2 V 2 ⎜⎝ l c ⎟⎠ at approximately the same distance
from the Earth, according to very
Similarly, reliable and precise measuring
miU mi 2 mi1 methods. But, when the velocities of
= =
VU V 2 V1 the galaxies are measured by its
Therefore, red-shifts, the velocity of one of
⎡ ⎛ l ⎞3 ⎤ them is much larger than the
V2
mi 2 = m iU = ⎢1 − ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟ ⎥ m iU = 0.62 m iU velocity of the others.
VU ⎢⎣ ⎝ l c ⎠ ⎥⎦ Similar observations have
and mi1 = 0.38miU . been made on the Virgo
constellation and spiral galaxies.
Substitution of mi 2 into the Also the Sun presents a red-shift
expression of ρ gU yields greater than the predicted value by
the Einstein effect.
It seems that some of these
1.86 1.24 anomalies can be explained if we
miU + − − 0.62 miU
1 −V22 c2 1 −V22 c2 consider the Eq.(45) in the
ρgU = calculation of the gravitational mass
VU of the point of emission.
The expression of the
Due to V 2 ≅ c , we conclude that the gravitational spectrum shift was
term between bracket is much larger previously obtained in this work. It is
than 10miU . The amount miU is the the same supplied by Einstein's
mass of matter in the universe (1/10 theory [37], and is given by
φ −φ
to 1/100 of the amount needed to Δω = ω1 − ω2 = 2 2 1 ω0 =
close the Universe). c
Consequently, the total − Gmg2 r2 + Gmg1 r1
mass = ω0 (111)
c2
1.86 1.24 where ω1 is the frequency of the
miU + − − 0.62 miU
1 − V22 c 2 1 − V22 c 2 light at the point of emission ; ω 2 is
the frequency at the point of
must be sufficient to close observation; φ1 and φ 2 are
the Universe. respectively, the Newtonian
There is another cosmological gravitational potentials at the point
problem to be solved: the problem of of emission and at the point of
observation.
51

In Einstein theory, this been fully defined as yet, but it is


expression has been deduced from known that it is located between
T = t − g 00 [38] which correlates 1.8M~ and 2.4M~. Thus, if the mass
own time (real time), t , with the of the star exceeds 2.4M~ , the
temporal coordinate x0 of the space- contraction will continue.
According to Hawking [40]
time ( t = x 0 c ). collapsed objects cannot have mass
When the gravitational field is
less than hc 4G = 1.1 × 10 −8 kg . This
weak, the temporal component g 00
means that, with the progressing of
of the metric tensor is given by the compression, the neutrons
goo =−1−2φ/ c2 [39].Thus, we readily cluster must become a cluster of
obtain superparticles where the minimal
T = t 1 − 2Gm g rc 2 (112 ) inertial mass of the superparticle is
This is the same equation that we
have obtained previously in this mi(sp) =1.1×10−8 kg. (113)
work.
Curiously, this equation tell us Symmetry is a fundamental
that we can have T < t when m g > 0 attribute of the Universe that
enables an investigator to study
; and T > t for m g < 0 . In addition, if
particular aspects of physical
m g = c 2 r 2G , i.e., if r = 2Gm g c 2 systems by themselves. For
(Schwarzschild radius) we obtain T =0. example, the assumption that space
Let us now consider the well- is homogeneous and isotropic is
known process of stars' gravitational based on Symmetry Principle. Also
contraction. It is known that the here, by symmetry, we can assume
destination of the star is directly that there are only superparticles
correlated to its mass. If the star's with mass mi ( sp) = 1.1 × 10−8 kg in the
mass is less than 1.4M~ cluster of superparticles.
(Schemberg-Chandrasekhar's limit), Based on the mass-energy of
it becomes a white dwarf. If its mass the superparticles ( ~1018 GeV ) we
exceeds that limit, the pressure can say that they belong to a
produced by the degenerate state of putative class of particles with mass-
the matter no longer energy beyond the supermassive
counterbalances the gravitational Higgs bosons ( the so-called X
pressure, and the star's contraction bosons). It is known that the GUT's
continues. Afterwards there occurs theories predict an entirely new
the reactions between protons and force mediated by a new type of
electrons (capture of electrons), boson, called simply X (or X boson
where neutrons and anti-neutrinos ). The X bosons carry both
are produced. electromagnetic and color charge, in
The contraction continues order to ensure proper conservation
until the system regains stability of those charges in any interactions.
(when the pressure produced by the The X bosons must be extremely
neutrons is sufficient to stop the massive, with mass-energy in the
gravitational collapse). Such systems unification range of about 1016 GeV.
are called neutron stars. If we assume the
There is also a critical mass superparticles are not hypermassive
for the stable configuration of Higgs bosons then the possibility of
neutron stars. This limit has not the neutrons cluster become a
52

Higgs bosons cluster before the superparticles' relativistic inertial


becoming a superparticles cluster mass M i ( sp ) is
must be considered. On the other
Unr ηnr kT
hand, the fact that superparticles
must be so massive also means that
= 2 ≈ 10−8 kg
M i( sp) ≅ (115)
c2 c
it is not possible to create them in Comparing with the superparticles'
any conceivable particle accelerator inertial mass at rest (113), we
that could be built. They can exist as conclude that
free particles only at a very early
stage of the Big Bang from which
the universe emerged. Mi( sp) ≈ mi(sp) =1.1×10−8 kg (116)
Let us now imagine the
Universe coming back to the past.
There will be an instant in which it From Eqs.(83) and (115), we obtain
will be similar to a neutrons cluster, the superparticle's gravitational
such as the stars at the final state of mass at rest:
gravitational contraction. Thus, with m g ( sp ) = mi ( sp ) − 2 M i ( sp ) ≅
the progressing of the compression,
ηn r kT
the neutrons cluster becomes a (117 )
≅ − M i ( sp ) ≅ −
superparticles cluster. Obviously, c2
this only can occur before 10-23s Consequently, the superparticle's
(after the Big-Bang). relativistic gravitational mass, is
The temperature T of the
mg ( sp)
Universe at the 10-43s< t < 10-23s M g (sp) = =
period can be calculated by means 1−V 2 c 2
of the well-known expression[41]: ηnr kT
= (118)
T ≈ 10 (t 10 ) − 23 − 2
(114) c 2 1−V 2 c 2
1
22

− 43
Thus at t ≅ 10 s (at the first Thus, the gravitational forces
spontaneous breaking of symmetry) between two superparticles ,
according to (13), is given by:
the temperature was T ≈ 10 32 K
(∼1019GeV).Therefore, we can r r M g(sp) M 'g(sp)
assume that the absorbed F12 = −F21 = −G μˆ 21 =
r2
electromagnetic energy by each
⎡⎛ M ⎞ 2 G ⎤
superparticle, before t ≅ 10 −43 s , was ⎟ ⎛⎜ ⎞ 2 hc
= ⎢⎜
i ( sp)
⎟( ηn κT ) ⎥ μˆ 21 (119)
⎢⎜⎝ mi(sp) ⎟⎠ ⎝ c5 h ⎠ ⎥ r2
r
U =ηkT >1×109 J (see Eqs.(71) and ⎣ ⎦
(72)). By comparing with
mi(sp)c ≅ 9×10 J , we conclude that
2 8
Due to the unification of the
U > m i ( sp )c . Therefore, the gravitational and electromagnetic
(
unification condition Unr ≅ Mi c > mi c
2 2
) interactions at that period, we have
is satisfied. This means that, before
t ≅ 10 −43 s ,the gravitational and
electromagnetic interactions were
unified.
From the unification condition
( )
Unr ≅ Mi c2 , we may conclude that
53

r r M g ( sp) M 'g ( sp) component of its position at that


F12 = −F21 = G μˆ 21 = time ,i.e., a particle cannot be
r2
precisely located in a particular
⎡⎛ M ⎞ 2 G ⎤
⎟ ⎛⎜ ⎞ 2 hc direction without loss of all
= ⎢⎜
i ( sp)
⎟(ηκ T ) ⎥ μˆ 21 =
⎢⎜⎝ mi( sp) ⎟⎠ ⎝ c5 h ⎠ ⎥ r2 knowledge of its momentum
⎣ ⎦ component in that direction . This
2
means that in intermediate cases
=
e
(120)
4πε0 r 2 the product of the uncertainties of
From the equation above we can the simultaneously measurable
write values of corresponding position
and momentum components is at
⎡⎛ M ⎞2 G ⎤ least of the magnitude order of h ,
⎢⎜ i(sp) ⎟ ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟(ηκT )2 hc⎥ = e
2
(121)
⎢⎜⎝ mi(sp) ⎟⎠ ⎝ c5h ⎠ ⎥ 4πε0 Δp.Δr ≥ h (127)
⎣ ⎦
Now assuming that
2 This relation, directly obtained here
⎛ M i ( sp ) ⎞ ⎛ G ⎞

⎜m
⎟ ⎜
⎟ ⎝ c 5 h ⎟⎠
(ηκT )2 = ψ (122) from the Unified Theory, is the well-
⎝ i ( sp ) ⎠ known relation of the Uncertainty
the Eq. (121) can be rewritten in the Principle for position and
following form: momentum.
According to Eq.(83), the
e2
ψ= =
1
(123) gravitational mass of the
4πε0 hc 137 superparticles at the center of the
which is the well-known reciprocal cluster becomes negative when
fine structure constant. 2η n r kT c > m i ( sp ) , i.e., when
2

For T = 10 32 K the Eq.(122)


gives mi(sp)c2
T > Tcritical= ≈1032K.
2
2ηnr k
⎛ M i ( sp ) ⎞ ⎛ G ⎞
ψ = ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜
⎟ 5 ⎟
(η n r κ T )2 ≈ 1 (124 )
⎝ m i ( sp ) ⎠ ⎝ c h ⎠ 100
According to Eq. (114) this
temperature corresponds to tc ≈10−43s .
This value has the same order of
magnitude as the exact value(1/137) With the progressing of the
of the reciprocal fine structure compression, more superparticles
constant. into the center will have negative
From equation (120) we can gravitational mass. Consequently,
write: there will be a critical point in which
the repulsive gravitational forces
⎛ M g ( sp ) M 'g ( sp ) ⎞ r
⎜G
⎜ r ⎟r = h

(125 ) between the superparticles with
⎝ ψ c r ⎠ negative gravitational masses and
The term between parentheses has the superparticles with positive
the same dimensions as the linear gravitational masses will be so
r strong that an explosion will occur.
momentum p . Thus, (125) tells us
that This is the event that we call the Big
r r
p ⋅ r = h. (126) Bang.
A component of the momentum of a Now, starting from the Big
particle cannot be precisely Bang to the present time.
specified without loss of all Immediately after the Big Bang, the
knowledge of the corresponding superparticles' decompression
54

begins. The gravitational mass of during a period of time tc ≈10−43s


the most central superparticle will .Thus,
only be positive when the
temperature becomes smaller than dcr − dinitial = 12 g(tc ) = χ
2
( )
GMi(U )
dcr dinitial
(tc )2 (130)
the critical temperature, Tcritical ≈ 1032 K .
At the maximum state of The Eq.(83), gives
compression (exactly at the Big
Bang) the volumes of the mg (sp) 2Unr 2ηnr kT
χ= = 1− = 1−
superparticles were equal to mi(sp) mi(sp) c 2 mi(sp) c 2
the elementary volume Ω 0 = δ V d min 3

and the volume of the Universe was Calculations by Carr, B.J


Ω = δ V (ndmin )3 = δ V d initial
3
where d initial [41], indicate that it would seem
reasonable to suppose that the
was the initial length scale of the fraction of initial primordial black
Universe. At this very moment the hole mass ultimately converted into
average density of the Universe was photons is about 0.11 . This means
equal to the average density of the that we can take
superparticles, thus we can write η = 0.11
Thus, the amount η M iU c 2 ,
3
⎛ dinitial⎞ Mi(U)

⎜d ⎟ =m
⎟ (128) where M iU is the total inertial mass
⎝ min ⎠ i( sp)
of the Universe, expresses the total
where M i (U ) ≈ 10 53 kg is the inertial
amount of inertial energy converted
mass of the Universe. It has already into photons at the initial instant of
been shown that the Universe(Primordial Photons).
~ −34
d min = k l planck ≈ 10 m. Then, from It was previously shown that
Eq.(128), we obtain: photons and also the matter have
imaginary gravitational masses
dinitial ≈ 10−14 m (129) associated to them. The matter has
After the Big Bang the negative imaginary gravitational
Universe expands itself from d initial mass, while the photons have
positive imaginary gravitational
up to d cr (when the temperature
mass, given by
decrease reaches the critical
temperature Tcritical ≈ 10 32 K , and the 4 ⎛ hf ⎞
M gp (imaginary ) = 2M ip (imaginary ) = + ⎜ ⎟i
gravity becomes attractive). Thus, it 3 ⎝ c2 ⎠
expands by d cr − d initial , under
effect of the repulsive gravity where M ip (imaginary) is the imaginary
inertial mass of the photons.
g = gmaxgmin = Then, from the above we can

[ (12 dinitial)2 ] [G ( 12 dcr )2 ]


conclude that, at the initial instant of
= G(12 Mg(U ) ) 1
2
Mi(U ) = the Universe, an amount of
imaginary gravitational mass,
=
2G Mg(U )Mi(U )
=
2G ∑m ( g sp) Mi(U )
=
total
M gm (imaginary ) , which was associated
dcrdinitial dcrdinitial to the fraction of the matter
2G χ∑mi(sp)Mi(U ) 2GMi(U ) χ transformed into photons, has been
= = converted into imaginary
dcrdinitial dcrdinitial
gravitational mass of the primordial
55

total
photons, M gp (imaginary ) , while an where m gp (imaginary ) (the imaginary
amount of real inertial mass of the gravitational mass of the photon) is
a quantity positive and imaginary,
(real) =η MiU c , has been
total 2
matter, Mim
and M gSun (imaginary ) (the imaginary
converted into real energy of the
N gravitational mass associated to the
primordial photons, E p = ∑ hf j , i.e., matter of the Sun) is a quantity
j =1 negative and imaginary.
The fact of the gravitational
interaction between the imaginary
gravitational masses of the
(imaginary) + M im( real) =
total total
M gm
primordial photons and the
= M gp (imaginary) + M ip( real)
total total
imaginary gravitational mass of the
1424 3
Ep matter be attractive is highly
c2 relevant, because it shows that it is
necessary to consider the effect of
this gravitational interaction, which is
(imaginary ) = M gp (imaginary ) and
total total
where M gm
equivalent to the gravitational effect
produced by the amount of real
(real) = M im(real) = ηM iU ≅ 0.11M iU
E p c 2 ≡ M iptotal total
(real) ≅ 0.22M iU ,
total
gravitational mass, M gp
sprayed by all the Universe.
It was previously shown that, for the This means that this amount,
photons equation: M gp = 2 M ip , is which corresponds to 22% of the
valid. This means that total inertial mass of the Universe,
must be added to the overall
M gp(imagimary) + M gp(real) = computation of the total mass of the
14444244443 matter (stars, galaxies, etc., gas and
M gp
dust of interstellar and intergalactic
(
= 2 M ip(imagimary) + M ip(real)
14444244443
) media). Therefore, this additional
portion corresponds to what has
M ip
been called Dark Matter (See Fig.
By substituting M gp(imaginary) = 2Mip(imaginary) IX).
into the equation above, we get On the other hand, the total
amount of gravitational mass at the
M gp (real ) = 2M ip (real ) initial instant, M gtotal , according to
Eq.(41), can be expressed by
Therefore we can write that M gtotal = χ M iU
(real ) = 2 M ip (real ) = 0.22 M iU
total total
M gp This mass includes the total
The phenomenon of negative gravitational mass of the
total
gravitational deflection of light about matter, M gm (− ) , plus the total
the Sun shows that the gravitational gravitational mass, total
M gp ( real ) ,
interaction between the Sun and the
photons is attractive. This is due to converted into primordial photons.
the gravitational force between the This tells us that we can put
Sun and a photon, which is given by
M gtotal = M gm ( − ) + M gp ( real ) = χ M iU
total total

F = −G M gSun (imaginary ) m gp (imaginary ) r 2 ,


whence
56

At the Initial Instant

M iU

Imaginary spacetime

Real spacetime
(imaginary) + Mip( real) ) + Mim(real)
total total total total
Mgp Mgm (imaginary

Primordial Photons
total
M gp (imaginary) + M iptotal
( real )
1
42 43
Ep
c2

∼ 10-14 m

Fig. IX – Conversion of part of the Real Gravitational Mass of the Primordial Universe into
Primordial Photons. The gravitational effect caused by the gravitational interaction of imaginary
gravitational masses of the primordial photons with the imaginary gravitational mass associated to
the matter is equivalent to the effect produced by the amount of real gravitational mass,
(real ) ≅ 0.22 M iU , sprayed by all Universe. This additional portion of mass corresponds to what
total
M gp
has been called Dark Matter.
57

( −) = χ M iU − 0.22M iU (
M g ( sp ) = ⎛⎜1 − 2⎡ 1 − V 2 c 2 ) ⎤ ⎞M
total − 12
M gm
⎝ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎟⎠ i ( sp )
In order to calculate the value
of χ we can start from the By comparing this expression with
expression previously obtained for the equation above, we obtain
χ , i.e.,
1
m g ( sp ) 2η n r kT T ≅ 1 .5
χ= =1− =1− 1− V 2 c2
mi ( sp ) mi ( sp ) c 2 Tcritical
where Substitution of this value into the
expressions of χ and M gmtotal
(− ) results
mi ( sp ) c 2
Tcritical = = 3.3 × 10 32 K in
2ηn r k
χ = −0.5
and
and
⎛ m ⎞
⎜ i(sp) ⎟ 2
2 ⎜ ⎟c
Mi(sp)c ⎜⎝ 1 −V c ⎟⎠
2 2
T
T= = = critical ( − ) ≅ −0.72 M iU
total
M gm
2ηnr k 2ηnr k 1 − V 2 c2
This means that 72% of the total
We thus obtain energy of the Universe ( M iU c 2 ) is
due to negative gravitational mass
1
χ =1− of the matter created at the initial
1 − V 2 c2 instant.
Since the gravitational mass
By substitution of this expression is correlated to the inertial mass (Eq.
total
into the equation of M gm (41)), the energy related to the
(− ) , we get
negative gravitational mass is where
there is inertial energy (inertial
⎛ ⎞ mass). In this way, this negative
⎜ 1 ⎟
total
M gm = ⎜⎜ 0 . 78 − M iU
2 ⎟
(−) gravitational energy permeates all
1 − V 2
c ⎟
⎝ ⎠ space and tends to increase the rate
of expansion of the Universe due to
On the other hand, the Unification produce a strong gravitational
condition ( Unr ≅ Δpc= MiUc2 ) previously repulsion between the material
shown and Eq. (41) show that at the particles. Thus, this energy
initial instant of the Universe, corresponds to what has been
M g (sp ) has the following value: called Dark Energy (See Fig. X).
The value of χ = −0.5 at the
initial instant of the Universe shows
⎧ ⎡ ⎛ Un ⎞ ⎤⎫⎪ that the gravitational interaction was

Mg(sp) = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎜ r ⎟ −1⎥⎬Mi(sp) ≅ 0.1Mi(sp)
⎜ Mi(sp) ⎟ ⎥ repulsive at the Big-Bang. It remains
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦⎪⎭ repulsive until the temperature of the
Universe is reduced down to the
Similarly, Eq.(45) tells us that critical limit, Tcritical . Below this
temperature limit,
58

Negative
Gravitational Mass of Matter

72%
22%

6% Positive Gravitational Mass


carried by the primordial photons
Positive
Gravitational M ass of
M atter

Fig. X - Distribution of Gravitational Masses in the Universe. The total


energy related to negative gravitational mass of all the matter in the
Universe corresponds to what has been called Dark Energy. While
the Dark Matter corresponds to the total gravitational mass carried by the
primordial photons, which is manifested in the interaction of the
imaginary gravitational masses of the primordial photons with the
imaginary mass of matter.
59

the attractive component of the imaginary bodies. Just as the real


gravitational interaction became particles constitute the real bodies.
greater than the repulsive The idea that we make about
component, making attractive the a consciousness is basically that of
resultant gravitational interaction. an imaginary body containing
Therefore, at the beginning of the psychic energy and intrinsic
Universe – before the temperature knowledge. We can relate psychic
decreased down to Tcritical , there energy with psychic mass (psychic
occurred an expansion of the mass= psychic energy/c2). Thus, by
Universe that was exponential in analogy with the real bodies the
time rather than a normal power-law psychic bodies would be constituted
expansion. Thus, there was an by psychic particles with psychic
evident Inflation Period during the mass. Consequently, the psychic
beginning of the expansion of the particles that constitute a
Universe (See Fig. XI). consciousness would be equivalent
With the progressing of the to imaginary particles, and the
decompression the superparticles psychic mass , mΨ ,of the psychic
cluster becomes a neutrons cluster. particles would be equivalent to the
This means that the neutrons are imaginary mass, i.e.,
created without its antiparticle, the
antineutron. Thus, this solves the mΨ = mi(imaginary) (131)
matter/antimatter dilemma that is
unresolved in many cosmologies.
Now a question: How did the Thus, the imaginary masses
primordial superparticles appear at associated to the photons and
the beginning of the Universe? electrons would be elementary
It is a proven quantum fact psyche actually, i.e.,
that a wave function may collapse,
and that, at this moment, all the m Ψ photon = m i (imaginary ) photon =
possibilities that it describes are
2 ⎛ hf ⎞
suddenly expressed in reality. This = ⎜ ⎟ i (132 )
means that, through this process, 3 ⎝ c2 ⎠
particles can be suddenly
materialized. mΨelectron = mi(imaginary)electron =
The materialization of the
primordial superparticles into a ⎛ hf electron ⎞
=− 2
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ i =
critical volume denotes knowledge 3
⎝ c2 ⎠
of what would happen with the =− 2 mi0(real)electron i (133)
Universe starting from that initial 3

condition, a fact that points towards


the existence of a Creator. The idea that electrons have
It was shown previously the elementary psyche associated to
possible existence of imaginary themselves is not new. It comes
particles with imaginary masses in from the pre-Socratic period.
Nature. These particles can be By proposing the existence of
associated with real particles, such as psyche associated with matter, we
in case of the photons and electrons, as
are adopting what is called
we have shown, or they can be
associated with others imaginary
panpsychic posture. Panpsychism
dates back to the pre-Socratic period;
particles by constituting the
60

χ ≅ − 0 .5
t =0 t ≈ 15 billion years
t ≈ 10 −43 s

T = Tcritical = 3.3 ×1032 K T = 2 .7 K


Inflation Period

Fig. XI – Inflation Period. The value of χ ≅ −0.5 at the Initial Instant of the Universe shows that the
gravitational interaction was repulsive at the Big-Bang. It remains repulsive until the temperature of
the Universe is reduced down to the critical limit, Tcritical . Below this temperature limit, the
attractive component of the gravitational interaction became greater than the repulsive component,
making attractive the resultant gravitational interaction. Therefore, at beginning of the Universe −
before the temperature to be decreased down to Tcritical , there occurred an expansion of the Universe
that was exponential in time rather than a normal power-law expansion. Thus, there was an evident
inflation period during the beginning of the expansion of the Universe.
61

remnants of organized panpsychism function must have been generated


may be found in the Uno of in a consciousness with a psychic
Parmenides or in Heracleitus’s mass much greater than that
Divine Flow. The scholars of needed to materialize the Universe
Miletus’s school were called (material and psychic).
hylozoists, that is, “those who This giant consciousness, in
believe that matter is alive”. More its turn, would not only be the
recently, we will find the greatest of all consciences in the
panpsychistic thought in Spinoza, Universe but also the substratum of
Whitehead and Teilhard de Chardin, everything that exists and,
among others. The latter one obviously, everything that exists
admitted the existence of proto- would be entirely contained within it,
conscious properties at the including all the spacetime.
elementary particles’ level. Thus, if the consciousness we
We can find experimental refer to contains all the space, its
evidences of the existence of volume is necessarily infinite,
psyche associated to electron in an consequently having an infinite
experiment similar to that commonly psychic mass.
used to show the wave duality of This means that it contains all
light. (Fig. XII). One merely the existing psychic mass and,
substitutes an electron ray (fine therefore, any other consciousness
electron beam) for the light ray. Just that exists will be contained in it.
as in the experiment mentioned Hence, we may conclude that It is
above, the ray which goes through the Supreme Consciousness and
the holes is detected as a wave if a that there is no other equal to It: It is
wave detector is used (it is then unique.
observed that the interference Since the Supreme
pattern left on the detector screen is Consciousness also contains all time;
analogous with that produced by the past, present and future, then, for It
light ray), and as a particle if a the time does not flow as it flows for
particle detector is used. us.
Since the electrons are Within this framework, when
detected on the other side of the we talk about the Creation of the
metal sheet, it becomes obvious Universe, the use of the verb “to
then that they passed through the create” means that “something that
holes. On the other hand, it is also was not” came into being, thus
evident that when they approached presupposing the concept of time
the holes, they had to decide which flow. For the Supreme
one of them to go through. Consciousness, however, the
How can an electron “decide” instant of Creation is mixed up with
which hole to go through? Where all other times, consequently there
there is “choice”, isn’t there also being no “before” or “after” the
psyche, by definition? Creation and, thus, the following
If the primordial superparticles question is not justifiable: “What did
that have been materialized at the the Supreme Consciousness do before
beginning of the Universe came Creation?”
from the collapse of a primordial On the other hand, we may
wave function, then the also infer, from the above that the
psychic form described by this wave
62

Light

(a)

Dw

Light

(b)

Dp

Electrons ?
(c)

Fig. XII – A light ray, after going through the holes in the metal sheet, will be detected as a
wave(a) by a wave detector Dw or as a particle if the wave detector is substituted for the wave
detector Dp. Electron ray (c) has similar behavior as that of a light ray. However, before going
through the holes, the electrons must “decide” which one to go through.
63

existence of the Supreme such as the electromagnetic forces and


Consciousness has no defined limit the weak and strong nuclear forces.
(beginning and end), what confers Thus, the gravitational forces are
upon It the unique characteristic of produced by the exchange of “virtual”
uncreated and eternal. photons. Consequently, this is
If the Supreme Consciousness is precisely the origin of the gravity.
eternal, Its wave function ΨSC shall Newton’s theory of gravity does
never collapse (will never be null). not explain why objects attract one
Thus, for having an infinite psychic another; it simply models this
observation. Also Einstein’s theory
mass, the value of ΨSC 2
will be always
does not explain the origin of gravity.
infinite and, hence, we may write that Einstein’s theory of gravity only
describes gravity with more precision
+∞
∫−∞ ΨSC dV = ∞ than Newton’s theory does.
2
Besides, there is nothing in both
theories explaining the origin of the
By comparing this equation with Eq. energy that produces the gravitational
(108) derived from Quantum forces. Earth’s gravity attracts all
Mechanics, we conclude that the objects on the surface of our planet.
Supreme Consciousness is This has been going on for well over
simultaneously everywhere, i.e., It is 4.5 billions years, yet no known energy
omnipresent. source is being converted to support
Since the Supreme Consciousness this tremendous ongoing energy
contains all consciences, it is expected expenditure. Also is the enormous
that It also contain all the knowledge. continuous energy expended by
Therefore, It is also omniscient. Earth’s gravitational field for
Consequently, It knows how to maintaining the Moon in its orbit -
formulate well-defined mental images millennium after millennium. In spite of
with psychic masses sufficient for its the ongoing energy expended by
contents to materialize. In this way, It Earth’s gravitational field to hold
can materialize everything It wishes objects down on surface and the Moon
(omnipotence). in orbit, why the energy of the field
All these characteristics of the never diminishes in strength or drains
Supreme Consciousness (infinite, its energy source? Is this energy
unique, uncreated, eternal, expenditure balanced by a conversion
omnipresent, omniscient and of energy from an unknown energy
omnipotent) coincide with those source?
traditionally ascribed to God by most The energy W necessary to
religions. support the effort expended by the
It was shown in this work that gravitational forces F is well-known
the “virtual” quanta of the gravitational and given by
interaction must have spin 1 and not 2,
and that they are “virtual” photons M g mg

r
(graviphotons) with zero mass outside W = Fdr = −G
∞ r
the coherent matter. Inside the
coherent matter the graviphoton mass
is non-zero. Therefore, the According to the principle of energy
gravitational forces are also gauge conservation, this energy expenditure
forces, because they are yielded by the must be balanced by a conversion of
exchange of "virtual" quanta of spin 1, energy from another energy type.
64
The Uncertainty Principle tells us never diminishes in strength or
that, due to the occurrence of drains its energy source.
exchange of graviphotons in a time If an experiment involves a large
interval Δt < h ΔE (where ΔE is the number of identical particles, all
energy of the graviphoton), the energy described by the same wave function
variation ΔE cannot be detected in the Ψ , real density of mass ρ of these
system M g − m g . Since the total energy particles in x, y, z, t is proportional to
W is the sum of the energy of the n the corresponding value Ψ 2 ( Ψ 2 is
graviphotons, i.e., W = ΔE1 + ΔE2 + ...+ ΔEn , known as density of probability. If Ψ is
then the energy W cannot be detected complex then Ψ 2 = ΨΨ* . Thus,
as well. However, as we know it can be ρ ∝ Ψ2 = Ψ.Ψ* ). Similarly, in the case
converted into another type of energy, of psychic particles, the density of
for example, in rotational kinetic psychic mass, ρ Ψ , in x, y, z, will be
energy, as in the hydroelectric plants,
expressed by ρ Ψ ∝ ΨΨ2 = ΨΨ Ψ*Ψ . It is
or in the Gravitational Motor, as shown
in this work. known that ΨΨ2 is always real and
It is known that a quantum of positive while ρ Ψ = mΨ V is an
energy ΔE = hf which varies during a imaginary quantity. Thus, as the
time interval Δt = 1 f = λ c < h ΔE modulus of an imaginary number is
(wave period) cannot be always real and positive, we can
experimentally detected. This is an transform the proportion ρΨ ∝ ΨΨ2 , in
imaginary photon or a “virtual” photon. equality in the following form:
Thus, the graviphotons are imaginary
photons, i.e., the energies ΔEi of the ΨΨ2 = k ρ Ψ (134)
graviphotons are imaginaries energies
and therefore the energy where k is a proportionality constant
W = ΔE1 + ΔE 2 + ... + ΔE n is also an (real and positive) to be determined.
imaginary energy. Consequently, it In Quantum Mechanics we have
belongs to the imaginary space-time. studied the Superpositon Principle,
According to Eq. (131), which affirms that, if a particle (or
imaginary energy is equal to psychic system of particles) is in a dynamic
energy. Consequently, the imaginary state represented by a wave function
space-time is, in fact, the psychic Ψ1 and may also be in another
space-time, which contains the
dynamic state described by Ψ2 then,
Supreme Consciousness. Since the
Supreme Consciousness has infinite the general dynamic state of the
psychic mass, then the psychic space- particle may be described by Ψ ,
time has infinite psychic energy. This is where Ψ is a linear
highly relevant, because it confers to combination(superposition)of Ψ1 and Ψ2 ,
the psychic space-time the i.e.,
characteristic of unlimited source of Ψ = c1 Ψ1 + c 2 Ψ2 (135 )
energy. Complex constants c1 and c2
This can be easily confirmed by
respectively indicates the percentage
the fact that, in spite of the enormous
of dynamic state, represented
amount of energy expended by Earth’s
by Ψ1 and Ψ2 in the formation of the
gravitational field to hold objects down
on the surface of the planet and general dynamic state described by Ψ .
maintain the Moon in its orbit, the In the case of psychic particles
energy of Earth’s gravitational field (psychic bodies, consciousness, etc.),
65
by analogy, if ΨΨ1 , ΨΨ 2 ,..., ΨΨn refer 2
∇ 2 ΨΨ +
p Ψ
2
ΨΨ = 0 (137 )
to the different dynamic states the h
psychic particle assume, then its
general dynamic state may be Because the wave functions are
described by the wave function ΨΨ , capable of intertwining themselves, the
given by: quantum systems may “penetrate”
each other, thus establishing an
ΨΨ = c1ΨΨ1 + c2 ΨΨ 2 + ... + cn ΨΨn (136) internal relationship where all of them
are affected by the relationship, no
longer being isolated systems but
The state of superposition of wave
becoming an integrated part of a larger
functions is, therefore, common for
system. This type of internal
both psychic and material particles. In
relationship, which exists only in
the case of material particles, it can be
quantum systems, was called
verified, for instance, when an electron
Relational Holism [44].
changes from one orbit to another.
The equation of quantization of
Before effecting the transition to
mass (33), in the generalized form,
another energy level, the electron
leads us to the following expression:
carries out “virtual transitions” [42]. A
kind of relationship with other electrons m i (imaginary ) = n 2 m i 0 (imagynary )(min )
before performing the real transition. Thus, we can also conclude that the
During this relationship period, its wave psychic mass is also quantized, due to
function remains “scattered” by a wide mΨ = mi (imaginary ) (Eq. 131), i.e.,
region of the space [43] thus
superposing the wave functions of the m Ψ = n 2 m Ψ (min ) (138 )
other electrons. In this relationship the
electrons mutually influence one where
another, with the possibility of m Ψ (min ) = − 2
3
(hf min )
c2 i =
intertwining their wave functions ‡‡ .
When this happens, there occurs the =− 2
3
m i 0 (real ) min i (139 )
so-called Phase Relationship
according to quantum-mechanics It was shown that the minimum
concept. quantum of real inertial mass in the
In the electrons “virtual” Universe, mi 0(real ) min , is given by:
transition mentioned before, the
“listing” of all the possibilities of the m i 0 (real ) min = ± h 3 8 cd max =
electrons is described, as we know, by = ± 3 . 9 × 10 − 73 kg (140 )
Schrödinger’s wave equation. By analogy to Eqs. (132) and (133),
Otherwise, it is general for material the expressions of the psychic masses
particles. By analogy, in the case of associated to the proton and the
psychic particles, we may say that the neutron are respectively given by:
“listing” of all the possibilities of the
psyches involved in the relationship will m Ψ proton = m i (imaginary ) proton =
be described by Schrödinger’s
equation – for psychic case, i.e., =+ 2
3
(hf proton c2 i =)
=+ 2
3
m i 0 (real ) proton i (141 )
‡‡
Since the electrons are simultaneously waves and
particles, their wave aspects will interfere with each
other; besides superposition, there is also the
possibility of occurrence of intertwining of their
wave functions.
66
m Ψneutron = mi (imaginary )neutron =

=− 2 (hf neutron )
c2 i =
F = G M i (imaginary) mi (imaginary) r 2 =

( ΔE ⎞
)
3

=− 2 mi 0(real )neutron i (142 ) ⎜ me ± m n − m p + 2 ⎟ M
3 ≅⎜ c ⎟G i (real )i mi (real )i
The imaginary gravitational ⎜ ΔE ⎟ r2
⎜ me + m p + m n + 2 ⎟
masses of the atoms must be much ⎝ c ⎠
smaller than their real gravitational Therefore, the total gravity is
masses. On the contrary, the weight of M i (real )
the bodies would be very different of g real + Δg (imaginary ) = −G −
r2
the observed values. This fact shows
that mi (imaginary ) proton and mi (imaginary )neutron

( ΔE ⎞
)
⎜ me ± m n − m p + 2 ⎟ M
−⎜ c ⎟G i (real )
must have contrary signs. In this way, ⎜ ΔE ⎟ r2
the imaginary gravitational mass of an ⎜ me + m p + m n + 2 ⎟
⎝ c ⎠
atom can be expressed by means of
the following expression Thus, the imaginary gravitational mass
of a body produces an excess of

(ΔE ⎞
mi (imaginary )atom = N ⎜ me ± m n − m p + 2 ⎟i ) gravity acceleration, Δg , given by
⎝ c ⎠
where, ΔE , is the interaction energy.
By comparing this expression with the

( )
ΔE ⎞
⎜ me ± mn − m p + 2 ⎟ M
following expression Δg ≅ ⎜ c ⎟G i (real )
⎜ ΔE ⎟ r2
⎛ ΔE ⎞ ⎜ e
m + m + m + ⎟
mi (real )atom = N ⎜ me + m p + mn + 2 ⎟ ⎝
p n
c2 ⎠
⎝ c ⎠
Thus,
In the case of soft atoms we can
mi (imaginary )atom << mi (real )atom
consider ΔE ≅ 2 × 10 −13 joules . Thus, in
Now consider a monatomic body with this case we obtain
real mass M i (real ) and imaginary mass Mi
M i (imaginary ) . Then we have
Δg ≅ 6 ×10 −4 G (143)
r2
In the case of the Sun, for example,
⎛ ΔE i ⎞ there is an excess of gravity
Σ⎜ mi (imaginary )atom + 2a ⎟
M i (imaginary ) acceleration, due to its imaginary
= ⎝
c ⎠
= gravitational mass, given by
M i (real ) ⎛ ΔE a ⎞
Σ⎜ mi (real )atom + 2 ⎟
⎝ c ⎠ (
Δg ≅ 6 × 10 − 4 G ) M iS
r2
ΔE ΔE ⎞

(
n⎜ me ± m n − m p + 2 + 2a ⎟i ) At a distance from the Sun of
= ⎝
c c ⎠ r = 1.0 × 1013 m the value of Δg is

⎛ ΔE ΔE a ⎞
n⎜ m e + m p + m n + 2 + 2 ⎟
⎝ c c ⎠ Δg ≅ 8 × 10 −10 m.s −2

(
⎜ me ± mn − m p + 2 ⎟ )
ΔE ⎞
≅⎜ c ⎟i Experiments in the pioneer 10
⎜ ΔE ⎟ spacecraft, at a distance from the Sun
⎜ me + m p + m n + 2 ⎟
⎝ c ⎠ of about 67 AU or r = 1.0 × 1013 m [45],
Since ΔE a << ΔE . measured an excess acceleration
The intensity of the gravitational towards the Sun of
forces between M g (imaginary ) and an
Δg = 8.74 ± 1.33 × 10 −10 m.s −2
imaginary particle with mass
m g (imaginary ) , both at rest, is given by
67
Note that the general expression for electromagnetic interaction which,
the gravity acceleration of the Sun is as we know, is conveyed by the
exchange of “virtual” photons.
(
g = 1+ ≈ 6 × 10 − 4 G ) M iS If electrons, protons and neutrons
have psychic mass, then we can infer
r2
Therefore, in the case of the that the psychic mass of the atoms are
gravitational deflection of light about Phase Condensates *** . In the case of
the Sun, the new expression for the the molecules the situation is similar.
deflection of the light is More molecular mass means more
(
δ = 1+ ≈ 6 ×10 − 4 ) 4GM iS
(144)
atoms and consequently, more psychic
mass. In this case the phase
c2d
Thus, the increase in δ due to the condensate also becomes more
excess acceleration towards the Sun structured because the great amount
can be considered negligible. of elementary psyches inside the
Similarly to the collapse of the condensate requires, by stability
real wave function, the collapse of the reasons, a better distribution of them.
psychic wave function must suddenly Thus, in the case of molecules with
also express in reality all the very large molecular masses
possibilities described by it. This is, (macromolecules) it is possible that
therefore, a point of decision in which their psychic masses already constitute
there occurs the compelling need of the most organized shape of a Phase
realization of the psychic form. Thus, Condensate, called Bose-Einstein
this is moment in which the content of Condensate ††† .
the psychic form realizes itself in the The fundamental characteristic of
space-time. For an observer in space- a Bose-Einstein condensate is, as we
time, something is real when it is in the know, that the various parts making up
form of matter or radiation. Therefore, the condensed system not only behave
the content of the psychic form may as a whole but also become a whole,
realize itself in space-time exclusively i.e., in the psychic case, the various
under the form of radiation, that is, it consciousnesses of the system
does not materialize. This must occur become a single consciousness with
when the Materialization Condition is psychic mass equal to the sum of the
not satisfied, i.e., when the content of psychic masses of all the
the psychic form is undefined consciousness of the condensate. This
(impossible to be defined by its own obviously, increases the available
psychic) or it does not contain enough knowledge in the system since it is
psychic mass to materialize §§ the proportional to the psychic mass of the
respective psychic contents.
Nevertheless, in both cases, ***
Ice and NaCl crystals are common examples of
there must always be a production of imprecisely-structured phase condensates. Lasers,
“virtual” photons to convey the psychic super fluids, superconductors and magnets are
interaction to the other psychic examples of phase condensates more structured.
†††
particles, according to the quantum Several authors have suggested the possibility of
field theory, only through this type of the Bose-Einstein condensate occurring in the
brain, and that it might be the physical base of
quanta will interaction be conveyed, memory, although they have not been able to find a
since it has an infinite reach and may suitable mechanism to underpin such a hypothesis.
be either attractive or repulsive, just as Evidences of the existence of Bose-Einstein
condensates in living tissues abound (Popp, F.A
Experientia, Vol. 44, p.576-585; Inaba, H., New
§§
By this we mean not only materialization proper Scientist, May89, p.41; Rattermeyer, M and Popp,
but also the movement of matter to realize its F. A. Naturwissenschaften, Vol.68, Nº5, p.577.)
psychic content (including radiation).
68
consciousness. This unity confers an correlated to Ψ and Ψ 2
Ψ1 . Only 2
Ψ2
‡‡‡

individual character to this type of a simple algebraic form fills the


consciousness. For this reason, from requirements of interchange of the
now on they will be called Individual indices, the product
Material Consciousness.
ΨΨ2 1 .ΨΨ2 2 = ΨΨ2 2 .ΨΨ2 1 =
We can derive from the above
that most bodies do not possess = A1, 2 = A2,1 = A (145 )
individual material consciousness. In In the above expression, A is due to
an iron rod, for instance, the cluster of
elementary psyches in the iron the product ΨΨ2 1 .ΨΨ2 2 will be always
molecules does not constitute Bose- positive. From equations (143) and
Einstein condensate; therefore, the (134) we get
iron rod does not have an individual A = ΨΨ2 1 .ΨΨ2 2 = k 2 ρ Ψ1 ρ Ψ 2 =
consciousness. Its consciousness is
mΨ1 mΨ 2
consequently, much more simple and = k2 (146)
constitutes just a phase condensate V1 V2
imprecisely structured made by the The psychic interaction can be
consciousness of the iron atoms. described starting from the psychic
The existence of consciousnesses mass because the psychic mass is the
in the atoms is revealed in the source of the psychic field. Basically,
molecular formation, where atoms with the psychic mass is gravitational mass,
strong mutual affinity (their m Ψ ≡ m g (imaginary ) . In this way, the
consciousnesses) combine to form equations of the gravitational
molecules. It is the case, for instance interaction are also applied to the
of the water molecules, in which two Psychic Interaction. However, due to
Hydrogen atoms join an Oxygen atom. the psychic mass, m Ψ , to be an
Well, how come the combination
imaginary quantity, it is necessary to
between these atoms is always the
put mΨ into the mentioned equations
same: the same grouping and the
same invariable proportion? In the in order to homogenize them, because
case of molecular combinations the as we know, the module of an
phenomenon repeats itself. Thus, the imaginary number is always real and
chemical substances either mutually positive.
attract or repel themselves, carrying Thus, based on gravity theory,
out specific motions for this reason. It we can write the equation of the
is the so-called Chemical Affinity. This psychic field in nonrelativistic
phenomenon certainly results from a Mechanics.
specific interaction between the ΔΦ = 4πG ρ Ψ (147 )
consciousnesses. From now on, it will
be called Psychic Interaction.
Mutual Affinity is a
dimensionless psychic quantity with ‡‡‡
Quantum Mechanics tells us that Ψ do not have
which we are familiar and of which we a physical interpretation or a simple meaning and
have perfect understanding as to its also it cannot be experimentally observed. However
such restriction does not apply to Ψ
2
meaning. The degree of Mutual , which is
Affinity, A , in the case of two known as density of probability and represents the
consciousnesses, respectively probability of finding the body, described by the
described by ΨΨ1 and ΨΨ 2 , must be wave function Ψ , in the point x, y, z at the
moment t. A large value of Ψ
2
means a strong
possibility to find the body, while a small value of
Ψ 2 means a weak possibility to find the body.
69
It is similar to the equation of the attractive, if A is positive
gravitational field, with the difference (expressing positive mutual affinity
that now instead of the density of between the two psychic bodies), and
gravitational mass we have the density repulsive if A is negative (expressing
of psychic mass. Then, we can write negative mutual affinity between the
the general solution of Eq. (147), in the two psychic bodies). Contrary to the
following form: interaction of the matter, where the
ρ Ψ dV opposites attract themselves here, the
Φ = −G ∫ (148) opposites repel themselves.
r2
This equation expresses, with A method and device to obtain
nonrelativistic approximation, the images of psychic bodies have been
potential of the psychic field of any previously proposed [46]. By means of
distribution of psychic mass. this device, whose operation is based
Particularly, for the potential of on the gravitational interaction and the
the field of only one particle with piezoelectric effect, it will be possible
psychic mass mΨ1 , we get: to observe psychic bodies.
Expression (146) can be
G m Ψ1
Φ=− (149 ) rewritten in the following form:
r
Then the force produced by this field
m m
A = k 2 Ψ1 Ψ 2 (153)
V1 V2
upon another particle with psychic
The psychic masses mΨ1 and mΨ 2 are
mass mΨ 2 is
r r imaginary quantities. However, the
∂Φ
FΨ12 = − FΨ 21 = − mΨ 2 = product mΨ1 .mΨ 2 is a real quantity. One
∂r
can then conclude from the previous
m Ψ1 m Ψ 2
= −G (150) expression that the degree of mutual
r2 affinity between two consciousnesses
By comparing equations (150) and depends basically on the densities of
(146) we obtain their psychic masses, and that:
1) If mΨ1 > 0 and mΨ 2 > 0 then
r r A > 0 (positive mutual affinity
VV
FΨ12 = − FΨ 21 = −G A 12 22 (151) between them)
k r
In the vectorial form the above 2) If mΨ1 < 0 and mΨ 2 < 0 then
equation is written as follows A > 0 (positive mutual affinity
r r VV
FΨ 12 = − FΨ 21 = − GA 12 22 μ̂ (152 ) between them)
k r 3) If mΨ1 > 0 and mΨ 2 < 0 then
Versor μ̂ has the direction of the line A < 0 (negative mutual affinity
connecting the mass centers (psychic between them)
mass) of both particles and oriented 4) If mΨ1 < 0 and mΨ 2 > 0 then
from mΨ1 to mΨ 2 . A < 0 (negative mutual affinity
In general, we may distinguish between them)
and quantify two types of mutual In this relationship, as occurs in the
affinity: positive and negative case of material particles (“virtual”
(aversion). The occurrence of the first transition of the electrons previously
type is synonym of psychic attraction, mentioned), the consciousnesses
(as in the case of the atoms in the interact mutually, intertwining or not
water molecule) while the aversion is their wave functions. When this
synonym of repulsion. In fact, Eq. (152) happens, there occurs the so-called
r r
shows that the forces FΨ12 and FΨ 21 are Phase Relationship according to
quantum-mechanics concept.
70
Otherwise a Trivial Relationship takes
place.
The psychic forces such as the
gravitational forces, must be very weak
when we consider the interaction
between two particles. However, in
spite of the subtleties, those forces
stimulate the relationship of the
consciousnesses with themselves and
with the Universe (Eq.152).
From all the preceding, we
perceive that Psychic Interaction –
unified with matter interactions,
constitutes a single Law which links
things and beings together and, in a
network of continuous relations and
exchanges, governs the Universe both
in its material and psychic aspects. We
can also observe that in the
interactions the same principle
reappears always identical. This unity
of principle is the most evident
expression of monism in the Universe.
71

APPENDIX A: Allais effect explained


≅ 1.3 × 10−18 kg.m −3 that can work as a
A Foucault-type pendulum slightly gravitational shielding and explain the
increases its period of oscillation at sites Allais and pendulum effects. Below this
experiencing a solar eclipse, as compared layer, the density of the lunar atmosphere
with any other time. This effect was first increases, making the effect of
observed by Allais [47] over 40 years ago. gravitational shielding negligible.
Also Saxl and Allen [48], using a torsion During the solar eclipses, when the
pendulum, have observed the Moon is between the Sun and the Earth,
phenomenon. Recently, an anomalous two gravitational shieldings Sh1 and Sh2 ,
eclipse effect on gravimeters has become
are established in the top layer of the lunar
well-established [49], while some of the
atmosphere (See Fig. 1A). In order to
pendulum experiments have not. Here,
understand how these gravitational
we will show that the Allais gravity and
shieldings work (the gravitational shielding
pendulum effects during solar eclipses
effect) see Fig. II. Thus, right after Sh1
result from a shielding effect of the Sun’s
gravity when the Moon is between the Sun (inside the system Moon-Lunar
atmosphere), the Sun’s gravity
and the Earth. r r
The interplanetary medium includes acceleration, g S , becomes χ g S where,
interplanetary dust, cosmic rays and hot according to Eq. (57) χ is given by
plasma from the solar wind. Its density is
inversely proportional to the squared
⎧ ⎡ ⎛ ⎞
2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎪
distance from the Sun, decreasing as this 2
n D
distance increases. Near the Earth-Moon χ = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜ 3 ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
r
(1A)
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ ρc ⎠ ⎥⎪
system, this density is very low, with ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
(
values about 5 protons/ cm3 8.3×10−21 kg m3 . ) The total density of solar radiation D
However, this density is highly variable. It arriving at the top layer of the lunar
can be increased up to atmosphere is given by
( −19
~ 100 protons / cm 1.7 ×10 k g m [50].
3
)
3
D = σT 4 = 6.32 × 10 7 W / m 2
The atmosphere of the Moon is Since the temperature of the surface of the
very tenuous and insignificant in Sun is T = 5.778 × 10 3 K and
comparison with that of the Earth. The
average daytime abundances of the
σ = 5.67 × 10 −8 W .m −2 .K −4 . The density of
elements known to be present in the lunar the top layer is ρ ≅ 1.3 × 10−18 kg.m−3 then
atmosphere, in atoms per cubic Eq. (1A) gives §§§
centimeter, are as follows: H <17, He 2-
40x103, Na 70,K 17, Air 4x104, yielding χ = − 1 .1
~8x104 total atoms per cubic
( −16
)
−3
centimeter ≅ 10 kg.m [51]. According to The negative sign of χ shows that
Öpik [52], near the Moon surface, the r r
χg S , has opposite direction to g S . As
density of the lunar atmosphere can reach
values up to 10 −12 kg.m −3 .The minimum
previously showed (see Fig. II), after
the second gravitational shielding
possible density of the lunar atmosphere is
in the top of the atmosphere and is §§§
essentially very close to the value of the The text in red in wrong. But the value of
interplanetary medium. χ = −1 .1 is correct. It is not the solar radiation
Since the density of the that produces the phenomenon. The exact
interplanetary medium is very small it description of the phenomenon starting from the
cannot work as gravitational shielding. same equation (1A) is presented in the end of my
However, there is a top layer in the lunar paper: “Scattering of Sunlight in Lunar Exosphere
Caused by Gravitational Microclusters of Lunar Dust”
atmosphere with density (2013).
72
(Sh2) the gravity acceleration χgr S g ′ = g ⊕ − (− 0 .4 ) g S − (− 0 .4 )g Moon =
2

r r
becomes χ 2 g S . This means that χ 2 g S ≅ g ⊕ − 9.6 × 10 − 4 m.s − 2 =
r
has the same direction of g S . In (
= 1 − 9.7 × 10 − 5 g ⊕) (4 A )
addition, right after the lunar (Sh2) This decrease in g increases the
r
gravity becomes χg moon . Therefore, the pendulum’s period by about
total gravity acceleration in the Earth g⊕
T′ =T = 1 .000048 T
will be given by ( )
1 − 9 .4 × 10 − 5 g ⊕
r r r r
g ′ = g ⊕ − χ 2 g S − χg moon (2 A) This corresponds to 0.0048% increase
in the pendulum’s period. Jun’s
abstract [53] tells us of a relative
Since g S ≅ 5.9 × 10 −3 m / s 2 and change less than 0.005% in the
−5
g moon ≅ 3.3 × 10 m / s Eq. (2A), gives
2 pendulum’s period associated with the
1990 solar eclipse.
For example, if the density of the
g ′ = g ⊕ − (− 1 .1) g S − (− 1 .1)g Moon =
2
top layer of the lunar atmosphere
≅ g ⊕ − 7 .1 × 10 − 3 m .s − 2 = increase up to 2.0917 × 10−18 k g m 3 , the
(
= 1 − 7 .3 × 10 − 4 g ⊕ ) (3 A ) value for χ becomes

This decrease in g increases the χ = −1.5 × 10 −3


period T = 2π l g of a paraconical
Thus, we obtain
g ′ = g ⊕ − (− 1.5 × 10−3 ) g S − (− 1.5 × 10−3 )g Moon =
pendulum (Allais effect) in about 2

g⊕
T′ = T = 1.00037 T
(
1 − 7.3 × 10 − 4 g ⊕ ) ≅ g ⊕ − 6.3 × 10−8 m.s −2 =
This corresponds to 0.037% increase ( )
= 1 − 6.4 × 10−9 g ⊕ (5 A)
in the period, and is roughly the value So, the total gravity acceleration in the
(0.0372%) obtained by Saxl and Allen Earth will decrease during the solar
during the total solar eclipse in March eclipses by about
1970 [48].
As we have seen, the density of 6.4 × 10 −9 g ⊕
the interplanetary medium near the
Moon is highly variable and can reach The size of the effect, as measured
values up to ~ 100 protons / cm 3 with a gravimeter, during the 1997
(1.7 ×10−19 k g m3 .) eclipse, was roughly (5 − 7 ) × 10 −9 g ⊕
When the density of the [54, 55].
interplanetary medium increases, the The decrease will be even
top layer of the lunar atmosphere can smaller forρ ≳ 2.0917 ×10-18kg.m-3. The
also increase its density, by absorbing lower limit now is set by Lageos
particles from the interplanetary satellites, which suffer an anomalous
medium due to the lunar gravitational
acceleration of only about 3 × 10 −13 g ⊕ ,
attraction. In the case of a density
increase of roughly 30% during “seasons” where the satellite
( )
1.7 × 10 k g m , the value for χ
−18 3 experiences eclipses of the Sun by the
Earth [56].
becomes
χ = − 0 .4
Consequently, we get
73

Top layer of the Moon’s atmosphere


(Gravitational Shielding)
Interplanetary medium
≈ 10 −19 kg m 3
≈10−18 kg.m-3
Solar radiation ≈10−17 kg.m-3
≈10−12 kg.m-3 r
χg Moon
r Sh1 r Moon r Sh2 r r r r Earth
gS χg S g Moon χg Moon χ 2 g S χ 2gS g⊕

Fig. 1A – Schematic diagram of the Gravitational Shielding around the Moon – The top layer of the
Moon’s atmosphere with density of the order of 10-18 kg.m-3 , produces a gravitational shielding
r r
when subjected to the radiation from the Sun. Thus, the solar gravity g S becomes χ g S after the
r r
first shielding Sh1 and χ 2 g S after the second shielding Sh 2 . The Moon gravity becomes χ g Moon
after Sh 2 . Therefore the total gravity acceleration in the Earth will be given by
r r r r
g ′ = g ⊕ − χ 2 g S − χg moon .
74

APPENDIX B n2h2 n2h2


En = = (3B)
In this appendix we will show 8mg L2 8η 2 mi L2
why, in the quantized gravity equation
(Eq.34), n = 0 is excluded from the From this equation we can easily
sequence of possible values of n . conclude that η cannot be
Obviously, the exclusion of n = 0 , zero (E n → ∞ or E n → 0 ) . On the
0

means that the gravity can have only other hand, the Eq. (2B) shows that the
discrete values different of zero. exclusion of η = 0 means the exclusion
Equation (33) shows that the of m g = 0 as a possible value for the
gravitational mass is quantized and
given by gravitational mass. Obviously, this also
means the exclusion of M g = 0
M g = n 2 mg (min ) (Relativistic mass). Equation (33) tells
us that M g = n 2 m g (min ) , thus we can
Since Eq. (43) leads to conclude that the exclusion of Mg = 0
implies in the exclusion of n = 0 since
mg(min) = mio(min)
mg(min) = mi0(min) = finite value (elementary
quantum of mass). Therefore Eq. (3B)
where
is only valid for values of n and η
different of zero. Finally, from the
mi0(min) = ± h 3 8 cdmax = ±3.9×10−73kg
quantized gravity equation (Eq. 34),
GM g ⎛ Gm g (min ) ⎞
is the elementary quantum of inertial g =− = n 2
⎜− ⎟=
r2 ⎜ (r )2 ⎟
mass. Then the equation ⎝ max n ⎠
for M g becomes = n 4 g min
we conclude that the exclusion of n = 0
M g = n 2 mg (min ) = n 2 mi (min ) means that the gravity can have only
discrete values different of zero.
On the other hand, Eq. (44)
shows that
M i = ni2 mi 0(min )
Thus, we can write that
2
Mg ⎛n ⎞
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ or M g = η 2 M i (1B)
M i ⎝ ni ⎠

where η = n ni is a quantum number


different of n .
By multiplying both members of
Eq. (1B) by 1 − V 2 c 2 we get
mg = η 2 mi (2B)
By substituting (2B) into Eq. (21)
we get
75

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Gravity Control by means of Electromagnetic Field
through Gas or Plasma at Ultra-Low Pressure
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2007-2010 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved

It is shown that the gravity acceleration just above a chamber filled with gas or plasma at ultra-low
pressure can be strongly reduced by applying an Extra Low-Frequency (ELF) electromagnetic field
across the gas or the plasma. This Gravitational Shielding Effect is related to recent discovery of
quantum correlation between gravitational mass and inertial mass. According to the theory samples
hung above the gas or the plasma should exhibit a weight decrease when the frequency of the
electromagnetic field is decreased or when the intensity of the electromagnetic field is increased. This
Gravitational Shielding Effect is unprecedented in the literature and can not be understood in the
framework of the General Relativity. From the technical point of view, there are several applications for
this discovery; possibly it will change the paradigms of energy generation, transportation and
telecommunications.

Key words: Phenomenology of quantum gravity, Experimental Tests of Gravitational Theories,


Vacuum Chambers, Plasmas devices. PACs: 04.60.Bc, 04.80.Cc, 07.30.Kf, 52.75.-d.

CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTION 02

II. THEORY 02
Gravity Control Cells (GCC) 07

III. CONSEQUENCES 09
Gravitational Motor using GCC 11
Gravitational Spacecraft 12
Decreasing of inertial forces on the Gravitational Spacecraft 13
Gravity Control inside the Gravitational Spacecraft 13
Gravitational Thrusters 14
Artificial Atmosphere surrounds the Gravitational Spacecraft. 15
Gravitational Lifter 15
High Power Electromagnetic Bomb (A new type of E-bomb). 16
Gravitational Press of Ultra-High Pressure 16
Generation and Detection of Gravitational Radiation 17
Quantum Gravitational Antennas. Quantum Transceivers 18
Instantaneous Interstellar Communications 18
Wireless Electric Power Transmission, by using Quantum Gravitational Antennas. 18
Method and Device using GCCs for obtaining images of Imaginary Bodies 19
Energy shieldings 19
Possibility of Controlled Nuclear Fusion by means of Gravity Control 20

IV. CONCLUSION 21
APPENDIX A 42

APPENDIX B 70

References 74
2

I. INTRODUCTION
It will be shown that the local In general, the momentum variation
gravity acceleration can be controlled by Δp is expressed by Δp = FΔt where F
means of a device called Gravity Control is the applied force during a time
Cell (GCC) which is basically a recipient interval Δt . Note that there is no
filled with gas or plasma where is applied restriction concerning the nature of the
an electromagnetic field. According to force F , i.e., it can be mechanical,
the theory samples hung above the gas electromagnetic, etc.
or plasma should exhibit a weight For example, we can look on the
decrease when the frequency of the momentum variation Δp as due to
electromagnetic field is decreased or absorption or emission of electromagnetic
when the intensity of the electromagnetic energy by the particle.
field is increased. The electrical In the case of radiation, Δp can be
conductivity and the density of the gas or obtained as follows: It is known that the
plasma are also highly relevant in this radiation pressure, dP , upon an area
process.
dA = dxdy of a volume d V = dxdydz of
With a GCC it is possible to
convert the gravitational energy into a particle ( the incident radiation normal
rotational mechanical energy by means to the surface dA )is equal to the
of the Gravitational Motor. In addition, a energy dU absorbed per unit volume
new concept of spacecraft (the (dU dV ) .i.e.,
Gravitational Spacecraft) and aerospace
dP =
dU
=
dU
=
dU
(2)
flight is presented here based on the dV dxdydz dAdz
possibility of gravity control. We will also
see that the gravity control will be very Substitution of dz = vdt ( v is the speed
important to Telecommunication. of radiation) into the equation above
gives
II. THEORY dU (dU dAdt ) dD
It was shown [1] that the relativistic dP = = = (3)
dV v v
gravitational mass M g = m g 1 − V 2 c2
and the relativistic inertial mass Since dPdA = dF we can write:
M i = mi 0 1 − V 2 c 2 are quantized, and dFdt=
dU
(4)
v
given by M g = n g2 mi 0(min ) , M i = ni2 mi 0(min ) However we know that dF = dp dt , then
where n g and ni are respectively, the
dp =
dU
(5)
gravitational quantum number and the v
inertial quantum number ; From this equation it follows that
mi 0(min ) = ±3.9 × 10 kg is the elementary
−73
U ⎛c⎞ U
Δp = ⎜ ⎟ = nr
quantum of inertial mass. The masses v ⎝c⎠ c
m g and mi 0 are correlated by means of Substitution into Eq. (1) yields
the following expression: ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ ⎞ ⎪
⎡ 2 ⎤
⎢ ⎜
mg = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜

U
nr ⎟ − 1⎥⎬mi0

⎥⎪
(6)
⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎪ ⎝
2


mg = mi0 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥mi0 . (1) ⎩ ⎣
mi0 c
⎦⎭
⎢ ⎝ mi c ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ Where U , is the electromagnetic energy
Where Δp is the momentum variation on absorbed by the particle; nr is the index
the particle and mi 0 is the inertial mass of refraction.
at rest.
3
Equation (6) can be rewritten in Equation (9) shows that ω κ r = v . Thus,
the following form E B = ω k r = v , i.e., E = vB = vμH .
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ W ⎞ ⎪ Then, Eq. (8) can be rewritten in the

mg = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜ n ⎟ − 1⎥⎬mi 0 (7) following form:
⎢ ⎜ ρ c2 r ⎟ ⎥

⎩ ⎣⎢
⎝ ⎠ ⎪
⎦⎥⎭ W = 12 (ε v2μ)μH 2 + 12 μH 2 (12)
Where W = U V is the density of For σ << ωε , Eq. (9) reduces to
electromagnetic energy and ρ = mi 0 V c
v=
is the density of inertial mass. ε r μr
The Eq. (7) is the expression of the Then, Eq. (12) gives
quantum correlation between the ⎡ ⎛ c2 ⎞ ⎤ 2 1 2
gravitational mass and the inertial mass W = 12 ⎢ε ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟μ⎥μH + 2 μH = μH2 (13)
⎢⎣ ⎝ εr μr ⎠ ⎥⎦
as a function of the density of
electromagnetic energy. This is also the This equation can be rewritten in the
expression of correlation between following forms:
B2
gravitation and electromagnetism.
W = (14)
The density of electromagnetic μ
energy in an electromagnetic field can be or
deduced from Maxwell’s equations [2] W = ε E2 (15)
and has the following expression
W = 12 ε E 2 + 12 μH 2 (8) For σ >> ωε , Eq. (9) gives

It is known that B = μH , E B = ω k r [3] v= (16 )
μσ
and
dz ω Then, from Eq. (12) we get
v= = =
c
(9) ⎡ ⎛ 2ω ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ ωε ⎞
dt κ r ε r μr ⎛ W = 12 ⎢ε⎜⎜ ⎟⎟μ⎥μH2 + 12 μH2 = ⎜ ⎟μH2 + 12 μH2 ≅
⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟
2

2 ⎝ ⎠ ⎣ ⎝ μσ ⎠ ⎦ ⎝σ ⎠
Where kr is the real part of the ≅ 12 μH2 (17)
r
propagation vector k (also called phase Since E = vB = vμH , we can rewrite (17)
r in the following forms:
constant [4]); k = k = k r + iki ; ε , μ and σ,
B2
are the electromagnetic characteristics of W ≅ (18)

the medium in which the incident (or
emitted) radiation is propagating or
⎛σ ⎞ 2
( ε = ε r ε 0 where ε r is the relative W ≅⎜ ⎟E (19 )
⎝ 4ω ⎠
dielectric permittivity and ε0 = 8.854×10−12F/ m
By comparing equations (14) (15) (18)
; μ = μrμ0 where μ r is the relative and (19) we see that Eq. (19) shows that
magnetic permeability and μ0 = 4π ×10−7 H / m; the better way to obtain a strong value of
W in practice is by applying an Extra
σ is the electrical conductivity). It is
Low-Frequency (ELF) electric field
known that for free-space σ = 0 and
ε r = μ r = 1 then Eq. (9) gives
(w = 2πf << 1Hz ) through a mean with
v=c (10) high electrical conductivity.
Substitution of Eq. (19) into Eq.
From (9) we see that the index of (7), gives
refraction nr = c v will be given by ⎧ ⎡ 3 ⎤⎫
⎪ μ ⎛ σ ⎞ E 4 ⎥⎪
c εμ
= r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε) + 1⎞⎟ (11)

mg = ⎨1 − 2 1 + 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟ − 1 ⎬mi0 (20)
nr = 4c ⎝ 4πf ⎟⎠ ρ 2 ⎥⎪
2
⎪⎩ ⎢
v 2 ⎝ ⎠ ⎣ ⎦⎭
This equation shows clearly that if an
4
electrical conductor mean has j lamp
ρ << 1 Kg.m −3
and σ >> 1 , then it is
σ Hg plasma = = 3.419 S .m −1 (23)
E lamp
possible obtain strong changes in its Substitution of (22) and (23) into (20)
gravitational mass, with a relatively small yields
ELF electric field. An electrical conductor
mean with ρ << 1 Kg.m−3 is obviously a
mg(Hg plasma) ⎧⎪ ⎡ E 4 ⎤⎫⎪
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + 1.909×10
⎢ −17
−1⎥⎬ (24)
mi(Hg plasma) ⎪ ⎢ f 3 ⎥⎪
plasma. ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
There is a very simple way to test Thus, if an Extra Low-Frequency electric
Eq. (20). It is known that inside a
field E ELF with the following
fluorescent lamp lit there is low-pressure
Mercury plasma. Consider a 20W characteristics: E ELF ≈ 100V .m −1 and
T-12 fluorescent lamp (80044– f < 1mHZ is applied through the
F20T12/C50/ECO GE, Ecolux® T12), Mercury plasma then a strong decrease
whose characteristics and dimensions in the gravitational mass of the Hg
are well-known [5]. At around plasma will be produced.
T ≅ 318.15 K , an optimum mercury
0
It was shown [1] that there is an
vapor pressure of P = 6 ×10−3Torr= 0.8N.m−2 additional effect of gravitational shielding
is obtained, which is required for produced by a substance under these
maintenance of high luminous efficacy conditions. Above the substance the
throughout life. Under these conditions, gravity acceleration g 1 is reduced at the
the mass density of the Hg plasma can same ratio χ = m g mi 0 , i.e., g1 = χ g ,
be calculated by means of the well-
( g is the gravity acceleration under the
known Equation of State
substance). Therefore, due to the
ρ=
PM 0
(21) gravitational shielding effect produced by
ZRT
the decrease of m g (Hg plasma ) in the region
Where M 0 = 0.2006 kg.mol −1 is the
where the ELF electric field E ELF is
molecular mass of the Hg; Z ≅ 1 is the
compressibility factor for the Hg plasma; applied, the gravity acceleration just
R = 8.314 joule.mol −1 . 0 K −1 is the gases above this region will be given by
m g (Hg plasma)
universal constant. Thus we get g1 = χ (Hg plasma) g = g=
ρ Hg plasma ≅ 6.067 × 10 −5 kg.m −3 (22) mi (Hg plasma)
The electrical conductivity of the Hg ⎧⎪ ⎡ E4 ⎤ ⎫⎪
plasma can be deduced from the = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 1.909 × 10 −17 ELF − 1⎥ ⎬ g (25)
r r ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣
3
f ELF ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
continuum form of Ohm's Law j = σE ,
since the operating current through the The trajectories of the
lamp and the current density are well- electrons/ions through the lamp are
known and respectively given by determined by the electric field E lamp along
i = 0.35A [5] and jlamp = i S = i π4 φint
2
, where the lamp. If the ELF electric field across
φint = 36.1mm is the inner diameter of the the lamp E ELF is much greater than E lamp ,
lamp. The voltage drop across the the current through the lamp can be
electrodes of the lamp is 57V [5] and the interrupted. However, if EELF <<Elamp, these
distance between them l = 570mm . Then trajectories will be only slightly modified.
the electrical field along the lamp E lamp is Since here Elamp = 100 V .m−1 , then we can
given by Elamp = 57V 0.570m = 100 V.m−1 . max
arbitrarily choose E ELF ≅ 33 V . m −1 . This
Thus, we have means that the maximum voltage drop,
which can be applied across the metallic
5
plates, placed at distance d , is equal to mg1(Hg plasma)
the outer diameter (max * ) of the χ1(Hg plasma) = =
max
mi1(Hg plasma)
bulb φlamp of the 20W T-12 Fluorescent
⎧ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫
lamp, is given by ⎪ EELF ⎪
φlamp ≅ 1.5 V
max max
Vmax = E ELF
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + 1.909×10
⎢ −17 (1)
− 1⎥⎬ (27)
⎪⎩ ⎢ f ELF(1) ⎥⎪
3
⎣ ⎦⎭
max
Since φlamp = 40.3mm [5]. Then, above the second lamp, the
max
Substitution of EELF ≅ 33 V.m−1 into gravity acceleration becomes
(25) yields r r r
mg (Hg plasma) g 2 = χ 2(Hg plasma) g1 = χ 2(Hg plasma) χ1(Hg plasma) g (28)
g1 = χ (Hg plasma) g = g= where
mi (Hg plasma)
mg 2(Hg plasma)
⎧⎪ χ 2(Hg plasma) = =
⎡ 2.264× 10−11 ⎤⎫⎪
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 3
− 1⎥⎬g (26) mi 2(Hg plasma)
⎪⎩ ⎢
⎣ f ELF ⎦⎥⎪⎭ ⎧ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫⎪
⎪ E ELF
Note that, for f < 1mHz = 10 −3 Hz , the = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 1.909 × 10 −17 (2 )
− 1 ⎥⎬ (29)
⎪⎩ ⎢ 3
f ELF ( 2) ⎥⎪
gravity acceleration can be strongly ⎣ ⎦⎭
reduced. These conclusions show that Then, results
the ELF Voltage Source of the set-up
g2 ⎧⎪ ⎡ 4
EELF ⎤⎫⎪
(1)
shown in Fig.1 should have the following = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 1.909×10−17 3 − 1⎥⎬ ×
characteristics: g ⎪ ⎢ f ELF(1) ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
- Voltage range: 0 – 1.5 V ⎧
⎪ ⎡ 4
EELF ⎤⎫⎪
- Frequency range: 10-4Hz – 10-3Hz × ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 1.909×10−17 ( 2)
− 1⎥⎬ (30)
⎪⎩ ⎢ 3
f ELF( 2) ⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭
In the experimental arrangement
shown in Fig.1, an ELF electric field with From Eq. (28), we then conclude that if
intensity E ELF = V d crosses the χ1(Hg plasma ) < 0 and also χ 2(Hg plasma ) < 0 ,
fluorescent lamp; V is the voltage drop then g 2 will have the same direction
across the metallic plates of the
of g . This way it is possible to intensify
capacitor and max
d = φlamp = 40.3mm .
several times the gravity in the direction
When the ELF electric field is applied, r
of g . On the other hand, if χ1(Hg plasma ) < 0
the gravity acceleration just above the r
lamp (inside the dotted box) decreases and χ 2(Hg plasma ) > 0 the direction of g 2 will
according to (25) and the changes can r
be contrary to direction of g . In this case
be measured by means of the system will be possible to intensify and
balance/sphere presented on the top of r r
become g 2 repulsive in respect to g .
Figure 1.
In Fig. 2 is presented an If we put a lamp above the second
experimental arrangement with two lamp, the gravity acceleration above the
fluorescent lamps in order to test the third lamp becomes
r r
gravity acceleration above the second g 3 = χ 3(Hg plasma) g 2 =
r
lamp. Since gravity acceleration above = χ 3(Hg plasma) χ 2(Hg plasma) χ1(Hg plasma) g (31)
the first lamp is given by
r r or
g1 = χ1(Hg plasma ) g , where

*
After heating.
6
g3 ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤⎫
4 Table1 presents the theoretical
EELF (1) ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 1.909×10−17 3 − 1⎥⎬ × values for g 1 and g 2 , calculated
g ⎪ ⎢ f ELF(1) ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ respectively by means of (25) and
(30).They are also plotted on Figures 5,
⎧ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫
⎪ EELF (2) ⎪ 6 and 7 as a function of the
× ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 1.909×10−17
− 1⎥⎬ ×
⎪⎩ ⎢ f ELF(2) ⎥⎪
3 frequency f ELF .
⎣ ⎦⎭
Now consider a chamber filled
⎧ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫ with Air at 3 × 10 −12 torr and 300K as
⎪ EELF ⎪
× ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 1.909×10−17 3
(3)
− 1⎥⎬ (32) shown in Figure 8 (a). Under these
⎪⎩ ⎢ f ELF(3) ⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭ circumstances, the mass density of the
If f ELF (1) = f ELF (2 ) = f ELF (3 ) = f and air inside the chamber, according to Eq.
(21) is ρ air ≅ 4.94 × 10 −15 kg.m −3 .
E ELF (1) = E ELF (2 ) = E ELF (3 ) = V φ = If the frequency of the magnetic
= V0 sin ωt 40.3mm = field, B , through the air is f = 60 Hz then
= 24.814V0 sin 2πft. ωε = 2πfε ≅ 3 × 10 −9 S / m . Assuming that
Then, for t = T 4 we get the electric conductivity of the air inside
the chamber, σ (air ) is much less than ωε ,
E ELF (1) = E ELF (2 ) = E ELF (3 ) = 24.814V0 .
Thus, Eq. (32) gives i.e., σ (air ) << ωε (The atmospheric air
3 conductivity is of the order of
g3 ⎧⎪ ⎡ V 4 ⎤⎫⎪
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 7.237×10−12 03 − 1⎥⎬ (33) 2 − 100 × 10 −15 S .m −1 [6, 7]) then we can
g ⎪
⎩ ⎢
⎣ f ⎥⎪
⎦⎭ rewritten the Eq. (11) as follows
For V0 = 1.5V and f = 0.2mHz
(t = T 4 = 1250s = 20.83min) the gravity
nr(air) ≅ ε r μr ≅ 1 (34)
r
acceleration g 3 above the third lamp will
From Eqs. (7), (14) and (34) we thus
be given by
r r obtain
g 3 = −5.126 g
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
Above the second lamp, the gravity ⎪ ⎢ ⎛ B2 ⎞ ⎪
mg(air) = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ nr(air) ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬mi(air) =
acceleration given by (30), is
r r ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ μair ρairc
2
⎠ ⎥⎪
g 2 = +2.972g . ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
According to (27) the gravity acceleration
above the first lamp is
{ [ ]}
= 1 − 2 1 + 3.2 ×106 B4 −1 mi(air) (35)
r r
g1 = -1,724g
Therefore, due to the gravitational
Note that, by this process an
r shielding effect produced by the
acceleration g can be increased several
r decreasing of m g (air ) , the gravity
times in the direction of g or in the
acceleration above the air inside the
opposite direction.
chamber will be given by
In the experiment proposed in Fig.
m g (air )
1, we can start with ELF voltage g ′ = χ air g = g =
sinusoidal wave of amplitude V0 = 1.0V m i (air )
and frequency 1mHz . Next, the frequency
will be progressively decreased down
{ [
= 1 − 2 1 + 3 . 2 × 10 6 B 4 − 1 g ]}
to 0.8mHz , 0.6mHz , 0.4mHz and
Note that the gravity acceleration
0.2mHz . Afterwards, the amplitude of the
above the air becomes negative
voltage wave must be increased to
for B > 2.5 × 10 −2 T .
V0 = 1.5V and the frequency decreased
in the above mentioned sequence.
7
For B = 0.1T the gravity nitrogen atoms of the air in the
acceleration above the air becomes ionization chamber (See Fig. 3(c))
increasing the electrical conductivity of
g ′ ≅ −32.8 g the air inside the chamber. The high-
speed alpha particles hit molecules in
Therefore the ultra-low pressure air the air and knock off electrons to form
inside the chamber, such as the Hg ions, according to the following
plasma inside the fluorescent lamp, expressions
works like a Gravitational Shield that in
practice, may be used to build Gravity O2 + H e+ + → O2+ + e − + H e+ +
Control Cells (GCC) for several practical N 2 + H e+ + → N 2+ + e − + H e+ +
applications.
Consider for example the GCCs of
It is known that the electrical
Plasma presented in Fig.3. The
conductivity is proportional to both the
ionization of the plasma can be made of
concentration and the mobility of the ions
several manners. For example, by
and the free electrons, and is expressed
means of an electric field between the
by
electrodes (Fig. 3(a)) or by means of a
RF signal (Fig. 3(b)). In the first case the
σ = ρ e μe + ρi μi
ELF electric field and the ionizing electric Where ρ e and ρ i express respectively
field can be the same. ( )
the concentrations C m 3 of electrons
Figure 3(c) shows a GCC filled
and ions; μ e and μ i are respectively the
with air (at ambient temperature and 1
atm) strongly ionized by means of alpha mobilities of the electrons and the ions.
particles emitted from 36 radioactive ions In order to calculate the electrical
sources (a very small quantity of conductivity of the air inside the
Americium 241 † ). The radioactive ionization chamber, we first need to
element Americium has a half-life of 432 calculate the concentrations ρ e and ρ i .
years, and emits alpha particles and low We start calculating the disintegration
energy gamma rays (≈ 60 KeV ) . In order constant, λ , for the Am 241 :
0.693 0.693
to shield the alpha particles and gamma λ= = = 5.1 × 10 −11 s −1
rays emitted from the Americium 241 it is T
1
2 432 (
3.15 × 10 7
s )
sufficient to encapsulate the GCC with 1

epoxy. The alpha particles generated by Where T = 432 years is the half-life of
2

the americium ionize the oxygen and the Am 241.


One kmole of an isotope has mass
† equal to atomic mass of the isotope
The radioactive element Americium (Am-241) is
widely used in ionization smoke detectors. This expressed in kilograms. Therefore, 1g of
type of smoke detector is more common because Am 241 has
it is inexpensive and better at detecting the 10 −3 kg
smaller amounts of smoke produced by flaming = 4.15 × 10 −6 kmoles
fires. Inside an ionization detector there is a small 241 kg kmole
amount (perhaps 1/5000th of a gram) of One kmole of any isotope contains the
americium-241. The Americium is present in
oxide form (AmO2) in the detector. The cost of Avogadro’s number of atoms. Therefore
the AmO2 is US$ 1,500 per gram. The amount of 1g of Am 241 has
radiation in a smoke detector is extremely small.
N = 4.15 × 10−6 kmoles×
It is also predominantly alpha radiation. Alpha
radiation cannot penetrate a sheet of paper, and
it is blocked by several centimeters of air. The × 6.025 × 1026 atoms kmole = 2.50 × 1021 atoms
americium in the smoke detector could only pose
a danger if inhaled.
Thus, the activity [8] of the sample is
8
R = λN = 1.3 × 10 disintegrations/s.
11
ρ air = 1.1452kg.m . Thus, for d = 2cm ,
−3

σ air ≈ 10 3 S .m −1 and f = 60 Hz Eq. (20)


However, we will use 36 ionization
gives
sources each one with 1/5000th of a
mg (air)
gram of Am 241. Therefore we will only χ air = =
use 7.2 × 10 −3 g of Am 241. Thus, R mi(air)
reduces to: ⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
μ ⎛ σ air ⎞ Vrms
3
⎪ ⎪
4

= ⎨1 − 2 1 + 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 4 2 − 1⎥⎬ =
R = λN ≅ 10 9 disintegrations/s ⎪⎩ ⎢ 4c ⎝ 4πf ⎠ d ρair ⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭
This means that at one second, about { [
= 1 − 2 1 + 3.10×10−16Vrms
4
−1 ]}
10 9 α particles hit molecules in the air Note that, for Vrms ≅ 7.96KV , we obtain:
and knock off electrons to form ions χ (air ) ≅ 0 . Therefore, if the voltages
O2+ and N 2+ inside the ionization chamber.
range of this GCC is: 0 − 10KV then it is
Assuming that each alpha particle yields possible to reach χ air ≅ −1 when
one ion at each 1 10 9 second then the
Vrms ≅ 10KV .
total number of ions produced in one
second will be Ni ≅ 1018 ions. This It is interesting to note that σ air can
corresponds to an ions concentration be strongly increased by increasing the

ρ i = eN i V ≈ 0.1 V (C m 3 )
amount of Am 241. For example, by
using 0.1g of Am 241 the value of R
Where V is the volume of the ionization increases to:
chamber. Obviously, the concentration of
electrons will be the same, i.e., ρ e = ρ i . R = λN ≅ 1010 disintegrations/s
For d = 2cm and φ = 20cm (See Fig.3(c))
we obtain This means Ni ≅ 1020 ions that yield
V = π4 (0.20) (2 × 10 −2 ) = 6.28 × 10 −4 m 3 The ρ i = eN i V ≈ 10 V (C m 3 )
2

n we get: Then, by reducing, d and φ


respectively, to 5mm and to 11.5cm, the
ρ e = ρ i ≈ 10 2 C m 3 volume of the ionization chamber
reduces to:
This corresponds to the minimum V = π4 (0 .115 ) (5 × 10 −3 ) = 5 .19 × 10 −5 m 3
2

concentration level in the case of


conducting materials. For these Consequently, we get:
materials, at temperature of 300K, the
mobilities μ e and μ i vary from 10 up ρ e = ρ i ≈ 10 5 C m 3
to 100 m 2V −1 s −1 [9]. Then we can assume
Assuming that μ e = μi ≈ 10 m 2V −1 s −1 ,
that μe = μi ≈ 10 m2V −1s −1 . (minimum
then the electrical conductivity of the air
mobility level for conducting materials).
inside the ionization chamber becomes
Under these conditions, the electrical
conductivity of the air inside the
ionization chamber is σ air = ρ e μ e + ρ i μ i ≈ 10 6 S .m −1

σ air = ρ e μ e + ρ i μ i ≈ 10 3 S .m −1 This reduces for Vrms ≅ 18.8V the voltage


necessary to yield χ(air) ≅ 0 and reduces
At temperature of 300K, the air
density inside the GCC, is
9
to Vrms ≅ 23.5V the voltage necessary to Thus, the local inertia is just the
reach χ air ≅ −1 . gravitational influence of the rest of
matter existing in the Universe.
If the outer surface of a metallic Consequently, if we reduce the
sphere with radius a is covered with a gravitational interactions between a
radioactive element (for example Am spacecraft and the rest of the Universe,
241), then the electrical conductivity of then the inertial properties of the
the air (very close to the sphere) can be spacecraft will be also reduced. This
strongly increased (for example up effect leads to a new concept of
to σ air ≅ 10 6 s.m −1 ). By applying a low- spacecraft and space flight.
frequency electrical potential Vrms to the Since χ air is given by
sphere, in order to produce an electric
field E rms starting from the outer surface ⎧ ⎡ 3 ⎤⎫
mg(air) ⎪ ⎢ μ0 ⎛ σair ⎞ Vrms
4

of the sphere, then very close to the χair = = ⎨1 − 2 1 + 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 4 2 − 1⎥⎬
sphere the low-frequency electromagnetic mi0(air) ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 4c ⎝ 4πf ⎠ a ρair ⎥⎪
⎦⎭
field is E rms = Vrms a , and according to
Eq. (20), the gravitational mass of the air Then, for σ air ≅ 106 s.m −1 , f = 6Hz , a = 5m,
in this region expressed by
ρair ≅ 1Kg.m−3 and Vrms = 3.35 KV we get
⎧ ⎡
μ0 ⎛σair ⎞ Vrms
3 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎪
4
mg(air) = ⎨1− 2 1+ 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 4 2 −1⎥⎬mi0(air) ,
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 4c ⎝ 4πf ⎠ a ρair ⎥⎪ χ air ≅ 0
⎦⎭
can be easily reduced, making possible Under these conditions, the gravitational
to produce a controlled Gravitational forces upon the spacecraft become
Shielding (similar to a GCC) surround approximately nulls and consequently,
the sphere. the spacecraft practically loses its inertial
This becomes possible to build a properties.
spacecraft to work with a gravitational Out of the terrestrial atmosphere,
shielding as shown in Fig. 4. the gravity acceleration upon the
The gravity accelerations on the spacecraft is negligible and therefore the
spacecraft (due to the rest of the gravitational shielding is not necessary.
Universe. See Fig.4) is given by However, if the spacecraft is in the outer
space and we want to use the
g i′ = χ air g i i = 1, 2, 3 … n gravitational shielding then, χ air must be
replaced by χ vac where
Where χ air = m g (air ) mi 0 (air ) . Thus, the
gravitational forces acting on the
⎧ ⎡ 3
μ0 ⎛ σvac ⎞ Vrms ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎪
4
spacecraft are given by mg(vac)
χvac = = ⎨1− 2 1+ 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 4 2 −1⎥⎬
mi0(vac) ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 4c ⎝ 4πf ⎠ a ρvac ⎥⎪
Fis = M g g i′ = M g (χ air g i ) ⎦⎭

By reducing the value of χ air , these The electrical conductivity of the


ionized outer space (very close to the
forces can be reduced.
spacecraft) is small; however, its density
According to the Mach’s principle;
(
is remarkably small << 10 −16 Kg.m −3 , in )
“The local inertial forces are such a manner that the smaller value of
determined by the gravitational the factor σ vac3
ρ vac
2
can be easily
interactions of the local system with the compensated by the increase of Vrms .
distribution of the cosmic masses”.
10
It was shown that, when the Fgj = M g (imaginary) g ′j =
gravitational mass of a particle is
reduced to ranging between + 0.159 M i
( )
= M g (imaginary) − χGmgj (imaginary) r j2 =

to − 0.159M i , it becomes imaginary [1], ( )


= M g i − χGmgj i r j2 = + χGM g mgj r j2 .
i.e., the gravitational and the inertial Note that these forces are real. Remind
masses of the particle become that, the Mach’s principle says that the
imaginary. Consequently, the particle inertial effects upon a particle are
disappears from our ordinary space-time. consequence of the gravitational
However, the factor interaction of the particle with the rest of
χ = M g (imaginary ) M i (imaginary ) remains real the Universe. Then we can conclude that
the inertial forces upon an imaginary
because spacecraft are also real. Consequently, it
M g (imaginary ) M gi Mg can travel in the imaginary space-time
χ = = = = real
M i (imaginary ) M ii Mi using its thrusters.
Thus, if the gravitational mass of the It was shown that, imaginary
particle is reduced by means of particles can have infinite speed in the
absorption of an amount of imaginary space-time [1] . Therefore, this
electromagnetic energy U , for example, is also the speed upper limit for the
we have spacecraft in the imaginary space-time.
Since the gravitational spacecraft
χ=
Mg ⎧
( ⎫
= ⎨1 − 2⎡⎢ 1 + U mi0 c 2 − 1⎤⎥⎬
2
) can use its thrusters after to becoming
Mi ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ an imaginary body, then if the thrusters
This shows that the energy U of the produce a total thrust F = 1000kN and
electromagnetic field remains acting on the gravitational mass of the spacecraft
the imaginary particle. In practice, this is reduced from M g = M i = 10 5 kg down
means that electromagnetic fields act on
imaginary particles. Therefore, the to M g ≅ 10 −6 kg , the acceleration of the
electromagnetic field of a GCC remains spacecraft will be, a = F Mg ≅ 1012m.s−2 .
acting on the particles inside the GCC
With this acceleration the spacecraft
even when their gravitational masses
crosses the “visible” Universe
reach the gravitational mass ranging
( diameter= d ≈ 10 m ) in a time interval
26
between + 0.159 M i to − 0.159M i and
Δt = 2d a ≅ 1.4 × 107 m.s −1 ≅ 5.5 months
they become imaginary particles. This is
very important because it means that the Since the inertial effects upon the
GCCs of a gravitational spacecraft keep spacecraft are reduced by
−11
on working when the spacecraft M g M i ≅ 10 then, in spite of the
becomes imaginary. effective spacecraft acceleration be
Under these conditions, the gravity a = 1012 m. s −1 , the effects for the crew
accelerations on the imaginary and for the spacecraft will be equivalent
spacecraft particle (due to the rest of the to an acceleration a′ given by
imaginary Universe) are given by Mg
a′ = a ≈ 10m.s −1
g ′j = χ g j j = 1,2,3,..., n. Mi
This is the order of magnitude of the
acceleration upon of a commercial jet
Where χ = M g (imaginary ) M i (imaginary ) aircraft.
and g j = − Gmgj (imaginary) r . 2
j Thus, the On the other hand, the travel in the
gravitational forces acting on the imaginary space-time can be very safe,
spacecraft are given by because there won’t any material body
along the trajectory of the spacecraft.
11
Now consider the GCCs presented rotor in order to become negative the
in Fig. 8 (a). Note that below and above acceleration of gravity inside half of the
the air are the bottom and the top of the
chamber. Therefore the choice of the
(
rotor g ′ = (χ steel ) χ air g ≅ χ air g = − ng .
2
)
Obviously this causes a torque
material of the chamber is highly
relevant. If the chamber is made of steel, T = (− F ′ + F )r and the rotor spins with
for example, and the gravity acceleration angular velocity ω . The average
below the chamber is g then at the power, P , of the motor is given by
bottom of the chamber, the gravity
becomes g ′ = χ steel g ; in the air, the P = Tω = [(− F ′ + F )r ]ω (36)
Where
gravity is g′′ = χairg′ = χairχsteelg . At the top
g′′′ = χsteelg′′ = (χsteel) χairg .
2
of the chamber, F ′ = 12 m g g ′ F = 12 m g g
Thus, out of the chamber (close to the
top) the gravity acceleration becomes and m g ≅ mi ( mass of the rotor ). Thus,
g ′′′ . (See Fig. 8 (a)). However, for the
Eq. (36) gives
steel at B < 300T and f = 1 × 10 −6 Hz , we mi gω r
have P = (n + 1) (37)
2
mg (steel) ⎧⎪ ⎡ σ (steel) B 4 ⎤⎫ On the other hand, we have that
⎢ ⎪
χ steel = = ⎨1− 2 1+ −1⎥⎬ ≅ 1 − g′ + g = ω 2r (38)
mi(steel) ⎪ ⎢ 4πfμρ(steel) c
2 2 ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ Therefore the angular speed of the rotor
Since ρ steel = 1.1 × 10 6 S .m −1 , μ r = 300 and is given by
ρ (steel ) = 7800k .m −3 . ω=
(n + 1)g (39)
Thus, due to χ steel ≅ 1 it follows r
that By substituting (39) into (37) we obtain
g ′′′ ≅ g ′′ = χ air g ′ ≅ χ air g the expression of the average power of
If instead of one GCC we have the gravitational motor, i.e.,
P = 12 mi (n + 1) g 3 r (40)
three GCC, all with steel box (Fig. 8(b)), 3
then the gravity acceleration above the
second GCC, g 2 will be given by Now consider an electric generator
coupling to the gravitational motor in
g 2 ≅ χ air g1 ≅ χ air χ air g
order to produce electric energy.
and the gravity acceleration above the Since ω = 2πf then for f = 60 Hz
third GCC, g 3 will be expressed by
we have ω = 120 πrad . s − 1 = 3600 rpm .
g 3 ≅ χ air g ′′ ≅ χ air g
3
Therefore for ω = 120πrad .s −1 and
n = 788 (B ≅ 0.22T ) the Eq. (40) tell us
that we must have
III. CONSEQUENCES
r=
(n + 1)g = 0.0545m
These results point to the
2
ω
possibility to convert gravitational energy Since r = R 3 and mi = ρπR 2 h where ρ ,
into rotational mechanical energy. R and h are respectively the mass
Consider for example the system density, the radius and the height of the
presented in Fig. 9. Basically it is a motor rotor then for h = 0.5m and
with massive iron rotor and a box filled −3
ρ = 7800 Kg .m (iron) we obtain
with gas or plasma at ultra-low pressure
(Gravity Control Cell-GCC) as shown in
Fig. 9. The GCC is placed below the mi = 327.05kg
12
mg ( Al )
Then Eq. (40) gives g l′ = g l = χ Al g l ≅ −10−9 g l l = 1,2,..,n
mi ( Al )
P ≅ 2.19 × 105 watts ≅ 219 KW ≅ 294HP (41)
This shows that the gravitational motor Where g l is the external gravity in the
can be used to yield electric energy at direction l . We thus conclude that the
large scale. gravity acceleration inside the spacecraft
The possibility of gravity control becomes negligible if g l << 10 9 m .s −2 .
leads to a new concept of spacecraft This means that the aluminum shell,
which is presented in Fig. 10. Due to the under these conditions, works like a
Meissner effect, the magnetic field B is gravity shielding.
expelled from the superconducting shell. Consequently, the gravitational
The Eq. (35) shows that a magnetic forces between anyone point inside the
field, B , through the aluminum shell of spacecraft with gravitational mass, m gj ,
the spacecraft reduces its gravitational
mass according to the following and another external to the spacecraft
expression: (gravitational mass m gk ) are given by
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ r r m gj m gk
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎪ F j = − Fk = −G μ̂
nr ( Al) − 1⎥⎬mi( Al) (42)
⎜ B ⎟
mg ( Al) = ⎨1 − 2 1 + r jk2
⎢ ⎜ μc ρ
2 ⎟ ⎥
⎪ ⎝ ( Al) ⎠ ⎪
⎩ ⎣⎢ ⎦⎥⎭ where m gk ≅ mik and m gj = χ Al mij .
If the frequency of the magnetic field is Therefore we can rewrite equation above
f = 10 −4 Hz then we have that in the following form
σ ( Al ) >> ωε since the electric r r mij mik
F j = − Fk = − χ Al G μˆ
conductivity of the aluminum r jk2
−1
is σ ( Al ) = 3.82 × 10 S .m . In this case, the
7
Note that when B = 0 the initial
Eq. (11) tell us that gravitational forces are
r r mij mik
μc 2σ ( Al ) F j = − Fk = −G μ̂
nr ( Al ) = (43) r jk2
4πf
Substitution of (43) into (42) yields Thus, if χ Al ≅ −10 −9 then the initial
⎧ ⎡ σ ( Al ) B 4 ⎤⎫⎪ gravitational forces are reduced from 109
⎪ ⎥⎬mi ( Al ) (44)
mg ( Al ) = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + − 1 times and become repulsives.
⎪⎩ ⎢ 4πfμρ 2
( ) c 2
⎥⎪
⎣ Al
⎦⎭ According to the new expression
r r
Since the mass density of the Aluminum for the inertial forces [1], F = m g a , we
is ρ ( Al ) = 2700 kg .m −3 then the Eq. (44) see that these forces have origin in the
can be rewritten in the following form: gravitational interaction between a

{ [ ]}
mg( Al) particle and the others of the Universe,
χ Al = = 1 − 2 1 + 3.68×10−8 B4 −1 (45) just as Mach’s principle predicts. Hence
mi( Al) mentioned expression incorporates the
In practice it is possible to adjust B in Mach’s principle into Gravitation Theory,
order to become, for example, and furthermore reveals that the inertial
χ Al ≅ 10 . This occurs to B ≅ 76 .3T .
−9 effects upon a body can be strongly
reduced by means of the decreasing of
(Novel superconducting magnets are
its gravitational mass.
able to produce up to 14.7T [10, 11]).
Then the gravity acceleration in Consequently, we conclude that if
any direction inside the spacecraft, g l′ , the gravitational forces upon the
spacecraft are reduced from 109 times
will be reduced and given by
then also the inertial forces upon the
13
spacecraft will be reduced from 109 times radioactive material, it is possible to
when χ Al ≅ −10 −9 . Under these increase the air conductivity inside the
conditions, the inertial effects on the GCC up to σ (air) ≅ 106 S .m−1 . Then
crew would be strongly decreased. for f = 10 Hz ; ρ (air ) = 4.94 × 10−15 kg.m −3
Obviously this leads to a new concept of
(Air at 3 ×10-12 torr, 300K) and we obtain
{[ ] }
aerospace flight.
Inside the spacecraft the χ air = 2 1 + 2.8 × 1021 B 4 − 1 − 1 (57)
gravitational forces between the For B = BGCC = 0.1T (note that, due to
dielectric with gravitational mass, M g
the Meissner effect, the magnetic field
and the man (gravitational mass, m g ), BGCC stay confined inside the
when B = 0 are superconducting box) the Eq. (57) yields
r r M g mg
Fm = − FM = −G μ̂ (46)
r2 χ air ≅ −10 9
or
r Mg
Fm = −G 2 m gˆμ = − m g g M ˆμ (47 ) Since there is no magnetic
r field through the dielectric presented in
r mg Fig.10 then, Mg ≅ Mi . Therefore if
FM = +G 2 M gˆμ = + M g g mˆμ (48)
r M g ≅ Mi =100Kg and r = r0 ≅ 1m the
If the superconducting box under M g
gravity acceleration upon the man,
(Fig. 10) is filled with air at ultra-low according to Eq. (55), is
pressure (3×10-12 torr, 300K for example) a man ≅ 10m .s −1
then, when B ≠ 0 , the gravitational mass
of the air will be reduced according to Consequently it is easy to see that this
(35). Consequently, we have system is ideal to yield artificial gravity
inside the spacecraft in the case of inter-
g ′M = (χ steel ) χ air g M ≅ χ air g M (49)
2
stellar travel, when the gravity
g m′ = (χ steel ) χ air g m ≅ χ air g m (50)
2
acceleration out of the spacecraft - due
r r to the Universe - becomes negligible.
Then the forces Fm and FM become
r The vertical displacement of the
Fm = −m g (χ air g M )ˆμ (51) spacecraft can be produced by means of
r
FM = + M g (χ air g m )ˆμ (52) Gravitational Thrusters. A schematic
diagram of a Gravitational Thruster is
Therefore if χ air = −n we will have shown in Fig.11. The Gravitational
r
Fm = +nmg g M μ̂ (53) Thrusters can also provide the horizontal
r displacement of the spacecraft.
FM = −nM g g m μ̂ (54) The concept of Gravitational
r r Thruster results from the theory of the
Thus, Fm and FM become repulsive.
Gravity Control Battery, showed in Fig. 8
Consequently, the man inside the (b). Note that the number of GCC
spacecraft is subjected to a gravity increases the thrust of the thruster. For
acceleration given by example, if the thruster has three GCCs
r Mg
aman = ngMˆμ = −χ air G 2 ˆμ (55) then the gravity acceleration upon the
r gas sprayed inside the thruster will be
Inside the GCC we have, repulsive in respect to M g (See Fig.
⎧ ⎡ σ B4 ⎤⎫⎪ 11(a)) and given by
m ⎪
χair = g(air) = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + (air)2 2 − 1⎥⎬ (56) Mg
mi(air) ⎪ ⎢⎣ 4πfμρ(air)c ⎥⎦⎪ a gas = (χ air ) (χ steel ) g ≅ −(χ air ) G
3 4 3
⎩ ⎭
r02
By ionizing the air inside the GCC
(Fig. 10), for example, by means of a Thus, if inside the GCCs, χair ≅ −109
14
(See Eq. 56 and 57) then the equation Let us now calculate the
above gives gravitational forces between two very
Mi close thin layers of the air around the
a gas ≅ +10 27 G
r02 spacecraft. (See Fig. 13).
The gravitational force dF12 that
For M i ≅ 10kg , r0 ≅ 1m and m gas ≅ 10 −12 kg
dm g1 exerts upon dm g 2 , and the
the thrust is
F = m gas a gas ≅ 10 5 N
gravitational force dF21 that dm g 2 exerts
Thus, the Gravitational Thrusters are upon dm g1 are given by
able to produce strong thrusts. r r dmg2 dmg1
Note that in the case of very dF12 = dF21 = −G μ̂ (58)
r2
strong χ air , for example χ air ≅ −10 9 , the Thus, the gravitational forces between
gravity accelerations upon the boxes of the air layer 1, gravitational mass m g1 ,
the second and third GCCs become very
and the air layer 2, gravitational mass
strong (Fig.11 (a)). Obviously, the walls
m g 2 , around the spacecraft are
of the mentioned boxes cannot to stand
the enormous pressures. However, it is r r G mg1 mg 2
F12 = −F21 = − 2 ∫ ∫ dmg1dmg 2ˆμ =
possible to build a similar system with 3 r 0 0
or more GCCs, without material boxes. mg1mg 2 mi1mi 2
Consider for example, a surface with = −G ˆ
μ = −χ air χ air G ˆμ (59)
several radioactive sources (Am-241, for r2 r2
example). The alpha particles emitted At 100km altitude the air pressure is
from the Am-241 cannot reach besides 5.691×10−3 torr and ρ(air) = 5.998×10−6 kg.m−3 [12].
10cm of air. Due to the trajectory of the By ionizing the air surround the
alpha particles, three or more successive spacecraft, for example, by means of an
layers of air, with different electrical oscillating electric field, E osc , starting
conductivities σ 1 , σ 2 and σ 3 , will be
from the surface of the spacecraft ( See
established in the ionized region (See Fig. 13) it is possible to increase the air
Fig.11 (b)). It is easy to see that the conductivity near the spacecraft up to
gravitational shielding effect produced by σ (air) ≅ 106 S .m−1 . Since f = 1Hz and, in
these three layers is similar to the effect
produced by the 3 GCCs shown in Fig. this case σ (air ) >> ωε , then, according to
11 (a).
Eq. (11), nr = μσ(air)c 2 4πf . From
It is important to note that if F is
force produced by a thruster then the Eq.(56) we thus obtain
spacecraft acquires acceleration ⎧ ⎡ σ B4 ⎤⎫⎪
m ⎪
a spacecraft given by [1] χair = g(air) = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + (air) 2 2 −1⎥⎬ (60)
mi(air) ⎪ ⎢ 4πfμ0ρ(air)c ⎥
F F ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎪⎭
a spacecraft = = Then for B = 763T the Eq. (60) gives
M g (spacecraft) χ Al M i (inside) + mi ( Al )
Therefore if χ Al ≅ 10 −9 ;
and mi ( Al ) = 100 Kg (inertial mass of the
M i(inside) = 104 Kg
{ [ ]}
χ air = 1 − 2 1+ ~ 104 B 4 − 1 ≅ −108 (61)
aluminum shell) then it will be necessary By substitution of χ air ≅ −108 into Eq.,
F = 10kN to produce
(59) we get
a spacecraft = 100m .s −2 r r
Note that the concept of Gravitational
m m
F12 = −F21 = −1016 G i1 2 i 2 μ̂ (62)
r
Thrusters leads directly to the
Gravitational Turbo Motor concept (See
Fig. 12).
15
−8
If mi1 ≅ mi 2 = ρ air V1 ≅ ρ air V2 ≅ 10 kg , and aspect of the flight dynamics of a
Gravitational Spacecraft.
r = 10 −3 m we obtain Before starting the flight, the
r r
F12 = −F21 ≅ −10−4 N (63) gravitational mass of the spacecraft, M g ,
These forces are much more intense must be strongly reduced, by means of a
than the inter-atomic forces (the forces gravity control system, in order to
which maintain joined atoms, and r
produce – withr a weak thrust F , a strong
molecules that make the solids and
acceleration, a , given by [1]
liquids) whose intensities, according to r
r F
the Coulomb’s law, is of the order of a=
1-1000×10-8N. Mg
Consequently, the air around the In this way, the spacecraft could be
spacecraft will be strongly compressed strongly accelerated and quickly to reach
upon their surface, making an “air shell” very high speeds near speed of light.
that will accompany the spacecraft If the gravity control system of the
during its displacement and will protect spacecraft is suddenly turned off, the
the aluminum shell of the direct attrition gravitational mass of the spacecraft
with the Earth’s atmosphere. becomes immediately equal to its inertial
In this way, during the flight, the mass, M i , (M g′ = M i ) and the velocity
attrition would occur just between the “air r r
shell” and the atmospheric air around V becomes equal to V ′ . According to
her. Thus, the spacecraft would stay free the Momentum Conservation Principle,
of the thermal effects that would be we have that
produced by the direct attrition of the M gV = M g′ V ′
aluminum shell with the Earth’s Supposing that the spacecraft was
atmosphere. traveling in space with speed V ≈ c , and
Another interesting effect produced that its gravitational mass it was
by the magnetic field B of the M g = 1Kg and M i = 10 4 Kg then the
spacecraft is the possibility of to lift a
velocity of the spacecraft is reduced to
body from the surface of the Earth to the
Mg Mg
spacecraft as shown in Fig. 14. By V′ = V= V ≈ 10−4 c
ionizing the air surround the spacecraft, ′
Mg Mi
by means of an oscillating electric field, Initially, when the velocity of the
E osc , the air conductivity near the r
spacecraft is V , its kinetic energy is
Ek = (Mg −mg )c2. Where Mg = mg 1 − V 2 c2 .
spacecraft can reach, for example,
σ (air ) ≅ 10 6 S .m −1 . Then for f = 1Hz ;
At the instant in which the gravity control
B = 40.8T and ρ(air) ≅ 1.2kg.m−3 (300K and system of the spacecraft is turned off,
1 atm) the Eq. (56) yields the kinetic energy becomes
Ek′ = (Mg′ − m′g )c . Where Mg′ = m′g 1 − V ′2 c2 .
2

χ air = ⎧⎨1 − 2⎡⎢ 1 + 4.9 ×10−7 B4 − 1⎤⎥⎫⎬ ≅ −0.1 We can rewritten the expressions of
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ E k and E k′ in the following form

Ek = (MgV − mgV )
Thus, the weight of the body becomes c2
Pbody = mg (body) g = χ air mi (body) g = mi(body) g ′ V
Ek′ = (M g′V ′ − m′gV ′)
Consequently, the body will be lifted on c2
the direction of the spacecraft with V′
acceleration Substitution of M gV = M g′ V ′ = p ,
g ′ = χ air g ≅ +0.98m.s −1
Let us now consider an important
16
mgV = p 1−V c and m′gV ′ = p 1 − V ′ c into
2 2 2 2 Obviously this electromagnetic
pulse (EMP) will induce heavy currents
the equations of E k and E k′ gives in all electronic equipment that mainly
( ) pcV contains semiconducting and conducting
2
Ek = 1 − 1 − V 2 c 2 materials. This produces immense heat

E ′ = (1 − c )
2 that melts the circuitry inside. As such,
pc
1 − V ′2 2
while not being directly responsible for
V′
k
the loss of lives, these EMP are capable
Since V ≈ c then follows that of disabling electric/electronic systems.
Therefore, we possibly have a new type
E k ≈ pc of electromagnetic bomb. An
electromagnetic bomb or E-bomb is a
On the other hand, since V ′ << c we get well-known weapon designed to disable
( ) pcV ′ electric/electronic systems on a wide
2
E k′ = 1 − 1 − V ′ 2 c 2 = scale with an intense electromagnetic
⎛ ⎞
pulse.
⎜ ⎟ Based on the theory of the GCC it
⎟ pc ≅ ⎛⎜ V ′ ⎞⎟ pc
2

≅ 1−
1
is also possible to build a Gravitational
⎜ V ′2 ⎟ V′ ⎝ 2c ⎠
⎜ 1 + 2 + ... ⎟ Press of ultra-high pressure as shown in
⎝ 2c ⎠ Fig.15.
Therefore we conclude that E k >> E k′ . The chamber 1 and 2 are GCCs
Consequently, when the gravity control with air at 1×10-4torr, 300K
system of the spacecraft is turned off, (σ (air ) ≈ 10 S .m ; ρ (air ) = 5 × 10 kg .m −3 .
6 −1 −8
)
occurs an abrupt decrease in the kinetic
Thus, for f = 10 Hz and B = 0.107T we
energy of the spacecraft, ΔE k , given by
have
⎧ ⎡ σ (air) B 4 ⎤⎫
ΔEk = Ek − Ek′ ≈ pc ≈ M g c 2 ≈ 1017 J ⎪ ⎢
χ air = ⎨1− 2 1+

−1⎥⎬ ≅ −118
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 4πfμ0 ρ(air) c
2 2 ⎥⎪
⎦⎭
By comparing the energy ΔE k with the
inertial energy of the spacecraft, The gravity acceleration above the
E i = M i c 2 , we conclude that air of the chamber 1 is
r
ΔE k ≈
Mg
Ei ≈ 10 − 4 M i c 2
g1 = χ stellχ air gˆμ ≅ +1.15×103ˆμ (64)
Mi Since, in this case, χ steel ≅ 1 ; μ̂ is an
The energy ΔE k (several megatons) unitary vector in the opposite direction of
r
must be released in very short time g.
interval. It is approximately the same Above the air of the chamber 2 the
amount of energy that would be released gravity acceleration becomes
in the case of collision of the spacecraft ‡ .
r
However, the situation is very different of g2 = (χ stell ) (χair ) gˆμ ≅ −1.4 × 105ˆμ (65)
2 2

a collision ( M g just becomes suddenly


equal to M i ), and possibly the energy r
Therefore the resultant force R acting on
ΔE k is converted into a High Power m2 , m1 and m is
Electromagnetic Pulse.

In this case, the collision of the spacecraft would
release ≈1017J (several megatons) and it would be
similar to a powerful kinetic weapon.
r r r r
17
r r r
R = F2 + F1 + F = m2 g 2 + m1 g1 + mg = The GCCs can also be applied
on generation and detection of
= −1.4 × 105 m2ˆμ + 1.15 × 103 m1ˆμ − 9.81mˆμ = Gravitational Radiation.
≅ −1.4 × 105 m2ˆμ (66) Consider a cylindrical GCC (GCC
antenna) as shown in Fig.16 (a). The
where gravitational mass of the air inside the
⎛π 2 ⎞ GCC is
m 2 = ρ steel Vdisk 2 = ρ steel ⎜ φ inn H⎟ (67 ) ⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫⎪
⎝4 ⎠ ⎪ σ (air ) B 4
mg (air ) = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + − 1⎥⎬mi (air ) (68)
Thus, for ρ steel ≅ 10 4 kg .m −3 we can write ⎪⎩ ⎢ 4πfμρ 2
(air ) c 2
⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭
that By varying B one can varies mg (air) and
F2 ≅ 109 φinn 2
H
consequently to vary the gravitational
field generated by mg (air) , producing then
For the steel τ ≅ 105 kg.cm−2 = 109 kg.m−2
gravitational radiation. Then a GCC can
consequently we must have work like a Gravitational Antenna.
−2
F2 Sτ < 10 kg .m ( Sτ = πφinnH see Fig.15).
9
Apparently, Newton’s theory of
This means that gravity had no gravitational waves
10 9 φ inn
2
H because, if a gravitational field changed
< 10 9 kg .m − 2 in some way, that change took place
πφ inn H
instantaneously everywhere in space,
Then we conclude that and one can think that there is not a
φinn < 3.1m wave in this case. However, we have
For φinn = 2m and H = 1m the Eq. (67) gives already seen that the gravitational
interaction can be repulsive, besides
m2 ≅ 3 × 10 4 kg
attractive. Thus, as with electromagnetic
Therefore from the Eq. (66) we obtain interaction, the gravitational interaction
R ≅ 1010 N must be produced by the exchange of
Consequently, in the area S = 10 −4 m 2 of "virtual" quanta of spin 1 and mass null,
the Gravitational Press, the pressure is i.e., the gravitational "virtual" quanta
R (graviphoton) must have spin 1 and not
p = ≅ 1014 N .m − 2 2. Consequently, the fact of a change in
S
a gravitational field reach
This enormous pressure is much
instantaneously everywhere in space
greater than the pressure in the center of
occurs simply due to the speed of the
the Earth ( 3.617 × 1011 N .m −2 ) [13]. It is graviphoton to be infinite. It is known that
near of the gas pressure in the center of there is no speed limit for “virtual”
the sun ( 2 × 1016 N .m −2 ). Under the action photons. On the contrary, the
of such intensities new states of matter electromagnetic quanta (“virtual”
are created and astrophysical photons) could not communicate the
phenomena may be simulated in the lab electromagnetic interaction an infinite
for the first time, e.g. supernova distance.
explosions. Controlled thermonuclear Thus, there are two types of
fusion by inertial confinement, fast gravitational radiation: the real and
nuclear ignition for energy gain, novel virtual, which is constituted of
collective acceleration schemes of graviphotons; the real gravitational
particles and the numerous variants of waves are ripples in the space-time
material processing constitute examples generated by gravitational field changes.
of progressive applications of such According to Einstein’s theory of gravity
Gravitational Press of ultra-high the velocity of propagation of these
pressure. waves is equal to the speed of light (c).
18
Unlike the electromagnetic waves the be detectable even if the gravitational
real gravitational waves have low interaction mass of the nuclei of the antennas are not
with matter and consequently low scattering. strongly reduced, then we propose to
Therefore real gravitational waves are replace the gas at the nuclei of the antennas
suitable as a means of transmitting by a thin dielectric lamina. The dielectric
information. However, when the distance lamina with exactly 108 atoms (103atoms ×
between transmitter and receiver is too 103atoms × 102atoms) is placed between the
large, for example of the order of magnitude plates (electrodes) as shown in Fig. 17.
of several light-years, the transmission of When the virtual gravitational radiation
information by means of gravitational waves strikes upon the dielectric lamina, its
becomes impracticable due to the long time gravitational mass varies similarly to the
necessary to receive the information. On the gravitational mass of the dielectric lamina of
other hand, there is no delay during the the transmitter antenna, inducing an
transmissions by means of virtual electromagnetic field ( E , B ) similar to the
gravitational radiation. In addition the transmitter antenna. Thus, the electric
scattering of this radiation is null. Therefore current in the receiver antenna will have the
the virtual gravitational radiation is very same characteristics of the current in the
suitable as a means of transmitting transmitter antenna. In this way, it is then
information at any distances including possible to build two similar antennas whose
astronomical distances. nuclei have the same volumes and the same
As concerns detection of the types and quantities of atoms.
virtual gravitational radiation from GCC Note that the Quantum Gravitational
antenna, there are many options. Due to Antennas can also be used to transmit
Resonance Principle a similar GCC antenna electric power. It is easy to see that the
(receiver) tuned at the same frequency can Transmitter and Receiver (Fig. 17(a)) can
absorb energy from an incident virtual work with strong voltages and electric
gravitational radiation (See Fig.16 (b)). currents. This means that strong electric
Consequently, the gravitational mass of the power can be transmitted among Quantum
air inside the GCC receiver will vary such as Gravitational Antennas. This obviously
the gravitational mass of the air inside the solves the problem of wireless electric power
GCC transmitter. This will induce a magnetic transmission.
field similar to the magnetic field of the GCC The existence of imaginary masses has
transmitter and therefore the current through been predicted in a previous work [1]. Here
the coil inside the GCC receiver will have the we will propose a method and a device using
same characteristics of the current through GCCs for obtaining images of imaginary
the coil inside the GCC transmitter. bodies.
However, the volume and pressure of the air It was shown that the inertial
inside the two GCCs must be exactly the imaginary mass associated to an electron is
same; also the type and the quantity of given by
atoms in the air inside the two GCCs must 2 ⎛ hf ⎞
be exactly the same. Thus, the GCC m ie (ima ) = ⎜ 2 ⎟i =
2
m ( )i (69 )
antennas are simple but they are not easy to 3 ⎝c ⎠ 3 ie real
build. Assuming that the correlation between the
Note that a GCC antenna radiates gravitational mass and the inertial mass
graviphotons and gravitational waves (Eq.6) is the same for both imaginary and
simultaneously (Fig. 16 (a)). Thus, it is not real masses then follows that the
only a gravitational antenna: it is a gravitational imaginary mass associated to
Quantum Gravitational Antenna because it an electron can be written in the following
can also emit and detect gravitational form:
"virtual" quanta (graviphotons), which, in ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ U ⎞ ⎪
turn, can transmit information mge(ima) = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎜⎜ 2 nr ⎟⎟ −1⎥⎬mie(ima)

⎢ ⎥
(70)
instantaneously from any distance in the ⎪ ⎢⎣ ⎝ mi c ⎠ ⎪
⎥⎦⎭
Universe without scattering. ⎩
Due to the difficulty to build two similar Thus, the gravitational imaginary mass
GCC antennas and, considering that the associated to matter can be reduced, made
electric current in the receiver antenna can
19
negative and increased, just as the obtain an image of the imaginary body of
gravitational real mass. mass m g (ima ) placed in front of the board.
It was shown that also photons have
In order to decrease strongly the
imaginary mass. Therefore, the imaginary
gravitational effects produced by bodies
mass can be associated or not to the matter.
placed behind the imaginary body of mass
In a general way, the gravitational
forces between two gravitational imaginary im g , one can put five GCCs making a
masses are then given by Gravitational Shielding as shown in
r r ( )( )
iM g img M g mg Fig.18(c). If the GCCs are filled with air at
F = −F = −G 2
μˆ = +G 2 μˆ (71) 300Kand 3 ×10−12torr.Then ρair = 4.94×10−15kg.m−3
r r
and σair ≅1×10 S.m . Thus, for f = 60 Hz and
−14 −1
Note that these forces are real and
repulsive. B ≅ 0.7T the Eq. (56) gives
Now consider a gravitational
mg (air)
imaginary mass, mg (ima) = img , not associated χ air = = ⎧⎨1− 2⎡ 1+ 5B 4 −1⎤⎫⎬ ≅ −10−2 (73)
mi(air) ⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦⎭
with matter (like the gravitational imaginary
mass associated to the photons) and For χ air ≅ 10 −2 the gravitational shielding
another gravitational imaginary mass presented in Fig.18(c) will reduce any value
M g (ima ) = iM g associated to a material of g to χ air 5
g ≅ 10 −10 g . This will be
body. sufficiently to reduce strongly the
Any material body has an imaginary gravitational effects proceeding from both
mass associated to it, due to the existence sides of the gravitational shielding.
of imaginary masses associated to the Another important consequence of the
electrons. We will choose a quartz crystal correlation between gravitational mass and
(for the material body with gravitational inertial mass expressed by Eq. (1) is the
imaginary mass M g (ima ) = iM g ) because possibility of building Energy Shieldings
quartz crystals are widely used to detect around objects in order to protect them from
forces (piezoelectric effect). high-energy particles and ultra-intense fluxes
By using GCCs as shown in Fig. 18(b) of radiation.
and Fig.18(c), we can increase the In order to explain that possibility, we
r start from the new expression [1] for the
gravitational acceleration, a , produced by
momentum q of a particle with gravitational
the imaginary mass im g upon the crystals.
mass M g and velocity V , which is given by
Then it becomes
mg q = M gV (74)
a = − χ air
3
G (72 )
r2 where Mg = mg 1−V 2 c2 and mg = χ mi [1].
As we have seen, the value of χ air can be Thus, we can write
increased up to χ air ≅ −10 (See Eq.57).
9
mg χ mi
Note that in this case, the gravitational
= (75)
1−V 2 c2 1−V 2 c2
forces become attractive. In addition, if m g
is not small, the gravitational forces between Therefore, we get
the imaginary body of mass im g and the M g = χM i (76 )
crystals can become sufficiently intense to It is known from the Relativistic Mechanics
be easily detectable. that
Due to the piezoelectric effect, the
gravitational force acting on the crystal will
UV
q= 2 (77 )
c
produce a voltage proportional to its
where U is the total energy of the particle.
intensity. Then consider a board with
hundreds micro-crystals behind a set of This expression is valid for any velocity V of
GCCs, as shown in Fig.18(c). By amplifying the particle, including V = c .
the voltages generated in each micro-crystal By comparing Eq. (77) with Eq. (74)
and sending to an appropriated data we obtain
acquisition system, it will be thus possible to
20
U = M gc 2
(78) our ordinary space-time. It goes to the
Imaginary Universe. On the other hand,
It is a well-known experimental fact that
when the gravitational mass of the particle
M i c 2 = hf (79) becomes greater than + 0.159 M i , or less
Therefore, by substituting Eq. (79) and Eq.
(76) into Eq. (74), gives than − 0.159M i , i.e., when χ > 0.159 , the
particle return to our Universe.
q=
V h
χ (80) Figure 19 (a) clarifies the
c λ
phenomenon of reduction of the momentum
Note that this expression is valid for any
for χ > 0.159 , and Figure 19 (b) shows the
velocity V of the particle. In the particular
case of V = c , it reduces to effect in the case of χ < 0.159 . In this case,
the particles become imaginary and
q=χ
h
(81) consequently, they go to the imaginary
λ space-time when they penetrate the electric
field E . However, the electric field E stays
By comparing Eq. (80) with Eq. (77), we
at the real space-time. Consequently, the
obtain
particles return immediately to the real
U = χhf (82) space-time in order to return soon after to
the imaginary space-time, due to the action
Note that only for χ = 1 the Eq. (81) and Eq. of the electric field E . Since the particles are
(82) are reduced to the well=known moving at a direction, they appear and
expressions of DeBroglie (q = h λ ) and disappear while they are crossing the region,
Einstein (U = hf ) . up to collide with the plate (See Fig.19) with
⎛V ⎞ h
Equations (80) and (82) show for a momentum, q m = χ ⎜ ⎟ , in the case
example, that any real particle (material ⎝ c ⎠λ
particles, real photons, etc) that penetrates a h
region (with density ρ and electrical of the material particle, and q r = χ in the
λ
conductivity σ ), where there is an ELF case of the photon. Note that by
electric field E , will have its momentum q making χ ≅ 0 , it is possible to block high-
and its energy U reduced by the factor χ , energy particles and ultra-intense fluxes of
given by radiation. These Energy Shieldings can be
⎧ ⎡ 3 ⎤⎫ built around objects in order to protect them
m ⎪ μ ⎛ σ ⎞ E4 ⎥ ⎪
χ = g = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 2 −1 ⎬ (83) from such particles and radiation.
mi ⎪ ⎢ 4c ⎝ 4πf ⎠ ρ ⎥⎪ It is also important to note that the
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
gravity control process described here points
The remaining amount of momentum to the possibility of obtaining Controlled
and energy, respectively given by Nuclear Fusion by means of increasing of
(1 − χ ) ⎛⎜ V ⎞⎟ h and (1 − χ ) hf , are
the intensity of the gravitational interaction
⎝ c ⎠λ between the nuclei. When the gravitational
transferred to the imaginary particle forces FG = Gmgm′g r2 become greater than
associated to the real particle § (material
particles or real photons) that penetrated the the electrical forces FE = qq ′ 4πε 0 r 2
mentioned region. between the nuclei, then nuclear fusion
It was previously shown that, when the reactions can occur.
gravitational mass of a particle is reduced to Note that, according to Eq. (83), the
ranging between + 0.159 M i to − 0.159M i , gravitational mass can be strongly
increased. Thus, if E = E m sin ωt , then the
i.e., when χ < 0.159 , it becomes imaginary
[1], i.e., the gravitational and the inertial average value for E 2 is equal to 1
2 E m2 ,
masses of the particle become imaginary. because E varies sinusoidaly ( E m is the
Consequently, the particle disappears from
maximum value for E ). On the other hand,
§
As previously shown, there are imaginary particles
Erms = Em 2 . Consequently, we can replace
associated to each real particle [1].
21
4
E for E . In addition, as j = σE (Ohm's
4 with 10μm -diameter, it is necessary that
rms
vectorial Law), then Eq. (83) can be rewritten the current through the wire, i rms , have the
as follows following intensity
mg ⎧⎪ ⎡ μ j4 ⎤⎫

χ= = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + K r 2rms3 − 1⎥ ⎬ (84) irms > 4.24 k A
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ σρ f ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
Obviously, this current will explode the
where K = 1.758× 10−27 and j rms = j 2 . carbon wire. However, this explosion
Thus, the gravitational force equation becomes negligible in comparison with the
can be expressed by very strong gravitational implosion, which
occurs simultaneously due to the enormous
FG = Gmgm′g r2 = χ2Gmi0mi′0 r2 = increase in intensities of the gravitational
forces among the carbon nuclei produced by
2
⎧ ⎡ μ j4 ⎤⎫⎪ means of the ELF current through the

= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ K r 2rms3 −1⎥⎬ Gmi0mi′0 r2 (85) carbon wire as predicted by Eq. (85). Since,
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ σρ f ⎥⎪
⎦⎭ in this case, the gravitational forces among
the carbon nuclei become greater than the
repulsive electric forces among them the
In order to obtain FG > FE we must have
result is the production of 12C + 12C fusion
⎧ ⎡ μr jrms
4 ⎤⎫ qq′ 4πε0 reactions.
⎪ ⎢ ⎪
⎨1− 2 1+ K 2 3 −1⎥⎬ > (86) Similar reactions can occur by using a
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ σρ f ⎥⎪ Gmi0 mi′0
⎦⎭ lithium wire. In addition, it is important to
The carbon fusion is a set of nuclear note that j rms is directly proportional
fusion reactions that take place in massive 3

stars (at least 8M sun at birth). It requires high to f 4 (Eq. 87). Thus, for example,
−8
temperatures ( > 5×108 K ) and densities if f = 10 Hz , the current necessary to
produce the nuclear reactions will be
( > 3 × 10 9 kg .m −3 ). The principal reactions are:
23 i rms = 130 A .
Na + p + 2.24 MeV
12
C + 12C → 20
Ne + α + 4.62 MeV IV.CONCLUSION
24
Mg + γ +13.93 MeV The process described here is clearly
In the case of Carbon nuclei ( C) of a thin 12 the better way in order to control the gravity.
This is because the Gravity Control Cell in
carbon wire ( σ ≅ 4 ×104 S.m−1 ; ρ = 2.2 ×103 S.m−1 ) this case is very easy to be built, the cost is
Eq. (86) becomes low and it works at ambient temperature.
⎧ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫⎪ e2 The Gravity Control is the starting point for
⎪ ⎢ −39 jrms
⎥⎬ >
⎨1− 2 1+ 9.08×10 −1 the generation of and detection of Virtual
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f 3 ⎥⎪ 16πε0Gm2p
⎦⎭ Gravitational Radiation (Quantum
whence we conclude that the condition for Gravitational Transceiver) also for the
the 12C + 12C fusion reactions occur is construction of the Gravitational Motor and
3 the Gravitational Spacecraft which includes
jrms > 1.7 ×1018 f 4 (87) the system for generation of artificial gravity
If the electric current through the carbon wire presented in Fig.10 and the Gravitational
has Extremely-Low Frequency (ELF), for Thruster (Fig.11). While the Gravitational
example, if f = 1μHz , then the current Transceiver leads to a new concept in
Telecommunication, the Gravitational Motor
density, j rms , must have the following value:
changes the paradigm of energy conversion
jrms > 5.4 ×1013 A.m−2 (88) and the Gravitational Spacecraft points to a
Since j rms = i rms S where S = πφ 2 4 is the new concept in aerospace flight.
area of the cross section of the wire, we can
conclude that, for an ultra-thin carbon wire
22

Fixed pulley g1=-g


g g
g1≅ 0

Inside the dotted box the gravity


g1=g acceleration can become different of g
Low-pressure Hg Plasma mg (Hg plasma )
(ρ ≅ 6×10-5Kg.m-3, σ ≅ 3.4 S.m-1@ 6×10-3Torr) g1 = χ Hg plasma g = g
mi (Hg plasma )

ELF Voltage Source


(0 – 1.5V, 1mHz – 0.1mHz)

20W T-12 Fluorescent Lamp lit


(F20T12/C50/ECO GE, Ecolux® T12)
EELF
Metallic Plate

Extra Low-Frequency Electric Field 220V, 60 Hz


(1mHz – 0.1mHz)

Fig. 1 – Gravitational Shielding Effect by means of an ELF electric field through


low- pressure Hg Plasma.
23

Inside the dotted box the gravity


acceleration above the second lamp
becomes
g 2 = χ 2 Hg plasma g1 =
= χ 2 Hg plasma (χ 1Hg plasma g )
g

g
2 g2

1 χ 2 Hg plasma
fELF(2)

g1
χ1Hg plasma
fELF(1)

Fig. 2 – Gravity acceleration above a second fluorescent lamp.


24

mg (Hg )
g1 =
plasma
g
mi (Hg plasma )

Electrodes
Low-density plasma ~ ELF Voltage Source
Electrodes

(a)
mg (Hg )
g1 =
plasma
g
mi (Hg plasma )

Low-density plasma RF Signal RF


Transmitter

g ~
ELF Voltage Source
(b)

Radioactive ions sources


(Americium 241)
φ

d • Air @ 1 atm, 25°C • ~ V, f

Insulating holder Epoxy Ionization chamber


Aluminium, 1mm-thickness

(c)

Fig. 3 – Schematic diagram of Gravity Control Cells (GCCs).


(a) GCC where the ELF electric field and the ionizing electric field can be the same. (b) GCC
where the plasma is ionized by means of a RF signal. (c) GCC filled with air (at ambient
temperature and 1 atm) strongly ionized by means of alpha particles emitted from radioactive
ions sources (Am 241, half-life 432 years). Since the electrical conductivity of the ionized air
depends on the amount of ions then it can be strongly increased by increasing the amount of Am
241 in the GCC. This GCC has 36 radioactive ions sources each one with 1/5000th of gram of
Am 241, conveniently positioned around the ionization chamber, in order to
obtain σ air ≅ 10 3 S.m −1 .
25

Gravitational Shielding
Spacecraft

a Mg

g’ = χair g

Erms (low frequency)


χair

g = G mg / r2

mg

The gravity accelerations on the spacecraft (due to the rest of the Universe) can be controlled by
means of the gravitational shielding, i.e.,
g’i = χair gi i = 1, 2, 3 … n
Thus,
Fis= Fsi = Mg g’i = Mg (χair gi)
Then the inertial forces acting on the spacecraft (s) can be strongly reduced. According to the Mach’s
principle this effect can reduce the inertial properties of the spacecraft and consequently, leads to a new
concept of spacecraft and aerospace flight.

Fig. 4 – Gravitational Shielding surround a Spherical Spacecraft.


26

V = V0 t = T /4 EELF (1) fELF (1) g1 / g EELF (2) fELF (2) g2 / g


(Volts) (s) ( min) (V/m) (mHz) Exp. Teo. (V/m) (mHz) Exp. Teo.
250 4.17 24.81 1 - 0.993 24.81 1 - 0.986
312.5 5.21 24.81 0.8 - 0.986 24.81 0.8 - 0.972
1.0 V 416.6 6.94 24.81 0.6 - 0.967 24.81 0.6 - 0.935
625 10.42 24.81 0.4 - 0.890 24.81 0.4 - 0.792
1250 20.83 24.81 0.2 - 0.240 24.81 0.2 - 0.058
250 4.17 37.22 1 - 0.964 37.22 1 - 0.929
312.5 5.21 37.22 0.8 - 0.930 37.22 0.8 - 0.865
1.5V 416.6 6.94 37.22 0.6 - 0.837 37.22 0.6 - 0.700
625 10.42 37.22 0.4 - 0,492 37.22 0.4 - 0.242
1250 20.83 37.22 0.2 - -1,724 37.22 0.2 - 2.972

Table 1 – Theoretical Results.


27

f ELF (mHz)
1,0 0,9 0,8 0,7 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1
3

g1/g 1

g1/g

1.0V

g1/g
-1
1.5V

-2

Fig. 5- Distribution of the correlation g1/ g as a function of f ELF


28

f ELF (mHz)
1,0 0,9 0,8 0,7 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1
3
g2/g
1.5V

g2/g 1

g2/g 1.0V

-1

-2

Fig. 6- Distribution of the correlation g2 / g as a function of f ELF


29

f ELF (mHz)
1,0 0,9 0,8 0,7 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1
3
g2/g

1.5V

gi/g 1

g1/g

1.5V
-1

-2

Fig. 7- Distribution of the correlations gi / g as a function of f ELF


30

Inductor
Air at ultra-low pressure
Steel Box

g ′′′ ( For B < 300T χ steel ≅ 1 then g ′′′ ≅ g ′′ )

g ′′′ = χ steel g ′′ = (χ steel ) χ air g


2

g ′′ = χ air g ′

g ′ = χ steel g

(a)

g 3 = χ 3 χ 2 χ1 g
χ3 GCC 3

g 2 = χ 2 χ1 g
Steel Boxes χ2 GCC 2

g1 = χ 1 g
χ1 GCC 1

(b)

Fig. 8 – (a) Gravity Control Cell (GCC) filled with air at ultra-low pressure.
(b) Gravity Control Battery (Note that if χ1 = χ 2−1 = −1 then g ′′ = g )
31

g’’= g
Gravity Control Cell
(Steel box)

R
g’
r
Massive Rotor
r
g

Gravity Control Cell


(Steel box)

g ′ = (χ steel ) χ air g and g ′′ = (χ steel )4 (χ air )2 g


Note that 2 therefore for

χ steel ≅ 1 and χ air (1) = χ air


−1
(2 ) = − n we get
g ′ ≅ − ng and g ′′ = g

Fig. 9 – The Gravitational Motor


32

Dielectric Gravity Control Cell- GCC


Aluminum Shell Superconducting
Shell

Superconducting
Ring

FM
Mg

Superconducting mg
Box Fm

μ̂

Fig. 10 – The Gravitational Spacecraft – Due to the Meissner effect, the magnetic field
B is expelled from the superconducting shell. Similarly, the magnetic field BGCC, of the
GCC stay confined inside the superconducting box.
33

Gas

Mg mg a μ
gas
GCC GCC GCC
FM Fm

Gas

Material boxes
(a)

g’’’= χair 3 g’’= χair 3 χair 2 χair 1 g

σ3 <σ2 (χair 3)

g ’’ = χair 2 g ’ = χair 2 χair 1 g


σ2 <σ1 (χair 2)
g ’= χair 1 g
σ1 (χair 1)

Am - 241
g

(b)

Fig. 11 – The Gravitational Thruster .


(a) Using material boxes. (b) Without material boxes
34

Gas Helix
HIGH

GCC GCC GCC SPEED Motor axis

GAS
Gas

Fig. 12 - The Gravitational Turbo Motor – The gravitationally accelerated gas, by


means of the GCCs, propels the helix which movies the motor axis.
35

Eosc

dmg2

dF12 r
dF21
Air Layer 1 Air Layer 2
dmg1

Spacecraft

Fig. 13 – Gravitational forces between two layers of the “air shell”. The electric field Eosc
provides the ionization of the air.
36

Eosc

Spacecraft

μ̂

r
( )
g ′ = χ air gμˆ ≅ + 0.98m.s −2 μˆ

χair

Eosc

Fig. 14 – The Gravitational Lifter


37

φinn

m2 H
Sτ B g 2 ≅ −1.4 × 10 6 m .s −2

Chamber 1 Air 0.20


−2
g m1 g1 ≅ +3 × 10 m .s
3 g
0.20
Chamber 2 Air 0.20

m g = −9.81m .s −2 H

S
P=R/S

Fig. 15 – Gravitational Press


38

Graviphotons
v=∞
GCC

Coil
i Real Gravitational Waves
v=c
f

(a) GCC Antenna

GCC GCC

Graviphotons
v=∞

i i

f f

Transmitter (b) Receiver

Fig. 16 - Transmitter and Receiver of Virtual Gravitational Radiation.


39

103atoms

Dielectric 102atoms

103atoms

f Graviphotons f
v=∞

Dielectric
(108 atoms)

Transmitter Receiver

(a)

Conductor Conductor

Microantenna

(b)
Fig. 17 – Quantum Gravitational Microantenna
40

(iM )(im ) M g mg
F = −G = +G
g g
v
2
r r2
Crystal

F F

iMg Mg = Mi
Imaginary body
img (Mi = inertial mass)
(a)

Crystal

F GCC GCC GCC F =Mg a ≅Mi a

iMg a = - (χair )3Gmg / r2


Imaginary body
img
χair → -109
(b)

g χair g χair2g χair3g χair4 g χair5 g χair5 g A


M
P Data
L
GCC GCC GCC GCC GCC GCC GCC GCC Y
Acquisition
F System
I
Imaginary body
E
χair5g’ χair5g’ χair4g’ χair3g’ χair2g’ χair g’ g’ img R

χair ≅ 10-2
micro-crystals
⏐ Gravitational Shielding ⏐

Display
(c)

Fig.18 – Method and device using GCCs for obtaining images of imaginary bodies.
41
χ > 0.159

⎛V ⎞ h ⎛V ⎞h
qm = χ ⎜ ⎟ qm ≅ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ c ⎠λ ⎝c ⎠λ
material particle
imaginary particle
⎛V ⎞ h associated to the
qi = [1 − χ ] ⎜ ⎟ q i = 0*
material particle
⎝ c ⎠λ
E, f ρ,σ
h h
qr = χ qr ≅
λ λ
real photon

imaginary photon
associated to the
q i = [1 − χ ]
h qi = 0 real photon
λ
(a)
* There are a type of neutrino, called "ghost” neutrino, predicted by General Relativity, with zero mass
and zero momentum. In spite its momentum be zero, it is known that there are wave functions that
describe these neutrinos and that prove that really they exist.
χ < 0.159

⎛V ⎞ h ⎛V ⎞ h
qm = χ ⎜ ⎟ qm ≅ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ c ⎠λ ⎝ c ⎠λ
material particle
imaginary particle
⎛V ⎞ h qi = 0 associated to the
qi = [1 − χ ] ⎜ ⎟
⎝ c ⎠λ material particle
E, f ρ,σ
h h
qr = χ qr ≅
λ λ
real photon

imaginary photon
associated to the
q i = [1 − χ ]
h qi = 0 real photon
λ
(b)
Fig. 19 – The phenomenon of reduction of the momentum. (a) Shows the reduction of
momentum for χ > 0.159 . (b) Shows the effect when χ < 0.159 . Note that in both cases, the
material particles collide with the cowl with the momentum q m = χ (V c )(h λ ) , and the
h
photons with q r = χ . Therefore, that by making χ ≅ 0 , it is possible to block high-energy
λ
particles and ultra-intense fluxes of radiation.
42

APPENDIX A: THE SIMPLEST METHOD TO CONTROL THE GRAVITY

In this Appendix we show the simplest


method to control the gravity.
Consider a body with mass density ρ and
i0
the following electric characteristics: μ r , ε r , σ
(relative permeability, relative permittivity and
electric conductivity, respectively). Through this
body, passes an electric current I , which is the
IDC
sum of a sinusoidal current iosc = i0 sin ωt and
the DC current I DC , i.e., I = I DC + i0 sin ωt
; ω = 2πf . If i0 << I DC then I ≅ I DC . Thus, the I = IDC + iosc
current I varies with the frequency f , but the
variation of its intensity is quite small in
comparison with I DC , i.e., I will be practically
constant (Fig. 1A). This is of fundamental
importance for maintaining the value of the
gravitational mass of the body, m g , sufficiently
stable during all the time. t
The gravitational mass of the body is given
by [1]
Fig. A1 - The electric current I varies with
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ nrU ⎞ ⎥⎪ frequency f . But the variation of I is quite small
mg = ⎨1− 2 1+

⎜ ⎟ −1 m
⎜ m c2 ⎟ ⎥⎬ i0
( A1) in comparison with I DC due to io << I DC . In this
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ i0 ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ way, we can consider I ≅ I DC .

It is known that B = μH , E B = ω k r [11] and


where U , is the electromagnetic energy
dz ω
absorbed by the body and nr is the index of v= = =
c
( A4)
dt κ r ε r μr ⎛
⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟
refraction of the body. 2
Equation (A1) can also be rewritten in the 2 ⎝ ⎠
following form
where kr is the real part of the propagation
r
⎧ ⎡ ⎛ nrW ⎞
2 ⎤⎫ vector k (also called phase constant );
⎪ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎪⎬
mg ⎢ r
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜
⎢ ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎥
( A2 ) k = k = k r + iki ; ε , μ and σ, are the
mi 0 ⎪

⎣ ⎝ρ c ⎠ ⎪
⎦⎥ ⎭
⎩ electromagnetic characteristics of the medium in
which the incident (or emitted) radiation is
propagating( ε = εrε0 ; ε 0 = 8.854 ×10 F / m
−12
where, W =U V is the density of
electromagnetic energy and ρ = mi 0 V is the ;μ = μr μ0 where μ0 = 4π ×10−7 H / m ). It is
density of inertial mass. known that for free-space
The instantaneous values of the density of σ = 0 and ε r = μ r = 1 . Then Eq. (A4) gives
electromagnetic energy in an electromagnetic
field can be deduced from Maxwell’s equations v=c
and has the following expression From (A4), we see that the index of refraction
nr = c v is given by
W = 12 ε E 2 + 12 μH 2 ( A3)
ε μ
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ ( A5)
c 2
where E = E m sin ωt and H = H sin ωt are the
v 2 ⎝ ⎠
instantaneous values of the electric field and the
magnetic field respectively.
43
that ω κr = v. ⎧ ⎡ ⎫
⎞ E 4 ⎤⎥⎪
Equation (A4) shows 3
⎪ μ ⎛σ
Thus, E B = ω k r = v , i.e., mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 2 − 1 ⎬mi0 =
⎪⎩ ⎢ 4c ⎝ 4πf ⎠ ρ ⎥⎪
E = vB = vμH ( A6) ⎣ ⎦⎭
Then, Eq. (A3) can be rewritten in the following ⎧ ⎡ ⎛ μ0 ⎞⎛ μrσ ⎞ 4 ⎤⎫⎪

3
form:
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1+ ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟E − 1⎥⎬mi0 =
( )
W = 12 ε v2μ μH2 + 12 μH2 ( A7) ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣
3 2 ⎜ 2 3⎟
⎝ 256π c ⎠⎝ ρ f ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪

For σ << ωε , Eq. (A4) reduces to
⎧ ⎡ ⎛ μ σ3 ⎞ ⎤⎫⎪

c = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 1.758×10−27 ⎜⎜ r2 3 ⎟⎟E 4 − 1⎥⎬mi0
v= ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ρ f ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪

ε r μr
( A14)
Then, Eq. (A7) gives Note that E = E m sin ωt .The average value for

⎡ ⎛ c2 ⎞ ⎤ 2 1 E 2 is equal to 1 2 E m2 because E varies


W = 12 ⎢ε ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟μ⎥μH + 2 μH 2 = μH 2 sinusoidaly ( E m is the maximum value for E ).
⎣ ⎝ ε r μr ⎠ ⎦
On the other hand, Erms = Em 2 . Consequently,
This equation can be rewritten in the following
forms:
we can change E 4 by E rms
4
, and the equation
above can be rewritten as follows
B2
W= ( A8) ⎧ ⎡ ⎛ μ σ3 ⎞ 4 ⎤⎫⎪
μ ⎪
mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 1.758×10−27 ⎜⎜ r2 3 ⎟⎟Erms − 1⎥⎬mi0
or
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ρ f ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪

W =ε E2 ( A9 )
Substitution of the well-known equation of the
Ohm's vectorial Law: j = σE into (A14), we get
For σ >> ωε , Eq. (A4) gives
⎧⎪ ⎡ μ j4 ⎤⎫⎪

v= ( A10) mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 +1.758×10−27 r 2 rms3 −1⎥⎬mi0 ( A15)
μσ ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ σρ f ⎥⎦⎪⎭
Then, from Eq. (A7) we get
where j rms = j 2 .
⎡ ⎛ 2ω ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ ωε ⎞ Consider a 15 cm square Aluminum thin
W = 12 ⎢ε ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟μ⎥μH2 + 12 μH2 = ⎜ ⎟μH2 + 12 μH2 ≅ foil of 10.5 microns thickness with the following
⎣ ⎝ μσ ⎠ ⎦ ⎝σ ⎠ characteristics: μr =1 ; σ = 3.82×107 S.m−1 ;
≅ 12 μH2 ( A11) ρ = 2700 Kg .m −3 . Then, (A15) gives
Since E = vB = vμH , we can rewrite (A11) in
⎧⎪ ⎡ j4 ⎤⎫⎪
mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 6.313×10−42 rms − 1⎥⎬mi0 ( A16)
⎢ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
the following forms: 3
⎪⎩ ⎣ f
B2
W ≅ ( A12 ) Now, consider that the ELF electric
2μ current I = I DC + i 0 sin ω t , (i0 << I DC )
or
passes through that Aluminum foil. Then, the
⎛ σ ⎞ 2
W ≅⎜ ⎟E ( A13 ) current density is
⎝ 4ω ⎠ I rms I DC
By comparing equations (A8) (A9) (A12) and jrms = ≅ ( A17)
(A13), we can see that Eq. (A13) shows that the
S S
where
best way to obtain a strong value of W in
S = 0.15m(10.5 × 10 −6 m) = 1.57 × 10 −6 m 2
practice is by applying an Extra Low-Frequency
(
(ELF) electric field w = 2πf << 1Hz through a )
medium with high electrical conductivity. If the ELF electric current has
Substitution of Eq. (A13) into Eq. (A2),
frequency f = 2μHz = 2 × 10 Hz ,
−6
gives then, the
gravitational mass of the aluminum foil, given by
(A16), is expressed by
44
⎧⎪ ⎡ I4 ⎤ ⎫⎪ known Function Generator HP3325A (Op.002
m g = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 7.89 × 10 − 25 DC4 − 1⎥ ⎬mi 0 = High Voltage Output) that can generate
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭ sinusoidal voltages with extremely-low
⎪⎩ S
f = 1 × 10 −6 Hz and
{ [ ]}
frequencies down to
= 1 − 2 1 + 0.13I DC
4
− 1 mi 0 ( A18) amplitude up to 20V (40Vpp into 500Ω load). The
Then, maximum output current is 0.08 App ; output

χ=
mg
mi0
{ [
≅ 1−2 1+ 0.13I DC
4
−1 ]} ( A19) impedance <2Ω at ELF.
Figure A4 shows the equivalent electric
circuit for the experimental set-up. The
For I DC = 2.2 A , the equation above gives electromotive forces are: ε1 (HP3325A) and ε 2
⎛ mg ⎞
( A 20 )
(12V DC Battery).The values of the resistors are
χ = ⎜⎜ ⎟ ≅ −1
⎟ : R1 = 500Ω − 2W ; ri1 < 2Ω ; R2 = 4Ω − 40W ;
⎝ i0 ⎠
m
This means that the gravitational shielding ri 2 < 0.1Ω ; R p = 2 .5 × 10 −3 Ω ; Rheostat (0≤
produced by the aluminum foil can change the R ≤10Ω - 90W). The coupling transformer has the
gravity acceleration above the foil down to following characteristics: air core with diameter
g ′ = χ g ≅ −1g ( A21) φ = 10 mm ; area S = πφ 2 4 = 7.8 × 10 −5 m 2 ;
Under these conditions, the Aluminum foil works
basically as a Gravity Control Cell (GCC). wire#12AWG; N1 = N2 = N = 20; l = 42mm;
In order to check these theoretical L1 = L2 = L = μ0 N (S l ) = 9.3 ×10 H .Thus, we
2 −7

predictions, we suggest an experimental set-up


get
shown in Fig.A2.
A 15cm square Aluminum foil of 10.5 Z1 = (R1 + ri1 )2 + (ωL )2 ≅ 501Ω
microns thickness with the following composition:
and
Al 98.02%; Fe 0.80%; Si 0.70%; Mn 0.10%; Cu
0.10%; Zn 0.10%; Ti 0.08%; Mg 0.05%; Cr Z2 = (R 2 + ri 2 + R p + R ) + (ωL )
2 2

0.05%, and with the following characteristics:


μr =1; σ = 3.82×107 S.m−1 ; ρ = 2700Kg.m−3 ,is For R = 0 we get Z 2 = Z 2min ≅ 4Ω ; for
**
fixed on a 17 cm square Foam Board plate of R = 10Ω the result is Z 2 = Z 2max ≅ 14Ω . Thus,
6mm thickness as shown in Fig.A3. This device 2
⎛ N1 ⎞
(the simplest Gravity Control Cell GCC) is placed
Z min
1,total = Z1 + Z min
1, reflected = Z1 + Z min
2
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ≅ 505Ω
on a pan balance shown in Fig.A2.
Above the Aluminum foil, a sample (any
⎝ N2 ⎠
2
type of material, any mass) connected to a ⎛ N1 ⎞
dynamometer will check the decrease of the local Z max
1,total = Z1 + Z max
1, reflected = Z1 + Z max
2
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ≅ 515Ω
gravity acceleration upon the sample ⎝ N2 ⎠
(g ′ = χ g ) ,due to the gravitational shielding The maxima
following values:
rms currents have the
produced by the decreasing of gravitational mass
( )
of the Aluminum foil χ = m g mi 0 . Initially, the I 1max = 1
2 ,total = 56mA
40V pp Z1min
sample lies 5 cm above the Aluminum foil. As (The maximum output current of the Function
shown in Fig.A2, the board with the dynamometer Generator HP3325A (Op.002 High Voltage
can be displaced up to few meters in height. Output) is 80mApp ≅ 56.5mArms);
Thus, the initial distance between the Aluminum
ε2
foil and the sample can be increased in order to I 2max = = 3A
check the reach of the gravitational shielding Z 2min
produced by the Aluminum foil.
and
In order to generate the ELF electric
current of f = 2 μHz , we can use the widely- I 3max = I 2max + I1max ≅ 3A

The new expression for the inertial forces,


**
Foam board is a very strong, lightweight (density: r r
24.03 kg.m-3) and easily cut material used for the (Eq.5) Fi = M g a , shows that the inertial forces
mounting of photographic prints, as backing in picture are proportional to gravitational mass. Only in the
framing, in 3D design, and in painting. It consists of particular case of m g = m i 0 , the expression
three layers — an inner layer of polystyrene clad with
outer facing of either white clay coated paper or brown above reduces to the well-known Newtonian
r r
Kraft paper. expression Fi = m i 0 a . The equivalence
45
( )
r r
between gravitational and inertial forces Fi ≡ Fg ⎧⎪ ⎡ j4 ⎤⎫⎪
[1] shows then that a balance measures the mg = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 6.313×10−42 rms −1⎥⎬mi0 =
⎢ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
3
gravitational mass subjected to ⎪⎩ ⎣ f
acceleration a = g . Here, the decrease in the
⎧⎪ ⎡ I4 ⎤⎫⎪
gravitational mass of the Aluminum foil will be
measured by a pan balance with the following
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 7.89×10−25 DC4 −1⎥⎬mi0 =
characteristics: range 0-200g; readability 0.01g. ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ S ⎥⎦⎪⎭
The mass of the Foam Board plate is:
≅ 4.17 g , the mass of the Aluminum foil is: { [
= 1− 2 1+ 0.13I DC
4
]}
−1 mi0 ( A22)
≅ 0.64 g , the total mass of the ends and the
For I DC ≅ 3 A the equation above gives
electric wires of connection is ≅ 5 g . Thus,
initially the balance will show ≅ 9.81g .
m g ≅ − 3 .8 m i 0
According to (A18), when the electric current
through the Aluminum foil
Note that we can replace the Aluminum foil for
(resistance rp
*
= l σS = 2.5 ×10−3 Ω ) reaches the this wire in the experimental set-up shown in
value: I 3 ≅ 2.2 A , we will get m g ( Al ) ≅ − mi 0 ( Al ) . Fig.A2. It is important also to note that an ELF
electric current that passes through a wire - which
Under these circumstances, the balance will makes a spherical form, as shown in Fig A5 -
show: reduces the gravitational mass of the wire (Eq.
9.81g − 0.64 g − 0.64 g ≅ 8.53g A22), and the gravity inside sphere at the same
and the gravity acceleration g ′ above the proportion, χ =mg mi0 , (Gravitational Shielding
Aluminum foil, becomes g ′ = χ g ≅ −1g . Effect). In this case, that effect can be checked
It was shown [1] that, when the by means of the Experimental set-up 2 (Fig.A6).
gravitational mass of a particle is reduced to the Note that the spherical form can be transformed
into an ellipsoidal form or a disc in order to coat,
gravitational mass ranging between + 0.159 M i for example, a Gravitational Spacecraft. It is also
to − 0.159M i , it becomes imaginary, i.e., the possible to coat with a wire several forms, such
as cylinders, cones, cubes, etc.
gravitational and the inertial masses of the
The circuit shown in Fig.A4 (a) can be
particle become imaginary. Consequently, the
modified in order to produce a new type of
particle disappears from our ordinary space-time.
Gravitational Shielding, as shown in Fig.A4 (b).
This phenomenon can be observed in the
In this case, the Gravitational Shielding will be
proposed experiment, i.e., the Aluminum foil will
produced in the Aluminum plate, with thickness
disappear when its gravitational mass becomes
h , of the parallel plate capacitor connected in the
smaller than + 0.159 M i . It will become visible point P of the circuit (See Fig.A4 (b)). Note that,
again, only when its gravitational mass becomes in this circuit, the Aluminum foil (resistance R p )
smaller than − 0.159M i , or when it becomes (Fig.A4(a)) has been replaced by a Copper wire #
greater than + 0.159M i . 14 AWG with 1cm length ( l = 1cm ) in order to
Equation (A18) shows that the gravitational produce a resistance Rφ = 5.21 × 10 −5 Ω . Thus,
mass of the Aluminum foil, mg ( Al ) , goes close to the voltage in the point P of the circuit will have
zero when I 3 ≅ 1.76 A . Consequently, the the maximum value V pmax = 1.1 × 10 −4 V when
gravity acceleration above the Aluminum foil also the resistance of the rheostat is null (R = 0 ) and
goes close to zero since
g ′ = χ g = m g ( Al ) mi 0 ( Al ) . Under these the minimum value V pmin = 4.03 × 10 −5 V when

circumstances, the Aluminum foil remains R = 10Ω . In this way, the voltage V p (with
invisible. frequency f = 2 μHz ) applied on the capacitor
Now consider a rigid Aluminum wire # 14
AWG. The area of its cross section is will produce an electric field E p with intensity

S = π (1.628 × 10 −3 m ) 4 = 2.08 × 10 −6 m 2 E p = V p h through the Aluminum plate of


2

If an ELF electric current with thickness h = 3mm . It is important to note that this
frequency f = 2μHz = 2 × 10 Hz passes through
−6 plate cannot be connected to ground (earth), in
other words, cannot be grounded, because, in
this wire, its gravitational mass, given by (A16),
will be expressed by
46
this case, the electric field through it will be null
††
insulation layer with relative permittivity εr
.
According to Eq. A14, when and dielectric strength k . A voltage source is
connected to the Aluminum foil in order to provide
p =Vp
Emax max
h = 0.036 V / m, f = 2μHz and
a voltage V0 (rms) with frequency f . Thus, the
σ Al = 3 . 82 × 10 7 S / m , ρ Al = 2700kg / m3 electric potential V at a distance r , in the
(Aluminum), we get interval from r0 to a , is given by
m ( Al )
χ = ≅ − 0 .9
m i ( Al ) V=
1 q
( A23)
4πε r ε 0 r
Under these conditions, the maximum current
density through the plate with thickness h will be In the interval a < r ≤ b the electric potential is

given by j max = σ Al E max


p = 1.4 ×10 A / m (It is
6 2
V =
1 q
( A24 )
4πε 0 r
well-known that the maximum current density
supported by the Aluminum is ≈ 10 A / m ).
8 2 since for the air we have ε r ≅ 1 .
Since the area of the plate is Thus, on the surface of the metallic
spheres (r = r0 ) we get
A= (0.2) = 4×10 m , then the maximum current is
2 −2 2

i max = j max A = 56kA . Despite this enormous V0 =


1 q
( A25)
current, the maximum dissipated power will be 4πε r ε 0 r0
( )
2
just P max = i max R plate = 6.2W , because the
Consequently, the electric field is

E0 =
1 q
( A26)
resistance of the plate is very small, i.e.,
4πε r ε 0 r02
R plate = h σ Al A ≅ 2 × 10−9 Ω . By comparing (A26) with (A25), we obtain
V0
Note that the area A of the plate (where
the Gravitational Shielding takes place) can have E0 = ( A27)
r0
several geometrical configurations. For example,
it can be the area of the external surface of an Vb at r = b is
The electric potential
ellipsoid, sphere, etc. Thus, it can be the area of
1 q ε r V 0 r0
the external surface of a Gravitational Spacecraft. Vb = = ( A28 )
In this case, if A ≅ 100m , for example, the
2 4πε 0 b b
maximum dissipated power will be Consequently, the electric field Eb is given by
Pmax ≅ 15.4kW , i.e., approximately 154W / m 2 . 1 q ε rV0 r0
All of these systems work with Extra-Low Eb = = ( A29)
4πε 0 b 2 b2
( −3
)
Frequencies f <<10 Hz . Now, we show that,
From r = r0 up to r = b = a + d the electric
by simply changing the geometry of the surface
of the Aluminum foil, it is possible to increase the field is approximately constant (See Fig. A7).
working frequency f up to more than 1Hz. Along the distance d it will be called E air . For
Consider the Aluminum foil, now with r > a + d , the electric field stops being constant.
several semi-spheres stamped on its surface, as Thus, the intensity of the electric field at
shown in Fig. A7 . The semi-spheres have r = b = a + d is approximately equal to E0 ,
radius r0 = 0.9 mm , and are joined one to
i.e., Eb ≅ E 0 . Then, we can write that
another. The Aluminum foil is now coated by an
ε rV0 r0 V0
≅ ( A30)
††
When the voltage Vp is applied on the capacitor, the b2 r0
charge distribution in the dielectric induces positive whence we get
and negative charges, respectively on opposite sides of
the Aluminum plate with thickness h. If the plate is not b ≅ r0 ε r ( A31)
connected to the ground (Earth) this charge Since the intensity of the electric field through the
distribution produces an electric field Ep=Vp/h through air, E air , is Eair ≅ Eb ≅ E0 , then, we can write that
the plate. However, if the plate is connected to the
q ε rV0 r0
ground, the negative charges (electrons) escapes for Eair =
1
= 2 ( A32)
the ground and the positive charges are redistributed 4πε0 b 2 b
along the entire surface of the Aluminum plate making
Note that ε r refers to the relative permittivity of
null the electric field through it.
47
the insulation layer, which is covering the 1 3

⎛ Eair ⎞ ⎛b⎞
( A39)
2 2
Aluminum foil. σ air = 2α⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
If the intensity of this field is greater than ⎝ d ⎠ ⎝a⎠
the dielectric strength of the air 3 × 10 V / m ( 6
) If the insulation layer has thickness
there will occur the well-known Corona effect. Δ = 0.6 mm , ε r ≅ 3.5 (1- 60Hz),
Here, this effect is necessary in order to increase
the electric conductivity of the air at this region k = 17kV / mm (Acrylic sheet 1.5mm thickness),
(layer with thickness d). Thus, we will assume and the semi-spheres stamped on the metallic
ε rV min
r V min surface have r0 = 0.9 mm (See Fig.A7) then
min
Eair = 0 0
= 0
= 3×106 V / m
b 2
r0 a = r0 + Δ = 1.5 mm. Thus, we obtain from Eq.
and (A33) that
ε rV max
r V max
V0min = 2.7kV
max
Eair = 0 0
= = 1×107 V / m ( A33)
0

b 2
r0 V0max = 9kV ( A40)
The electric field E min
air ≤ E air ≤ E max
air will From equation (A31), we obtain the following
produce an electrons flux in a direction and an value for b :
ions flux in an opposite direction. From the b = r0 ε r = 1.68×10−3 m ( A41)
viewpoint of electric current, the ions flux can be
Since b = a + d we get
considered as an “electrons” flux at the same
direction of the real electrons flux. Thus, the d = 1.8 × 10 −4 m
current density through the air, j air , will be the Substitution of a , b , d and A(32) into (A39)
double of the current density expressed by the produces
1 1
well-known equation of Langmuir-Child
3 3 3
σ air = 4.117×10−4 Eair = 1.375×10−2 V0
2 2

4
j = εrε0
2e V 2
= α
V2
= 2.33×10−6 V
2
( A34) Substitution of σ air , E air (rms ) and
9 me d2 d2 d2 ρ air = 1.2 kg .m −3 into (A14) gives
where ε r ≅ 1 for the air; α = 2.33 × 10 −6
is the
mg(air) ⎧⎪ ⎡ σ 3 E4 ⎤⎫⎪
called Child’s constant. = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+1.758×10−27 air2 air3 −1⎥⎬ =
Thus, we have mi0(air) ⎪ ⎢ ρair f ⎥⎦⎪⎭
3 ⎩ ⎣
V2
jair = 2α 2 ( A35) ⎧⎪ ⎡ 5.5 ⎤⎫⎪
−21 V0
d = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 4.923×10 − 1⎥⎬ ( A42)
where d , in this case, is the thickness of the air ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f 3 ⎥⎦⎪

layer where the electric field is approximately
For V0 = V0 = 9kV and f = 2 Hz , the result is
max
constant and V is the voltage drop given by
1 q 1 q mg (air)
V = Va − Vb = − = ≅ −1.2
4πε 0 a 4πε 0 b mi0(air)
⎛ b − a ⎞ ⎛ ε r r0 d ⎞
= V0 r0ε r ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟V0 ( A36) Note that, by increasing V0 , the values of
⎝ ab ⎠ ⎝ ab ⎠ E air and σ air are increased. Thus, as show
By substituting (A36) into (A35), we get (A42), there are two ways for decrease the value
3 3 3

2α ⎛ ε r r0dV0 ⎞ 2α ⎛ ε r r0V0 ⎞
2 2
⎛b⎞ 2 of m g (air ) : increasing the value of V0 or
jair = ⎜ ⎟ = 1⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ =
d 2 ⎝ ab ⎠ d 2 ⎝ b2 ⎠ ⎝ a⎠ decreasing the value of f .
3 Since E0
max
= 107 V / m = 10kV / mm and
2α ⎛ b ⎞2
( A37)
3

= 1 Eair⎜ ⎟
2
Δ = 0.6 mm then the dielectric strength of the
d2 ⎝ a⎠ insulation must be ≥ 16.7kV / mm . As
According to the equation of the Ohm's vectorial mentioned above, the dielectric strength of the
Law: j = σE , we can write that acrylic is 17kV / mm .
σair =
jair
( A38) It is important to note that, due to the
strong value of E air (Eq. A37) the drift velocity
Eair
Substitution of (A37) into (A38) yields vd , (vd = jair ne = σ air Eair ne) of the free
charges inside the ionized air put them at a
48
distance x = vd t = 2 fvd ≅ 0.4m , which is much means of a convenient process, several semi-
−4
spheres can be stamped on its surface. The
greater than the distance d =1.8 ×10 m .
semi-spheres have radius r0 = 0.9 mm , and
Consequently, the number n of free charges
decreases strongly inside the air layer of are joined one to another. Next, take an acrylic
thickness d ‡‡ , except, obviously, in a thin layer, sheet (A4 format) with 1.5mm thickness (See
very close to the dielectric, where the number of Fig.A8 (a)). Put a heater below the Aluminum
free charges remains sufficiently increased, to plate in order to heat the Aluminum (Fig.A8 (b)).
When the Aluminum is sufficiently heated up, the
maintain the air conductivity with σ air ≅ 1.1S / m
acrylic sheet and the Aluminum plate are
(Eq. A39). pressed, one against the other, as shown in Fig.
The thickness h of this thin air layer close A8 (c). The two D devices shown in this figure are
to the dielectric can be easily evaluated starting used in order to impede that the press
from the charge distribution in the neighborhood compresses the acrylic and the aluminum to a
of the dielectric, and of the repulsion forces distance shorter than y + a . After some seconds,
established among them. The result is remove the press and the heater. The device is
h = 0.06e 4πε 0 E ≅ 4 × 10−9 m . This is, therefore, ready to be subjected to a voltage V0 with
the thickness of the Air Gravitational Shielding. If frequency f , as shown in Fig.A9. Note that, in
the area of this Gravitational Shielding is equal to
this case, the balance is not necessary, because
the area of a format A4 sheet of paper,
the substance that produces the gravitational
i.e., A = 0.20 × 0.291= 0.0582m , we obtain the
2
shielding is an air layer with thickness d above
following value for the resistance R air of the the acrylic sheet. This is, therefore, more a type
of Gravity Control Cell (GCC) with external
Gravitational Shielding: Rair = h σair A≅ 6×10−8 Ω.
gravitational shielding.
Since the maximum electrical current through this It is important to note that this GCC can be
air layer is i max = j max A ≅ 400 kA , then the made very thin and as flexible as a fabric. Thus, it
maximum power radiated from the Gravitational can be used to produce anti- gravity clothes.

( ) 2
These clothes can be extremely useful, for
Shielding is Pair max
= Rair iair
max
≅ 10kW . This example, to walk on the surface of high gravity
means that a very strong light will be radiated planets.
from this type of Gravitational Shielding. Note that Figure A11 shows some geometrical
this device can also be used as a lamp, which will forms that can be stamped on a metallic surface
be much more efficient than conventional lamps. in order to produce a Gravitational Shielding
Coating a ceiling with this lighting system effect, similar to the produced by the semi-
enables the entire area of ceiling to produce light. spherical form.
This is a form of lighting very different from those An obvious evolution from the semi-
usually known. spherical form is the semi-cylindrical form shown
in Fig. A11 (b); Fig.A11(c) shows concentric
max
Note that the value Pair ≅ 10kW , defines the metallic rings stamped on the metallic surface, an
power of the transformer shown in Fig.A10. Thus, evolution from Fig.A11 (b). These geometrical
the maximum current in the secondary is forms produce the same effect as the semi-
i smax = 9kV 10 kW = 0.9 A . spherical form, shown in Fig.A11 (a). By using
concentric metallic rings, it is possible to build
Above the Gravitational Shielding, σ air is Gravitational Shieldings around bodies or
reduced to the normal value of conductivity of the spacecrafts with several formats (spheres,
( )
atmospheric air ≈ 10 −14 S / m . Thus, the power ellipsoids, etc); Fig. A11 (d) shows a Gravitational
Shielding around a Spacecraft with ellipsoidal
radiated from this region is
( ) σ A=
form.
= (d − h ) i air
max max 2
Pair air
The previously mentioned Gravitational

= (d − h )Aσ (E ) ≅ 10
Shielding, produced on a thin layer of ionized air,
max 2 −4 has a behavior different from the Gravitational
air air W
Now, we will describe a method to coat the Shielding produced on a rigid substance. When
Aluminum semi-spheres with acrylic in the the gravitational masses of the air molecules,
necessary dimensions (Δ = a − r0 ) , we propose
inside the shielding, are reduced to within the
range + 0.159 mi < m g < −0.159 mi , they go to
the following method. First, take an Aluminum
the imaginary space-time, as previously shown in
plate with 21cm × 29.1cm (A4 format). By
this article. However, the electric field E air stays
‡‡
Reducing therefore, the conductivity σ air , to the at the real space-time. Consequently, the
molecules return immediately to the real space-
normal value of conductivity of the atmospheric air.
49
time in order to return soon after to the imaginary since the shielding does not stop to work, due
space-time, due to the action of the electric to its extremely short permanence at the
field E air . imaginary space-time. Under these
circumstances, the gravitational mass of the
In the case of the Gravitational Shielding Gravitational Shielding can be reduced to
produced on a solid substance, when the
molecules of the substance go to the imaginary m g ≅ 0 . For example, m g ≅ 10 −4 kg . Thus, if
space-time, the electric field that produces the the inertial mass of the Gravitational Shielding is
effect, also goes to the imaginary space-time
together with them, since in this case, the
mi 0 ≅ 1kg , then χ = m g mi 0 ≅ 10 −4 . As we
substance of the Gravitational Shielding is rigidly have seen, this means that the inertial effects on
the spacecraft will be reduced by χ ≅ 10 . Then,
connected to the metal that produces the electric −4
field. (See Fig. A12 (b)). This is the fundamental
in spite of the effective acceleration of the
difference between the non-solid and solid −2
spacecraft be, for example, a = 10 m.s , the
5
Gravitational Shieldings.
Now, consider a Gravitational Spacecraft effects on the crew of the spacecraft will be
that is able to produce an Air Gravitational equivalent to an acceleration of only
Shielding and also a Solid Gravitational mg
Shielding, as shown in Fig. A13 (a) §§ . Assuming a′ = a = χ a ≈ 10m.s −1
that the intensity of the electric field, E air ,
mi 0
This is the magnitude of the acceleration upon
necessary to reduce the gravitational mass of
the passengers in a contemporary commercial
the air molecules to within the range
jet.
+ 0.159 mi < m g < −0.159 mi , is much smaller Then, it is noticed that Gravitational
than the intensity of the electric field, E rs , Spacecrafts can be subjected to enormous
accelerations (or decelerations) without imposing
necessary to reduce the gravitational mass of any harmful impacts whatsoever on the
the solid substance to within the range spacecrafts or its crew.
+ 0.159 mi < m g < −0.159 mi , then we Now, imagine that the intensity of the
conclude that the Gravitational Shielding made of electric field that produces the Gravitational
ionized air goes to the imaginary space-time Shielding around the spacecraft is increased up
before the Gravitational Shielding made of solid to reaching the value E rs that reduces the
substance. When this occurs the spacecraft does gravitational mass of the solid Gravitational
not go to the imaginary space-time together with Shielding to within the range
the Gravitational Shielding of air, because the air + 0.159 m i < m g < −0.159 mi . Under these
molecules are not rigidly connected to the
spacecraft. Thus, while the air molecules go into circumstances, the solid Gravitational Shielding
the imaginary space-time, the spacecraft stays in goes to the imaginary space-time and, since it is
the real space-time, and remains subjected to the rigidly connected to the spacecraft, also the
effects of the Gravitational Shielding around it, spacecraft goes to the imaginary space-time
together with the Gravitational Shielding. Thus,
§§ the spacecraft can travel within the imaginary
The solid Gravitational Shielding can also be space-time and make use of the Gravitational
obtained by means of an ELF electric current through Shielding around it.
a metallic lamina placed between the semi-spheres As we have already seen, the maximum
and the Gravitational Shielding of Air (See Fig.A13 velocity of propagation of the interactions in the
(a)). The gravitational mass of the solid Gravitational imaginary space-time is infinite (in the real space-
Shielding will be controlled just by means of the
time this limit is equal to the light velocity c ). This
intensity of the ELF electric current. Recently, it was
means that there are no limits for the velocity of
discovered that Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) can be
the spacecraft in the imaginary space-time. Thus,
added to Alumina (Al2O3) to convert it into a good
the acceleration of the spacecraft can reach, for
electrical conductor. It was found that the electrical
conductivity increased up to 3375 S/m at 77°C in example, a = 109 m.s −2 , which leads the
samples that were 15% nanotubes by volume [12]. It spacecraft to attain velocities
−1
is known that the density of α-Alumina is 3.98kg.m-3 V ≈ 10 m.s (about 1 million times the speed
14

and that it can withstand 10-20 KV/mm. Thus, these of light) after one day of trip. With this velocity,
values show that the Alumina-CNT can be used to after 1 month of trip the spacecraft would have
make a solid Gravitational Shielding. In this case, the 21
traveled about 10 m . In order to have idea of
electric field produced by means of the semi-spheres
this distance, it is enough to remind that the
will be used to control the gravitational mass of the
diameter of our Universe (visible Universe) is of
Alumina-CNT. 26
the order of 10 m .
50
Due to the extremely low density of the then the dielectric strength of the insulation
imaginary bodies, the collision between them must be ≥ 173kV / mm . As shown in the table
cannot have the same consequences of the below *** , 0.1mm - thickness of Mica can
collision between the real bodies. withstand 17.6 kV (that is greater
Thus, for a Gravitational Spacecraft in
than V0max = 15.6kV ), in such way that the
imaginary state, the problem of the collision in
high-speed doesn't exist. Consequently, the dielectric strength is 176 kV/mm.
Gravitational Spacecraft can transit freely in the The Gravitational Thrusters are positioned
imaginary Universe and, in this way, reach easily at the spacecraft, as shown in Fig. A13 (b).
any point of our real Universe once they can Then, when the spacecraft is in the intergalactic
make the transition back to our Universe by only space, the gravity acceleration upon the
increasing the gravitational mass of the gravitational mass m gt of the bottom of the
Gravitational Shielding of the spacecraft in such thruster (See Fig.A13 (c)), is given by [2]
way that it leaves the range of + 0.159 M i Mg
r 10 r
a ≅ (χ air ) g M ≅ −(χ air ) G 2 μˆ
10
to − 0.159M i .
r
The return trip would be done in similar
way. That is to say, the spacecraft would transit where M g is the gravitational mass in front of
in the imaginary Universe back to the departure
the spacecraft.
place where would reappear in our Universe.
For simplicity, let us consider just the effect
Thus, trips through our Universe that would delay
of a hypothetical volume
millions of years, at speeds close to the speed of
light, could be done in just a few months in the V = 10 × 10 × 10 = 10 m
3 3 7 3
of intergalactic
imaginary Universe. (
matter in front of the spacecraft r ≅ 30m . The )
In order to produce the acceleration of average density of matter in the intergalactic
a ≈ 10 9 m.s −2 upon the spacecraft we propose a medium (IGM) is ρig ≈ 10−26 kg.m−3 ) ††† . Thus,
Gravitational Thruster with 10 GCCs (10
for χ air ≅ −1.6 ×10 we get
4
Gravitational Shieldings) of the type with several
semi-spheres stamped on the metallic surface, as
) (6.67 × 10 )⎛⎜⎜ 10 ⎞
−19
previously shown, or with the semi-cylindrical
form shown in Figs. A11 (b) and (c). The 10
(
a = − − 1.6 × 10 4
10 −11
2
⎟⎟ =
GCCs are filled with air at 1 atm and 300K. If the
⎝ 30 ⎠
insulation layer is made with Mica (ε r ≅ 5.4 ) and = −10 9 m.s − 2
has thickness Δ = 0.1 mm , and the semi- In spite of this gigantic acceleration, the inertial
spheres stamped on the metallic surface have effects for the crew of the spacecraft can be
strongly reduced if, for example, the gravitational
r0 = 0.4 mm (See Fig.A7) then mass of the Gravitational Shielding is reduced
a = r0 + Δ = 0.5 mm. Thus, we get
***
b = r0 εr = 9.295×10−4 m The dielectric strength of some dielectrics can have
different values in lower thicknesses. This is, for
and example, the case of the Mica.
d = b − a = 4.295 ×10 −4 m Dielectric Thickness (mm) Dielectric Strength (kV/mm)
Then, from Eq. A42 we obtain Mica 0.01 mm 200
Mica 0.1 mm 176
mg (air) ⎧⎪ ⎡ σ 3 E4 ⎤⎫⎪ Mica 1 mm 61
χair = = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 +1.758×10−27 air2 air3 −1⎥⎬ =
mi0(air) ⎪ ⎢⎣ ρair f ⎥⎦⎪⎭
⎩ †††
Some theories put the average density of the
⎧⎪ ⎡ V 5.5 ⎤⎫⎪
Universe as the equivalent of one hydrogen atom per
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 +1.0 ×10−18 0 3 −1⎥⎬ cubic meter [13,14]. The density of the universe,
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f ⎥⎦⎪⎭ however, is clearly not uniform. Surrounding and
stretching between galaxies, there is a rarefied plasma
For V0 = V0max = 15.6kV and f = 0.12Hz, the result is [15] that is thought to possess a cosmic filamentary
structure [16] and that is slightly denser than the
mg (air)
χ air = ≅ −1.6 ×104 average density in the universe. This material is called
mi0(air) the intergalactic medium (IGM) and is mostly ionized
hydrogen; i.e. a plasma consisting of equal numbers of
Since E 0max = V0max r0 is now given by electrons and protons. The IGM is thought to exist at a
E0max =15.6kV 0.9mm=17.3kV / mm and Δ = 0.1 mm density of 10 to 100 times the average density of the
Universe (10 to 100 hydrogen atoms per cubic meter,
i.e., ≈ 10 −26 kg.m −3 ).
51
−6
down to m g ≅ 10 kg and its inertial mass is Spacecraft can reach about 50000 km/h in a
few seconds. Obviously, the Gravitational
mi 0 ≅ 100kg . Then, we get Shielding of the spacecraft will reduce strongly
the inertial effects upon the crew of the
χ = m g mi 0 ≅ 10 −8
. Therefore, the inertial spacecraft, in such way that the inertial effects of
effects on the spacecraft will be reduced by this strong acceleration will not be felt. In
χ ≅ 10−8 , and consequently, the inertial effects on addition, the artificial atmosphere, which is
possible to build around the spacecraft, by means
the crew of the spacecraft would be equivalent to of gravity control technologies shown in this
an acceleration a′ of only article (See Fig.6) and [2], will protect it from the

a = (10 −8 )(10 9 ) ≈ 10m.s − 2


mg heating produced by the friction with the Earth’s
a′ = atmosphere. Also, the gravity can be controlled
mi 0 inside of the Gravitational Spacecraft in order to
Note that the Gravitational Thrusters in the maintain a value close to the Earth’s gravity as
spacecraft must have a very small diameter (of shown in Fig.3.
the order of millimeters) since, obviously, the hole Finally, it is important to note that a Micro-
through the Gravitational Shielding cannot be Gravitational Thruster does not work outside a
large. Thus, these thrusters are in fact, Micro- Gravitational Shielding, because, in this case, the
Gravitational Thrusters. As shown in Fig. A13 resultant upon the thruster is null due to the
(b), it is possible to place several micro- symmetry (See Fig. A15 (a)). Figure A15 (b)
gravitational thrusters in the spacecraft. This shows a micro-gravitational thruster inside a
gives to the Gravitational Spacecraft, several Gravitational Shielding. This thruster has 10
degrees of freedom and shows the enormous Gravitational Shieldings, in such way that the
superiority of this spacecraft in relation to the gravitational acceleration upon the bottom of the
contemporaries spacecrafts. thruster, due to a gravitational mass M g in front
The density of matter in the intergalactic
medium (IGM) is about 10 -26 kg.m-3 , which is of the thruster, is a10 = χ air
10
a0 where
very less than the density of matter in the
a 0 = −G M g r 2 is the gravitational acceleration
interstellar medium (~10-21 kg.m-3) that is less
than the density of matter in the interplanetary acting on the front of the micro-gravitational
medium (~10-20 kg.m-3). The density of matter is thruster. In the opposite direction, the
enormously increased inside the Earth’s gravitational acceleration upon the bottom of the
atmosphere (1.2kg.m-3 near to Earth’s surface). thruster, produced by a gravitational mass M g ,
Figure A14 shows the gravitational acceleration is
acquired by a Gravitational Spacecraft, in these
media, using Micro-Gravitational thrusters.
In relation to the Interstellar and (
a 0′ = χ s − GM g r ′ 2 ≅ 0 )
Interplanetary medium, the Intergalactic medium
requires the greatest value of χ air ( χ inside the since χ s ≅ 0 due to the Gravitational Shielding
Micro-Gravitational Thrusters), i.e., around the micro-thruster (See Fig. A15 (b)).
χ air ≅ −1.6 ×10 . This value strongly decreases
4 Similarly, the acceleration in front of the thruster
is
when the spacecraft is within the Earth’s

[ ( )] χ
atmosphere. In this case, it is sufficient
only χ air ≅ −10 in order to obtain:
‡‡‡ ′ = χ air
a10 10
a 0′ = χ air
10
− GM g r ′ 2 s

ρ atmV
a = −(χ air ) G
10

r 2
≅ where [χ (− GM
10
air g )]
r ′ 2 < a10 , since r′ > r .

) ( ) ≅ 10
Thus, for a10 ≅ 10 9 m.s −2 and χ s ≈ 10 −8 we
10
(
≅ −(− 10) 6.67 × 10 −11
1.2 10 7 4
m.s −2 ′ < 10m.s −2
(20)2 conclude that a10 . This means that
With this acceleration the Gravitational ′ << a10 . Therefore, we can write that the
a10
resultant on the micro-thruster can be expressed
‡‡‡
This value is within the range of values of χ by means of the following relation
(χ < − 10 3
)
. See Eq . A15 , which can be produced by
R ≅ F10 = χ air
10
F0
means of ELF electric currents through metals as
Aluminum, etc. This means that, in this case, if
convenient, we can replace air inside the GCCs of the Figure A15 (c) shows a Micro-Gravitational
Gravitational Micro-thrusters by metal laminas with Thruster with 10 Air Gravitational Shieldings (10
ELF electric currents through them. GCCs). Thin Metallic laminas are placed after
52
each Air Gravitational Shielding in order to retain 1 3
⎛ Eair
⎞2⎛ b⎞2 1
the electric field E b = V0 x , produced by metallic σair=2α⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ =0.029V02 (A46)
surface behind the semi-spheres. The laminas ⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ a⎠
with semi-spheres stamped on its surfaces are Note that b = r0 ε r ( H2O) . Therefore, here the
connected to the ELF voltage source V0 and the
value of b is larger than in the case of the acrylic.
thin laminas in front of the Air Gravitational
Consequently, the electrical conductivity of the air
Shieldings are grounded. The air inside this
layer will be larger here than in the case of
Micro-Gravitational Thruster is at 300K, 1atm.
acrylic.
We have seen that the insulation layer of a
GCC can be made up of Acrylic, Mica, etc. Now, Substitution of σ (air ) , E air (rms) and
we will design a GCC using Water (distilled ρ air = 1.2kg .m −3 into Eq. A14, gives
water, ε r ( H 2O ) = 80 ) and Aluminum semi-
radius r0 = 1 . 3 mm .
mg(air) ⎧⎪ ⎡ V5.5 ⎤⎫⎪
cylinders with Thus,
for Δ = 0.6mm , the new value of a is a = 1.9mm . =⎨1−2⎢ 1+4.54×10−20 03 −1⎥⎬ ( A47)
mi0(air) ⎪ ⎢ f ⎥⎪
Then, we get ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
b = r0 εr(H2O) = 11.63×10−3m ( A43)
For V0 = V0 = 9kV and f = 2 Hz , the result
max
d = b − a = 9.73×10−3m ( A44)
and is
1 q mg (air)
Eair = = ≅ −8.4
4πεr(air)ε 0 b 2 mi0(air)
V0 r0 This shows that, by using water instead of acrylic,
= ε r( H ) = the result is much better.
2O
ε r(air)b 2 In order to build the GCC based on the
calculations above (See Fig. A16), take an Acrylic
V0 r0 V0
= ≅ = 1111.1 V0 ( A45) plate with 885mm X 885m and 2mm thickness,
ε r(air) r0 then paste on it an Aluminum sheet with
895.2mm X 885mm and 0.5mm thickness(note
Note that
that two edges of the Aluminum sheet are bent as
V0 r0 shown in Figure A16 (b)). Next, take 342
E( H2O) =
ε r ( H2O) Aluminum yarns with 884mm length and
2.588mm diameter (wire # 10 AWG) and insert
and
them side by side on the Aluminum sheet. See in
V0 r0 Fig. A16 (b) the detail of fixing of the yarns on the
E(acrylic) =
ε r (acrylic) Aluminum sheet. Now, paste acrylic strips (with
13.43mm height and 2mm thickness) around the
Therefore, E ( H 2O ) and E (acrylic ) are much Aluminum/Acrylic, making a box. Put distilled
smaller than E air . Note that for V0 ≤ 9kV the water (approximately 1 litter) inside this box, up to
a height of exactly 3.7mm from the edge of the
intensities of E ( H 2O ) and E (acrylic ) are not acrylic base. Afterwards, paste an Acrylic lid
sufficient to produce the ionization effect, which (889mm X 889mm and 2mm thickness) on the
increases the electrical conductivity. box. Note that above the water there is an air
Consequently, the conductivities of the water and layer with 885mm X 885mm and 7.73mm
−1 thickness (See Fig. A16). This thickness plus the
the acrylic remain << 1 S.m . In this way, with
acrylic lid thickness (2mm) is equal to
E ( H 2O ) and E (acrylic ) much smaller than E air ,
d = b − a = 9.73mm where b = r0 ε r(H2O) =11.63mm
and σ ( H 2O ) << 1 , σ (acrylic ) << 1 , the decrease in
and a = r0 + Δ = 1.99 mm , since r0 = 1.3mm ,
both the gravitational mass of the acrylic and the
gravitational mass of water, according to Eq.A14, ε r ( H 2O ) = 80 and Δ = 0.6mm .
is negligible. This means that only in the air layer Note that the gravitational action of the
the decrease in the gravitational mass will be electric field E air , extends itself only up to the
relevant. distance d , which, in this GCC, is given by the
Equation A39 gives the electrical
sum of the Air layer thickness (7.73mm) plus the
conductivity of the air layer, i.e.,
thickness of the Acrylic lid (2mm).
Thus, it is ensured the gravitational effect
on the air layer while it is practically nullified in
53
the acrylic sheet above the air layer, since
E (acrylic ) << E air and σ (acrylic ) << 1 .
With this GCC, we can carry out an
experiment where the gravitational mass of the
air layer is progressively reduced when the
voltage applied to the GCC is increased (or when
the frequency is decreased). A precision balance
is placed below the GCC in order to measure the
mentioned mass decrease for comparison with
the values predicted by Eq. A(47). In total, this
GCC weighs about 6kg; the air layer 7.3grams.
The balance has the following characteristics:
range 0-6kg; readability 0.1g. Also, in order to
prove the Gravitational Shielding Effect, we can
put a sample (connected to a dynamometer)
above the GCC in order to check the gravity
acceleration in this region.
In order to prove the exponential effect
produced by the superposition of the
Gravitational Shieldings, we can take three
similar GCCs and put them one above the other,
in such way that above the GCC 1 the gravity
acceleration will be g′ = χ g ; above the GCC2
g ′′ = χ 2 g , and above the GCC3 g ′′′ = χ 3 g .
Where χ is given by Eq. (A47).
It is important to note that the intensity of
the electric field through the air below the GCC is
much smaller than the intensity of the electric
field through the air layer inside the GCC. In
addition, the electrical conductivity of the air
below the GCC is much smaller than the
conductivity of the air layer inside the GCC.
Consequently, the decrease of the gravitational
mass of the air below the GCC, according to
Eq.A14, is negligible. This means that the GCC1,
GCC2 and GCC3 can be simply overlaid, on the
experiment proposed above. However, since it is
necessary to put samples among them in order to
measure the gravity above each GCC, we
suggest a spacing of 30cm or more among them.
54

Dynamometer

50 mm
g g
g′ = χ g
Sample
Aluminum foil Foam Board

GCC

Flexible Copper wire


# 12 AWG Pan balance

Battery 12V

R ε2 4Ω - 40W
R2
Rheostat
10Ω - 90W Coupling
Transformer

Function Generation
Flexible Copper wire
HP3325A # 12 AWG

ε1

R1
500Ω - 2W
Figure A2 – Experimental Set-up 1.
55

Flexible Copper Wire


# 12 AWG

15 cm square Aluminum foil


(10.5 microns thickness)

Gum
(Loctite Super Bonder)

17 cm square Foam Board plate


(6mm thickness)

Aluminum foil
Foam Board

Figure A3 – The Simplest Gravity Control Cell (GCC).


56
I1 ε2
+ − ri 2
R
I2

GCC
ri1

ε1 ~ Rp

f = 2 μHz
Wire # 12 AWG
Gravitational
R1 Shielding
I 3 = I1 + I 2 R2

(a)
ε 1 = Function Generator HP3325A(Option 002 High Voltage Output)
ri1 < 2Ω; R1 = 500Ω − 2 W ; ε 2 = 12V DC; ri 2 < 0.1Ω (Battery );
R2 = 4Ω − 40W ; R p = 2.5 × 10 −3 Ω; Reostat = 0 ≤ R ≤ 10Ω − 90W
I1max = 56mA (rms ); I 2max = 3 A ; I 3max ≅ 3 A (rms )
Coupling Transformer to isolate the Function Generator from the Battery
• Air core 10 - mm diameter; wire # 12 AWG; N1 = N 2 = 20; l = 42mm

I1 ε2 T
+ − ri 2
I2 R

ri1
−5
ε1 GCC l = 1cm → Rφ = 5.23 × 10 Ω
~ l
0.5 2 h =3mm
f = 2 μHz
d
i
Wire # 12 AWG e
l
e Al 200 mm
R1 c
t
I 3 = I1 + I 2 R2 r
P # 12 AWG i
c
(b)
R = 0 ⇒ V pmax = 1.1 × 10−4V Gravitational
Shielding
R = 10 ⇒ V pmin = 4.0 × 10−5V

Fig. A4 – Equivalent Electric Circuits


57

j
ELF electric current Wire

⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤ ⎫⎪
− 27 μr j
4
mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 1.758 ×10 − 1⎥ ⎬mi 0
⎪⎩ ⎣⎢ σρ 2 f 3 ⎥⎦ ⎪

Figure A5 – An ELF electric current through a wire, that makes a spherical form as shown above,
reduces the gravitational mass of the wire and the gravity inside sphere at the same proportion
χ = m g mi 0 (Gravitational Shielding Effect). Note that this spherical form can be transformed into
an ellipsoidal form or a disc in order to coat, for example, a Gravitational Spacecraft. It is also
possible to coat with a wire several forms, such as cylinders, cones, cubes, etc. The characteristics
of the wire are expressed by: μ r , σ , ρ ; j is the electric current density and f is the frequency.
58

Dynamometer

Rigid Aluminum wire 50 mm


# 14 AWG
Length = 28.6 m
RS= 0.36 Ω

Flexible Copper wire


# 12 AWG

Battery 12V

R ε2 4Ω - 40W
R2
Rheostat
Coupling
Transformer

Function Generation
HP3325A Flexible Copper wire
# 12 AWG

ε1

R1
Figure A6 – Experimental set-up 2.
59

Gravitational Shielding Air


d
Eair ,σair
b
Insulation Δ
εr
a

r0

Aluminum Foil

~ V0 , f

Figure A7 – Gravitational shielding produced by semi-spheres stamped on the Aluminum


foil - By simply changing the geometry of the surface of the Aluminum foil it is possible to
increase the working frequency f up to more than 1Hz.
60

a =1.5 mm Acrylic sheet


r0 =0.9 mm
y Aluminum Plate
(a)

Heater
(b)

Press

D D
y+a

(c)

Δ=0.6 mm
r0 =0.9 mm a = 1.5 mm

(d)

Figure A8 – Method to coat the Aluminum semi-spheres with acrylic (Δ = a − r0 = 0.6mm ) .


(a)Acrylic sheet (A4 format) with 1.5mm thickness and an Aluminum plate (A4) with several
semi-spheres (radius r0 = 0.9 mm ) stamped on its surface. (b)A heater is placed below the
Aluminum plate in order to heat the Aluminum. (c)When the Aluminum is sufficiently heated
up, the acrylic sheet and the Aluminum plate are pressed, one against the other (The two D
devices shown in this figure are used in order to impede that the press compresses the acrylic
and the aluminum besides distance y + a ). (d)After some seconds, the press and the heater are
removed, and the device is ready to be used.
61

Dynamometer

50 mm
g g
GCC
g′ = χ g
Sample
Acrylic/Aluminum

Flexible Copper wire


# 12 AWG

High-voltage V0
Rheostat Oscillator
Transformer f > 1Hz

Figure A9 – Experimental Set-up using a GCC subjected to high-voltage V 0 with frequency


f > 1Hz . Note that in this case, the pan balance is not necessary because the substance of the
Gravitational Shielding is an air layer with thickness d above the acrylic sheet. This is therefore,
more a type of Gravity Control Cell (GCC) with external gravitational shielding.
62

Gravitational Shielding

d
R
V0

GCC
Acrylic /Aluminum

V0max = 9 kV
Oscillator
V0min = 2.7 kV ~ f > 1Hz

(a)

Acrylic

Pin wire

Aluminum

Connector
(High-voltage)
(b)
10kV

Figure A10 – (a) Equivalent Electric Circuit. (b) Details of the electrical connection with the
Aluminum plate. Note that others connection modes (by the top of the device) can produce
destructible interference on the electric lines of the E air field.
63

(a) (b)

Metallic Rings

Metallic base

(c)

Eair
Gravitational Shielding εr

Ellipsoidal metallic base

Metallic Rings
Oscillator f
Transformer
V0
Dielectric layer
Ionized air (d)

Figure A11 – Geometrical forms with similar effects as those produced by the semi-spherical form – (a)
shows the semi-spherical form stamped on the metallic surface; (b) shows the semi-cylindrical form (an
obvious evolution from the semi-spherical form); (c) shows concentric metallic rings stamped on
the metallic surface, an evolution from semi-cylindrical form. These geometrical forms produce
the same effect as that of the semi-spherical form, shown in Fig.A11 (a). By using concentric
metallic rings, it is possible to build Gravitational Shieldings around bodies or spacecrafts with
several formats (spheres, ellipsoids, etc); (d) shows a Gravitational Shielding around a Spacecraft
with ellipsoidal form.
64

Dielectric
Metal Dielectric Metal (rigidly connected to the spacecraft)

Spacecraft E
Spacecraft E

Non-solid Gravitational Shielding Solid Gravitational Shielding


(rigidly connected to the dielectric)

(a) (b)

Figure A12 – Non-solid and Solid Gravitational Shieldings - In the case of the Gravitational
Shielding produced on a solid substance (b), when its molecules go to the imaginary space-time,
the electric field that produces the effect also goes to the imaginary space-time together with
them, because in this case, the substance of the Gravitational Shielding is rigidly connected (by
means of the dielectric) to the metal that produces the electric field. This does not occur in the
case of Air Gravitational Shielding.
65

Metal Dielectric Metal Dielectric i ELF electric current


A
l
u
Spacecraft Spacecraft m
Ers Eair i
n
u
m

Solid Gravitational Shielding Air Gravitational Shielding


(a)

Micro-Gravitational Thruster

(b)

Volume V
of the
Micro-Gravitational Thruster with 10 gravitational shieldings Intergallactic
medium
(IGM)
Gravitational Spacecraft a
m gt r
Mg
Mg ρ igmV
a = χ 10 G = χ 10 G
r2 r2
Gravitational Shielding
ρ igm∼10-26kg.m-3

(c)

Figure A13 – Double Gravitational Shielding and Micro-thrusters – (a) Shows a double
gravitational shielding that makes possible to decrease the inertial effects upon the spacecraft
when it is traveling both in the imaginary space-time and in the real space-time. The solid
Gravitational Shielding also can be obtained by means of an ELF electric current through a metallic
lamina placed between the semi-spheres and the Gravitational Shielding of Air as shown above. (b)
Shows 6 micro-thrusters placed inside a Gravitational Spacecraft, in order to propel the
spacecraft in the directions x, y and z. Note that the Gravitational Thrusters in the spacecraft
must have a very small diameter (of the order of millimeters) because the hole through the
Gravitational Shielding of the spacecraft cannot be large. Thus, these thrusters are in fact Micro-
thrusters. (c) Shows a micro-thruster inside a spacecraft, and in front of a volume V of the
intergalactic medium (IGM). Under these conditions, the spacecraft acquires an acceleration a in
the direction of the volume V.
66
Volume V
of the
Micro-Gravitational Thruster with 10 gravitational shieldings Interstellar
medium
(ISM)
Gravitational Spacecraft a
r
Mg
Mg ρ ismV
a = χ 10 G 2
= χ 10 G
r r2
Gravitational Shielding
ρ ism∼10-21kg.m-3

(a)

Volume V
of the
Interplanetary
Micro-Gravitational Thruster with 10 gravitational shieldings medium
(IPM)

Gravitational Spacecraft a
r
Mg
Mg ρ ipmV
a=χ G 10
=χ G10

Gravitational Shielding r2 r2
ρ ipm∼10-20kg.m-3

(b)

Volume V
of the
Earth’s
Micro-Gravitational Thruster with 10 gravitational shieldings
atmospheric

Gravitational Spacecraft a
r
Mg
Mg ρ atmV
a = χ 10 G = χ 10 G
Gravitational Shielding r2 r2
ρ atm∼1.2kg.m-3
(c)
Figure A14 – Gravitational Propulsion using Micro-Gravitational Thruster – (a) Gravitational
acceleration produced by a gravitational mass Mg of the Interstellar Medium. The density of the
Interstellar Medium is about 105 times greater than the density of the Intergalactic Medium (b)
Gravitational acceleration produced in the Interplanetary Medium. (c) Gravitational acceleration
produced in the Earth’s atmosphere. Note that, in this case, ρatm (near to the Earth’s surface)is about
1026 times greater than the density of the Intergalactic Medium.
67

r
F’0 F2 =χair2F0 F’2=χair2F’0 F0 r
F1 =χairF0 F’1 =χairF’0
Mg Mg
S2 S1
F’0 = F0 => R = (F’0 – F2) + (F1 – F’1 ) + (F’2 – F0) = 0

(a)

Micro-Gravitational Thruster
with 10 gravitational shieldings
Gravitational Shielding

r’ χ s ≅ −10 −8 a’0 r
a’0 =χs(-GMg /r’2) a10=χair10a0 a0 = - GMg/r2
Mg Mg
R ≅ F10 = χ 10
air F0

Hole in the Gravitational Shielding

Metal
Mica
(b) Grounded Metallic laminas
1 GCC
Air Gravitational Shielding
x

10mm

ELF
~
V0 ~ 400 mm

(c)
Figure A15 – Dynamics and Structure of the Micro-Gravitational Thrusters - (a) The Micro-Gravitational
Thrusters do not work outside the Gravitational Shielding, because, in this case, the resultant upon the thruster is
( )
null due to the symmetry. (b) The Gravitational Shielding χ s ≅ 10 −8 reduces strongly the intensities of the
gravitational forces acting on the micro-gravitational thruster, except obviously, through the hole in the
gravitational shielding. (c) Micro-Gravitational Thruster with 10 Air Gravitational Shieldings (10GCCs). The
grounded metallic laminas are placed so as to retain the electric field produced by metallic surface behind the
semi-spheres.
68

0.885 m
Sample
Any type of material; any mass
Acrylic Box
(2mm thickness) g’= χ g
2 mm
d = 9.73 mm Air layer mg (air) = χ mi (air) 7.73 mm
Distilled Water a = 1.9 mm
3.2 mm
1.8 mm
2 mm
Aluminum sheet
(0.5 mm thickness) V0max = 9 kV
342 Aluminum yarns (# 10 AWG) Balance
(2.558 mm diameter; 0.884 mm length) ~ 2 Hz

Transformer
g

GCC Cross-section Front view


(a)

0.885 m

0.884 m
1mm 1mm

Aluminum sheet
(0.5 mm thickness)
Balance
342 Aluminum yarns (# 10 AWG) 1.5mm
(2.558 mm diameter; 0.884 mm length) 0.5 mm
3.6mm

0.885 m

GCC Cross-section Side View


(b)

Fig. A16 – A GCC using distilled Water.


In total this GCC weighs about 6kg; the air layer 7.3 grams. The balance has the
following characteristics: Range 0 – 6kg; readability 0.1g. The yarns are inserted
side by side on the Aluminum sheet. Note the detail of fixing of the yarns on the
Aluminum sheet.
69
140 cm

70
cm Sample 5Kg
mg Any type of material; any mass

g ′′′ = χ 3 g
GCC 3 Balance

70
cm 5Kg
mg

g ′′ = χ 2 g
GCC 2 Balance

70
cm 5Kg
mg

g′ = χ g
GCC 1 Balance

Fig. A17 – Experimental set-up. In order to prove the exponential effect produced by the
superposition of the Gravitational Shieldings, we can take three similar GCCs and put them one above
the other, in such way that above the GCC 1 the gravity acceleration will be g′ = χ g ; above the
GCC2 g ′′ = χ 2 g , and above the GCC3 g ′′′ = χ 3 g . Where χ is given by Eq. (A47). The arrangement
above has been designed for values of mg < 13g and χ up to -9 or mg < 1kg and χ up to -2 .
70

APPENDIX B: A DIDACTIC GCC USING A BATTERY OF CAPACITORS

Let us now show a new type of GCC - easy to


be built with materials and equipments that also can E max = 5 . 3 × 10 10 V / m
be obtained with easiness.
Consider a battery of n parallel plate
Therefore, if the frequency of the wave voltage
capacitors with capacitances C1 , C2 , C 3 ,…, C n ,
(
is f = 60 Hz , ω = 2πf , we ) have that
connected in parallel. The voltage applied is V ; A
ωεair = 3.3 ×10 S.m . It is known that the electric
−9 −1
is the area of each plate of the capacitors and d is
the distance between the plates; ε r ( water ) is the conductivity of the air, σ air , at 10-4 Torr and 300K,
is much smaller than this value, i.e.,
relative permittivity of the dielectric (water). Then the
electric charge q on the plates of the capacitors is σ air << ωε air

given by (
Under this circumstance σ << ωε , we can )
substitute Eq. 15 and 34 into Eq. 7. Thus, we get
q = (C1 + C2 + C3 +...+ Cn )V = n(εr(water)ε0 ) V (B1)
A
d ⎧⎪ ⎡ μ ε 3 E4 ⎤ ⎫⎪
m g (air ) = ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ 1 + air 2 air 2 − 1⎥ ⎬mi 0 (air )
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ c ρ air ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
In Fig. I we show a GCC with two capacitors
connected in parallel. It is easy to see that the ⎧⎪ ⎡ E4 ⎤ ⎫⎪
electric charge density σ 0 on each area A0 = az
= ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ 1 + 9.68 × 10 − 57 2 − 1⎥ ⎬mi 0 (air ) (B 5 )
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ρ air ⎥⎦ ⎭⎪
of the edges B of the thin laminas (z is the thickness
of the edges B and a is the length of them, see
Fig.B2) is given by The density of the air at 10-4 Torr and 300K is
ρ air = 1 . 5 × 10 − 7 kg . m − 3
= n (ε r ( water )ε 0 ) (B 2 )
q A
σ0 = V
A0 azd Thus, we can write
Thus, the electric field E between the edges B is
m g (air )
2σ 0 ⎛ ε r ( water ) ⎞ A χ = =
E= = 2 n⎜ ⎟
⎜ ε r (air ) ⎟ azd
V (B 3) m i (air )
ε r (air )ε 0 ⎝ ⎠
Since A = L x L y , we can write that = ⎧⎨1 − 2 ⎡ 1 + 4 . 3 × 10 − 43 E 4 − 1⎤ ⎫⎬ (B 6 )
⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎦⎥ ⎭

⎛ ε r ( water ) ⎞ L x L y Substitution of E for Emax = 5.3 ×10 V / m into


10
E = 2n⎜ ⎟
⎜ ε r (air ) ⎟ azd
V (B 4 ) this equation gives
⎝ ⎠
χ max ≅ − 1 . 2
Assuming ε r ( water ) = 81 ****
(bidistilled
water); ε r (air ) ≅ 1 (vacuum 10-4 Torr; 300K); n = 2; This means that, in this case, the gravitational
Lx = L y = 0.30m ; a = 0.12m ; z = 0.1mm and shielding produced in the vacuum between the
edges B of the thin laminas can reduce the local
d = 10mm we obtain gravitational acceleration g down to
g 1 ≅ − 1 .2 g
E = 2 . 43 × 10 8 V Under these circumstances, the weight, P = + m g g ,
of any body just above the gravitational shielding
For Vmax = 220V , the electric field is becomes

P = m g g 1 = −1.2m g g
****
It is easy to see that by substituting the water for
Barium Titanate (BaTiO3) the dimensions L x , L y of the
capacitors can be strongly reduced due to
ε r (BaTiO3) = 1200 .
71

Lamina

Edge B of the
Gravitational
Thin Lamina
Shielding (0.1mm thickness)
εr (air) g1 = χ g χ<1
Vacuum Chamber
(INOX) E Encapsulating
(10- 4 Torr, 300K) (EPOXI)
B B
g
Parallel plate
Capacitors Insulating holder
Dielectric:
Bidistilled Water
εr (water) = 81 d = 10 mm
V (60Hz)
Vmax=220V
Lx

Vertical Cross Section

q = (C1+C2+...+Cn) V =
= n [εr (water) / εr (air)] [A/A0] V / d

εr (water) = 81 ; εr (air) ≅ 1

E = [q/A0] / εr (air) ε0 = n [εr (water) / εr (air)] [A/A0] V / d

A is the area of the plates of the capacitors and A0 the


cross section area of the edges B of the thin laminas (z is
the thickness of the edges).

Figure B1 – Gravity Control Cell (GCC) using a battery of capacitors. According to Eq. 7 , the
electric field, E, through the air at 10-4 Torr; 300K, in the vacuum chamber, produces a gravitational
shielding effect. The gravity acceleration above this gravitational shielding is reduced to χg where χ
< 1.
72

Gravitational Shielding Lx

Ly E a

Lamina Lamina

Vacuum Chamber
EPOXI
Thin laminas
Thickness = z
Length = a
Top view

A0 = a z ; A = Lx Ly

Figure B2 – The gravitational shielding produced between the thin laminas.


73

+P

Sample −P
Any type of material
Any mass
Gravitational g1 = χ g χ<1
Shielding
GCC

↓g

mgg1 = -χ g mg

Elementar Motor

GCC

Figure B3 – Experimental arrangement with a GCC using battery of capacitors. By means of this
set-up it is possible to check the weight of the sample even when it becomes negative.
74

REFERENCES
1. DeAquino, F. 2010. Mathematical Foundations
15. Zhan, G.D et al. (2003) Appl. Phys. Lett.
of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity.
83, 1228.
Pacific Journal of Science and Technology.
11(1), pp.173-232.
16. Davidson, K. & Smoot, G. (2008)
Wrinkles in Time. N. Y: Avon, 158-163.
2. Freire, G. F. O and Diniz, A. B. (1973)
Ondas Eletromagnéticas, Ed. USP,p.26.
17. Silk, Joseph. (1977) Big Bang. N.Y,
Freeman, 299.
3. Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. (1968)
Physics, J. Willey & Sons, Portuguese
18. Jafelice, L.C. and Opher, R. (1992). The
Version, Ed. USP, p.1118.
origin of intergalactic magnetic fields
due to extragalactic jets. RAS.
4. Quevedo, C. P. (1977) Eletromagnetismo,
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-
McGraw-Hill, p.255 and 269.
bib query? Bib code = 1992 MNRAS.
257. 135J. Retrieved 2009-06-19.
5. GE Technical Publications (2007),
80044 – F20T12/C50/ECO, GE Ecolux ®T12. 19. Wadsley, J., et al. (2002). The Universe
in Hot Gas. NASA.
6. Aplin, K. L. (2000) PhD thesis, The http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap
University of Reading, UK 020820. html. Retrieved 2009-06-19.
7. Aplin K. L (2005) Rev. Sci. Instrum. 76,
104501.

8. Beiser, A. (1967) Concepts of Modern


Physics, McGraw-Hill,Portuguese version
(1969) Ed. Polígono, S.Paulo, p.362-363.

9. Hayt, W. H. (1974), Engineering


Electromagnetics, McGraw-Hill.
Portuguese version (1978) Ed. Livros
Técnicos e Científicos Editora S.A, RJ,
Brasil. P.146.

10. Benjegerdes, R. et al.,(2001) Proceedings


of the 2001Particle Accelerator Conference,
Chicago.
http://epaper.kek.jp/p01/PAPERS/TOAB009.PDF

11. Gourlay, S. et al., (2000) Fabrication


and Test of a 14T, Nb3Sn
Superconducting Racetrack Dipole
Magnetic, IEE Trans on Applied
Superconductivity, p.294.

12. BPE soft, Extreme High Altitude


Conditions Calculator.
http://bpesoft.com/s/wleizero/xhac/?M=p

13. Handbook of Chemistry and Physics,


77th ed.1996.

14. Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. (1968)


Physics, J. Willey & Sons,
Portuguese Version, Ed. USP, p.1118.
Physical Foundations of Quantum Psychology
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2007 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

Abstract: The existence of imaginary mass associated to the neutrino is already well-known.
Although its imaginary mass is not physically observable, its square is. This amount is found
experimentally to be negative. Recently, it was shown that quanta of imaginary mass exist
associated to the electron and the photon too. These imaginary masses have unusual
properties that violate the Parity Conservation Principle. The non-conservation of the parity is
also found in the weak interactions, and possibly can be explained by means of the existence of
the imaginary masses. Also protons and neutrons would have imaginary masses associated to
them and, in this way, atoms and molecules would also have imaginary masses directly
proportional to their atomic and molecular masses. The Parity Conservation Principle holds that
the material particles are not able to distinguish their right from their left. The non-conservation
of the parity would necessarily imply capability of "choice". Thus, as the particles with imaginary
mass don't conserve the parity, they would have the elementary capability of “choosing between
their right or left”. Where there is “choice” isn’t there also psychism, by definition? This
fundamental discovery shows that, in some way, the consciousnesses are related to the
imaginary masses. This fact, make it possible to redefine Psychology on a Quantum Physics
basis.

Key words: Quantum Psychology, Quantized Fields, Unification and Mass Relations,
Quantum Mechanics, Bose-Einstein Condensation, Origin of the Universe.
PACs: 03.70.+k; 12.10.Kt; 14.80.Cp; 03.65.-w; 03.75.Nt; 98.80.Bp.

1. INTRODUCTION

In the last decades it has become evident that the theoretical foundations of
Natural Sciences are based on Physics. Today’s Chemistry is completely based on
Quantum Mechanics, Quantum Statistics, Thermodynamics and Kinetic Physics. Also
Biology becomes progressively based on Physics, as more and more biological
phenomena are being described on the basis of Quantum Physics. Modern Biophysics
is now considered a branch of Physics and no longer a secondary part of Biology and
Physiology. As regards Psychology, there are recently several authors making use of
Quantum Physics in order to explain psychic phenomena [1,2].
The idea of psyche associated with matter dates back to the pre-Socratic period
and is usually called panpsychism. Remnants of organized panpsychism may be found
in the Uno of Parmenides or in Heracleitus’s Divine Flux. Scholars of Miletus’s school
were called hylozoists, that is, “those who believe that matter is alive”. More recently,
we will find the panpsychistic thought in Spinoza, Whitehead and Teilhard de Chardin,
among others. The latter one admitted the existence of proto-conscious properties at
level of elementary particles.
Generally, the people believe that there is some type of psyche associated to the
animals, and some biologists agree that even very simple animals like the ameba and
the sea anemone are endowed with psychism. This led several authors to consider the
possibility of the psychic phenomena to be described in a theory based on Physics
[3,4,5,6].
This work presents a possible theoretical foundation for Psychology based on
Quantum Physics, starting from discoveries published in a recent article [7], where it is
shown that there is a quantum of imaginary mass associated to the electron, which
would be equivalent to an elementary particle that does not conserves the parity. Thus,
besides its inertial mass the electron would have an imaginary mass that would have
elementary capacity of “choice”. The theory here presented describes the structures
2

and the interaction between these imaginary particles and also explain their relations
with the matter on all levels, from the atom to man. In addition, it gives us a better
understanding of life and a more complete cosmological view, which lead us to
understand our relationship with ourselves, with others, with the Universe and with
God.

2. THEORY

It was shown [7] that quanta of imaginary mass exist associated to the
electron and the photon and that these imaginary masses would have psychic
properties (elementary capacity of “choice”). Thus, we can say that, besides its
inertial mass, the electron would have a psychic mass, given by
⎛ hf electron ⎞
mΨelectron = mg (imaginary)electron =
⎜ 4
⎟ i = 43 mi (real)electron i (01)
⎝ c ⎠
23

Where mi (real )electron = 9.11 × 10 −31 kg is the real inertial mass of the electron. In the
case of the photons, it was shown that the imaginary gravitational mass of the
4 ⎛ hf ⎞
photon is: m g (imaginary ) photon =
⎜ 2 ⎟ i . Therefore, the psychic mass associated
3 ⎝c ⎠
to a photon with frequency f is expressed by the following equation:
4 ⎛ hf ⎞
m Ψ photon = m g (imaginary ) photon =
⎜ 2⎟ i (02 )
3⎝c ⎠
The equation of quantization of mass [7], in the generalized form is expressed
by: m g (imaginary ) = n 2 m g (imagynary )(min ) . Thus, we can also conclude that the psychic
mass is also quantized, due to m Ψ = m g (imaginary ) , i.e.,
m Ψ = n 2 m Ψ (min ) (03)
Where
mΨ (min ) = 4
3
(hf min )
c2 i = 4
3
mi (real )min i (04)

The minimum quantum of real inertial mass in the Universe, mi (real )min , is given
by [7]:
mi (real )min = ± h 3 8 cdmax = ±3.9 × 10 −73 kg (05)
By analogy to Eq. (01), the expressions of the psychic masses associated to the
proton and the neutron are respectively given by:

m Ψproton = m g (imaginary ) proton = 4


3
(hf proton )
c2 i = 4
3
mi (real ) proton i (06 )

mΨneutron = m g (imaginary )neutron = 4


3
(hf neutron )
c2 i = 4
3
mi (real )neutron i (07)
3

Where f proton and f neutron are respectively the frequencies of the DeBroglie’s
waves associated to the proton and the neutron.
Thus, from a quantum viewpoint, the psychic particles are similar to the
material particles, so that we can use the Quantum Mechanics to describe the
psychic particles. In this case, by analogy to the material particles, a particle
with psychic mass mΨ will be described by the following expressions:

r r
pψ = hkψ (08)
Eψ = hωψ (09)
r r
Where pψ = mΨV is the momentum carried by the wave and Eψ its energy;
r
kψ = 2π λψ is the propagation number and λψ = h m Ψ V the wavelength and
ωψ = 2πfψ its cyclic frequency.
The variable quantity that characterizes DeBroglie’s waves is called Wave
Function, usually indicated by Ψ . The wave function associated to a material
particle describes the dynamic state of the particle: its value at a particular point
x, y, z, t is related to the probability of finding the particle in that place and
instant. Although Ψ does not have a physical interpretation, its square Ψ 2
or Ψ Ψ * ) calculated for a particular point x, y, z, t is proportional to the
probability of experimentally finding the particle in that place and instant.

Since Ψ 2 is proportional to the probability P of finding the particle


described by Ψ , the integral of Ψ 2 on the whole space must be finite –
inasmuch as the particle is someplace. Therefore, if
(10)
+∞
∫−∞
Ψ 2 dV = 0
The interpretation is that the particle does not exist. However, if
(11)
+∞
∫−∞
Ψ 2 dV = ∞
the particle will be everywhere simultaneously (Omnipresence).
The wave function Ψ corresponds, as we know, to the displacement y
of the undulatory motion of a rope. However, Ψ as opposed to y , is not a
measurable quantity and can, hence, be a complex quantity. For this reason, it
is admitted that Ψ is described in the x -direction by
− (2π i h )( Et − px )
Ψ = Be (12 )
This equation is the mathematical description of the wave associated with a free
material particle, with total energy E and momentum p , moving in the direction
+ x.
As concerns the psychic particle, the variable quantity characterizing
psyche waves will also be called wave function, denoted by ΨΨ ( to differentiate
it from the material particle wave function), and, by analogy with equation Eq.
(12), expressed by:
4

( )
ΨΨ = Ψ0 e Ψ Ψ
(13)
− 2π i h ( E t − p x )

If an experiment involves a large number of identical particles, all described by


the same wave function Ψ , real density of mass ρ of these particles in x, y, z,
t is proportional to the corresponding value Ψ 2 ( Ψ 2 is known as density of
probability. If Ψ is complex then Ψ 2 = ΨΨ* . Thus, ρ ∝ Ψ 2 = Ψ.Ψ* ). Similarly,
in the case of psychic particles, the density of psychic mass, ρ Ψ , in x, y, z, will
be expressed by ρ Ψ ∝ ΨΨ2 = ΨΨ Ψ*Ψ . It is known that ΨΨ2 is always real and
positive while ρ Ψ = mΨ V is an imaginary quantity. Thus, as the modulus of an
imaginary number is always real and positive, we can transform the proportion
ρ Ψ ∝ ΨΨ2 , in equality in the following form:
ΨΨ2 = k ρ Ψ (14)
Where k is a proportionality constant (real and positive) to be determined.
In Quantum Mechanics we have studied the Superpositon Principle,
which affirms that, if a particle (or system of particles) is in a dynamic state
represented by a wave function Ψ1 and may also be in another dynamic state
described by Ψ2 then, the general dynamic state of the particle may be
described by Ψ , where Ψ is a linear combination (superposition) of Ψ1 and
Ψ2 , i.e.,
Ψ = c1Ψ1 + c2 Ψ2 (15)
Complex constants c1 e c2 respectively indicate the percentage of dynamic
state, represented by Ψ1 e Ψ2 in the formation of the general dynamic state
described by Ψ .
In the case of psychic particles (psychic bodies, consciousness, etc.), by
analogy, if ΨΨ1 , ΨΨ 2 ,..., ΨΨn refer to the different dynamic states the psychic
particle assume, then its general dynamic state may be described by the wave
function ΨΨ , given by:
ΨΨ = c1ΨΨ1 + c2 ΨΨ 2 + ... + cn ΨΨn (16)
The state of superposition of wave functions is, therefore, common for both
psychic and material particles. In the case of material particles, it can be
verified, for instance, when an electron changes from one orbit to another.
Before effecting the transition to another energy level, the electron carries out
“virtual transitions” [8]. A kind of relationship with other electrons before
performing the real transition. During this relationship period, its wave function
remains “scattered” by a wide region of the space [9] thus superposing the
wave functions of the other electrons. In this relationship the electrons mutually
influence each other, with the possibility of intertwining their wave functions 1 .
When this happens, there occurs the so-called Phase Relationship according to
quantum-mechanics concept.

1
Since the electrons are simultaneously waves and particles, their wave aspects will interfere with each
other; besides superposition, there is also the possibility of occurrence of intertwining of their wave
functions.
5

In the electrons “virtual” transition mentioned before, the “listing” of all the
possibilities of the electrons is described, as we know, by Schrödinger’s wave equation.
Otherwise, it is general for material particles. By analogy, in the case of psychic
particles, we may say that the “listing” of all the possibilities of the psyches involved in
the relationship will be described by Schrödinger’s equation – for psychic case, i.e.,
p Ψ2
∇ 2 ΨΨ + ΨΨ = 0
h2
Because the wave functions are capable of intertwining themselves, the quantum
systems may “penetrate” each other, thus establishing an internal relationship where all
of them are affected by the relationship, no longer being isolated systems but
becoming an integrated part of a larger system. This type of internal relationship, which
exists only in quantum systems, was called Relational Holism [10].
It is a proven quantum fact that a wave function may collapse, and that, at this
moment, all the possibilities that it describes are suddenly expressed in reality. This
means that, through this process, particles can be suddenly materialized. Similarly, the
collapse of the psychic wave function must suddenly also express in reality all the
possibilities described by it. This is, therefore, a point of decision in which there occurs
the compelling need of realization of the psychic form. Thus, this is moment in which
the content of the psychic form realizes itself in the space-time. For an observer in
space-time, something is real when it is under a matter or radiation form. Therefore, the
content of the psychic form may realize itself in space-time exclusively under the form
of radiation, that is, it does not materialize. This must occur when the Materialization
Condition is not satisfied, i.e., when the content of the psychic form is undefined
(impossible to be defined by its own psychic) or it does not contain enough psychic
mass to materialize 2 the respective psychic contents.
Nevertheless, in both cases, there must always be a production of “virtual”
photons to convey the psychic interaction to the other psychic particles, according to
the quantum field theory, only through this type of quanta will interaction be conveyed,
since it has an infinite reach and may be either attractive or repulsive, just as
electromagnetic interaction which, as we know, is conveyed by the exchange of
“virtual” photons.
If electrons, protons and neutrons have psychic mass, then we can infer that the
psychic mass of the atoms are Phase Condensates 3 . In the case of the molecules the
situation is similar. More molecular mass means more atoms and consequently, more
psychic mass. In this case the phase condensate also becomes more structured
because the great amount of elementary psyches inside the condensate requires, by
stability reasons, a better distribution of them. Thus, in the case of molecules with very
large molecular masses (macromolecules) it is possible that their psychic masses
already constitute the most organized shape of a Phase Condensate, called Bose-
Einstein Condensate 4 .

2
By this we mean not only materialization proper but also the movement of matter to realize its psychic
content (including radiation).
3
Ice and NaCl crystals are common examples of imprecisely-structured phase condensates. Lasers, super
fluids, superconductors and magnets are examples of phase condensates more structured.
4
Several authors have suggested the possibility of the Bose-Einstein condensate occurring in the brain,
and that it might be the physical base of memory, although they have not been able to find a suitable
mechanism to underpin such a hypothesis. Evidences of the existence of Bose-Einstein condensates in
living tissues abound (Popp, F.A Experientia, Vol. 44, p.576-585; Inaba, H., New Scientist, May89, p.41;
Rattermeyer, M and Popp, F. A. Naturwissenschaften, Vol.68, Nº5, p.577.)
6

The fundamental characteristic of a Bose-Einstein condensate is, as we


know, that the various parts making up the condensed system not only behave
as a whole but also become a whole, i.e., in the psychic case, the various
consciousnesses of the system become a single consciousness with psychic
mass equal to the sum of the psychic masses of all the consciousness of the
condensate. This obviously, increases the available knowledge in the system
since it is proportional to the psychic mass of the consciousness. This unity
confers an individual character to this type of consciousness. For this reason,
from now on they will be called Individual Material Consciousness.
It derives from the above that most bodies do not possess individual
material consciousness. In an iron rod, for instance, the cluster of elementary
psyches in the iron molecules does not constitute Bose-Einstein condensate;
therefore, the iron rod does not have an individual consciousness. Its
consciousness is consequently, much more simple and constitutes just a phase
condensate imprecisely structured made by the consciousness of the iron
atoms.
The existence of consciousnesses in the atoms is revealed in the
molecular formation, where atoms with strong mutual affinity (their
consciousnesses) combine to form molecules. It is the case, for instance of the
water molecules, in which two Hydrogen atoms join an Oxygen atom. Well, how
come the combination between these atoms is always the same: the same
grouping and the same invariable proportion? In the case of molecular
combinations the phenomenon repeats itself. Thus, the chemical substances
either mutually attract or repel themselves, carrying out specific motions for this
reason. It is the so-called Chemical Affinity. This phenomenon certainly results
from a specific interaction between the consciousnesses. From now on, it will
be called Psychic Interaction.
Mutual Affinity is a dimensionless psychic quantity with which we are
familiar and of which we have perfect understanding as to its meaning. The
degree of Mutual Affinity, A , in the case of two consciousnesses, respectively
described by ΨΨ1 e ΨΨ 2 , must be correlated to ΨΨ2 1 e ΨΨ2 2 5 . Only a simple
algebraic form fills the requirements of interchange of the indices, the product

ΨΨ2 1.ΨΨ2 2 = ΨΨ2 2 .ΨΨ2 1 = A1,2 = A2,1 = A (17)

In the above expression, A is due to the product ΨΨ2 1 .ΨΨ2 2 will be always
positive. From equations (17) and (14) we get
m Ψ1 m Ψ 2
A = ΨΨ2 1 .ΨΨ2 2 = k 2 ρ Ψ1 ρ Ψ 2 = k 2 (18)
V1 V2

5
Quantum Mechanics tells us thatΨ does not have a physical interpretation nor a simple meaning and
also it cannot be experimentally observed. However such restriction does not apply to Ψ , which is
2

known as density of probability and represents the probability of finding the body, described by the wave
function Ψ , in the point x, y, z at the moment t. A large value of Ψ 2 means a strong possibility to find
the body, while a small value of Ψ means a weak possibility to find the body.
2
7

The psychic interaction can be described starting from the psychic mass
because the psychic mass is the source of the psychic field. Basically, the
psychic mass is gravitational mass, since m Ψ = m g (imaginary ) . In this way, the
equations of the gravitational interaction are also applied to the Psychic
Interaction. That is, we can use Einstein’s General Relativity equations, given
by:
8πG
(
Rik = 4 Ti k − 12 δ ik T ) (19)
c
in order to describe the Psychic Interaction. In this case, the expression of the
energy-momentum tensor, Ti k , must have the following form [11]:
Ti k = ρ Ψ c 2 μ i μ k (20 )
The psychic mass density, ρ Ψ , is a imaginary quantity. Thus, in order to
homogenize the above equation it is necessary to put ρ Ψ because, as we
know, the module of an imaginary number is always real and positive.
Making on the transition to Classical Mechanics [12] one can verify that
Eqs. (19) are reduced to:
ΔΦ = 4πG ρ Ψ (21)
This is, therefore, the equation of the psychic field in nonrelativistic Mechanics.
With respect to its form, it is similar to the equation of the gravitational field, with
the difference that now, instead of the density of gravitational mass we have the
density of psychic mass. Then, we can write the general solution of Eq. (21), in
the following form:
ρ Ψ dV
Φ = −G ∫ (22)
r2
This equation expresses, with nonrelativistic approximation, the potential of the
psychic field of any distribution of psychic mass.
Particularly, for the potential of the field of only one particle with psychic
mass mΨ1 , we get:
G mΨ1
Φ=− (23)
r
Then the force produced by this field upon another particle with psychic mass
mΨ 2 is
r r ∂Φ mΨ1 mΨ 2
FΨ12 = − FΨ 21 = − mΨ 2 = −G (24)
∂r r2
By comparing equations (24) and (18) we obtain
r r VV
FΨ12 = − FΨ 21 = −G A 12 22 (25)
k r
In the vectorial form the above equation is written as follows
r r VV
FΨ12 = − FΨ 21 = −GA 12 22 μ̂ (26 )
k r

Versor μ̂ has the direction of the line connecting the mass centers (psychic
mass) of both particles and oriented from mΨ1 to mΨ 2 .
In general, we may distinguish and quantify two types of mutual affinity:
positive and negative (aversion). The occurrence of the first type is synonym of
8

psychic attraction, (as in the case of the atoms in the water molecule) while the
aversion is synonym of repulsion. In fact, Eq. (26) shows that the forces
r r
FΨ12 and FΨ 21 are attractive, if A is positive (expressing positive mutual affinity
between the two psychic bodies), and repulsive if A is negative (expressing
negative mutual affinity between the two psychic bodies). Contrary to the
interaction of the matter, where the opposites attract themselves here, the
opposites repel themselves.
A method and device to obtain images of psychic bodies have been
previously proposed [13]. By means of this device, whose operation is based on
the gravitational interaction and the piezoelectric effect, it will be possible to
observe psychic bodies.
Expression (18) can be rewritten in the following form:
m m
A = k 2 Ψ1 Ψ 2 (27)
V1 V2
The psychic masses mΨ1 and mΨ 2 are imaginary quantities. However, the product
mΨ1 .mΨ 2 is a real quantity. One can then conclude from the previous expression
that the degree of mutual affinity between two consciousnesses depends
basically on the densities of their psychic masses, and that:

1) If mΨ1 > 0 and mΨ 2 > 0 then A > 0 (positive mutual affinity between them)
2) If mΨ1 < 0 and mΨ 2 < 0 then A > 0 (positive mutual affinity between them)
3) If mΨ1 > 0 and mΨ 2 < 0 then A < 0 (negative mutual affinity between them)
4) If mΨ1 < 0 and mΨ 2 > 0 then A < 0 (negative mutual affinity between them)

In this relationship, such as occurs in the case of material particles (“virtual”


transition of the electrons previously mentioned), the consciousnesses interact
mutually, intertwining or not their wave functions. When this happens, there
occurs the so-called Phase Relationship according to quantum-mechanics
concept. Otherwise a Trivial Relationship takes place.
The psychic forces such as the gravitational forces, must be very weak
when we consider the interaction between two particles. However, in spite of
the subtleties, those forces stimulate the relationship of the consciousnesses
with themselves and with the Universe (Eq.26).
From all the preceding, we perceive that Psychic Interaction – unified with
matter interactions, constitutes a single Law which links things and beings
together and, in a network of continuous relations and exchanges, governs the
Universe both in its material and psychic aspects. We can also observe that in
the interactions the same principle reappears always identical. This unity of
principle is the most evident expression of monism in the Universe.
9

3. UNIFIED COSMOLOGY

In traditional Cosmology, the Universe arises from a great explosion


where everything that exists would be initially concentrated in a minuscule
particle with the size of a proton and with a gigantic mass equal to the mass of
the Universe. However, the origin this tiny particle is not explained, nor is the
reason for its critical volume.
This critical volume denotes knowledge of what would happen with the
Universe starting from that initial condition, a fact that points towards the
existence of a Creator.
It was shown that a wave function may collapse and, at this moment, all
the possibilities that it describes are suddenly expressed in reality. This means
that, through this process, particles can be suddenly materialized. This is a
materialization process which can explain the materialization of the Universe.
That is, the Primordial Universe would have arisen at the exact moment in
which the Primordial Wave Function collapsed (Initial Instant) realizing the
content of the psychic form generated at the consciousness of the Creator when
He thought to create the Universe.
The psychic form described by this primordial wave function must have
been generated in a consciousness with a psychic mass much greater than that
needed to materialize the Universe (material and psychic).
This giant consciousness, in its turn, would not only be the greatest of all
consciousnesses in the Universe but also the substratum of everything that
exists and, obviously, everything that exists would be entirely contained within
it, including all the spacetime.
Based on General Theory of Relativity and recent cosmological
observations, it is known today that the Universe occupies a space of positive
curvature. This space, as we known, is “closed in itself”, its volume is finite but,
clearly understood, the space has no frontiers, it is unlimited. Thus, if the
consciousness we refer to contains all the space, its volume is necessarily
infinite, consequently having an infinite psychic mass.
This means that It contains all the existing psychic mass and, therefore,
any other consciousness that may exist will contained in It. Hence, we may
conclude that It is the Supreme Consciousness and that there no other equal to
It: It is unique.
The manifestation of the knowledge or auto-accessible knowledge in a
consciousness should be related to its quantity of psychic mass. In the
Supreme Consciousness, whose psychic mass is infinite, the manifestation of
the knowledge is total, and as such, necessarily, It should be omniscient. In the
elementary psyche (m Ψ (min ) ) most of the knowledge should be in latent state.
Being omniscient, the Supreme Conscience knows evidently, how to formulate
well-defined mental images and with sufficiently psychic masses in order to
materialize their contents (Materialization Condition). Consequently, It can
materialize everything which It wants (Omnipotence).
Since the Supreme Consciousness occupies all the space, we can
conclude that It cannot be displaced by another consciousness, not even by
Itself. Therefore, the Supreme Consciousness is immovable.
As Augustine says (Gen. Ad lit viii, 20), "The Creator Spirit moves Himself
neither by time, nor by place."
10

Thomas Aquinas also had already considered Creator's immobility as


necessary:
“From this we infer that it is necessary that the God that moves everything is
immovable.” (Summa Theologica).
On the other hand, since the Supreme Consciousness contains all the
space-time, It should contain obviously, all the time. More explicit, for the
Supreme Consciousness, past, present and future are an eternal present, and
the time does not flow as it flows for us.
Within this framework, when we talk about the Creation of the Universe,
the use of the verb “to create” means that something that was not came into
being, thus presupposing the concept of time flow. For the Supreme
Consciousness, however, the instant of Creation is mixed up with all other
times, consequently there being no “before” or “after” the Creation and, thus,
the following questions like “What did the Supreme Consciousness do before
Creation?
We can also infer from the above that the existence of the Supreme
Consciousness has no defined limit (beginning and end), which confers upon It
the unique characteristic of uncreated and eternal.
Being eternal, Its wave function ΨSC shall never collapse. On the other
hand, for having an infinite psychic mass, the value of ΨSC will always be infinite
and, hence, in agreement with Eq. (11), the Supreme Consciousness is
simultaneously everywhere, that is, It is omnipresent.
All these characteristics of the Supreme Consciousness (infinite, unique,
uncreated, eternal, omnipresent, omniscient and omnipotent) coincide with
those traditionally ascribed to God by most religions.
The option of the Supreme Consciousness to materialize the primordial
Universe into a critical volume denotes the knowledge of what was would
happen in the Universe starting from that initial condition. Therefore, It knew
how the Universe would behave under already existing laws. Consequently, the
laws were not created for the Universe and, hence, are not “Nature’s laws” or
“laws placed on Nature by God”, as written by Descartes. They already existed
as an intrinsic part of the Supreme Consciousness; Thomas Aquinas had a very
clear understanding about this. He talks about the Eternal Law “…which exists
in God’s mind and governs the whole Universe”.
The Supreme Consciousness had all freedom to choose the initial
conditions of the Universe, but opted for the concentration in a critical volume
so that the evolution of the Universe would proceed in the most convenient form
for the purpose It had in mind and in accordance with the laws inherent in Its
own nature. This reasoning then answers Einstein’s famous question: “What
level of choice would God have had when building the Universe?”
Apparently, Newton was the first one to notice the Divine option. In his
book Optiks, he gives us a perfect view of how he imagined the creation of the
Universe:
“ It seems possible to me that God, in the beginning, gave form to matter in
solid, compacted particles[…] in the best manner possible to contribute to the
purpose He had in mind…”
With what purpose did the Supreme Consciousness create the Universe?
This question seems to be difficult to answer. Nevertheless, if we admit the
Supreme Consciousness’s primordial desire to procreate, i.e., to generate
11

individual consciousnesses from Itself so that the latter could evolve and
manifest Its same creating attributes, then we can infer that, in order for them to
evolve, such consciousness would need a Universe, and this might have been
the main reason for its creation. Therefore, the origin of the Universe would be
related to the generation of said consciousness and, consequently, the
materialization of the primordial Universe must have taken place at the same
epoch when the Supreme Consciousness decided to individualize the
postulated consciousness, hereinafter called Primordial Consciousness.
For having been directly individualized from the Supreme Consciousness,
the primordial consciousness certainly contained in themselves, although in a
latent state, all the possibilities of the Supreme Consciousness, including the
germ of independent will, which enables original starting points to be
established. However, in spite of the similarity to Supreme Consciousness, the
primordial consciousness could not have the understanding of themselves. This
self-understanding only arises with the creative mental state that such
consciousnesses can only reach by evolution.
Thus, in the first evolutionary period, the primordial consciousness must
have remained in total unconscious state, this being then the beginning of an
evolutionary pilgrimage from unconsciousness to superconsciousness.
The evolution of the primordial consciousness in this unconsciousness
period takes place basically through psychic relationship among them
(superposition of psychic wave functions, having or not intertwining). Thus, the
speed at which they evolved was determined by what they obtained in these
relationships.
After the origin of the first planets, some of them came to develop
favorable conditions for the appearance of macromolecules. These
macromolecules, as we have shown, may have a special type of consciousness
formed by a Bose-Einstein condensate (Individual Material Consciousness). In
this case, since the molecular masses of the macromolecules are very large,
they will have individual material consciousness of large psychic mass and,
therefore, access to a considerable amount of information in its own
consciousness. Consequently, macromolecules with individual material
consciousness are potentially very capable and some certainly already can
carry out autonomous motions, thus being considered as “living” entities.
However, if we decompose one of these molecules so as to destroy its
individual consciousness, its parts will no longer have access to the information
which “instructed” said molecule and, hence, will not be able to carry out the
autonomous motions it previously did. Thus, the “life” of the molecule
disappears – as we can see, Delbrück’s Paradox is then solved 6 .
The appearance of “living” molecules in a planet marks the beginning of
the most important evolutionary stage for the psyche of matter, for it is from the
combination of these molecules that there appear living beings with individual
material consciousness with even larger psychic masses.
Biologists have shown that all living organisms existing on Earth come
from two types of molecules – aminoacids and nucleotides – which make up the
fundamental building blocks of living beings. That is, the nucleotides and
6
This paradox ascribed to Max Delbrück (Delbrück, Max., (1978) Mind from Matter? American Scholar,
47. pp.339-53.) remained unsolved and was posed as follows: How come the same matter studied by
Physics, when incorporated into a living organism, assumes an unexpected behavior, although not
contradicting physical laws?
12

aminoacids are identical in all living beings, whether they are bacteria, mollusks
or men. There are twenty different species of aminoacids and five of
nucleotides.
In 1952, Stanley Miller and Harold Urey proved that aminoacids could be
produced from inert chemical products present in the atmosphere and oceans in
the first years of existence of the Earth. Later, in 1962, nucleotides were created
in laboratory under similar conditions. Thus, it was proved that the molecular
units making up the living beings could have formed during the Earth’s primitive
history.
Therefore, we can imagine what happened from the moment said
molecules appeared. The concentration of aminoacids and nucleotides in the
oceans gradually increased. After a long period of time, when the amount of
nucleotides was already large enough, they began to group themselves by
mutual psychic attraction, forming the molecules that in the future will become
DNA molecules.
When the molecular masses of these molecules became large enough,
the distribution of elementary psyches in their consciousnesses took the most
orderly possible form of phase condensate (Bose-Einstein condensate) and
such consciousnesses became the individual material consciousness.
Since the psychic mass of the consciousnesses of these molecules is
very large (as compared with the psychic mass of the atoms), the amount of
self-accessible knowledge became considerable in such consciousnesses and
thus, they became apt to instruct the joining of aminoacids in the formation of
the first proteins (origin of the Genetic Code). Consequently, the DNA’s
capability to serve as guide for the joining of aminoacids in the formation of
proteins is fundamentally a result of their psychism.
In the psychic of DNA molecules, the formation of proteins certainly had a
definite objective: the construction of cells.
During the cellular construction, the most important function played by the
consciousnesses of the DNA molecules may have been that of organizing the
distribution of the new molecules incorporated to the system so that the
consciousnesses of these molecules jointly formed with the consciousness of
the system a Bose-Einstein condensate. In this manner, more knowledge would
be available to the system and, after the cell is completed, the latter would also
have an individual material consciousness.
Afterwards, under the action of psychic interaction, the cells began to
group themselves according to different degrees of positive mutual affinity, in an
organized manner so that the distribution of their consciousnesses would also
form Bose-Einstein condensates. Hence, collective cell units began to appear
with individual consciousnesses of larger psychic masses and, therefore, with
access to more knowledge. With greater knowledge available, these groups of
cells began to perform specialized functions to obtain food, assimilation, etc.
That is when the first multi-celled beings appeared.
Upon forming the tissues, the cells gather structurally together in an
organized manner. Thus, the tissues and, hence, the organs and the organisms
themselves also possess individual material consciousnesses.
The existence of the material consciousness of the organisms is proved
in a well-known experiment by Karl Lashley, a pioneer in neurophysiology.
Lashley initially taught guinea pigs to run through a maze, an ability they
remember and keep in their memories in the same way as we acquire new
13

skills. He then systematically removed small portions of the brain tissue of said
guinea pigs. He thought that, if the guinea pigs still remembered how to run
through the maze, the memory centers would still be intact.
Little by little he removed the brain mass; the guinea pigs, curiously
enough, kept remembering how to run through the maze. Finally, with more
than90% of their cortex removed, the guinea pigs still kept remembering how to
run through the maze. Well, as we have seen, the consciousness of an
organism is formed by the concretion of all its cellular consciousnesses.
Therefore, the removal of a portion of the organism cells does not make it
disappear. Their cells, or better saying, the consciousnesses of their cells
contribute to the formation of the consciousness of the organism just as the
others, and it is exactly due to this that, even when we remove almost all of the
guinea pigs’ cortex, they were still able to remember from the memories of their
individual material consciousnesses. In this manner, what Lashley’s experiment
proved was precisely the existence of individual material consciousnesses in
the guinea pigs.
Another proof of the existence of the individual material
consciousnesses in organisms is given by the regeneration phenomenon, so
frequent in animals of simple structure: sponges, isolated coelenterates, worms
of various groups, mollusks, echinoderms and tunicates. The arthropods
regenerate their pods. Lizards may regenerate only their tail after autoctomy.
Some starfish may regenerate so easily that a simple detached arm may, for
example, give origin to a wholly new animal.
The organization of the psychic parts in the composition of an organism’s
individual material consciousness is directly related to the organization of the
material parts of the organism, as we have already seen. Thus, due to this
interrelationship between body and consciousness, any disturbance of a
material (physiological) nature in the body of the being will affect its individual
material consciousness, and any psychic disturbance imposed upon its
consciousness affects the physiology of its body.
When a consciousness is strongly affected to the extent of unmaking the
Bose-Einstein’s condensate, which gives it the status of individual
consciousness, there also occurs the simultaneous disappearance of the
knowledge made accessible by said condensation. Therefore, when a cell’s
consciousness no longer constitutes a Bose-Einstein condensate, there is also
the simultaneous disappearance of the knowledge that instructs and maintains
the cellular metabolism. Consequently, the cell no longer functions thus
initiating its decomposition (molecular disaggregation).
Similarly, when the consciousness of an animal (or plant) no longer
constitutes a Bose-Einstein condensate, the knowledge that instructs and
maintains its body functioning also disappears, and it dies. In this process, after
the unmaking of the being’s individual consciousness, there follows the
unmaking of the individual consciousnesses of the organs; next will be the
consciousnesses of their own cells which no longer exit. At the end there will
remain the isolated psyches of the molecules and atoms. Death, indeed,
destroys nothing, neither what makes up matter nor what makes up psyche.
As we have seen, all the information available in the consciousnesses of
the beings is also accessible by the consciousnesses of their organs up to their
molecules’. Thus, when an individual undergoes a certain experience, the
information concerning it not only is recorded somewhere in this consciousness
14

but also pervades all the individual consciousnesses that make up its total
consciousness. Consequently, psychic disturbances imposed to a being reflect
up to the level of their individual molecular consciousnesses, perhaps even
structurally affecting said molecules, due to the interrelationship between body
and consciousness already mentioned here.
Therefore, one can expect that there may occur modifications in the
sequences of nucleotides of DNA molecules when the psychism of the
organism to which they are incorporated is sufficiently affected.
It is known that such modifications in the structure of DNA molecules may
also occur because of the chemical products in the blood stream ( as in the
case of the mustard gas used in chemical warface) or by the action of radiation
sufficiently energetic.
Modifications in the sequences of nucleotides in DNA molecules are
called mutations. Mutations as we know, determine hereditary variations which
make up the basis of Darwin’s theory of evolution.
There may occur “favorable” and unfavorable” mutation to the individuals;
the former enhances the individuals’ possibility of survival, whereas the latter
decrease such possibility.
The theory of evolution is established as a consequence of individuals’
efforts to survive in the environment where they live. This means that their
descendants may become different from their ancestors. This is the mechanism
that leads to the frequent appearance of new species. Darwin believed that the
mutation process was slow and gradual. Nevertheless, it is known today that
this is not the general rule, for there are evidences of the appearance of new
species in a relatively short period of time [14]. We also know that the
characteristics are transmitted from parents to offsprings by means of genes
and that the recombination of the parents’ genes, when genetic instructions are
transmitted by such genes.
However, it was shown that the genetic instructions are basically
associated with the psychism of DNA molecules. Consequently, the genes
transmit not only physiological but also psychic differences.
Thus, as a consequence of genetic transmission, besides the great
physiological difference between individuals of the same species, there is also a
great psychic dissimilarity.
Such psychic dissimilarity associated with the progressive enhancement
of the individual’s psychic quantities may have given rise, in immemorial time, to
a variety of individuals (most probably among anthropoid primates) which
unconsciously established a positive mutual affinity with primordial
consciousnesses must have been attracted to the Earth. Thus, the relationship
established among them and the consciousnesses of said individuals is
enhanced.
In the course of evolutionary transformation, there was a time when the
fetuses of said variety already presented such a high degree of mutual affinity
with the primordial consciousnesses attracted to the Earth that, during
pregnancy, the incorporation of primordial consciousnesses may have occurred
in said fetuses.
In spite of absolute psychic mass of the fetus’s material consciousness
being much smaller than that of the mother’s consciousness, the degree of
positive mutual affinity between the fetus’s consciousness and the primordial
consciousness that is going to be incorporated is much greater than that
15

between the latter and the mother’s, which makes the psychic attraction
between the fetus’s consciousness and primordial consciousness much
stronger than the attraction between the latter and the mother’s. That is the
reason why primordial consciousness incorporates the fetus. Thus, when these
new individuals are born, they bring along, besides their individual material
consciousness, an individualized consciousness of the Supreme
Consciousness. This is how the first hominids were born.
Having been directly individualized from Supreme Consciousness, the
primordial consciousnesses constitutes as perfect individualities and not as
phase condensates as the consciousnesses of matter. In this manner, they do
not dissociate upon the death of those that incorporated them. Afterwards, upon
the action of psychic attraction, they were again able to incorporate into other
fetuses to proceed with their evolution.
These consciousnesses (hereinafter called human consciousness)
constitutes individualities and, therefore, the larger their psychic mass the more
available knowledge they will have and, consequently, greater ability to evolve.
Just as the human race evolves biologically, human consciousnesses
have also been evolving. When they are incorporated, the difficulties of the
material world provide them with more and better opportunities to acquire
psychic mass (later on we will see how said consciousnesses may gain or lose
psychic mass). That is why they need to perform successive reincorporations.
Each reincorporation arises as a new opportunity for said consciousnesses to
increase their psychic mass and thus evolve.
The belief in the reincarnation is millenary and well known, although it has
not yet been scientifically recognized, due to its antecedent probability being
very small. In other words, there is small amount of data contributing to its
confirmation. This, however, does not mean that the phenomenon is not true,
but only that there is the need for a considerable amount of experiments to
establish a significant degree of antecedent probability.
The rational acceptance of reincarnation entails deep modifications in
the general philosophy of the human being. For instance, it frees him from
negative feelings, such as nationalistic or racial prejudices and other response
patterns based on the naive conception that we are simply what we appear to
be.
Darwin’s lucid perception upon affirming that not only the individual’s
corporeal qualities but also his psychic qualities tend to improve made implicit in
his “natural selection” one of the most important rules of evolution: the psychic
selection, which basically consists in the survival of the most apt
consciousnesses. Psychic aptitude means, in the case of human
consciousnesses, mental quality, i.e., quality of thinking.
Further on, we will see that the human consciousnesses may gain or lose
psychic mass from the Supreme consciousness, respectively due to the mode
of resonance (quality) of their thoughts. This means that the consciousnesses
that cultivate a greater amount of bad-quality thoughts will have a lesser chance
of psychic survival than the others. A human consciousness that permanently
cultivates bad-quality thoughts progressively loses psychic mass and may even
be extinguished.
With the progressive disappearance of psychically less apt
consciousnesses, it will be increasingly easy for the more apt consciousnesses
to increase their psychic masses during reincorporation periods. There will be a
16

time when psychic selection will have produced consciousnesses of large


psychic mass and, therefore, highly evolved. It may happen that such time will
precede the critical time from which material life will no longer be possible in the
Universe.

4. INTERACTION OF HUMAN CONSCIOUSNESSES

The thought originated in a consciousness (static thought) presupposes


the individualization of a quantum of psychic mass ΔmΨ in the very
consciousness where the thought originated. Consequently, the wave function
ΨΨ associated with this psychic body must collapse after a time interval Δt ,
expressing in the space-time its psychic content when it contains sufficiently
psychic mass for that, or otherwise transforming itself in radiation (psychic
radiation). In both cases, there is also production of “virtual” photons (“virtual’
psychic radiation) to convey the psychic interaction.
According to the Uncertainty Principle, “virtual” quanta cannot be
observed experimentally. However, since they are interaction quanta, their
effects may be verified in the very particles or bodies subjected to the
interactions.
Obviously, only one specific type of interaction occurs between two
particles if each one absorbs the quanta of said interaction emitted by the other;
otherwise, the interaction will be null. Thus, the null interaction between psychic
bodies particularly means that there is no mutual absorption of the “virtual”
psychic photons (psychic interaction quanta) emitted by them. That is, the
emission spectrum of each one of them does not coincide with the absorption
spectrum of the other.
By analogy with material bodies, whose emission spectra are, as we
know, identical with the absorption ones, also the psychic bodies must absorb
within the spectrum they emit. Specifically, in the case of human
consciousness, their thoughts cause them to become emitters of psychic
radiation in certain frequency spectra and, consequently, receivers in the same
spectra. Thus, when a human consciousness, by its thoughts, is receptive
coming from a certain thought, said radiation will be absorbed by the
consciousness (resonance absorption). Under these circumstances, the
radiation absorbed must stimulate – through the Resonance Principle – said
consciousness to emit in the same spectrum, just as it happens with matter.
Nevertheless, in order for that emission to occur in a human
consciousness, it must be preceded by the individualization of thoughts identical
with that which originated the radiation absorbed because obviously only
identical thoughts will be able to reproduce, when they collapse, the spectrum of
“virtual” psychic radiations absorbed.
These induced thoughts – such as the thoughts of consciousnesses
themselves – must remain individualized for a period of time Δt (lifetime of the
thought) after which its wave function will collapse, thus producing the “virtual”
psychic radiation in the same spectrum of frequencies absorbed.
The Supreme Consciousness, just as the other consciousnesses, has Its
own spectrum of absorption determined by Its thoughts – which make up the
standard of a good-quality thought is hereby established. That is, they are
resonant thoughts in Supreme Consciousness. Thus, only thoughts of this kind,
17

produced in human consciousnesses, may induce the individualization of similar


thoughts in Supreme Consciousness.
In this context, a system of judgment is established in which the good and
the evil are psychic values, with their origin in free thought. The good is related
to the good-quality thoughts, which are thoughts resonant in Supreme
Consciousness. The evil, in turn, is related to the bad-quality thoughts, non-
resonant in the Supreme Consciousness.
Consequently, the moral derived thereof results from the Law itself,
inherent in the Supreme Consciousness and, therefore, this psychic moral must
be the fundamental moral. Thus, fundamental ethics is neither biological nor
located in the aggressive action, as thought by Nietzsche. It is psychic and
located in the good-quality thoughts. It has a theological basis and in it the
creation of the Universe by a pre-existing God is of an essential nature,
opposed, for instance, to Spinoza’s “geometrical ethics”, which eliminated the
ideas of the Creation of the Universe by a pre-existing God the main
underpinning of Christian theology and philosophy. However, it is very close to
Aristotle’s ethics, to the extent that, from it, we understand that we are what we
repeatedly do (think) and that excellence is not an act, but a habit (Ethics, II, 4).
According to Aristotle: ‘” the goodness of a man is a work of the soul towards
excellence in a complete lifetime: … it is not a day or a short period that makes
a man fortunate and happy. “ (Ibid, I, 7).
The “virtual” psychic radiation coming from a thought may induce several
similar thoughts in the consciousness absorbing it, because each photon of
radiation absorbed carries in itself the electromagnetic expression of the
thought which produced it and, consequently, each one of them stimulates the
individualization of a similar thought. However, the amount of thoughts induced
is, of course, limited by the amount of psychic mass of the consciousness
proper.
In the specific case of the Supreme Consciousness, the “virtual” psychic
radiation coming from a good-quality thought must induce many similar
thoughts. On the other hand, since Supreme Consciousness involves human
consciousness the induced thoughts appear in the surroundings of the very
consciousness which induced them. These thoughts are then strongly attracted
by said consciousness and fuse therewith, for just as the thoughts generated in
a consciousness have a high degree of positive mutual affinity with it, they will
also have the thoughts induced by it.
The fusion of these thoughts in the consciousness obviously determines
an increase in its psychic mass. We then conclude that the cultivation of good-
quality thoughts is highly beneficial to the individual. On the contrary, the
cultivation of bad-quality thoughts makes consciousness lose psychic mass.
When bad-quality thoughts are generated in a consciousness, they do not
induce identical thoughts in Supreme Consciousness, because the absorption
spectrum of Supreme Consciousness excludes psychic radiations coming from
bad-quality thoughts. Thus, such radiation directs itself to other
consciousnesses; however, it will only induce identical thoughts in those that
are receptive in the same frequency spectrum. When this happens and right
after the wave functions corresponding to these induced thoughts collapse and
materialize said thoughts or changing them into radiation, the receptive
consciousness will lose psychic mass, similarly to what happens in the
consciousness which first produced the thought. Consequently, both the
18

consciousness which gave rise to the bad-quality thought and those receptive to
the psychic radiations coming from this type of thoughts will lose psychic mass.
We must observe, however, that our thoughts are not limited only to
harming or benefiting ourselves, since they also can, as we have already seen,
induce similar thoughts in other consciousnesses, thus affecting them. In this
case, it is important to observe that the psychic radiation produced by the
induced thoughts may return to the consciousness which initially produced the
bad-quality thought, inducing other similar thoughts in it, which evidently cause
more loss of psychic mass in said consciousness.
The fact of our thoughts not being restricted to influencing ourselves is
highly relevant because it leads us to understand we have a great responsibility
towards the others as regards what we think.
Let us now approach the intensity of thoughts. If two thoughts have the
same psychic form and equal psychic masses, they have the same psychic
density and, consequently, the same intensity, from the psychic viewpoint.
However, if one of them has more psychic mass than the other, it will evidently
have a larger psychic density and, thus, will be more intense.
The same thought repeated with different intensities in a consciousness –
in a time period much shorter than the lifetime of thought – has its psychic mass
increased due to the fusion of the psychic masses corresponding to each
repetition. The fusion is caused by a strong psychic attraction between them,
because the inertial thought and the repeated ones have high degree of positive
mutual affinity.
It is then possible by this process that the thought may appear with
enough psychic mass to materialize when its wave function collapses.
If the process is jointly shared with other consciousnesses, the thoughts
in these consciousnesses evidently correspond to different dynamics states in
the same thought. Thus, if ΨΨ1 , ΨΨ 2 ,..., ΨΨn refer to the different dynamic
states that the same thought may assume, then its general dynamic state,
according to the superposition principle, may be described by a single wave
function ΨΨ , given by:
ΨΨ = c1ΨΨ1 + c2 ΨΨ 2 + ... + cn ΨΨn
Therefore, everything happens as if there were only a single thought
described by ΨΨ , with psychic mass determined by the set of psychic masses
of all the similar thoughts repeated in the various consciousnesses. In this
manner, it is possible that in this process the thought materializes even faster
than in the case of a single consciousness.
It was shown that the consciousnesses may increase their psychic
masses by cultivating good-quality thoughts and avoiding the bad-quality
thoughts ones. However, both the cultivation of good thoughts and the ability to
instantly perceive nature in our thoughts to quickly repel the bad-quality
thoughts result in a slow and difficult process.
The fact of intense enough mental images being capable of materializing
suggests that we must be careful with mental images of fear. Thus more than
anything else, it is imperative to avoid their repetition in our consciousnesses,
because at each repetition they acquire more psychic mass.
Great are the possibilities encompassed in the consciousnesses, just as
many are the effects of psychic interaction. At cellular level, the intervention of
19

psychic interaction in the formation of the embryo’s organs is particularly


interesting.
Despite the recent advances in Embryology, embryologists cannot
understand how the cells of the internal cellular mass 7 migrate to defined
places in the embryo in order to form the organs of the future child.
We will show that this is a typical biological phenomenon which is
fundamentally derived from the psychic interaction between the cells’
consciousnesses.
Just as the consciousnesses of the children have a high degree of
positive mutual affinity with the consciousnesses of their parents, and among
themselves (principle of familiar formation), the embryo cells, by having
originated from cellular duplication, have a high degree of positive mutual
affinity. The embryo cells result, as we know, from the cellular duplication of a
single cell containing the paternal and maternal genes and, hence, have a high
degree of positive mutual affinity.
Thus, under the action of psychic interaction the cells of the internal
cellular mass start gathering into small groups, according to the different
degrees of mutual affinity.
When there is a positive mutual affinity between two consciousnesses
there occurs the intertwining between their wave functions, and a Phase
Relationship is established among them. Consequently, since the degree of
positive mutual affinity among the embryo cells is high, also the relationship
among them will be intense, and it is exactly this what enables the construction
of the organs of the future child. In other words, when a cell is attracted by
certain group in the embryo, it is through the cell-group relationship that
determines where the cell is to aggregate to the group. In this manner, each cell
finds its correct place in the embryo; that is why observers frequently say that,
”the cells appear to know where to go”, when experimentally observed.
The cells of the internal cellular mass are capable of originating any
organ, and are hence called totipotents; thus, the organs begin to appear. In the
endoderm, there appear the urinary organs, the respiratory system, and part of
the digestive system; in the mesoderm are formed the muscles, bones,
cartilages, blood, vessels, heart, kidneys; in the ectoderm there appear the skin,
the nervous system, etc.
Thus, it is the mutual affinity among the consciousnesses of the cells that
determines the formation of the body organs and keeps their own physical
integrity. For this reason, every body rejects cells from other bodies, unless the
latter have positive mutual affinity with their own cells. The higher the degree of
cellular positive mutual affinity, the faster the integration of the transplanted
cells and, therefore, the less problematic the transplant. In the case of cells from
identical twins, this integration takes place practically with no problems, since
said degree of mutual affinity is very high.

7
When a spermatozoon penetrates the ovum, an egg is formed. Roughly twelve to
fourteen hours later, the egg divides into two identical cells. This is the beginning of the
phase where the embryo is called morula. Six days later, in the blastula phase, the
external cells fix the embryo to the uterus. The cells inside the blastula remain equal to
each other and are known as internal cellular mass.
20

In eight weeks of life, all organs are practically formed in the embryo.
From there on, it begins to be called fetus.
The embryo’s material individual consciousness is formed by the
consciousnesses of its cells united in a Bose-Einstein condensate. As more
cells become incorporated into the embryo, its material consciousness acquires
more psychic mass. This means that this type of consciousness will be greater
in the fetus than in the embryo and even greater in the child.
Thus, the psychic mass of the mother-fetus consciousness progressively
increases during pregnancy, consequently increasing the psychic attraction
between this consciousness and that new one about to incorporate. In normal
pregnancies, this psychic attraction also increases due to the habitual increase
in the degree of positive mutual affinity between said consciousnesses.
Since the embryo's consciousness has greater degree of positive mutual
affinity with the consciousness that is going to incorporate, then the embryo's
consciousness becomes the center of psychic attraction to where the human
consciousness destined to the fetus will go.
When the psychic attraction becomes intense enough, human
consciousness penetrates the mother-fetus consciousness, forming with it a
new Bose–Einstein condensate. From that instant on, the fetus begins to have
two consciousnesses: the individual material one and the human consciousness
attracted to it.
It easy to see that the psychic attraction upon this human consciousness
tends to continue, being progressively compressed until effectively incorporating
the fetus. When this takes place, it will be ready to be born.
It is probably due to this psychic compression process that the
incorporated consciousness suffers amnesia of its preceding history. Upon
death, after the psychic decompression that arises from the definitive
disincorporation of the consciousness, the preceding memory must return.
It was shown that particles of matter perform transitions to the imaginary
space-time when their gravitational masses reach the gravitational mass
ranging between + 0.159 M i to − 0.159M i [7]. Under these circumstances, the
total energy of the particle becomes imaginary and consequently it disappears
from our ordinary space-time. Since imaginary mass is equal to psychic mass
we can infer that the particle makes a transition to the psychic space-time.
The consciousnesses are in the psychic space-time. Therefore, if material
bodies can become psychic bodies and to interact with others psychic bodies in
this space-time, then they reach a new part of the Universe where the
consciousnesses live and from where they come in order to incorporate the
human fetus, and to where they should return, after the death of the material
bodies. Consequently, the transition to the psychic space-time is a door for us
to visit the spiritual Universe.
21

REFERENCES

[1] Capra, F. (1988) O Tao da Física, Ed. Cultrix, S.Paulo.

[2] Zohar, D. (1990) O Ser Quântico, Ed. Best Seller, S.Paulo.

[3] Winger, K. (1967) Symmetries And Reflections, Blooming, Ind., Indiana


University Press.

[4] Young, A.M. (1976) The Geometry of Meaning, Delacorte Press, N.Y;
Young, A.M. The Reflexive Universe: Evolution of Consciousness, Delacorte
Press, N.Y.

[5] Herbert, N. (1979) Mind Science: A Physics of Consciousness Primer,


Boulder Creek, Cal: C -Life Institute.

[6] Bohm, D. (1980) A New Theory of Relation of Mind and Matter, The Journal
of the American Society of Psychical Research, Vol. 80, Nº 2, p.129.

[7] De Aquino, F. (2007) Mathematical Foundations of the Relativistic Theory


of Quantum Gravity, preprint, physics/0212033.

[8] Bohm, D. (1951) Quantum Theory, Prentice-Hall, N.Y, p.415.

[9] D’Espagnat, B. The Question of Quantum Reality, Scientific American,


241,128.

[10] Teller, P. Relational Holism and Quantum Mechanics, British Journal for the
Philosophy of Science, 37, 71-81.

[11] Landau, L. and Lifchitz, E. (1969) Theorie du Champ, Ed.MIR, Moscow,


Portuguese version (1974) Ed. Hemus, S.Paulo, pp.116 and 363.

[12] Landau, L. and Lifchitz, E. (1969) Theorie du Champ, Ed.MIR, Moscow,


Portuguese version (1974) Ed. Hemus, S.Paulo, pp.363-364.

[13] De Aquino, F. (2007) “Gravity Control by means of Electromagnetic


Field through Gas at Ultra-Low Pressure”, physics/0701091.

[14] Grant, P.R., and Grant, B.R. (1995). Predicting microevolutionary responses
to directional selection on heritable variation. Evolution 49:241-251.
The Gravitational Spacecraft
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 1997-2010 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved

There is an electromagnetic factor of correlation between gravitational mass and inertial mass,
which in specific electromagnetic conditions, can be reduced, made negative and increased in
numerical value. This means that gravitational forces can be reduced, inverted and intensified
by means of electromagnetic fields. Such control of the gravitational interaction can have a lot
of practical applications. For example, a new concept of spacecraft and aerospace flight arises
from the possibility of the electromagnetic control of the gravitational mass. The novel
spacecraft called Gravitational Spacecraft possibly will change the paradigm of space flight
and transportation in general. Here, its operation principles and flight possibilities, it will be
described. Also it will be shown that other devices based on gravity control, such as the
Gravitational Motor and the Quantum Transceivers, can be used in the spacecraft,
respectively, for Energy Generation and Telecommunications.

Key words: Gravity, Gravity Control, Quantum Devices.

CONTENTS

1. Introduction 02
2. Gravitational Shielding 02

3. Gravitational Motor: Free Energy 05

4. The Gravitational Spacecraft 06

5. The Imaginary Space-time 13

6. Past and Future 18

7. Instantaneous Interstellar Communications 20

8. Origin of Gravity and Genesis of Gravitational Energy 23

Appendix A 26
Appendix B 58
Appendix C 66
Appendix D 71
References 74
2
1. Introduction

The discovery of the correlation In the beginning of this century,


between gravitational mass and inertial it has been clearly noticed that there
mass [1] has shown that the gravity was something unsatisfactory about
can be reduced, nullified and inverted. the whole notion of quantization and
Starting from this discovery several that the quantization process had many
ways were proposed in order to obtain ambiguities. Then, a new approach has
experimentally the local gravity been proposed starting from the
control [2]. Consequently, new generalization of the action function * .
concepts of spacecraft and aerospace The result has been the derivation of a
flight have arisen. This novel theoretical background, which finally
spacecraft, called Gravitational led to the so-sought quantization of the
Spacecraft, can be equipped with other gravity and of the space-time.
devices also based on gravity control, Published under the title:
such as the Gravitational Motor and “Mathematical Foundations of the
the Quantum Transceiver that can be Relativistic Theory of Quantum
used, respectively, for energy Gravity” † , this theory predicts a
generation and telecommunications. consistent unification of Gravity with
Based on the theoretical background Electromagnetism. It shows that the
which led to the gravity control, the strong equivalence principle is
operation principles of the reaffirmed and, consequently
Gravitational Spacecraft and of the Einstein’s equations are preserved. In
devices above mentioned, will be fact, Einstein’s equations can be
described in this work. deduced directly from the Relativistic
Theory of Quantum Gravity. This
2. Gravitational Shielding shows, therefore, that the General
Relativity is a particularization of this
The contemporary greatest new theory, just as the Newton’s
challenge of the Theoretical Physics theory is a particular case from the
was to prove that, Gravity is a General Relativity. Besides, it was
quantum phenomenon. Since the deduced from the new theory an
General Relativity describes gravity as important correlation between the
related to the curvature of the space- gravitational mass and the inertial
time then, the quantization of the mass, which shows that the
gravity implies the quantization of the gravitational mass of a particle can be
proper space-time. Until the end of the decreased and even made negative,
century XX, several attempts to independently of its inertial mass, i.e.,
quantify gravity were accomplished. while the gravitational mass is
However, all of them resulted fruitless
*
[3, 4]. The formulation of the action in Classical Mechanics
extends to the Quantum Mechanics and it has been the
basis for the development of the Strings Theory.

http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0212033
3
progressively reduced, the inertial kinetic momentum; c is the speed of
mass does not vary. This is highly light.
relevant because it means that the This equation shows that only
weight of a body can also be reduced for Δp = 0 the gravitational mass is
and even inverted in certain equal to the inertial mass. Instances in
circumstances, since Newton’s gravity which Δp is produced by
law defines the weight P of a body as electromagnetic radiation, Eq. (3) can
the product of its gravitational mass be rewritten as follows:
m g by the local gravity acceleration g , ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ nr2 D ⎞
⎟ − 1⎥⎪⎬
mg ⎢
i.e., = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜
⎢ ⎜ 3 ⎟ ⎥
(4)
mi 0 ⎪ ρc ⎠
⎩ ⎢
⎣ ⎝ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
P = mg g (1)
Where nr is the refraction index of the
It arises from the mentioned law
particle; D is the power density of the
that the gravity acceleration (or simply
electromagnetic radiation absorbed by
the gravity) produced by a body with
the particle; and ρ its density of
gravitational mass M g is given by
inertial mass.
It was shown [1] that there is an
GM g
g= (2 ) additional effect of gravitational
r2 shielding produced by a substance
whose gravitational mass was reduced
The physical property of mass or made negative. This effect shows
has two distinct aspects: gravitational that just above the substance the
mass mg and inertial mass mi. The gravity acceleration g1 will be reduced
gravitational mass produces and
at the same proportion χ = m g mi 0 ,
responds to gravitational fields. It
supplies the mass factors in Newton's i.e., g1 = χ g , ( g is the gravity
famous inverse-square law of acceleration bellow the substance).
gravity (F = GM g m g r ) . The inertial
2 Equation (4) shows, for
example, that, in the case of a gas at
mass is the mass factor in Newton's
ultra-low pressure (very low density of
2nd Law of Motion (F = mi a ) . These
inertial mass), the gravitational mass
two masses are not equivalent but of the gas can be strongly reduced or
correlated by means of the following made negative by means of the
factor [1]: incidence of electromagnetic radiation
with power density relatively low.
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ Thus, it is possible to use this
mg ⎪ ⎛ Δ ⎞ ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜
p
⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (3) effect in order to produce gravitational
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ shieldings and, thus, to control the
local gravity.
Where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass and The Gravity Control Cells
Δp is the variation in the particle’s (GCC) shown in the article “Gravity
Control by means of Electromagnetic
4
Field through Gas or Plasma at Ultra- detectors can only be dangerous if
Low Pressure” ‡ , are devices designed inhaled.
on the basis, of this effect, and usually The Relativistic Theory of
are chambers containing gas or plasma Quantum Gravity also shows the
at ultra-low pressure. Therefore, when existence of a generalized equation for
an oscillating electromagnetic field is the inertial forces which has the
applied upon the gas its gravitational following form
mass will be reduced and,
consequently, the gravity above the Fi = M g a (5)
mentioned GCC will also be reduced
at the same proportion. This expression means a new law for
It was also shown that it is the Inertia. Further on, it will be
possible to make a gravitational shown that it incorporates the Mach’s
shielding even with the chamber filled principle to Gravitation theory [5].
with Air at one atmosphere. In this Equation (3) tell us that the
case, the electric conductivity of the gravitational mass is only equal to the
air must be strongly increased in order inertial mass when Δp = 0 . Therefore,
to reduce the intensity of the we can easily conclude that only in
electromagnetic field or the power this particular situation the new
density of the applied radiation. expression of Fi reduces to Fi = mi a ,
This is easily obtained by which is the expression for Newton's
ionizing the air in the local where we 2nd Law of Motion. Consequently,
want to build the gravitational this Newton’s law is just a particular
shielding. There are several manners case from the new law expressed by
of ionizing the air. One of them is by the Eq. (5), which clearly shows how
means of ionizing radiation produced the local inertial forces are correlated
by a radioactive source of low to the gravitational interaction of the
intensity, for example, by using the local system with the distribution of
radioactive element Americium (Am- cosmic masses (via m g ) and thus,
241). The Americium is widely used
as air ionizer in smoke detectors. incorporates definitively the Mach’s
Inside the detectors, there is just a little principle to the Gravity theory.
amount of americium 241 (about of The Mach’s principle postulates
1/5000 grams) in the form of AmO2. that: “The local inertial forces would
Its cost is very low (about of US$ be produced by the gravitational
1500 per gram). The dominant interaction of the local system with the
radiation is composed of alpha distribution of cosmic masses”.
particles. Alpha particles cannot cross However, in spite of the several
a paper sheet and are also blocked by attempts carried out, this principle had
some centimeters of air. The not yet been incorporated to the
Americium used in the smoke Gravitation theory. Also Einstein had
carried out several attempts. The ad

http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0701091 hoc introduction of the cosmological
5
term in his gravitation equations has anything during the maneuvers of the
been one of these attempts. car.
With the advent of equation (5),
the origin of the inertia - that was 3. Gravitational Motor: Free Energy
considered the most obscure point of
the particles’ theory and field theory – It is known that the energy of
becomes now evident. the gravitational field of the Earth can
In addition, this equation also be converted into rotational kinetic
reveals that, if the gravitational mass energy and electric energy. In fact, this
of a body is very close to zero or if is exactly what takes place in
there is around the body a hydroelectric plants. However, the
gravitational shielding which reduces construction these hydroelectric plants
closely down to zero the gravity have a high cost of construction and
accelerations due to the rest of the can only be built, obviously, where
Universe, then the intensities of the there are rivers.
inertial forces that act on the body The gravity control by means of
become also very close to zero. any of the processes mentioned in the
This conclusion is highly article: “Gravity Control by means of
relevant because it shows that, under Electromagnetic Field through Gas or
these conditions, the spacecraft could Plasma at Ultra-Low Pressure” allows
describe, with great velocities, unusual the inversion of the weight of any
trajectories (such as curves in right body, practically at any place.
angles, abrupt inversion of direction, Consequently, the conversion of the
etc.) without inertial impacts on the gravitational energy into rotational
occupants of the spacecraft. mechanical energy can also be carried
Obviously, out of the above- out at any place.
mentioned condition, the spacecraft In Fig. (1), we show a schematic
and the crew would be destroyed due diagram of a Gravitational Motor. The
to the strong presence of the inertia. first Gravity Control Cell (GCC1)
When we make a sharp curve changes the local gravity from g
with our car we are pushed towards a to g ′ = − ng , propelling the left side of
direction contrary to that of the motion the rotor in a direction contrary to the
of the car. This happens due to motion of the right side. The second
existence of the inertial forces. GCC changes the gravity back again to
However, if our car is involved by a g i.e., from g ′ = − ng to g , in such a
gravitational shielding, which reduces way that the gravitational change
strongly the gravitational interaction of occurs just on the region indicated in
the car (and everything that is inside Fig.1. Thus, a torque T given by
the car) with the rest of the Universe,
then in accordance with the Mach’s
principle, the local inertial forces [ ]
T = (− F ′ + F )r = − (mg 2)g ′ + (m g 2)g r =
would also be strongly reduced and,
= (n + 1) 12 mg gr
consequently, we would not feel
6
Is applied on the rotor of gravitational means that the gravitational motors
mass m g , making the rotor spin with can produce energy practically free.
angular velocity ω . It is easy to see that gravitational
The average power, P , of the motors of this kind can be designed for
motor is P = Tω . However, powers needs of just some watts up to
− g ′ + g = ω r .Thus, we have
2 millions of kilowatts.
P = 12 mi (n + 1)3 g 3 r (6)
Consider a cylindrical rotor of iron g’’=χair(2)g’ = g
(ρ = 7800Kg.m −3 ) with height h = 0.5m , GCC (2)
χar(2)= (χar(1))-1
radius r = R 3 = 0.0545m and inertial
mass mi = ρπR 2 h = 327.05kg . By adjusting
the GCC 1 in order to obtain
g’= -ng R
χ air (1) = mg (air ) mi (air ) = − n = −19 and, since
r
g = 9.81m.s −2 , then Eq. (6) gives Rotor
r
g

P ≅ 2.19 × 105 watts ≅ 219 KW ≅ 294HP g’=χair(1)g

GCC (1)
This shows that this small motor
can be used, for example, to substitute χar(1)= -n = mg(ar)/mi(ar)
the conventional motors used in the g
cars. It can also be coupled to an
electric generator in order to produce
electric energy. The conversion of the
Fig. 1 – Gravitational Motor - The first Gravity Control Cell
rotational mechanical energy into (GCC1) changes the local gravity from g to g ′ = −ng , propelling
electric energy is not a problem since the left side of the rotor in contrary direction to the motion of the
right side. The second GCC changes the gravity back again to g i.e.,
it is a problem technologically from g ′ = −ng to g , in such a way that the gravitational change
resolved several decades ago. Electric occurs just on the region shown in figure above.

generators are usually produced by the 4. The Gravitational Spacecraft


industries and they are commercially
available, so that it is enough to couple Consider a metallic sphere with
a gravitational motor to an electric radius rs in the terrestrial atmosphere.
generator for we obtaining electric If the external surface of the sphere is
energy. In this case, just a gravitational recovered with a radioactive substance
motor with the power above (for example, containing Americium
mentioned it would be enough to 241) then the air in the space close to
supply the need of electric energy of, the surface of the sphere will be
for example, at least 20 residences. strongly ionized by the radiation
Finally, it can substitute the emitted from the radioactive element
conventional motors of the same and, consequently, the electric
power, with the great advantage of not conductivity of the air close to sphere
needing of fuel for its operation. What will become strongly increased.
7
By applying to the sphere an shielding the gravity produced by the
electric potential of low frequency Vrms , sphere is g = −G M g r 2 , then, out of the
in order to produce an electric field shielding it becomes g′ = χairg .Thus,
E rms starting from the surface of the g′ = χair (− G M g r 2 ) = − G(χairM g ) r 2 = − Gmg r 2 ,
sphere, then very close to the surface, where
the intensity of the electric field will mg = χairM g
be E rms = Vrms rs and, in agreement with Therefore, for the Universe out of the
Eq. (4), the gravitational mass of the shielding the gravitational mass of the
Air in this region will be expressed by sphere is m g and not M g . In these
⎧ ⎡ 3 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ μ0 ⎛σair ⎞ Vrms
4
⎪ circumstances, the inertial forces
mg(air) = ⎨1−2 1+ 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 4 2 −1⎥⎬mi0(air) (7)
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 4c ⎝ 4πf ⎠ rs ρair ⎥⎪ acting on the sphere, in agreement
⎦⎭
with the new law for inertia, expressed
Therefore we will have by Eq. (5), will be given by
mg(air) ⎧⎪ ⎡
3 ⎤⎫ Fii = mg ai (9)
μ ⎛ σ ⎞ V4 ⎪
χair = = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 4rms2 −1⎥⎬
0 air
(8)
mi0(air) ⎪ ⎢ 4c ⎝ 4πf ⎠ rs ρair ⎥⎪ Thus, these forces will be almost null
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
when m g becomes almost null by
The gravity accelerations acting on the
sphere, due to the rest of the Universe means of the action of the gravitational
(See Fig. 2), will be given by shielding. This means that, in these
circumstances, the sphere practically
g i′ = χ air g i i = 1,2,..., n loses its inertial properties. This effect
leads to a new concept of spacecraft
and aerospatial flight. The spherical
Note that by varying Vrms or the
form of the spacecraft is just one form
frequency f , we can easily to reduce that the Gravitational Spacecraft can
and control χ air . Consequently, we can have, since the gravitational shielding
also control the intensities of the can also be obtained with other
gravity accelerations g i′ in order to formats.
produce a controllable gravitational An important aspect to be
shielding around the sphere. observed is that it is possible to control
Thus, the gravitational forces the gravitational mass of the
acting on the sphere, due to the rest of spacecraft, M g (spacecraf ) , simply by
the Universe, will be given by controlling the gravitational mass of a
Fgi = M g g i′ = M g (χ air g i ) body inside the spacecraft. For
where M g is the gravitational mass of instance, consider a parallel plate
the sphere. capacitor inside the spacecraft. The
The gravitational shielding gravitational mass of the dielectric
around of the sphere reduces both the between the plates of the capacitor can
gravity accelerations acting on the be controlled by means of the ELF
sphere, due to the rest of the Universe, electromagnetic field through it. Under
and the gravity acceleration produced these circumstances, the total
by the gravitational mass M g of the gravitational mass of the spacecraft
will be given by
own sphere. That is, if inside the
8
Gravitational Shielding
(spacecraf ) = M g (spacecraf ) + m g =
M gtotal
= M i 0 + χ dielectricmi 0 (10)

where M i 0 is the rest inertial mass of


S
the spacecraft(without the dielectric)
and mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the Erms Mg
dielectric; χ dielectric = m g mi 0 , where m g g = - G Mg / r2
g1’ = χair g1
is the gravitational mass of the
dielectric. By decreasing the value of
χ dielectric , the gravitational mass of the χair
spacecraft decreases. It was shown, g1 = - G M’g / r2
that the value of χ can be negative. g’ = - χair g = - χair G Mg / r2 =
r
Thus, when χ dielectric≅ − Mi0 mi0 , the
= - Gmg / r2
gravitational mass of the spacecraft M’g

gets very close to zero. mg = χair Mg


When χdielectric< − Mi0 mi0 , the gravitational Fig.2- The gravitational shielding reduces the gravity
accelerations ( g1’) acting on the sphere (due to the rest of the
mass of the spacecraft becomes Universe) and also reduces the gravity acceleration that the sphere
negative. produces upon all the particles of the Universe (g’). For the
Universe, the gravitational mass of the sphere will be mg = χair Mg.
Therefore, for an observer out
of the spacecraft, the gravitational As we have shown [2], a
mass of the spacecraft is gravitational repulsion is established
M g (spacecraf ) = M i 0 + χ dielectricmi 0 , and not between the mass M g and any positive
M i 0 + mi 0 . gravitational mass below the
Another important aspect to be mentioned system. This means that the
observed is that we can control the particles in this region will stay
gravity inside the spacecraft, in order subjected to a gravity acceleration a b ,
to produce, for example, a gravity given by
acceleration equal to the Earth’s r 3 r Mg
ab ≅ (χ air ) g M ≅ −(χ air ) G 2 μˆ (11)
3

gravity (g = 9.81m.s −2 ) . This will be r0


very useful in the case of space flight, If the Air inside the GCCs is
and can be easily obtained by putting sufficiently ionized, in such way that
in the ceiling of the spacecraft the σ air ≅ 103 S.m−1 , and if f = 1 Hz ,
system shown in Fig. 3. This system ρair ≅ 1 kg.m , Vrms ≅ 10 KV and d = 1 cm
−3

has three GCC with nuclei of ionized


then the Eq.8 shows that inside the
air (or air at low pressure). Above
GCCs we will have
these GCC there is a massive block
⎧ ⎡ 3 ⎤⎫
with mass M g . mg(air) ⎪ ⎢ μ0 ⎛ σair ⎞ Vrms
4

χair = = ⎨1− 2 1+ 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 4 2 −1⎥⎬ ≅ −103
mi0(air) ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 4c ⎝ 4πf ⎠ d ρair ⎥⎪
⎦⎭
9
FM
We can also use the system
Ceiling
shown in Fig. 3 as a thruster in order
Mg
to propel the spacecraft. Note that the
gravitational repulsion that occurs
GCC 1 χ air
between the block with mass M g and
GCC 2 χ air d
G CC3 χ air any particle after the GCCs does not
depend on of the place where the
system is working. Thus, this
Gravitational Thruster can propel the
r0 gravitational spacecraft in any
direction. Moreover, it can work in the
terrestrial atmosphere as well as in the
cosmic space. In this case, the energy
that produces the propulsion is
ab
obviously the gravitational energy,
μ Floor which is always present in any point of
r 3 r Mg the Universe.
ab ≅ (χ air ) g M ≅ −(χ air ) G 2 μˆ
3

r0 The schematic diagram in Fig. 4


Fig.3 – If the Air inside the GCC is sufficiently shows in details the operation of the
ionized, in such way that σ air ≅ 103 S.m −1 and Gravitational Thruster. A gas of any
if f =1 Hz; d = 1cm; ρair ≅ 1 kg.m and Vrms ≅ 10 KV
−3 type injected into the chamber beyond
then Eq. 8 shows that inside the CCGs we will have the GCCs acquires an acceleration
χ air ≅ −103 . Therefore, for M g ≅ M i ≅ 100 kg and a gas , as shown in Fig.4, the intensity of
ro ≅ 1m the gravity acceleration inside the spacecraft which, as we have seen, is given by
will be directed from the ceiling to the floor of the
a gas = (χ gas ) g M ≅ −(χ gas ) G
Mg
spacecraft and its intensity will be a b ≈ 10 m.s −2 .
3 3
(14)
r02
Therefore the equation (11) gives Thus, if inside of the GCCs, χ gas ≅ −109
Mg then the equation above gives
ab ≈ +109 G (12) Mg
r02 a gas ≅ +10 27 G (15)
r02
For M g ≅ M i ≅ 100 kg and r0 ≅ 1m (See
For M g ≅ M i ≅ 10kg , r0 ≅ 1m we have
Fig.3), the gravity inside the spacecraft
agas ≅ 6.6 ×1017 m.s−2 . With this enormous
will be directed from the ceiling to the
floor and its intensity will have the acceleration the particles of the gas
following value reach velocities close to the speed of
ab ≈ 10m.s −2 (13) the light in just a few nanoseconds.
Therefore, an interstellar travel in a Thus, if the emission rate of the gas is
gravitational spacecraft will be dmgas dt ≅ 10−3 kg / s ≅ 4000litres/ hour, then
particularly comfortable, since we can the trust produced by the gravitational
travel during all the time subjected to thruster will be
the gravity which we are accustomed
to here in the Earth.
10
F = v gas
dmgas
≅c
dmgas
≅ 105 N (16) where the spacecraft is placed. By
dt dt adjusting the shielding for χ out = 0.01
and if M spacecraft = 104 Kg then for a thrust
F ≅ 10 5 N , the acceleration of the
Gas spacecraft will be
Mg
a spacecraft = 1000m.s −2 (18)
GCC GCC GCC
r0 mg μ With this acceleration, in just at 1(one)
FM 1 2 3
Fm
agas day, the velocity of the spacecraft will
be close to the speed of light.
Gas However it is easy to see that χ out can
still be much more reduced and,
consequently, the thrust much more
Fig. 4 – Gravitational Thruster – Schematic diagram
showing the operation of the Gravitational Thruster. Note increased so that it is possible to
that in the case of very strong χair , for increase up to 1 million times the
example χair ≅ −109 , the gravity accelerations upon the acceleration of the spacecraft.
boxes of the second and third GCCs become very strong. It is important to note that, the
Obviously, the walls of the mentioned boxes cannot to stand
the enormous pressures. However, it is possible to build a
inertial effects upon the spacecraft will
similar system [2] with 3 or more GCCs, without material be reduced by χout = M g Mi ≅ 0.01. Then,
boxes. Consider for example, a surface with several
radioactive sources (Am-241, for example). The alpha in spite of its effective acceleration to
particles emitted from the Am-241 cannot reach besides be a = 1000m.s −2 , the effects for the crew
10cm of air. Due to the trajectory of the alpha particles, three
or more successive layers of air, with different electrical of the spacecraft will be equivalents to
conductivities σ1 , σ 2 and σ 3 , will be established in the an acceleration of only
ionized region. It is easy to see that the gravitational
shielding effect produced by these three layers is similar to
Mg
the effect produced by the 3 GCCs above. a′ = a ≈ 10m.s −1
Mi
It is easy to see that the gravitational
thrusters are able to produce strong This is the magnitude of the
trusts (similarly to the produced by the acceleration on the passengers in a
powerful thrusters of the modern contemporary commercial jet.
aircrafts) just by consuming the Then, it is noticed that the
injected gas for its operation. gravitational spacecrafts can be
It is important to note that, if subjected to enormous accelerations
F is the thrust produced by the (or decelerations) without imposing
gravitational thruster then, in any harmful impacts whatsoever on
agreement with Eq. (5), the spacecraft the spacecrafts or its crew.
acquires an acceleration a spacecraft , We can also use the system
expressed by the following equation shown in Fig. 3, as a lifter, inclusively
aspacecraft =
F
=
F
(17) within the spacecraft, in order to lift
M g ( spacecraft) χ out M i ( spacecraft) peoples or things into the spacecraft as
Where χ out , given by Eq. (8), is the shown in Fig. 5. Just using two GCCs,
factor of gravitational shielding which the gravitational acceleration produced
depends on the external medium below the GCCs will be
11
r
ag = (χ air ) g M ≅ −(χ air ) G M g r02 μˆ (19) Thus, if the gravitational mass of
2 2

Note that, in this case, if χ air is the particle is reduced by means of the
r absorption of an amount of
negative, the acceleration a g will have
electromagnetic energy U , for
a direction contrary to the versor μ̂ , example, then we have
i.e., the body will be attracted in the
direction of the GCCs, as shown in χ=
Mg ⎧
(
= ⎨1 − 2⎡⎢ 1 + U mi0 c 2 ) 2 ⎫
− 1⎤⎥⎬
Mi ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
Fig.5. In practice, this will occur when This shows that the energy U
the air inside the GCCs is sufficiently continues acting on the particle turned
ionized, in such a way that imaginary. In practice this means that
σ air ≅ 103 S.m−1 . Thus, if the internal electromagnetic fields act on
thickness of the GCCs is now d =1 mm imaginary particles. Therefore, the
and if f = 1 Hz ; ρ air ≅ 1 kg.m −3 and internal electromagnetic field of a
Vrms ≅ 10 KV , we will then have GCC remains acting upon the particles
χair ≅ −105 . Therefore, for Mg ≅ Mi ≅ 100kg inside the GCC even when their
gravitational masses are in the range
and, for example, r0 ≅ 10 m the
+ 0.159 M i to − 0.159M i , turning them
gravitational acceleration acting on the
imaginaries. This is very important
body will be ab ≈ 0.6m.s −2 . It is obvious
because it means that the GCCs of a
that this value can be easily increased gravitational spacecraft remain
or decreased, simply by varying the working even when the spacecraft
voltage Vrms . Thus, by means of this becomes imaginary.
Gravitational Lifter, we can lift or Under these conditions, the
lower persons or materials with great gravity accelerations acting on the
versatility of operation. imaginary spacecraft, due to the rest of
It was shown [1] that, when the the Universe will be, as we have see,
gravitational mass of a particle is given by
reduced into the range, + 0.159 M i to g i′ = χ g i i = 1,2,..., n
− 0.159M i , it becomes imaginary, i.e., Where χ = M g (imaginary ) and
M i (imaginary )
its masses (gravitational and inertial) g i = − Gm gi (imaginary ) ri 2 . Thus, the
becomes imaginary. Consequently, the gravitational forces acting on the
particle disappears from our ordinary spacecraft will be given by
Universe, i.e., it becomes invisible for
us. This is therefore a manner of to Fgi = M g (imaginary ) g i′ =
obtain the transitory invisibility of
persons, animals, spacecraft, etc. ( )
= M g (imaginary ) − χGm gj (imaginary ) r j2 =
However, the factor ( )
= M g i − χGm gi i ri 2 = + χGM g m gi ri 2 . (20)
χ = M g (imaginary) M i (imaginary) remains real
because Note that these forces are real. By
calling that, the Mach’s principle says
M g (imaginary ) M gi Mg that the inertial effects upon a particle
χ= = = = real
M i (imaginary ) M ii Mi are consequence of the gravitational
interaction of the particle with the rest
12
of the Universe. Then we can conclude It is easy to show that the
that the inertial forces acting on the gravitational forces between two thin
spacecraft in imaginary state are also layers of air (with masses m g1 and
real. Therefore, it can travel in the m g 2 ) around the spacecraft , are
imaginary space-time using the
expressed by
gravitational thrusters. r r m m
F12 = −F21 = −(χ air ) G i1 2 i 2 μˆ (21)
2

r
Mg
Note that these forces can be strongly
GCC 1 χ air
increased by increasing the value of
GCC 2 χ air χ air . In these circumstances, the air
around the spacecraft would be
rb strongly compressed upon the external
surface of the spacecraft creating an
atmosphere around it. This can be
particularly useful in order to
minimize the friction between the
spacecraft and the atmosphere of the
planet in the case of very high speed
ab movements of the spacecraft. With the
atmosphere around the spacecraft the
μ friction will occur between the
r 2 r Mg atmosphere of the spacecraft and the
ab ≅ (χ air ) g M ≅ −(χ air ) G 2 μˆ
2

rb
atmosphere of the planet. In this way,
the friction will be minimum and the
Fig.5 – The Gravitational Lifter – If the air inside the
GCCs is sufficiently ionized, in such way that spacecraft could travel at very high
σ air ≅ 103 S.m−1 and the internal thickness of the speeds without overheating.
GCCs is now d =1 mm then, if f =1 Hz;
However, in order for this to occur,
it is necessary to put the gravitational
ρ air ≅ 1 kg.m and Vrms ≅ 10 KV ,
−3
we have
shielding in another position as shown
χair ≅ −10 . Therefore, for M g ≅ M i ≅ 100kg and
5
in Fig.2. Thus, the values of χ airB
r0 ≅ 10 m the gravity acceleration acting on the
and χ airA will be independent (See
body will be ab ≈ 0.6m.s −2 .
Fig.6). Thus, while inside the
It was also shown [1] that gravitational shielding, the value of
imaginary particles can have infinity χ airB is put close to zero, in order to
velocity in the imaginary space-time. strongly reduce the gravitational mass
Therefore, this is also the upper limit of the spacecraft (inner part of the
of velocity for the gravitational shielding), the value of χ airA must be
spacecrafts traveling in the imaginary reduced to about − 10 8 in order to
space-time. On the other hand, the strongly increase the gravitational
travel in the imaginary space-time can attraction between the air molecules
be very safe, because there will not be around the spacecraft. Thus, by
any material body in the trajectory of
the spacecraft.
13
substituting χ airA ≅ −10 intoEq.21,
8
we 5. The Imaginary Space-time
get
r r mm The speed of light in free space
F12 = −F21 = −1016 G i1 2 i 2 μˆ (22) is, as we know, about of 300.000 km/s.
r
If, mi1 ≅ mi 2 = ρ air V1 ≅ ρ air V2 ≅ 10−8 kg and The speeds of the fastest modern
airplanes of the present time do not
r = 10 −3 m then Eq. 22 gives
r r reach 2 km/s and the speed of rockets
F12 = −F21 ≅ −10−4 N (23) do not surpass 20 km/s. This shows
These forces are much more intense how much our aircraft and rockets are
than the inter-atomic forces (the forces slow when compared with the speed of
that unite the atoms and molecules) the light.
intensities of which are of the order of The star nearest to the Earth
1 − 1000 × 10 −8 N . Consequently, the air (excluding the Sun obviously) is the
around the spacecraft will be strongly Alpha of Centaur, which is about of 4
compressed upon the surface of the light-years distant from the Earth
spacecraft and thus will produce a (Approximately 37.8 trillions of
crust of air which will accompany the kilometers). Traveling at a speed about
spacecraft during its displacement and 100 times greater than the maximum
will protect it from the friction with speed of our faster spacecrafts, we
the atmosphere of the planet. would take about 600 years to reach
Gravitational Shielding Alpha of Centaur. Then imagine how
(GCC)
many years we would take to leave our
E rms own galaxy. In fact, it is not difficult
to see that our spacecrafts are very
χ airB
Atmosphere slow, even for travels in our own solar
of the
Spacecraft system.
Gravitational One of the fundamental
Spacecraft χ airA characteristics of the gravitational
spacecraft, as we already saw, is its
capability to acquire enormous
accelerations without submitting the
crew to any discomfort.
Impelled by gravitational
thrusters gravitational spacecrafts can
Fig. 6 – Artificial atmosphere around the gravitational acquire accelerations until 10 8 m.s −2 or
spacecraft - while inside the gravitational shielding more. This means that these
the value of χ airB is putted close to zero, in order to spacecrafts can reach speeds very
strongly reduces the gravitational mass of the close to the speed of light in just a few
spacecraft (inner part of the shielding), the value of
χ airA must be reduced for about − 108 in order to
seconds. These gigantic accelerations
strongly increase the gravitational attraction between can be unconceivable for a layman,
the air molecules around the spacecraft. however they are common in our
Universe. For example, when we
submit an electron to an electric field
14
of just 1 Volt / m it acquires an impracticable. Besides, to travel at
acceleration a , given by such a speed would be very dangerous,
because a shock with other celestial
a=
( )(
eE 1.6 × 10 −19 C 1 V / m
=
)
≅ 1011 m.s − 2
bodies would be inevitable. However,
me 9.11 × 10 −31 as we showed [1] there is a possibility
of a spacecraft travel quickly far
As we see, this acceleration is about beyond our galaxy without the risk of
100 times greater than that acquired by being destroyed by a sudden shock
the gravitational spacecraft previously with some celestial body. The solution
mentioned. is the gravitational spacecraft travel
By using the gravitational through the Imaginary or Complex
shieldings it is possible to reduce the Space-time.
inertial effects upon the spacecraft. As It was shown [1] that it is
we have shown, they are reduced by possible to carry out a transition to the
the factor χ out = M g M i . Thus, if the Imaginary space-time or Imaginary
Universe. It is enough that the body
inertial mass of the spacecraft is
has its gravitational mass reduced to a
M i = 10.000kg and, by means of the
value in the range of + 0.159 M i
gravitational shielding effect the
to − 0.159M i . In these circumstances,
gravitational mass of the spacecraft is
reduced to M g ≈ 10 −8 M i then , in spite the masses of the body (gravitational
and inertial) become imaginaries and,
of the effective acceleration to be
so does the body. (Fig.7).
gigantic, for example, a ≈ 10 9 m.s −2 , the
Consequently, the body disappears
effects for the crew of the spacecraft
from our ordinary space-time and
would be equivalents to an
appears in the imaginary space-time.
acceleration a′ of only
In other words, it becomes invisible
a′ =
Mg
Mi
( )( )
a = 10 −8 10 9 ≈ 10m.s − 2 for an observer at the real Universe.
Therefore, this is a way to get
This acceleration is similar to that temporary invisibility of human
which the passengers of a beings, animals, spacecrafts, etc.
contemporary commercial jet are Thus, a spacecraft can leave our
subjected. Universe and appear in the Imaginary
Therefore the crew of the Universe, where it can travel at any
gravitational spacecraft would be speed since in the Imaginary Universe
comfortable while the spacecraft there is no speed limit for the
would reach speeds close to the speed gravitational spacecraft, as it occurs in
of light in few seconds. However to our Universe, where the particles
travel at such velocities in the cannot surpass the light speed. In this
Universe may note be practical. Take way, as the gravitational spacecraft is
for example, Alpha of Centaur (4 propelled by the gravitational
light-years far from the Earth): a round thrusters, it can attain accelerations up
trip to it would last about eight years. to 10 9 m.s −2 , then after one day of trip
Trips beyond that star could take then with this acceleration, it can
several decades, and this obviously is
15
of the spacecraft in such way that it
leaves the range of + 0.159 M i
to − 0.159M i . Thus the spacecraft can
transition reappear in our Universe near its
( −0.159 > mg > +0.159 ) target.
ΔtAB =1 second
B
The return trip would be done in
similar way. That is to say, the
1 light-year
Vmax = ∞ Vmax = c spacecraft would transit in the
imaginary Universe back to the
ΔtAB =1 year
departure place where would reappear
dAB = 1 light-year in our Universe and it would make the
photon approach flight to the wanted point.
Thus, trips through our Universe that
would delay millions of years, at
transition speeds close to the speed of light,
( −0.159 < mg < +0.159 ) mg A could be done in just a few months in
Gravitational Spacecraft
the imaginary Universe.
Fig. 7 – Travel in the Imaginary Space-time. What will an observer see when
in the imaginary space-time? It will
reach velocities V ≈ 1014 m.s −1 (about 1 see light, bodies, planets, stars, etc.,
million times the speed of light). With everything formed by imaginary
this velocity, after 1 month of trip the photons, imaginary atoms, imaginary
spacecraft would have traveled protons, imaginary neutrons and
about 10 21 m . In order to have idea of imaginary electrons. That is to say,
this distance, it is enough to remind the observer will find an Universe
that the diameter of our Universe similar to ours, just formed by
(visible Universe) is of the order particles with imaginary masses. The
of 10 26 m . term imaginary adopted from the
Due to the extremely low Mathematics, as we already saw, gives
density of the imaginary bodies, the the false impression that these masses
collision between them cannot have do not exist. In order to avoid this
the same consequences of the collision misunderstanding we researched the
between the dense real bodies. true nature of that new mass type and
Thus for a gravitational matter.
spacecraft in imaginary state the The existence of imaginary mass
problem of the collision doesn't exist associated to the neutrino is well-
in high-speed. Consequently, the known. Although its imaginary mass is
gravitational spacecraft can transit not physically observable, its square
freely in the imaginary Universe and, is. This amount is found
in this way reach easily any point of experimentally to be negative.
our real Universe once they can make Recently, it was shown [1] that quanta
the transition back to our Universe by of imaginary mass exist associated to
only increasing the gravitational mass the photons, electrons, neutrons, and
16
protons, and that these imaginary indicated by Ψ . The wave function
masses would have psychic properties associated to a material particle
(elementary capability of “choice”). describes the dynamic state of the
Thus, the true nature of this new kind particle: its value at a particular point
of mass and matter shall be psychic x, y, z, t is related to the probability of
and, therefore we should not use the finding the particle in that place and
term imaginary any longer. instant. Although Ψ does not have a
Consequently from the above exposed physical interpretation, its square Ψ 2
we can conclude that the gravitational (or Ψ Ψ * ) calculated for a particular
spacecraft penetrates in the Psychic point x, y, z, t is proportional to the
Universe and not in an “imaginary” probability of experimentally finding
Universe. the particle in that place and instant.
In this Universe, the matter Since Ψ 2 is proportional to the
would be, obviously composed by probability P of finding the particle
psychic molecules and psychic atoms described by Ψ , the integral of Ψ 2 on
formed by psychic neutrons, psychic the whole space must be finite –
protons and psychic electrons. i.e., the inasmuch as the particle is someplace.
matter would have psychic mass and Therefore, if
consequently it would be subtle, much +∞

less dense than the matter of our real ∫ −∞


Ψ 2 dV = 0

Universe. The interpretation is that the particle


Thus, from a quantum viewpoint, does not exist. Conversely, if
+∞
the psychic particles are similar to the ∫−∞
Ψ 2 dV = ∞
material particles, so that we can use the particle will be everywhere
the Quantum Mechanics to describe simultaneously.
the psychic particles. In this case, by The wave function Ψ
analogy to the material particles, a corresponds, as we know, to the
particle with psychic mass mΨ will be displacement y of the undulatory
described by the following motion of a rope. However, Ψ as
expressions: opposed to y , is not a measurable
r r quantity and can, hence, being a
pψ = hkψ
complex quantity. For this reason, it is
Eψ = hωψ admitted that Ψ is described in the x -
r
direction by
r ( )
− 2π i h ( Et − px )
Where pψ = mΨV is the momentum Ψ = Be
carried by the wave and Eψ its energy; This equation is the mathematical
r description of the wave associated
kψ = 2π λψ is the propagation number
with a free material particle, with total
and λψ = h mΨ V the wavelength and energy E and momentum p , moving in
ωψ = 2πfψ its cyclic frequency. the direction + x .
The variable quantity that As concerns the psychic
characterizes DeBroglie’s waves is particle, the variable quantity
called Wave Function, usually characterizing psyche waves will also
17
be called wave function, denoted by dynamic state, represented by Ψ1 e
ΨΨ ( to distinguish it from the material Ψ2 in the formation of the general
particle wave function), and, by dynamic state described by Ψ .
analogy with equation of Ψ , In the case of psychic particles
expressed by: (psychic bodies, consciousness, etc.),
( )
− 2π i h ( EΨ t − pΨ x )
ΨΨ = Ψ0 e by analogy, if ΨΨ1 , ΨΨ 2 ,..., ΨΨn refer
If an experiment involves a to the different dynamic states the
large number of identical particles, all psychic particle takes, then its general
described by the same wave function dynamic state may be described by the
Ψ , the real density of mass ρ of wave function ΨΨ , given by:
these particles in x, y, z, t is ΨΨ = c1ΨΨ1 + c2 ΨΨ 2 + ... + cn ΨΨn
proportional to the corresponding The state of superposition of wave
value Ψ 2 ( Ψ 2 is known as density of functions is, therefore, common for
probability. If Ψ is complex then both psychic and material particles. In
Ψ 2 = ΨΨ* . Thus, ρ ∝ Ψ 2 = Ψ.Ψ* ). the case of material particles, it can be
Similarly, in the case of psychic verified, for instance, when an electron
particles, the density of psychic mass, changes from one orbit to another.
ρ Ψ , in x, y, z, will be expressed by Before effecting the transition to
ρ Ψ ∝ ΨΨ2 = ΨΨ Ψ*Ψ . It is known that ΨΨ2 another energy level, the electron
is always real and positive while carries out “virtual transitions” [6]. A
ρ Ψ = mΨ V is an imaginary quantity. kind of relationship with other
electrons before performing the real
Thus, as the modulus of an imaginary
transition. During this relationship
number is always real and positive, we
period, its wave function remains
can transform the proportion ρ Ψ ∝ ΨΨ2 ,
“scattered” by a wide region of the
in equality in the following form: space [7] thus superposing the wave
ΨΨ2 = k ρ Ψ functions of the other electrons. In this
Where k is a proportionality constant relationship the electrons mutually
(real and positive) to be determined. influence each other, with the
In Quantum Mechanics we have possibility of intertwining their wave
studied the Superposition Principle, functions § . When this happens, there
which affirms that, if a particle (or occurs the so-called Phase
system of particles) is in a dynamic Relationship according to quantum-
state represented by a wave function mechanics concept.
Ψ1 and may also be in another In the electrons “virtual”
dynamic state described by Ψ2 then, transition mentioned before, the
the general dynamic state of the “listing” of all the possibilities of the
particle may be described by Ψ , electrons is described, as we know, by
where Ψ is a linear combination Schrödinger’s wave equation.
(superposition) of Ψ1 and Ψ2 , i.e., §
Since the electrons are simultaneously waves and
Ψ = c1 Ψ1 + c2 Ψ2 particles, their wave aspects will interfere with each
The Complex constants c1 e c2 other; besides superposition, there is also the
possibility of occurrence of intertwining of their wave
respectively express the percentage of functions.
18
Otherwise, it is general for material human consciousnesses establish
particles. By analogy, in the case of among themselves and with the
psychic particles, we may say that the Ordinary Universe. Besides, we have
“listing” of all the possibilities of the shown that the Psychic Interaction
psyches involved in the relationship postulates a new model for the
will be described by Schrödinger’s evolution theory, in which the
equation – for psychic case, i.e., evolution is interpreted not only as a
p Ψ2 biological fact, but mainly as psychic
∇ 2 ΨΨ + ΨΨ = 0
h2 fact. Therefore, is not only the
Because the wave functions are mankind that evolves in the Earth’s
capable of intertwining themselves, planet, but all the ecosystem of the
the quantum systems may “penetrate” Earth.
each other, thus establishing an
internal relationship where all of them
are affected by the relationship, no 6. Past and Future
longer being isolated systems but
becoming an integrated part of a larger It was shown [1,9] that the
system. This type of internal collapse of the psychic wave function
relationship, which exists only in must suddenly also express in reality
quantum systems, was called (real space-time) all the possibilities
Relational Holism [8]. described by it. This is, therefore, a
We have used the Quantum point of decision in which there occurs
Mechanics in order to describe the the compelling need of realization of
foundations of the Psychic Universe the psychic form. We have seen that
which the Gravitational Spacecrafts the materialization of the psychic
will find, and that influences us daily. form, in the real space-time, occurs
These foundations recently discovered when it contains enough psychic mass
– particularly the Psychic Interaction, for the total materialization †† of the
show us that a rigorous description of psychic form (Materialization
the Universe cannot to exclude the Condition). When this happens, all the
psychic energy and the psychic psychic energy contained in the
particles. This verification makes psychic form is transformed in real
evident the need of to redefine the energy in the real space-time. Thus, in
Psychology with basis on the quantum the psychic space-time just the
foundations recently discovered. This holographic register of the psychic
has been made in the article: “Physical form, which gives origin to that fact,
Foundations of Quantum survives, since the psychic energy
**
Psychology” [9], recently published, deforms the metric of the psychic
where it is shown that the Psychic space-time ‡‡ , producing the
Interaction leads us to understand the ††
By this we mean not only materialization proper but
Psychic Universe and the also the movement of matter to realize its psychic
extraordinary relationship that the content (including radiation).
‡‡
As shown in General Theory of Relativity the
** energy modifies the metric of the space-time
http://htpprints.yorku.ca/archive/00000297 (deforming the space-time).
19
holographic register. Thus, the past Since both registrations are in
survive in the psychic space-time just the psychic space-time, then the access
in the form of holographic register. to their information only occur by
That is to say, all that have occurred in means of the interaction with another
the past is holographically registered psychic body, for example, our
in the psychic space-time. Further consciousness or a psychic observer
ahead, it will be seen that this register (body totally formed by psychic mass).
can be accessed by an observer in the We have seen that, if the gravitational
psychic space-time as well as by an mass of a body is reduced to within the
observer in the real space-time. range + 0.159 M i to − 0.159M i , its
A psychic form is intensified by gravitational and inertial masses
means of a continuous addition of become imaginaries (psychics) and,
psychic mass. Thus, when it acquires therefore, the body becomes a psychic
sufficiently psychic mass, its body. Thus, a real observer can also
realization occurs in the real space- become in a psychic observer. In this
time. Thus the future is going being way, a gravitational spacecraft can
built in the present. By means of our transform all its inertial mass into
current thoughts we shape the psychic psychic mass, and thus carry out a
forms that will go (or will not) take transition to the psychic space-time
place in the future. Consequently, and become a psychic spacecraft. In
those psychic forms are continually these circumstances, an observer
being holographically registered in the inside the spacecraft also will have its
psychic space-time and, just as the mass transformed into psychic mass,
holographic registrations of the past and, therefore, the observer also will
these future registration can also be be transformed into a psychic
accessed by the psychic space-time as observer. What will this observer see
well as by the real space-time. when it penetrates the psychic
The access to the holographic Universe? According to the
registration of the past doesn't allow, Correspondence principle, all that
obviously, the modification of the exists in the real Universe must have
past. This is not possible because there the correspondent in the psychic
would be a clear violation of the Universe and vice-versa. This
principle of causality that says that the principle reminds us that we live in
causes should precede the effects. more than one world. At the present
However, the psychic forms that are time, we live in the real Universe, but
being shaped now in order to manifest we can also live in the psychic
themselves in the future, can be Universe. Therefore, the psychic
modified before they manifest observer will see the psychic bodies
themselves. Thus, the access to the and their correspondents in the real
registration of those psychic forms Universe. Thus, a pilot of a
becomes highly relevant for our gravitational spacecraft, in travel
present life, since we can avoid the through the psychic space-time, won't
manifestation of many unpleasant facts have difficulty to spot the spacecraft in
in the future. its trips through the Universe.
20
The fact of the psychic forms If the gravitational mass of a
manifest themselves in the real space- particle is positive, then t is always
time exactly at its images and likeness, positive and given by
it indicates that real forms (forms in
the real space-time) are prior to all t = + t0 1−V 2 c2
reflective images of psychic forms of
the past. Thus, the real space-time is a This leads to the well-known
mirror of the psychic space-time. relativistic prediction that the particle
Consequently, any register in the goes to the future if V → c . However,
psychic space-time will have a if the gravitational mass of the particle
correspondent image in the real space- is negative, then t is also negative and,
time. This means that it is possible that therefore, given by
we find in the real space-time the
image of the holographic register
t = −t0 1−V 2 c2
existing in the psychic space-time,
corresponding to our past. Similarly,
every psychic form that is being In this case, the prevision is that the
shaped in the psychic space-time will particle goes to the past if V → c . In
have reflective image in the real space- this way, negative gravitational mass
time. Thus, the image of the is the necessary condition to the
holographic register of our future particle to go to the past.
(existing in the psychic space-time) Since the acceleration of a
can also be found in the real space- spacecraft with gravitational mass m g ,
time. is given by a = F m g , where F is the
Each image of the holographic thrust of its thrusters, then the more we
register of our future will be obviously reduce the value of m g the bigger the
correlated to a future epoch in the
acceleration of the spacecraft will be.
temporal coordinate of the space-time.
However, since the value of m g cannot
In the same way, each image of the
holographic registration of our past be reduced to the range + 0.159 M i to
will be correlated to a passed time in − 0.159M i because the spacecraft
the temporal coordinate of the referred would become a psychic body, and it
space-time. Thus, in order to access needs to remain in the real space-time
the mentioned registrations we should in order to access the past or the future
accomplish trips to the past or future in the real space-time, then, the ideal
in the real space-time. This is possible values for the spacecraft to operate
now, with the advent of the with safety would be ± 0.2mi . Let us
gravitational spacecrafts because they consider a gravitational spacecraft
allow us to reach speeds close to the whose inertial mass is mi = 10.000kg . If
speed of light. Thus, by varying the its gravitational mass was made
gravitational mass of the spacecraft for negative and equal to
negative or positive we can go
m g = −0.2mi = −2000 kg and, at this
respectively to the past or future [1].
instant the thrust produced by the
21
thrusters of the spacecraft was of the ionized air inside the GCC
F = 10 N then, the spacecraft would
5
and ρ (ar ) is its density; f is the
acquire acceleration a = F mg = 50m.s−2 frequency of the magnetic field.
and, after t = 30days = 2.5 × 10 6 s , the By varying B one can vary
speed of the spacecraft would be mg (air) and consequently to vary the
v = 1.2 × 108 m.s −1 = 0.4c . Therefore, right gravitational field generated by mg (air) ,
after that the spacecraft returned to the producing then Gravitational
Earth, its crew would find the Earth in Radiation. Then a GCC can work as a
the past (due to the negative Gravitational Antenna.
gravitational mass of the spacecraft) at Apparently, Newton’s theory of
a time t = − t 0 1−V 2 c 2 ; t 0 is the time gravity had no gravitational waves
measured by an observer at rest on the because, if a gravitational field
Earth. Thus, if t 0 = 2009 AD, the time changed in some way, that change
interval Δt = t − t 0 would be expressed would have taken place
by instantaneously everywhere in space,
and one can think that there is not a
⎛ ⎞
wave in this case. However, we have
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
Δt = t −t0 = −t0⎜ −1⎟ = −t0⎜ −1⎟ ≅ already seen that the gravitational
⎜ 1−V c ⎟
2 2
⎝ 1−0.16 ⎠
⎝ ⎠ interaction can be repulsive, besides
≅ −0.091t0 ≅ −183years
Graviphotons
That is, the spacecraft would be in the v=∞
year 1826 AD. On the other hand, if GCC
Air

the gravitational mass of the spacecraft


would have become positive
m g = +0.2 m i = +2000 kg , instead of Coil
i Real gravitational waves
negative, then the spacecraft would be v=c

in the future at Δt = +183 years from f

2009. That is, it would be in the year


2192 AD.
(a) Antenna GCC

7. Instantaneous Interestelar
Communications
GCC GCC

Consider a cylindrical GCC Graviphoton


v=∞
(GCC antenna) as shown in Fig.8. The
gravitational mass of the air inside the
GCC is i i
⎧ ⎡ σ (air) B 4 ⎤⎫⎪

(24)
f f
mg (air ) ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + − 1⎥⎬mi (air )
⎪⎩ ⎢ 4πfμρ 2
(air ) c 2
⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭
Where σ (ar ) is the electric conductivity Transmitter (b) Receiver

Fig. 8 – Transmitter and Receiver of Virtual Gravitational Radiation.


22
attractive. Thus, as with virtual gravitational radiation. In
electromagnetic interaction, the addition, the scattering of this
gravitational interaction must be radiation is null. Therefore the virtual
produced by the exchange of "virtual" gravitational radiation is very suitable
quanta of spin 1 and mass null, i.e., the as a means of transmitting information
gravitational "virtual" quanta at any distances, including
(graviphoton) must have spin 1 and astronomical distances.
not 2. Consequently, the fact that a As concerns detection of the
change in a gravitational field reaches virtual gravitational radiation from
instantaneously every point in space GCC antenna, there are many options.
occurs simply due to the speed of the Due to Resonance Principle a similar
graviphoton to be infinite. It is known GCC antenna (receiver) tuned at the
that there is no speed limit for same frequency can absorb energy
“virtual” photons. On the other hand, from an incident virtual gravitational
the electromagnetic quanta (“virtual” radiation (See Fig.8 (b)).
photons) can not communicate the Consequently, the gravitational mass
electromagnetic interaction to an of the air inside the GCC receiver will
infinite distance. vary such as the gravitational mass of
Thus, there are two types of the air inside the GCC transmitter.
gravitational radiation: the real and This will induce a magnetic field
virtual, which is constituted of similar to the magnetic field of the
graviphotons; the real gravitational GCC transmitter and therefore the
waves are ripples in the space-time current through the coil inside the
generated by gravitational field GCC receiver will have the same
changes. According to Einstein’s characteristics of the current through
theory of gravity the velocity of the coil inside the GCC transmitter.
propagation of these waves is equal to However, the volume and pressure of
the speed of light [10]. the air inside the two GCCs must be
Unlike the electromagnetic exactly the same; also the type and the
waves the real gravitational waves quantity of atoms in the air inside the
have low interaction with matter and two GCCs must be exactly the same.
consequently low scattering. Therefore Thus, the GCC antennas are simple
real gravitational waves are suitable as but they are not easy to build.
a means of transmitting information. Note that a GCC antenna
However, when the distance between radiates graviphotons and
transmitter and receiver is too gravitational waves simultaneously
large, for example of the order of (Fig. 8 (a)). Thus, it is not only a
magnitude of several light-years, the gravitational antenna: it is a Quantum
transmission of information by means Gravitational Antenna because it can
of gravitational waves becomes also emit and detect gravitational
impracticable due to the long time "virtual" quanta (graviphotons),
necessary to receive the information. which, in turn, can transmit
On the other hand, there is no delay information instantaneously from any
during the transmissions by means of
23
distance in the Universe without Universe, by means of the above
scattering. mentioned systems of transmission
Due to the difficulty to build and reception of “virtual” gravitational
two similar GCC antennas and, waves.
considering that the electric current in
the receiver antenna can be detectable 8. Origin of Gravity and Genesis of
even if the gravitational mass of the the Gravitational Energy
nuclei of the antennas are not strongly
reduced, then we propose to replace It was shown [1] that the
the gas at the nuclei of the antennas by “virtual” quanta of the gravitational
a thin dielectric lamina. When the interaction must have spin 1 and not 2,
virtual gravitational radiation strikes and that they are “virtual” photons
upon the dielectric lamina, its (graviphotons) with zero mass outside
gravitational mass varies similarly to the coherent matter. Inside the
the gravitational mass of the dielectric coherent matter the graviphotons mass
lamina of the transmitter antenna, is non-zero. Therefore, the
inducing an electromagnetic field gravitational forces are also gauge
( E , B ) similar to the transmitter forces, because they are yielded by the
antenna. Thus, the electric current in exchange of "virtual" quanta of spin 1,
the receiver antenna will have the such as the electromagnetic forces and
same characteristics of the current in the weak and strong nuclear forces.
the transmitter antenna. In this way, it Thus, the gravitational forces
is then possible to build two similar are produced by the exchanging of
antennas whose nuclei have the same “virtual” photons (Fig.9).
volumes and the same types and Consequently, this is precisely the
quantities of atoms. origin of the gravity.
Note that the Quantum Newton’s theory of gravity does
Gravitational Antennas can also be not explain why objects attract one
used to transmit electric power. It is another; it simply models this
easy to see that the Transmitter and observation. Also Einstein’s theory
Receiver can work with strong does not explain the origin of gravity.
voltages and electric currents. This Einstein’s theory of gravity only
means that strong electric power can describes gravity with more precision
be transmitted among Quantum than Newton’s theory does.
Gravitational Antennas. This Besides, there is nothing in both
obviously solves the problem of theories explaining the origin of the
wireless electric power transmission. energy that produces the gravitational
Thus, we can conclude that the forces. Earth’s gravity attracts all
spacecrafts do not necessarily need to objects on the surface of our planet.
have a system for generation of This has been going on for over 4.5
electric energy inside them. Since the billions years, yet no known energy
electric energy to be used in the source is being converted to support
spacecraft can be instantaneously this tremendous ongoing energy
transmitted from any point of the expenditure. Also is the enormous
24
continuous energy expended by The Uncertainty Principle
Earth’s gravitational field for tells us that, due to the occurrence of
maintaining the Moon in its orbit - exchange of graviphotons in a time
millennium after millennium. In spite interval Δt < h ΔE (where ΔE is the
of the ongoing energy expended by energy of the graviphoton), the energy
Earth’s gravitational field to hold variation ΔE cannot be detected in the
objects down on surface and the Moon system M g − m g . Since the total energy
in orbit, why the energy of the field W is the sum of the energy of the n
never diminishes in strength or drains graviphotons, i.e., W = ΔE1 + ΔE2 + ...+ ΔEn ,
its energy source? Is this energy
then the energy W cannot be detected
expenditure balanced by a conversion
as well. However, as we know it can
of energy from an unknown energy
be converted into another type of
source?
energy, for example, in rotational
kinetic energy, as in the hydroelectric
g
plants, or in the Gravitational Motor,
as shown in this work.
It is known that a quantum of
energy ΔE = hf , which varies during a
Exchanging of “virtual” photons
(graviphotons) time interval Δt = 1 f = λ c < h ΔE
(wave period) cannot be
experimentally detected. This is an
imaginary photon or a “virtual”
photon. Thus, the graviphotons are
imaginary photons, i.e., the energies
ΔEi of the graviphotons are
imaginaries energies and therefore the
energy W = ΔE1 + ΔE 2 + ... + ΔE n is also
an imaginary energy. Consequently, it
belongs to the imaginary space-time.
Fig. 9 – Origin of Gravity: The gravitational forces are
produced by the exchanging of “virtual” photons It was shown [1] that, imaginary
(graviphotons). energy is equal to psychic energy.
Consequently, the imaginary space-
The energy W necessary to support time is, in fact, the psychic space-time,
the effort expended by the which contains the Supreme
gravitational forces F is well-known Consciousness. Since the Supreme
and given by Consciousness has infinite psychic
M gmg mass [1], then the psychic space-time
W = ∫ Fdr = − G
r

∞ r contains infinite psychic energy. This


According to the Principle of Energy is highly relevant, because it confers to
Conservation, the spending of this the Psychic Universe the characteristic
energy must be compensated by a of unlimited source of energy. Thus,
conversion of another type of energy. as the origin of the gravitational
energy it is correlated to the psychic
25
energy, then the spending of
gravitational energy can be supplied
indefinitely by the Psychic Universe.
This can be easily confirmed by
the fact that, in spite of the enormous
amount of energy expended by Earth’s
gravitational field to hold objects
down on the surface of the planet and
maintain the Moon in its orbit, the
energy of Earth’s gravitational field
never diminishes in strength or drains
its energy source.

Acknowledgement

The author would like to thank Dr.


Getúlio Marques Martins (COPPE –
UFRJ, Rio de Janeiro-Brasil) for
revising the manuscript.
26

APPENDIX A: The Simplest Method to Control the Gravity

In this Appendix we show the


simplest method to control the gravity. i0
Consider a body with mass
density ρ and the following electric
characteristics: μr , ε r ,σ (relative IDC
permeability, relative permittivity and
electric conductivity, respectively).
Through this body, passes an electric I = IDC + iosc
current I , which is the sum of a
sinusoidal current iosc = i0 sin ωt and the
DC current I DC , i.e., I = I DC + i0 sin ωt
; ω = 2πf . If i0 << I DC then I ≅ I DC .
Thus, the current I varies with the t
frequency f , but the variation of its
intensity is quite small in comparison Fig. A1 - The electric current I varies with
with I DC , i.e., I will be practically frequency f . But the variation of I is quite small
in comparison with I DC due to io << I DC . In this
constant (Fig. A1). This is of
way, we can consider I ≅ I DC .
fundamental importance for
maintaining the value of the
gravitational mass of the body, m g , where, W = U V is the density of
sufficiently stable during all the time. electromagnetic energy and ρ = mi 0 V
The gravitational mass of the is the density of inertial mass.
body is given by [1] The instantaneous values of the
density of electromagnetic energy in
⎧ ⎡ ⎫ an electromagnetic field can be
⎛ nrU ⎞ ⎤⎥⎪
2
⎪ ⎢

mg = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎜ ⎟
2⎟
−1 ⎬mi0 ( A1) deduced from Maxwell’s equations
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ mi0c ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪
⎭ and has the following expression

where U , is the electromagnetic energy W = 12 ε E 2 + 12 μH 2 ( A3)


absorbed by the body and nr is the
index of refraction of the body. where E = E m sin ωt and H = H sin ωt are
Equation (A1) can also be rewritten in the instantaneous values of the electric
the following form field and the magnetic field
respectively.
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ It is known that B = μH ,
⎪ ⎛ nrW ⎞
⎟ − 1⎥ ⎪⎬
mg ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜
⎢ ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎥
( A2 ) E B = ω k r [11] and
mi 0 ⎪

⎣ ⎝ρ c ⎠ ⎪
⎦⎥ ⎭

27
dz ω 2
v= = =
c
( A4) W=
B
( A8)
dt κ r ε r μr ⎛ μ
⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟
2

2 ⎝ ⎠ or
where kr is the real part of the
r W =ε E2 ( A9)
propagation vector k (also called For σ >> ωε , Eq. (A4) gives
r
phase constant ); k = k = k r + iki ; ε , μ 2ω
v= ( A10)
and σ, are the electromagnetic μσ
characteristics of the medium in which Then, from Eq. (A7) we get
the incident (or emitted) radiation is
propagating( ε = εrε0 ; ε 0 = 8.854×10−12 F / m ⎡ ⎛ 2ω ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ ωε ⎞
W = 12 ⎢ε ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟μ⎥μH2 + 12 μH2 = ⎜ ⎟μH2 + 12 μH2 ≅
; μ = μ r μ 0 where μ0 = 4π ×10−7 H / m ). It is ⎣ ⎝ μσ ⎠ ⎦ ⎝σ ⎠
known that for free-space ≅ 12 μH2 ( A11)
σ = 0 and ε r = μ r = 1 . Then Eq. (A4)
gives Since E = vB = vμH , we can rewrite
v=c (A11) in the following forms:
From (A4), we see that the index of B2
W ≅ ( A12 )
refraction nr = c v is given by 2μ
or
ε μ ⎛ σ ⎞ 2
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟
c 2
( A5) W ≅⎜ ⎟E ( A13 )
v 2 ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 4ω ⎠
By comparing equations (A8) (A9)
Equation (A4) shows that (A12) and (A13), we can see that Eq.
ω κ r = v .Thus, E B = ω k r = v , i.e., (A13) shows that the best way to
E = vB = vμH ( A6) obtain a strong value of W in practice
Then, Eq. (A3) can be rewritten in the is by applying an Extra Low-
following form: Frequency (ELF) electric field
( )
W = 12 ε v2μ μH2 + 12 μH2 ( A7) (w = 2πf << 1Hz ) through a medium
For σ << ωε , Eq. (A4) reduces to with high electrical conductivity.
Substitution of Eq. (A13) into
c Eq. (A2), gives
v= ⎧ ⎡ ⎫
⎞ E 4 ⎤⎥⎪
3
ε r μr ⎪ μ ⎛ σ
mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 2 − 1 ⎬mi0 =
⎪⎩ ⎢ 4c ⎝ 4πf ⎠ ρ ⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭
Then, Eq. (A7) gives
⎧ ⎡ ⎛ μ0 ⎞⎛ μrσ ⎞ 4 ⎤⎫⎪
3
⎪ ⎜ ⎟E − 1⎥⎬mi0 =
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1+ ⎜ ⎟
3 2 ⎜ 2 3 ⎟
⎡ ⎛ c2 ⎞ ⎤ 2 1 ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 256π c ⎠⎝ ρ f ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪

W = 12 ⎢ε ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟μ⎥μH + 2 μH 2 = μH 2
ε μ
⎣ ⎝ r r⎠ ⎦ ⎧ ⎡ ⎛ μ σ3 ⎞ ⎤⎫⎪

= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 1.758×10−27 ⎜⎜ r2 3 ⎟⎟E 4 − 1⎥⎬mi0
This equation can be rewritten in the ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ρ f ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪

following forms: ( A14)
Note that E = E m sin ωt .The average
value for E 2 is equal to 1 2 E m2 because
28
E varies sinusoidaly ( E m is the ⎧⎪ ⎡ I4 ⎤⎫⎪
mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 7.89 × 10−25 DC4 − 1⎥⎬mi 0 =
maximum value for E ). On the other ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ S ⎥⎦⎪⎭

{ [ ]}
hand, E rms = E m 2 . Consequently we
can change E 4 by E rms 4
, and the = 1 − 2 1 + 0.13I DC
4
− 1 mi 0 ( A18)
equation above can be rewritten as Then,

{ [ ]}
follows mg
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫⎪ χ= ≅ 1−2 1+ 0.13I DC
4
−1 ( A19)
⎪ ⎛ μ σ3 ⎞ 4 mi0
mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 1.758×10−27 ⎜⎜ r2 3 ⎟⎟Erms − 1⎥⎬mi0
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ρ f ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪

Substitution of the well-known For I DC = 2.2 A , the equation above
equation of the Ohm's vectorial Law: gives
j = σE into (A14), we get ⎛ mg ⎞
χ = ⎜⎜ ⎟ ≅ −1
⎟ ( A 20 )
⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤⎫⎪ ⎝ mi0 ⎠
−27 μr jrms
4
= − + ×
mg ⎨1 2⎢ 1 1.758 10 − 1⎥⎬mi0 ( A15) This means that the gravitational
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ σρ2 f 3 ⎥⎦⎪
⎭ shielding produced by the aluminum
where j rms = j 2 . foil can change the gravity
Consider a 15 cm square acceleration above the foil down to
Aluminum thin foil of 10.5 microns
thickness with the following g ′ = χ g ≅ −1g ( A21)
characteristics: μr =1 ; σ = 3.82×107 S.m−1 ;
ρ = 2700 Kg .m −3 . Then, (A15) gives Under these conditions, the Aluminum
⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤⎫⎪ foil works basically as a Gravity
j4
mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 6.313×10−42 rms3
− 1⎥⎬mi0 ( A16) Control Cell (GCC).
⎪⎩ ⎢
⎣ f ⎥⎦⎪⎭ In order to check these
Now, consider that the ELF electric theoretical predictions, we suggest an
current I = I DC + i 0 sin ω t , (i0 << I DC ) experimental set-up shown in Fig.A2.
passes through that Aluminum foil. A 15cm square Aluminum foil
Then, the current density is of 10.5 microns thickness with the
I rms I DC following composition: Al 98.02%; Fe
jrms = ≅ ( A17) 0.80%; Si 0.70%; Mn 0.10%; Cu
S S
where 0.10%; Zn 0.10%; Ti 0.08%; Mg
0.05%; Cr 0.05%, and with the
( )
S = 0.15m 10.5 × 10 −6 m = 1.57 × 10 −6 m 2 following characteristics: μr =1;
σ = 3.82×10 S.m ; ρ = 2700Kg.m , is fixed
7 −1 −3

If the ELF electric current has on a 17 cm square Foam Board §§


frequency f = 2μHz = 2 ×10−6 Hz , then, the plate of 6mm thickness as shown in
gravitational mass of the aluminum Fig.A3. This device (the simplest
foil, given by (A16), is expressed by §§
Foam board is a very strong, lightweight (density:
24.03 kg.m-3) and easily cut material used for the
mounting of photographic prints, as backing in picture
framing, in 3D design, and in painting. It consists of
three layers — an inner layer of polystyrene clad with
outer facing of either white clay coated paper or
brown Kraft paper.
29
Gravity Control Cell GCC) is placed φ = 10 mm ; area S = πφ 4 = 7.8 ×10 m ; 2 −5 2

on a pan balance shown in Fig.A2. wire#12AWG; N1 = N2 = N =20; l = 42mm;


Above the Aluminum foil, a L1 = L2 = L = μ0 N 2 (S l ) = 9.3 ×10−7 H .Thus,
sample (any type of material, any we get
mass) connected to a dynamometer
will check the decrease of the local Z1 = (R1 + ri1 )2 + (ωL )2 ≅ 501Ω
gravity acceleration upon the sample and
(g ′ = χ g ) , due to the gravitational Z2 = (R 2 + ri 2 + R p + R ) + (ωL )
2 2

shielding produced by the decreasing


of gravitational mass of the Aluminum For R = 0 we get Z 2 = Z 2min ≅ 4Ω ; for
foil (χ = m g mi 0 ) . Initially, the sample R = 10Ω the result is Z 2 = Z 2max ≅ 14Ω .
lies 5 cm above the Aluminum foil. As Thus,
shown in Fig.A2, the board with the 2
⎛ N1 ⎞
dynamometer can be displaced up to Z min
1,total = Z1 + Z min
1, reflected = Z1 + Z min
2
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ≅ 505Ω
few meters in height. Thus, the initial ⎝ N2 ⎠
2
distance between the Aluminum foil ⎛ N1 ⎞
Z max
= Z1 + Z max
= Z1 + Z max
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ≅ 515Ω
and the sample can be increased in 1,total 1, reflected 2
⎝ N2 ⎠
order to check the reach of the
gravitational shielding produced by the The maxima rms currents have
Aluminum foil. the following values:
In order to generate the ELF I 1max = 1
,total = 56mA
40V pp Z1min
2
electric current of f = 2μHz , we can
(The maximum output current of the
use the widely-known Function Function Generator HP3325A (Op.002
Generator HP3325A (Op.002 High High Voltage Output) is
Voltage Output) that can generate 80mApp ≅ 56.5mArms);
sinusoidal voltages with extremely-low
ε2
frequencies down to f = 1 × 10 −6 Hz and I 2max = = 3A
Z 2min
amplitude up to 20V (40Vpp into 500Ω
load). The maximum output current and
is 0.08 App ; output impedance <2Ω at I 3max = I 2max + I1max ≅ 3A

ELF .
Figure A4 (a) shows the The new expression r
for the
r
equivalent electric circuit for the inertial forces, (Eq.5) Fi = M g a , shows
experimental set-up. The that the inertial forces are proportional
electromotive forces are: ε1 (HP3325A) to gravitational mass. Only in the
and ε 2 (12V DC Battery).The values particular case of m g = m i 0 , the
of the resistors are expression above reduces to the well-
: R1 = 500Ω − 2W ; ri1 < 2Ω ; R2 = 4Ω − 40W known
r
Newtonian expression
r
; ri 2 < 0.1Ω ; R p = 2.5 × 10 −3 Ω ; Rheostat Fi = m i 0 a . The equivalence between
gravitational and inertial forces (Fi ≡ Fg )
r r
(0≤ R ≤10Ω - 90W). The coupling
transformer has the following [1] shows then that a balance measures
characteristics: air core with diameter the gravitational mass subjected to
30
acceleration a = g . Here, the decrease than − 0.159M i , or when it becomes
in the gravitational mass of the greater than + 0.159 M i .
Aluminum foil will be measured by a Equation (A18) shows that the
pan balance with the following gravitational mass of the Aluminum
characteristics: range 0-200g; foil, mg ( Al ) , goes close to zero when
readability 0.01g.
I 3 ≅ 1.76 A . Consequently, the gravity
The mass of the Foam Board
plate is: ≅ 4.17 g , the mass of the acceleration above the Aluminum foil
also goes close to zero since
Aluminum foil is: ≅ 0.64 g , the total
g ′ = χ g = mg ( Al ) mi 0 ( Al ) . Under these
mass of the ends and the electric wires
of connection is ≅ 5 g . Thus, initially circumstances, the Aluminum foil
remains invisible.
the balance will show ≅ 9.81g .
Now consider a rigid Aluminum
According to (A18), when the electric
wire # 14 AWG. The area of its cross
current through the Aluminum foil section is
(resistance rp* = l σS = 2.5 ×10−3 Ω ) reaches
the value I 3 ≅ 2.2 A , we will get S = π (1.628 × 10 −3 m ) 4 = 2.08 × 10 −6 m 2
2

m g ( Al ) ≅ − mi 0 ( Al ) . Under these
circumstances, the balance will show: If an ELF electric current with
frequency f = 2μHz = 2 ×10−6 Hz passes
9.81g − 0.64 g − 0.64 g ≅ 8.53g through this wire, its gravitational
mass, given by (A16), will be
and the gravity acceleration g ′ above expressed by
the Aluminum foil, becomes ⎧⎪ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫⎪
−42 jrms
g ′ = χ g ≅ −1g . mg = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 6.313×10 −1⎥⎬mi0 =
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f 3 ⎥⎦⎪
It was shown [1] that, when the ⎭
gravitational mass of a particle is ⎧⎪ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫⎪
−25 I DC
reduced to the gravitational mass = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 7.89×10 −1⎥⎬mi0 =
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ S 4 ⎥⎦⎪
ranging between + 0.159 M i to ⎭

− 0.159M i , it becomes imaginary, i.e., { [


= 1− 2 1+ 0.13I DC
4
−1 mi0]} ( A22)
the gravitational and the inertial
For I DC ≅ 3 A the equation above gives
masses of the particle become
imaginary. Consequently, the particle
m g ≅ − 3 .8 m i 0
disappears from our ordinary space-
time. This phenomenon can be
observed in the proposed experiment, Note that we can replace the
i.e., the Aluminum foil will disappear Aluminum foil for this wire in the
when its gravitational mass becomes experimental set-up shown in Fig.A2.
smaller than + 0.159 M i . It will become It is important also to note that an ELF
visible again, only when its electric current that passes through a
gravitational mass becomes smaller wire - which makes a spherical form,
as shown in Fig A5 - reduces the
gravitational mass of the wire (Eq.
31
A22), and the gravity inside sphere at in this case, the electric field
the same proportion, χ =mg mi0 , through it will be null *** .
(Gravitational Shielding Effect). In According to Eq. A14,
this case, that effect can be checked by when Ep =Vp h = 0.036 V / m, f = 2μHz and
max max

means of the Experimental set-up 2 σ Al = 3.82 × 10 7 S / m , ρ Al = 2700 kg / m 3


(Fig.A6). Note that the spherical form (Aluminum), we get
can be transformed into an ellipsoidal m ( Al )
χ = ≅ − 0 .9
form or a disc in order to coat, for m i ( Al )
example, a Gravitational Spacecraft. It Under these conditions, the maximum
is also possible to coat with a wire current density through the plate with
several forms, such as cylinders, thickness h will be given by
cones, cubes, etc. j max = σ Al E max = 1.4 ×106 A / m2 (It is well-
p
The circuit shown in Fig.A4 (a)
can be modified in order to produce a known that the maximum current
new type of Gravitational Shielding, as density supported by the Aluminum
shown in Fig.A4 (b). In this case, the is ≈ 108 A / m 2 ).
Gravitational Shielding will be Since the area of the plate is
produced in the Aluminum plate, with A= (0.2) = 4×10−2m2, then the maximum
2

thickness h , of the parallel plate current is i max = j max A = 56kA . Despite


capacitor connected in the point P of this enormous current, the maximum
the circuit (See Fig.A4 (b)). Note that, dissipated power will be just
in this circuit, the Aluminum foil P max = (i max ) R plate = 6.2W , because the
2

(resistance R p ) (Fig.A4(a)) has been


resistance of the plate is very small,
replaced by a Copper wire # 14 AWG i.e., R plate = h σ Al A ≅ 2 ×10−9 Ω .
with 1cm length ( l = 1cm ) in order to
produce a resistance Rφ = 5.21 × 10 −5 Ω . Note that the area A of the plate
(where the Gravitational Shielding
Thus, the voltage in the point P of the takes place) can have several
circuit will have the maximum value geometrical configurations. For
V pmax = 1.1 × 10 −4 V when the resistance of example, it can be the area of the
the rheostat is null (R = 0) and the external surface of an ellipsoid, sphere,
minimum value V pmin = 4.03 × 10 −5 V when etc. Thus, it can be the area of the
R = 10Ω . In this way, the voltage
external surface of a Gravitational
V p (with frequency f = 2 μHz ) applied Spacecraft. In this case, if A ≅ 100m 2 ,
for example, the maximum dissipated
on the capacitor will produce an
electric field E p with intensity ***
When the voltage Vp is applied on the capacitor, the
E p = V p h through the Aluminum plate charge distribution in the dielectric induces positive
and negative charges, respectively on opposite sides of
of thickness h = 3mm . It is important to the Aluminum plate with thickness h. If the plate is
not connected to the ground (Earth) this charge
note that this plate cannot be distribution produces an electric field Ep=Vp/h through
connected to ground (earth), in other the plate. However, if the plate is connected to the
words, cannot be grounded, because, ground, the negative charges (electrons) escapes for
the ground and the positive charges are redistributed
along the entire surface of the Aluminum plate making
null the electric field through it.
32
power will be P ≅ 15.4kW , i.e.,
max q ε r V 0 r0
1
Vb = = ( A28 )
approximately 154W / m 2 . 4πε 0 b b
All of these systems work with Consequently, the electric field Eb is
Extra-Low Frequencies ( f <<10−3 Hz). given by
Now, we show that, by simply 1 q ε rV0 r0
Eb = = ( A29)
changing the geometry of the surface 4πε 0 b 2 b2
of the Aluminum foil, it is possible to From r = r0 up to r = b = a + d the
increase the working frequency f up electric field is approximately constant
to more than 1Hz. (See Fig. A7). Along the distance d it
Consider the Aluminum foil, will be called E air . For r > a + d , the
now with several semi-spheres electric field stops being constant.
stamped on its surface, as shown in Thus, the intensity of the electric field
Fig. A7 . The semi-spheres have at r = b = a + d is approximately equal
radius r0 = 0.9 mm , and are joined one to E0 , i.e., Eb ≅ E0 . Then, we can write
to another. The Aluminum foil is now that
coated by an insulation layer with ε rV0 r0 V0
relative permittivity ε r and dielectric 2
≅ ( A30)
b r0
strength k . A voltage source is whence we get
connected to the Aluminum foil in b ≅ r0 ε r ( A31)
order to provide a voltage V0 (rms)
Since the intensity of the electric field
with frequency f . Thus, the electric through the air, E air , is E air ≅ Eb ≅ E0 ,
potential V at a distance r , in the then, we can write that
interval from r0 to a , is given by q ε rV0 r0
1
1 Eair = = 2 ( A32)
V=
q
( A23) 4πε0 b 2 b
4πε r ε 0 r
Note that, ε r refers to the relative
In the interval a < r ≤ b the electric permittivity of the insulation layer,
potential is which is covering the Aluminum foil.
1
V =
q
( A24 ) If the intensity of this field is
4πε 0 r
greater than the dielectric strength of
since for the air we have ε r ≅ 1 . the air (3 × 10 6 V / m ) there will occur the
Thus, on the surface of the well-known Corona effect. Here, this
metallic spheres (r = r0 ) we get effect is necessary in order to increase
1
V0 =
q
( A25) the electric conductivity of the air at
4πε r ε 0 r0 this region (layer with thickness d).
Consequently, the electric field is Thus, we will assume
1 ε rV0minr0 V0min
E0 =
q
( A26) E min
= = = 3×106 V / m
4πε r ε 0 r02 air
b2 r0
By comparing (A26) with (A25), we and
obtain ε rV0maxr0 V0max
V0 E max
= = = 1×107 V / m ( A33)
( A27)
air
E0 = b2 r0
r0
The electric field E airmin ≤ E air ≤ E airmax will
The electric potential Vb at r = b is
33
produce an electrons flux in a direction thickness Δ = 0.6 mm , ε r ≅ 3.5 (1-
and an ions flux in an opposite 60Hz), k = 17kV / mm (Acrylic sheet
direction. From the viewpoint of 1.5mm thickness), and the semi-
electric current, the ions flux can be spheres stamped on the metallic
considered as an “electrons” flux at the surface have r0 = 0.9 mm (See Fig.A7)
same direction of the real electrons then a = r0 + Δ =1.5 mm. Thus, we obtain
flux. Thus, the current density through
from Eq. (A33) that
the air, j air , will be the double of the
V0min = 2.7kV
current density expressed by the well-
V0max = 9kV ( A40)
known equation of Langmuir-Child
3 3 3 From equation (A31), we obtain the
4 2e V 2 V2 V2 following value for b :
j = εrε0 2
=α 2 = 2.33×10−6 2 ( A34)
9 me d d d
where ε r ≅ 1 for the air; α = 2.33 × 10 −6 b = r0 ε r = 1.68×10−3 m ( A41)
is the called Child’s constant.
Thus, we have Since b = a + d we get
3

V
( A35)
2

jair = 2α
d2 d = 1.8 × 10 −4 m
where d , in this case, is the thickness
of the air layer where the electric field Substitution of a , b , d and A(32) into
is approximately constant and V is the (A39) produces
voltage drop given by 1 1

σ air = 4.117×10−4 Eair = 1.375×10−2 V0


2 2

1 q 1 q
V = Va − Vb = − =
4πε 0 a 4πε 0 b
Substitution of σ air , E air (rms ) and
⎛ b − a ⎞ ⎛ ε r r0 d ⎞
= V0 r0ε r ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟V0 ( A36) ρ air = 1.2 kg .m −3 into (A14) gives
⎝ ab ⎠ ⎝ ab ⎠
By substituting (A36) into (A35), we mg(air) ⎧⎪ ⎡ σ 3 E4 ⎤⎫⎪
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+1.758×10−27 air2 air3 −1⎥⎬ =
get mi0(air) ⎪ ⎢ ρair f ⎥⎦⎪⎭
3 3 3
⎩ ⎣
2α ⎛ ε r dV ⎞ 2 2α ⎛ ε r V ⎞ 2 ⎛ b ⎞ 2
jair = 2 ⎜ r 0 0 ⎟ = 1 ⎜ r 02 0 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = ⎧⎪ ⎡ V 5.5 ⎤⎪⎫
d ⎝ ab ⎠ d 2 ⎝ b ⎠ ⎝ a ⎠ = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 4.923×10−21 0 3 −1⎥⎬ ( A42)
3
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f ⎥⎦⎪⎭
2α ⎛ b ⎞2
( A37)
3

= 1 Eair⎜ ⎟
2
For V0 = V0max = 9kV and f = 2 Hz , the
d2 ⎝ a⎠
result is
According to the equation of the mg (air)
Ohm's vectorial Law: j = σE , we can ≅ −1.2
mi0(air)
write that
Note that, by increasing V0 the
j
σair = air ( A38) values of E air and σ air are increased.
Eair
Substitution of (A37) into (A38) yields Thus, as show (A42), there are two
1 3 ways for decrease the value of m g (air ) :
⎛ E ⎞2 ⎛ b ⎞2
σ air = 2α⎜ air ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ( A39) increasing the value of V0 or
⎝ d ⎠ ⎝a⎠
If the insulation layer has decreasing the value of f .
34
Since E = 10 V / m = 10kV / mm and
max
0
7
Gravitational Shielding is
Δ = 0.6 mm then the dielectric strength max
Pair = ( ) ≅ 10kW . This means that
max 2
Rair iair
of the insulation must be ≥ 16.7kV / mm . a very strong light will be radiated
As mentioned above, the dielectric from this type of Gravitational
strength of the acrylic is 17kV / mm . Shielding. Note that this device can
It is important to note that, due also be used as a lamp, which will be
to the strong value of E air (Eq. A37) much more efficient than conventional
the drift velocity vd , lamps.
(vd = jair ne = σ air Eair ne) of the free Coating a ceiling with this
charges inside the ionized air put them lighting system enables the entire area
at a distance x = vd t = 2 fvd ≅ 0.4m , which is of ceiling to produce light. This is a
much greater than the distance form of lighting very different from
d =1.8 ×10−4 m. Consequently, the number
those usually known.
n of free charges decreases strongly
Note that the value Pair max
≅ 10kW ,
inside the air layer of thickness d ††† , defines the power of the transformer
except, obviously, in a thin layer, very shown in Fig.A10. Thus, the
close to the dielectric, where the maximum current in the secondary is
number of free charges remains i smax = 9kV 10 kW = 0.9 A .
sufficiently increased, to maintain the Above the Gravitational
air conductivity with σ air ≅1.1S / m (Eq. Shielding, σ air is reduced to the
A39). normal value of conductivity of the
The thickness h of this thin air atmospheric air (≈ 10 −14 S / m ) . Thus, the
layer close to the dielectric can be power radiated from this region is
easily evaluated starting from the
charge distribution in the max
Pair ( ) σ A=
= (d − h ) i air
max 2
air
neighborhood of the dielectric, and of
the repulsion forces established among = (d − h )Aσ (E ) ≅ 10
air
max 2
air
−4
W
them. The result is
h = 0.06e 4πε 0 E ≅ 4 × 10 m . −9
This is, Now, we will describe a method
therefore, the thickness of the Air to coat the Aluminum semi-spheres
Gravitational Shielding. If the area of with acrylic in the necessary
this Gravitational Shielding is equal to dimension (Δ = a − r0 ) . First, take an
the area of a format A4 sheet of paper, Aluminum plate with 21cm × 29.1cm
i.e., A = 0.20 × 0.291 = 0.0582m 2 , we obtain (A4 format). By means of a convenient
the following value for the resistance process, several semi-spheres can be
R air of the Gravitational Shielding: stamped on its surface. The semi-
spheres have radius r0 = 0.9 mm , and
R air = h σ air A ≅ 6 × 10 −8 Ω . Since the
maximum electrical current through are joined one to another. Next, take
an acrylic sheet (A4 format) with
this air layer is i max = j max A ≅ 400 kA , then
1.5mm thickness (See Fig.A8 (a)).
the maximum power radiated from the Put a heater below the Aluminum plate
†††
Reducing therefore the conductivity, σ air , to the
in order to heat the Aluminum (Fig.A8
normal value of the conductivity of atmospheric air. (b)). When the Aluminum is
35
sufficiently heated up, the acrylic sheet around bodies or spacecrafts with
and the Aluminum plate are pressed, several formats (spheres, ellipsoids,
one against the other, as shown in Fig. etc); Fig. A11 (d) shows a
A8 (c). The two D devices shown in Gravitational Shielding around a
this figure are used in order to impede Spacecraft with ellipsoidal form.
that the press compresses the acrylic The previously mentioned
and the aluminum to a distance shorter Gravitational Shielding, produced on a
than y + a . After some seconds, remove thin layer of ionized air, has a
the press and the heater. The device is behavior different from the
ready to be subjected to a voltage V0 Gravitational Shielding produced on a
with frequency f , as shown in Fig.A9. rigid substance. When the
Note that, in this case, the balance is gravitational masses of the air
not necessary, because the substance molecules, inside the shielding, are
reduced to within the range
that produces the gravitational
+ 0.159 mi < m g < −0.159 mi , they go to
shielding is an air layer with thickness
d above the acrylic sheet. This is, the imaginary space-time, as
therefore, more a type of Gravity previously shown in this article.
Control Cell (GCC) with external However, the electric field E air stays at
gravitational shielding. the real space-time. Consequently, the
It is important to note that this molecules return immediately to the
GCC can be made very thin and as real space-time in order to return soon
flexible as a fabric. Thus, it can be after to the imaginary space-time, due
used to produce anti- gravity clothes. to the action of the electric field E air .
These clothes can be extremely useful, In the case of the Gravitational
for example, to walk on the surface of Shielding produced on a solid
high gravity planets. substance, when the molecules of the
Figure A11 shows some substance go to the imaginary space-
geometrical forms that can be stamped time, the electric field that produces
on a metallic surface in order to the effect, also goes to the imaginary
produce a Gravitational Shielding space-time together with them, since in
effect, similar to the produced by the this case, the substance of the
semi-spherical form. Gravitational Shielding is rigidly
An obvious evolution from the connected to the metal that produces
semi-spherical form is the semi- the electric field. (See Fig. A12 (b)).
cylindrical form shown in Fig. A11 This is the fundamental difference
(b); Fig.A11(c) shows concentric between the non-solid and solid
metallic rings stamped on the metallic Gravitational Shieldings.
surface, an evolution from Fig.A11 Now, consider a Gravitational
(b). These geometrical forms produce Spacecraft that is able to produce an
the same effect as the semi-spherical Air Gravitational Shielding and also a
form, shown in Fig.A11 (a). By using Solid Gravitational Shielding, as
concentric metallic rings, it is possible
to build Gravitational Shieldings
36
‡‡‡
shown in Fig. A13 (a) . Assuming time. Under these circumstances,
that the intensity of the electric field, the gravitational mass of the
E air , necessary to reduce the Gravitational Shielding can be reduced
gravitational mass of the air molecules to m g ≅ 0 . For example, m g ≅ 10 −4 kg .
to within the range Thus, if the inertial mass of the
+ 0.159 mi < m g < −0.159 mi , is much Gravitational Shielding is mi 0 ≅ 1kg ,
smaller than the intensity of the then χ = m g mi 0 ≅ 10 −4 . As we have
electric field, E rs , necessary to reduce seen, this means that the inertial
the gravitational mass of the solid effects on the spacecraft will be
substance to within the range reduced by χ ≅ 10−4 . Then, in spite of the
+ 0.159 mi < m g < −0.159 mi , then we effective acceleration of the spacecraft
conclude that the Gravitational be, for example, a = 105 m.s −2 , the effects
Shielding made of ionized air goes to on the crew of the spacecraft will be
the imaginary space-time before the equivalent to an acceleration of only
Gravitational Shielding made of solid mg
a′ = a = χ a ≈ 10m.s −1
substance. When this occurs the mi 0
spacecraft does not go to the This is the magnitude of the
imaginary space-time together with the acceleration upon the passengers in a
Gravitational Shielding of air, because contemporary commercial jet.
the air molecules are not rigidly Then, it is noticed that
connected to the spacecraft. Thus, Gravitational Spacecrafts can be
while the air molecules go into the subjected to enormous accelerations
imaginary space-time, the spacecraft (or decelerations) without imposing
stays in the real space-time, and any harmful impacts whatsoever on
remains subjected to the effects of the the spacecrafts or its crew.
Gravitational Shielding around it, Now, imagine that the intensity
since the shielding does not stop to of the electric field that produces the
work, due to its extremely short Gravitational Shielding around the
permanence at the imaginary space- spacecraft is increased up to reaching
‡‡‡
the value E rs that reduces the
The solid Gravitational Shielding can also be
obtained by means of an ELF electric current through gravitational mass of the solid
a metallic lamina placed between the semi-spheres Gravitational Shielding to within the
and the Gravitational Shielding of Air (See Fig.A13
(a)). The gravitational mass of the solid Gravitational range + 0.159 mi < m g < −0.159 mi . Under
Shielding will be controlled just by means of the these circumstances, the solid
intensity of the ELF electric current. Recently, it was
discovered that Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) can be Gravitational Shielding goes to the
added to Alumina (Al2O3) to convert it into a good imaginary space-time and, since it is
electrical conductor. It was found that the electrical
conductivity increased up to 3375 S/m at 77°C in rigidly connected to the spacecraft,
samples that were 15% nanotubes by volume [12]. It also the spacecraft goes to the
is known that the density of α-Alumina is imaginary space-time together with the
3.98×103kg.m-3 and that it can withstand 10-20
KV/mm. Thus, these values show that the Alumina- Gravitational Shielding. Thus, the
CNT can be used to make a solid Gravitational spacecraft can travel within the
Shielding.
37
imaginary space-time and make use of departure place where would
the Gravitational Shielding around it. reappear in our Universe. Thus, trips
As we have already seen, the through our Universe that would delay
maximum velocity of propagation of millions of years, at speeds close to the
the interactions in the imaginary speed of light, could be done in just a
space-time is infinite (in the real few months in the imaginary Universe.
space-time this limit is equal to the In order to produce the
light velocity c ). This means that there acceleration of a ≈ 10 9 m.s −2 upon the
are no limits for the velocity of the spacecraft we propose a Gravitational
spacecraft in the imaginary space- Thruster with 10 GCCs (10
time. Thus, the acceleration of the Gravitational Shieldings) of the type
spacecraft can reach, for example, with several semi-spheres stamped on
a = 109 m.s −2 , which leads the spacecraft the metallic surface, as previously
to attain velocities V ≈ 1014 m.s −1 (about shown, or with the semi-cylindrical
1 million times the speed of light) after form shown in Figs. A11 (b) and (c).
one day of trip. With this velocity, The 10 GCCs are filled with air at 1
after 1 month of trip the spacecraft atm and 300K. If the insulation layer is
would have traveled about10 21 m . In made with Mica (ε r ≅ 5.4) and has
order to have idea of this distance, it is thickness Δ = 0.1 mm , and the semi-
enough to remind that the diameter of spheres stamped on the metallic
our Universe (visible Universe) is of surface have r0 = 0.4 mm (See Fig.A7)
the order of 10 26 m . then a = r0 + Δ = 0.5 mm. Thus, we get
Due to the extremely low b = r0 εr = 9.295×10−4 m
density of the imaginary bodies, the
and
collision between them cannot have
d = b − a = 4.295 ×10 −4 m
the same consequences of the collision
Then, from Eq. A42 we obtain
between the real bodies.
⎧⎪ ⎡ σ 3 E4 ⎤⎫⎪
Thus, for a Gravitational χair =
mg (air)
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 +1.758×10−27 air2 air − 1⎥⎬ =
Spacecraft in imaginary state, the mi0(air) ⎪ ⎢⎣ ρair f 3 ⎥⎦⎪
⎩ ⎭
problem of the collision in high-speed ⎧⎪ ⎡ V 5.5 ⎤⎫⎪
doesn't exist. Consequently, the = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 +1.0 ×10−18 0 3 −1⎥⎬
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f ⎥⎦⎭⎪
Gravitational Spacecraft can transit
freely in the imaginary Universe and, For V0 = V0max = 15.6kV and f = 0.12Hz, the
in this way, reach easily any point of result is
our real Universe once they can make
the transition back to our Universe by mg (air)
χ air = ≅ −1.6 ×104
only increasing the gravitational mass mi0(air)
of the Gravitational Shielding of the
spacecraft in such way that it leaves Since E 0max = V0max r0 is
now given by
the range of + 0.159 M i to − 0.159M i . 0.9mm=17.3kV / mm and Δ = 0.1 mm
E0max =15.6kV
The return trip would be done in then the dielectric strength of the
similar way. That is to say, the insulation must be ≥ 173kV / mm . As
spacecraft would transit in the
imaginary Universe back to the
38
§§§
shown in the table below , 0.1mm -
) (6.67 × 10 )⎛⎜⎜ 1030 ⎞
−19

thickness of Mica can withstand 17.6 (


a = − − 1.6 × 10 4
10 −11
2
⎟⎟ =
⎝ ⎠
kV (that is greater than V0max = 15.6kV ), in = −10 m.s
9 −2

such way that the dielectric strength is


In spite of this gigantic acceleration,
176 kV/mm.
the inertial effects for the crew of the
The Gravitational Thrusters are
spacecraft can be strongly reduced if,
positioned at the spacecraft, as shown
for example, the gravitational mass of
in Fig. A13 (b). Then, when the
the Gravitational Shielding is reduced
spacecraft is in the intergalactic space,
down to m g ≅ 10 −6 kg and its inertial
the gravity acceleration upon the
gravitational mass m gt of the bottom mass is mi 0 ≅ 100kg . Then, we get
of the thruster (See Fig.A13 (c)), is χ = m g mi 0 ≅ 10 −8 . Therefore, the
given by [2] inertial effects on the spacecraft will
r 10 r Mg be reduced by χ ≅ 10−8 , and
a ≅ (χ air ) g M ≅ −(χ air ) G 2 μˆ
10

r consequently, the inertial effects on


the crew of the spacecraft would be
where M g is the gravitational mass in equivalent to an acceleration a′ of only
front of the spacecraft.
a = (10 −8 )(10 9 ) ≈ 10m.s − 2
mg
For simplicity, let us consider a′ =
mi 0
just the effect of a hypothetical volume Note that the Gravitational Thrusters
V = 10 × 103 × 103 = 10 7 m 3 of intergalactic
in the spacecraft must have a very
matter in front of the spacecraft small diameter (of the order of
(r ≅ 30m) . The average density of millimeters) since, obviously, the hole
matter in the intergalactic medium through the Gravitational Shielding
(IGM) is ρig ≈ 10−26 kg.m−3 ) **** . Thus, cannot be large. Thus, these thrusters
for χ air ≅ −1.6 ×104 we get are in fact, Micro-Gravitational
Thrusters. As shown in Fig. A13 (b),
§§§
The dielectric strength of some dielectrics can have it is possible to place several micro-
different values in lower thicknesses. This is, for
example, the case of the Mica.
gravitational thrusters in the
Dielectric Thickness (mm) Dielectric Strength (kV/mm) spacecraft. This gives to the
Mica 0.01 mm 200 Gravitational Spacecraft, several
Mica 0.1 mm 176
Mica 1 mm 61 degrees of freedom and shows the
****
enormous superiority of this spacecraft
Some theories put the average density of the
Universe as the equivalent of one hydrogen atom per
in relation to the contemporaries
cubic meter [13,14]. The density of the universe, spacecrafts.
however, is clearly not uniform. Surrounding and The density of matter in the
stretching between galaxies, there is rarefied plasma
[15] that is thought to possess a cosmic filamentary intergalactic medium (IGM) is about
structure [16] and that is slightly denser than the 10 -26 kg.m-3 , which is very less than
average density in the universe. This material is called
the intergalactic medium (IGM) and is mostly ionized
the density of matter in the interstellar
hydrogen; i.e. a plasma consisting of equal numbers of medium (~10-21 kg.m-3) that is less than
electrons and protons. The IGM is thought to exist at a the density of matter in the
density of 10 to 100 times the average density of the
Universe (10 to 100 hydrogen atoms per cubic meter, interplanetary medium (~10-20 kg.m-3).
i.e., ≈ 10 −26 kg .m −3 ). The density of matter is enormously
39
increased inside the Earth’s atmosphere. Also, the gravity can be
-3
atmosphere (1.2kg.m near to Earth’s controlled inside of the Gravitational
surface). Figure A14 shows the Spacecraft in order to maintain a value
gravitational acceleration acquired by close to the Earth’s gravity as shown
a Gravitational Spacecraft, in these in Fig.3.
media, using Micro-Gravitational Finally, it is important to note
thrusters. that a Micro-Gravitational Thruster
In relation to the Interstellar and does not work outside a Gravitational
Interplanetary medium, the Shielding, because, in this case, the
Intergalactic medium requires the resultant upon the thruster is null due
greatest value of χ air ( χ inside the to the symmetry (See Fig. A15 (a)).
Micro-Gravitational Thrusters), i.e., Figure A15 (b) shows a micro-
χ air ≅ −1.6 ×104 . This value strongly gravitational thruster inside a
decreases when the spacecraft is Gravitational Shielding. This thruster
within the Earth’s atmosphere. In this has 10 Gravitational Shieldings, in
case, it is sufficient only †††† χ air ≅ −10 in such way that the gravitational
acceleration upon the bottom of the
order to obtain:
thruster, due to a gravitational mass
ρ atmV
a = −(χ air ) G
10
≅ M g in front of the thruster, is
r2

)1.2(10 ) ≅ 10
a10 = χ air
10
a 0 where a 0 = −G M g r 2 is the
(
7
≅ −(− 10) 6.67 × 10 −11
10 4
m.s −2 gravitational acceleration acting on
(20) 2

With this acceleration the the front of the micro-gravitational


Gravitational Spacecraft can reach thruster. In the opposite direction, the
about 50000 km/h in a few seconds. gravitational acceleration upon the
Obviously, the Gravitational Shielding bottom of the thruster, produced by a
of the spacecraft will reduce strongly gravitational mass M g , is
the inertial effects upon the crew of the ( )
a 0′ = χ s − GM g r ′ 2 ≅ 0
spacecraft, in such way that the inertial since χ s ≅ 0 due to the Gravitational
effects of this strong acceleration will Shielding around the micro-thruster
not be felt. In addition, the artificial (See Fig. A15 (b)). Similarly, the
atmosphere, which is possible to build acceleration in front of the thruster is
around the spacecraft, by means of ′ = χ air
a10 10
[ (
a 0′ = χ air
10
− GM g r ′ 2 )] χ
gravity control technologies shown in
s

this article (See Fig.6) and [2], will where [χ (− GM g r ′ )] < a10 , since r ′ > r .
10
air
2

protect it from the heating produced Thus, for a10 ≅ 10 9 m.s −2 and χ s ≈ 10 −8 we
by the friction with the Earth’s conclude that a10′ < 10m.s −2 . This means
that a10′ << a10 . Therefore, we can write
††††
This value is within the range of values of χ
that the resultant on the micro-thruster
(χ < − 10 3
)
. See Eq . A15 , which can be produced by
can be expressed by means of the
means of ELF electric currents through metals as
Aluminum, etc. This means that, in this case, if following relation
convenient, we can replace air inside the GCCs of the
Gravitational Micro-thrusters by metal laminas with
ELF electric currents through them. R ≅ F10 = χ air
10
F0
40
Figure A15 (c) shows a Micro- E (acrylic ) are not sufficient to produce
Gravitational Thruster with 10 Air the ionization effect, which increases
Gravitational Shieldings (10 GCCs). the electrical conductivity.
Thin Metallic laminas are placed after Consequently, the conductivities of the
each Air Gravitational Shielding in water and the acrylic remain << 1 S.m−1.
order to retain the electric In this way, with E (H 2O ) and E (acrylic )
field E b = V0 x , produced by metallic
much smaller than E air , and σ ( H 2O ) << 1 ,
surface behind the semi-spheres. The
laminas with semi-spheres stamped on σ (acrylic ) << 1 , the decrease in both the
its surfaces are connected to the ELF gravitational mass of the acrylic and
voltage source V0 and the thin laminas the gravitational mass of water,
in front of the Air Gravitational according to Eq.A14, is negligible.
Shieldings are grounded. The air This means that only in the air layer
inside this Micro-Gravitational the decrease in the gravitational mass
Thruster is at 300K, 1atm. will be relevant.
We have seen that the insulation Equation A39 gives the electrical
layer of a GCC can be made up of conductivity of the air layer, i.e.,
1 3
Acrylic, Mica, etc. Now, we will ⎛ E ⎞2 ⎛ b ⎞2 1
σair = 2α⎜ air⎟ ⎜ ⎟ =0.029V02 ( A46)
design a GCC using Water (distilled ⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ a⎠
water, ε r (H 2O ) = 80 ) and Aluminum semi- Note that b = r0 εr(H2O) . Therefore, here
cylinders with radius r0 = 1 .3 mm . Thus, the value of b is larger than in the case
for Δ = 0.6mm , the new value of a of the acrylic. Consequently, the
is a = 1.9mm . Then, we get electrical conductivity of the air layer
b = r0 εr(H2O) = 11.63×10−3m ( A43) will be larger here than in the case of
d = b − a = 9.73×10−3m ( A44) acrylic.
and Substitution of σ (air ) , E air (rms)
Eair =
1 q
=
and ρ air = 1.2kg .m −3 into Eq. A14, gives
4πεr(air)ε 0 b 2 mg(air) ⎧⎪ ⎡ V5.5 ⎤⎫⎪
V0 r0 =⎨1−2⎢ 1+4.54×10−20 03 −1⎥⎬ ( A47)
= ε r( H ) = mi0(air) ⎪ ⎢ f ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
2O
ε r(air)b 2
For V0 = V0max = 9kV and f = 2 Hz , the
V0 r0 V0
= ≅ = 1111.1 V0 ( A45) result is
ε r(air) r0
mg (air)
Note that ≅ −8.4
mi0(air)
V0 r0
E( H2O) = This shows that, by using water
ε r ( H2O)
instead of acrylic, the result is much
and
better.
V0 r0
E(acrylic) = In order to build the GCC based
ε r (acrylic)
on the calculations above (See Fig.
Therefore, E (H 2O ) and E (acrylic ) are much A16), take an Acrylic plate with
smaller than E air . Note that for 885mm X 885m and 2mm thickness,
V0 ≤ 9kV the intensities of E ( H 2O ) and then paste on it an Aluminum sheet
41
with 895.2mm X 885mm and 0.5mm frequency is decreased). A precision
thickness(note that two edges of the balance is placed below the GCC in
Aluminum sheet are bent as shown in order to measure the mentioned mass
Figure A16 (b)). Next, take 342 decrease for comparison with the
Aluminum yarns with 884mm length values predicted by Eq. A(47). In total,
and 2.588mm diameter (wire # 10 this GCC weighs about 6kg; the air
AWG) and insert them side by side on layer 7.3grams. The balance has the
the Aluminum sheet. See in Fig. A16 following characteristics: range 0-6kg;
(b) the detail of fixing of the yarns on readability 0.1g. Also, in order to
the Aluminum sheet. Now, paste prove the Gravitational Shielding
acrylic strips (with 13.43mm height Effect, we can put a sample (connected
and 2mm thickness) around the to a dynamometer) above the GCC in
Aluminum/Acrylic, making a box. Put order to check the gravity acceleration
distilled water (approximately 1 litter) in this region.
inside this box, up to a height of In order to prove the exponential
exactly 3.7mm from the edge of the effect produced by the superposition of
acrylic base. Afterwards, paste an the Gravitational Shieldings, we can
Acrylic lid (889mm X 889mm and 2mm take three similar GCCs and put them
thickness) on the box. Note that above one above the other, in such way that
the water there is an air layer with above the GCC 1 the gravity
885mm X 885mm and 7.73mm acceleration will be g′ = χ g ; above the
thickness (See Fig. A16). This GCC2 g ′′ = χ 2 g , and above the GCC3
thickness plus the acrylic lid thickness g ′′′ = χ 3 g . Where χ is given by Eq.
(2mm) is equal to d = b − a = 9.73mm
(A47).
where b = r0 ε r ( H 2O ) = 11.63mm and
It is important to note that the
a = r0 + Δ = 1.99 mm , since r0 = 1.3mm , intensity of the electric field through
ε r ( H 2O ) = 80 and Δ = 0.6mm . the air below the GCC is much smaller
Note that the gravitational action than the intensity of the electric field
of the electric field E air , extends itself through the air layer inside the GCC.
only up to the distance d , which, in In addition, the electrical conductivity
this GCC, is given by the sum of the of the air below the GCC is much
Air layer thickness (7.73mm) plus the smaller than the conductivity of the air
thickness of the Acrylic lid (2mm). layer inside the GCC. Consequently,
Thus, it is ensured the the decrease of the gravitational mass
gravitational effect on the air layer of the air below the GCC, according to
while it is practically nullified in the Eq.A14, is negligible. This means that
acrylic sheet above the air layer, since the GCC1, GCC2 and GCC3 can be
E (acrylic ) << E air and σ (acrylic ) << 1 . simply overlaid, on the experiment
proposed above. However, since it is
With this GCC, we can carry out
an experiment where the gravitational
necessary to put samples among them
mass of the air layer is progressively in order to measure the gravity above
reduced when the voltage applied to each GCC, we suggest a spacing of
the GCC is increased (or when the 30cm or more among them.
42

Dynamometer

50 mm
g g
g′ = χ g
Sample
Aluminum foil Foam Board

GCC

Flexible Copper wire


# 12 AWG Pan balance

Battery 12V

R ε2 4Ω - 40W
R2
Rheostat
10Ω - 90W Coupling
Transformer

Function Generation
Flexible Copper wire
HP3325A # 12 AWG

ε1

R1
500Ω - 2W
Fig. A2 – Experimental Set-up 1.
43

Flexible Copper Wire


# 12 AWG

15 cm square Aluminum foil


(10.5 microns thickness)

Gum
(Loctite Super Bonder)

17 cm square Foam Board plate


(6mm thickness)

Aluminum foil
Foam Board

Fig. A3 – The Simplest Gravity Control Cell (GCC).


44
I1 ε2
+ − ri 2
R
I2

GCC
ri1

ε1 ~ Rp

f = 2 μHz
Wire # 12 AWG
Gravitational
R1 Shielding
I 3 = I1 + I 2 R2

(a)
ε 1 = Function Generator HP3325A(Option 002 High Voltage Output)
ri1 < 2Ω; R1 = 500Ω − 2 W ; ε 2 = 12V DC; ri 2 < 0.1Ω (Battery );
R2 = 4Ω − 40W ; R p = 2.5 × 10 −3 Ω; Reostat = 0 ≤ R ≤ 10Ω − 90W
I1max = 56mA (rms ); I 2max = 3 A ; I 3max ≅ 3 A (rms )
Coupling Transformer to isolate the Function Generator from the Battery
• Air core 10 - mm diameter; wire # 12 AWG; N1 = N 2 = 20; l = 42mm

I1 ε2 T
+ − ri 2
I2 R

ri1
−5
ε1 GCC l = 1cm → Rφ = 5.23 × 10 Ω
~ l
0.5 2 h =3mm
f = 2 μHz
d
i
Wire # 12 AWG e
l
e Al 200 mm
R1 c
t
I 3 = I1 + I 2 R2 r
P # 12 AWG i
c
(b)
R = 0 ⇒ V pmax = 1.1 × 10−4V Gravitational
Shielding
R = 10 ⇒ V pmin = 4.0 × 10−5V

Fig. A4 – Equivalent Electric Circuits


45

j
ELF electric current Wire

⎧⎪ ⎡ μ j4 ⎤ ⎫⎪
mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 1.758 ×10− 27 r2 3 − 1⎥ ⎬mi 0
⎪⎩ ⎣⎢ σρ f ⎦⎥ ⎭⎪

Fig. A5 – An ELF electric current through a wire, that makes a spherical form as shown above,
reduces the gravitational mass of the wire and the gravity inside sphere at the same proportion
χ = m g mi 0 (Gravitational Shielding Effect). Note that this spherical form can be transformed into
an ellipsoidal form or a disc in order to coat, for example, a Gravitational Spacecraft. It is also
possible to coat with a wire several forms, such as cylinders, cones, cubes, etc. The characteristics
of the wire are expressed by: μ r , σ , ρ ; j is the electric current density and f is the frequency.
46

Dynamometer

Rigid Aluminum wire 50 mm


# 14 AWG
Length = 28.6 m
RS= 0.36 Ω

Flexible Copper wire


# 12 AWG

Battery 12V

R ε2 4Ω - 40W
R2
Rheostat
Coupling
Transformer

Function Generation
HP3325A Flexible Copper wire
# 12 AWG

ε1

R1
Fig. A6 – Experimental set-up 2.
47

Gravitational Shielding Air


d
Eair ,σair
b
Insulation Δ
εr
a

r0

Aluminum Foil

~ V0 , f

Fig A7 – Gravitational shielding produced by semi-spheres stamped on the Aluminum foil


- By simply changing the geometry of the surface of the Aluminum foil it is possible to
increase the working frequency f up to more than 1Hz.
48

a =1.5 mm Acrylic sheet


r0 =0.9 mm
y Aluminum Plate
(a)

Heater
(b)

Press

D D
y+a

(c)

Δ=0.6 mm
r0 =0.9 mm a = 1.5 mm

(d)
Fig A8 – Method to coat the Aluminum semi-spheres with acrylic (Δ = a − r0 = 0.6mm ) .
(a)Acrylic sheet (A4 format) with 1.5mm thickness and an Aluminum plate (A4) with several
semi-spheres (radius r0 = 0.9 mm ) stamped on its surface. (b)A heater is placed below the
Aluminum plate in order to heat the Aluminum. (c)When the Aluminum is sufficiently heated
up, the acrylic sheet and the Aluminum plate are pressed, one against the other (The two D
devices shown in this figure are used in order to impede that the press compresses the acrylic
and the aluminum besides distance y + a ). (d)After some seconds, the press and the heater are
removed, and the device is ready to be used.
49

Dynamometer

50 mm
g g
GCC
g′ = χ g
Sample
Acrylic/Aluminum

Flexible Copper wire


# 12 AWG

High-voltage V0
Rheostat Oscillator
Transformer f > 1Hz

Fig. A9 – Experimental Set-up using a GCC subjected to high-voltage V 0 with frequency f > 1Hz .
Note that in this case, the pan balance is not necessary because the substance of the Gravitational
Shielding is an air layer with thickness d above the acrylic sheet. This is therefore, more a type of
Gravity Control Cell (GCC) with external gravitational shielding.
50

Gravitational Shielding

d
R
V0

GCC
Acrylic /Aluminum

V0max = 9 kV
Oscillator
V0min = 2.7 kV ~ f > 1Hz

(a)

Acrylic

Pin wire

Aluminum

Connector
(High-voltage)
(b)
10kV

Fig. A10 – (a) Equivalent Electric Circuit. (b) Details of the electrical connection with the
Aluminum plate. Note that others connection modes (by the top of the device) can produce
destructible interference on the electric lines of the E air field.
51

(a) (b)

Metallic Rings

Metallic base

(c)

Eair
Gravitational Shielding εr

Ellipsoidal metallic base

Metallic Rings
Oscillator f
Transformer
V0
Dielectric layer
Ionized air (d)

Fig. A11 – Geometrical forms with similar effects as those produced by the semi-spherical form – (a)
shows the semi-spherical form stamped on the metallic surface; (b) shows the semi-cylindrical form (an
obvious evolution from the semi-spherical form); (c) shows concentric metallic rings stamped on
the metallic surface, an evolution from semi-cylindrical form. These geometrical forms produce
the same effect as that of the semi-spherical form, shown in Fig.A11 (a). By using concentric
metallic rings, it is possible to build Gravitational Shieldings around bodies or spacecrafts with
several formats (spheres, ellipsoids, etc); (d) shows a Gravitational Shielding around a Spacecraft
with ellipsoidal form.
52

Dielectric
Metal Dielectric Metal (rigidly connected to the spacecraft)

Spacecraft E
Spacecraft E

Non-solid Gravitational Shielding Solid Gravitational Shielding


(rigidly connected to the dielectric)

(a) (b)

Fig. A12 – Non-solid and Solid Gravitational Shieldings - In the case of the Gravitational
Shielding produced on a solid substance (b), when its molecules go to the imaginary space-time,
the electric field that produces the effect also goes to the imaginary space-time together with
them, because in this case, the substance of the Gravitational Shielding is rigidly connected (by
means of the dielectric) to the metal that produces the electric field. This does not occur in the
case of Air Gravitational Shielding.
53

Metal Dielectric Metal Dielectric i ELF electric current


A
l
u
Spacecraft Spacecraft m
Ers Eair i
n
u
m

Solid Gravitational Shielding Air Gravitational Shielding


(a)

Micro-Gravitational Thruster

(b)

Volume V
of the
Micro-Gravitational Thruster with 10 gravitational shieldings Intergallactic
medium
(IGM)
Gravitational Spacecraft a
m gt r
Mg
Mg ρ igm V
a = χ 10 G 2
= χ 10 G
r r2
Gravitational Shielding
ρ igm∼10-26kg.m-3

(c)

Fig. A13 – Double Gravitational Shielding and Micro-thrusters – (a) Shows a double
gravitational shielding that makes possible to decrease the inertial effects upon the spacecraft
when it is traveling both in the imaginary space-time and in the real space-time. The solid
Gravitational Shielding also can be obtained by means of an ELF electric current through a metallic
lamina placed between the semi-spheres and the Gravitational Shielding of Air as shown above. (b)
Shows 6 micro-thrusters placed inside a Gravitational Spacecraft, in order to propel the
spacecraft in the directions x, y and z. Note that the Gravitational Thrusters in the spacecraft
must have a very small diameter (of the order of millimeters) because the hole through the
Gravitational Shielding of the spacecraft cannot be large. Thus, these thrusters are in fact Micro-
thrusters. (c) Shows a micro-thruster inside a spacecraft, and in front of a volume V of the
intergalactic medium (IGM). Under these conditions, the spacecraft acquires an acceleration a in
the direction of the volume V.
54
Volume V
of the
Micro-Gravitational Thruster with 10 gravitational shieldings Interstellar
medium
(ISM)
Gravitational Spacecraft a
r
Mg
Mg ρ ismV
a = χ 10 G 2
= χ 10 G
r r2
Gravitational Shielding
ρ ism∼10-21kg.m-3

(a)

Volume V
of the
Interplanetary
Micro-Gravitational Thruster with 10 gravitational shieldings medium
(IPM)

Gravitational Spacecraft a
r
Mg
Mg ρ ipmV
a=χ G 10
=χ G10

Gravitational Shielding r2 r2
ρ ipm∼10-20kg.m-3

(b)

Volume V
of the
Earth’s
Micro-Gravitational Thruster with 10 gravitational shieldings
atmospheric

Gravitational Spacecraft a
r
Mg
Mg ρ atmV
a = χ 10 G = χ 10 G
Gravitational Shielding r2 r2
ρ atm∼1.2kg.m-3
(c)
Fig. A14 – Gravitational Propulsion using Micro-Gravitational Thruster – (a) Gravitational
acceleration produced by a gravitational mass Mg of the Interstellar Medium. The density of the
Interstellar Medium is about 105 times greater than the density of the Intergalactic Medium (b)
Gravitational acceleration produced in the Interplanetary Medium. (c) Gravitational acceleration
produced in the Earth’s atmosphere. Note that, in this case, ρatm (near to the Earth’s surface)is about
1026 times greater than the density of the Intergalactic Medium.
55

r
F’0 F2 =χair2F0 F’2=χair2F’0 F0 r
F1 =χairF0 F’1 =χairF’0
Mg Mg
S2 S1
F’0 = F0 => R = (F’0 – F2) + (F1 – F’1 ) + (F’2 – F0) = 0

(a)

Micro-Gravitational Thruster
with 10 gravitational shieldings
Gravitational Shielding

r’ χ s ≅ −10 −8 a’0 r
a’0 =χs(-GMg /r’2) a10=χair10a0 a0 = - GMg/r2
Mg Mg
R ≅ F10 = χ 10
air F0

Hole in the Gravitational Shielding

Metal
Mica
(b) Grounded Metallic laminas
1 GCC
Air Gravitational Shielding
x

10mm

ELF
~
V0 ~ 400 mm

(c)
Fig. A15 – Dynamics and Structure of the Micro-Gravitational Thrusters - (a) The Micro-
Gravitational Thrusters do not work outside the Gravitational Shielding, because, in this case, the resultant
( )
upon the thruster is null due to the symmetry. (b) The Gravitational Shielding χ s ≅ 10 −8 reduces strongly
the intensities of the gravitational forces acting on the micro-gravitational thruster, except obviously, through
the hole in the gravitational shielding. (c) Micro-Gravitational Thruster with 10 Air Gravitational Shieldings
(10GCCs). The grounded metallic laminas are placed so as to retain the electric field produced by metallic
surface behind the semi-spheres.
56

0.885 m
Sample
Any type of material; any mass
Acrylic Box
(2mm thickness) g’= χ g
2 mm
d = 9.73 mm Air layer mg (air) = χ mi (air) 7.73 mm
Distilled Water a = 1.9 mm
3.2 mm
1.8 mm
2 mm
Aluminum sheet
(0.5 mm thickness) V0max = 9 kV
342 Aluminum yarns (# 10 AWG) Balance
(2.558 mm diameter; 0.884 mm length) ~ 2 Hz

Transformer
g

GCC Cross-section Front view


(a)

0.885 m

0.884 m
1mm 1mm

Aluminum sheet
(0.5 mm thickness)
Balance
342 Aluminum yarns (# 10 AWG) 1.5mm
(2.558 mm diameter; 0.884 mm length) 0.5 mm
3.6mm

0.885 m

GCC Cross-section Side View


(b)

Fig. A16 – A GCC using distilled Water.


In total this GCC weighs about 6kg; the air layer 7.3 grams. The balance has the
following characteristics: Range 0 – 6kg; readability 0.1g. The yarns are inserted
side by side on the Aluminum sheet. Note the detail of fixing of the yarns on the
Aluminum sheet.
57
140 cm

70
cm Sample 5Kg
mg Any type of material; any mass

g ′′′ = χ 3 g
GCC 3 Balance

70
cm 5Kg
mg

g ′′ = χ 2 g
GCC 2 Balance

70
cm 5Kg
mg

g′ = χ g
GCC 1 Balance

Fig. A17 – Experimental set-up. In order to prove the exponential effect produced by the
superposition of the Gravitational Shieldings, we can take three similar GCCs and put them one above
the other, in such way that above the GCC 1 the gravity acceleration will be g′ = χ g ; above the
GCC2 g ′′ = χ 2 g , and above the GCC3 g ′′′ = χ 3 g . Where χ is given by Eq. (A47). The arrangement
above has been designed for values of mg < 13g and χ up to -9 or mg < 1kg and χ up to -2 .
58
APPENDIX B: Gravity Control Cells (GCCs) made from
Semiconductor Compounds.

There are some semiconductors BACKGROUND FOR EXPERIMENTAL


compounds with electrical conductivity
between 104S/m to 1 S/m, which can The DuracapTM 86103 is sold
have their gravitational mass strongly under the form of small cubes. Its
decreased when subjected to ELF melting temperature varies from 177ºC
electromagnetic fields. to 188ºC. Thus, a 15cm square Duracap
For instance, the polyvinyl plate with 1 mm thickness can be shaped
chloride (PVC) compound, called by using a suitable mold, as the shown
DuracapTM 86103. in Fig.B1.
It has the following characteristics: Figure B2(a) shows the Duracap
plate between the Aluminum plates of a
μr =1; εr =3 parallel plate capacitor. The plates have
σ = 3333 .3S / m
the following dimensions: 19cm X 15cm
X 1mm. They are painted with an
ρ = 1400kg.m−3
insulating varnish spray of high
dieletric strength = 98 KV / mm
dielectric strength (ISOFILM). They are
connected to the secondary of a
Then, according to the following transformer, which is connected to a
equation below (derived from Eq.A14) Function Generator. The distance
⎧ ⎡ ⎛ μ σ3 ⎞ 4 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎪ between the Aluminum plates is d = 1mm .
mg = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+1.758×10−27⎜ r2 3 ⎟Erms
⎜ρ f ⎟
−1⎥⎬mi0 (B1)
⎪⎩ ⎣ ⎢ ⎥ Thus, the electric field through the
⎝ ⎠ ⎦⎪⎭
Duracap is given by
the gravitational mass, m g , of the Em V0
E rms = = (B3)
DuracapTM 86103, when subjected to an 2 εrd 2
electromagnetic field of frequency f , is where ε r is the relative permittivity of
given by the dielectric (Duracap), and V0 is the
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢
4
−23 Erms ⎪ amplitude of the wave voltage applied
mg = ⎨1− 2 1+ 3.3×10 −1⎥⎬mi0 (B2)
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f 3 ⎥⎪ on the capacitor.
⎦⎭
In order to generate ELF wave
Note that, if the electromagnetic field
voltage of f = 2 Hz , we can use the
through the Duracap has extremely-low
frequency, for example, if f = 2 Hz , and widely-known Function Generator
HP3325A (Op.002 High Voltage
Output) that can generate sinusoidal
Erms = 9.4 ×105 V / m (0.94kV / mm)
voltages with extremely-low frequencies
and amplitude up to 20V (40Vpp into
Then, its gravitational mass will be 500Ω load). The maximum output
reduced down to m g ≅ −1.1mi 0 , reducing current is 0.08 App ; output impedance
in this way, the initial weight <2Ω at ELF.
(P0 = m g g = mi0 g ) of the Duracap down to The turns ratio of the transformer
− 1.1P0 . (Bosch red coil) is 200 : 1 . Thus, since the
59
maximum value of the amplitude of the body inside the spacecraft (Eq.(10)).
voltage produced by the Function This body can be, for example, the
Generator is V pmax = 20 V , then the dielectric between the plates of a
maximum secondary voltage will capacitor, whose gravitational mass can
be V smax = V0max = 4kV .Consequently, Eq. be easily controlled by means of an ELF
electromagnetic field produced between
(B3) gives
max the plates of the capacitor. We will call
Erms = 2.8 × 106V / m
this type of capacitor of Capacitor of
Thus, for f = 2 Hz , Eq. (B2) gives Gravitational Mass Control (CGMC).
mg = −29.5mi0
Figure B 4(a) shows a CGMC
The variations on the placed in the center of the spacecraft.
gravitational mass of the Duracap plate Thus, the gravitational mass of the
can be measured by a pan balance with spacecraft can be controlled simply by
the following characteristics: range 0 − varying the gravitational mass of the
1.5kg ; readability 0.01g, using the set- dielectric of the capacitor by means of
up shown in Fig. B2(a). an ELF electromagnetic field produced
Figure B2(b) shows the set-up to between the plates of the capacitor. Note
measure the gravity acceleration that the Capacitor of Gravitational Mass
variations above the Duracap plate Control can have the spacecraft's own
(Gravitational Shielding effect). The form as shown in Fig. B 4(b). The
samples used in this case, can be of dielectric can be, for example, a
several types of material. Duracap plate, as shown in this
Since voltage waves with appendix. In this case, the gravitational
frequencies very below 1Hz have a very mass of the dielectric is expressed by
long period, we cannot consider, in Eq. (B2). Under these circumstances,
practice, their rms values. However, we the total gravitational mass of the
can add a sinusoidal voltage spacecraft will be given by Eq.(10):
Vosc = V0 sin ωt with a DC voltage V DC , by
means of the circuit shown in Fig.B3. M g (spacecraf ) = M i 0 + χ dielectric mi 0
Thus, we obtain V = VDC + V0 sinωt ; ω = 2πf .
If V0 << V DC then V ≅ V DC . Thus, the where M i 0 is the rest inertial mass of
voltage V varies with the frequency f , the spacecraft(without the dielectric) and
but its intensity is approximately equal mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the
to V DC , i.e., V will be practically dielectric; χ dielectric = m g mi 0 , where m g is
constant. This is of fundamental the gravitational mass of the dielectric.
importance for maintaining the value of By decreasing the value of χ dielectric , the
the gravitational mass of the body, m g , gravitational mass of the spacecraft
sufficiently stable during all the time, in decreases. It was shown, that the value
the case of f << Hz . of χ can be negative. Thus, for example,
We have shown in this paper that when χ dielectric ≅ − M i0 mi0 , the gravitational
it is possible to control the gravitational mass of the spacecraft gets very close to
mass of a spacecraft, simply by zero. When χ dielectric < − M i0 mi0 , the
controlling the gravitational mass of a
60
gravitational mass of the spacecraft spacecraft can be reduced just down
becomes negative. to 0.159 g . In addition, since the Mach’s
Therefore, for an observer out of principle says that the local inertial
the spacecraft the gravitational mass of forces are produced by the gravitational
the spacecraft is M g(spacecraf) = Mi0 + χ dielectricmi0 , interaction of the local system with the
and not M i 0 + m i 0 . distribution of cosmic masses then the
Since the dielectric strength of the inertial effects upon the crew would be
Duracap is 98kV / mm , a Duracap plate reduced just by χ dielectric = 0.159 .
with 1mm thickness can withstand up to However, there is a way to
98kV . In this case, the value of χ dielectric strongly reduce the inertial effects upon
for f = 2 Hz , according to Eq. (B2), is the crew of the spacecraft without
making it imaginary. As shown in Fig.
χ dielectric = m g mi 0 ≅ − 10 4
B4 (c), we can build an inertial
Thus, for example, if the inertial mass of shielding, with n superimposed
the spacecraft is M i 0 ≅ 10021.0014 kg and, CGMCs. In this case, according to the
the inertial mass of the dielectric of the Gravitational Shielding Principle, the
Capacitor of Gravitational Mass Control is gravity upon the crew will be given by
m i 0 ≅ 1.0021kg , then the gravitational g n = χ dielectric
n
g , where g is the gravity
mass of the spacecraft becomes acceleration out of the spacecraft (in a
M g (spacecraf ) = M i 0 + χ dielectric mi 0 ≅ 10 −3 kg given direction) and χdielectric= mg mi0 ; m g
This value is much smaller than and mi 0 are, respectively, the
+ 0.159 M i 0 . gravitational mass and the inertial mass
It was shown [1] that, when the of the dielectric. Under these conditions
gravitational mass of a particle is the inertial effects upon the crew will be
reduced to values between + 0.159M i reduced by χ dielectric
n
.
and − 0.159Mi , it becomes imaginary, i.e., Thus, for n = 10 (ten superimposed
the gravitational and the inertial masses CGMCs), and χ dielectric ≅ 0.2 , the inertial
of the particle become imaginary. effects upon the crew will be reduced
Consequently, the particle disappears by χ dielectric
10
≅ 1 × 10 −7 . Therefore, if the
from our ordinary space-time. maximum thrust produced by the
This means that we cannot reduce thrusters of the spacecraft is F = 105 N ,
the gravitational mass of the spacecraft then the intensities of the inertial forces
below + 0.159M i , unless we want to upon the crew will not exceed 0.01N ,
make it imaginary. i.e. they will be practically negligible.
Obviously this limits the Under these circumstances, the
minimum value of χ dielectric , i.e. gravitational mass of the spacecraft, for
min
χ dielctric = 0.159 . Consequently, if the an observer out of the spacecraft, will be
gravity acceleration out of the spacecraft just approximately equal to the
(in a given direction) is g , then, gravitational mass of the inertial
according to the Gravitational Shielding shielding, i.e. M g (spacecraft ) ≅ M g (inertial .shield ) .
Principle, the corresponding gravity If M g (inertial .shield ) ≅ 10 3 kg , and the
acceleration upon the crew of the thrusters of the spacecraft are able to
61
produces up to F = 3 × 10 N , the 5 KV/mm; maximum working
spacecraft will acquires an acceleration temperature of 1600°C.
given by Another material is the Alumina-
a spacecraft =
F
≅ 3 × 10 2 m.s − 2
CNT, recently discovered §§§§ . It has
M g (spacecraft ) electrical conductivity of 3375 S/m at
With this acceleration it can reach 77°C in samples that were 15%
velocities close to Mach 10 in some nanotubes by volume [17]; ε r = 9.8 ;
seconds. ρ = 3980 kg .m −3 ; dielectric strength 10-
The velocity that the spacecraft 20KV/mm; maximum working
can reach in the imaginary spacetime is temperature of 1750°C.
much greater than this value, since
M g (spacecraft ) , as we have seen, can be
reduced down to ≅ 10 −3 kg or less.
Thus, if the thrusters of the
spacecraft are able to produces up
to F = 3 × 105 N , and M g (spacecraft ) ≅ 10 −3 kg ,
the spacecraft will acquires an
acceleration given by
F
a spacecraft = ≅ 3 × 10 8 m.s − 2
M g (spacecraft )
The novel Carbon Nanotubes
With this acceleration it can reach *****
Aerogels , called CNT Aerogels are
velocities close to the light speed in less
also suitable to produce Gravitational
than 1 second. After 1 month, the
Shieldings, mainly due to their very
velocity of the spacecraft would be
small densities. The electrical
about 1015 m / s (remember that in the conductivity of the CNT Aerogels is
imaginary spacetime the maximum
70.4S/m for a density of ρ = 7.5kg.m −3 [18];
velocity of propagation of the
ε r ≈ 10 . Recently (2010), it was announced
interactions is infinity [1]).
the discovered of Graphene Aerogel
OTHER SEMICONDUCTOR COMPOUNDS with σ =~ 1 × 10 2 S / m and ρ = 10kg .m −3 [19]
(Aerogels exhibit higher dielectric
A semiconductor compound, strength than expected for porous
which can have its gravitational mass materials).
strongly decreased when subjected to
ELF electromagnetic fields is the §§§§
Recently, it was discovered that Carbon nanotubes
(CNTs) can be added to Alumina (Al2O3) to convert it
CoorsTek Pure SiCTM LR CVD Silicon into a good electrical conductor.
Carbide, 99.9995% ‡‡‡‡ . This Low- *****
In 2007, Mateusz Brying et al. working with Prof.
resistivity (LR) pure Silicon Carbide has Arjun Yodh at the University of Pennsylvania produced
the first aerogels made entirely of carbon nanotubes
electrical conductivity of 5000S/m at (CNT Aerogels) [20] that, depending on the processing
room temperature; ε r = 10.8 ; conditions, can have their electrical conductivity ranging
as high as 100 S/m.
ρ = 3210kg.m −3 ; dielectric strength >10

‡‡‡‡
www.coorstek.com
62

Aluminum

2mm

150mm

3mm 150mm

200mm
5mm
150mm
3mm
200mm
150mm

Aluminum

Fig.B1 – Mold design


63

Aluminum
190mmX150mmX1mm
Duracap
150mmX150mmX1mm
Acrylic 1kg
150mmX40mmX1mm
Wood

Bosch 20 mm
ELF Wave Voltage red 20 mm Balance
Generator coil 20 mm
(a)

Sample

1kg

Bosch
ELF Wave Voltage red Balance
Generator coil

(b)

Fig.B2 – Schematic diagram of the experimental set-up


64

− V DC
+

ELF voltage V DC + Vosc


waves
V DC >> V0
Generator
200:1
V osc
f
~ V osc V osc = V 0 sin ωt

Bosch red coil


Coupling
Transformer

Fig. B3 – Equivalent Electric Circuit


65
Capacitor of Gravitational Mass Control

Gravitational Thrusters

z
y x

col 1 col 2

(a)
Capacitor of Gravitational Mass Control dielectric
(CGMC)

(b)

n dielectrics
n 321

g n = χ dielectric
n
g g

Inertial Shielding
(c)
Fig.B4 – Gravitational Propulsion System and Inertial Shielding of the Gravitational Spacecraft
– (a) eight gravitational thrusters are placed inside a Gravitational Spacecraft, in order to propel the
spacecraft along the directions x, y and z. Two gravitational thrusters are inside the columns 1 and 2, in
order to rotate the spacecraft around the y-axis. The functioning of the Gravitational Thrusters is shown
in Fig.A14. The gravitational mass of the spacecraft is controlled by the Capacitor of Gravitational
Mass Control (CGMC). Note that the CGMC can have the spacecraft's own form, as shown in (b). In
order to strongly reduce the inertial effects upon the crew of the spacecraft, we can build an inertial
shielding, with several CGMCs, as shown above (c). In this case, the gravity upon the crew will be
given by g n = χ dielectric
n
g , where g is the gravity acceleration out of the spacecraft (in a given direction)
and χ dielectric = m g mi 0 ; m g and mi 0 are, respectively, the gravitational mass and the inertial mass of
the dielectric. Under these conditions the inertial effects upon the crew will be reduced by χ dielectric
n
.
Thus, for example, if n = 10 and χ dielectric ≅ 0.2 , the inertial effects will be reduced
10
by χ dielectric ≅ 1 × 10 −7 . If the maximum thrust produced by the thrusters is F = 10 5 N , then the intensities
of the inertial forces upon the crew will not exceed 0.01N .
66
APPENDIX C: Longer-Duration Microgravity Environment
Produced by Gravity Control Cells (GCCs).
The acceleration experienced by deep vertical mine shaft in Japan that
an object in a microgravity has been converted to a drop facility.
environment, by definition, is one- Drop towers are used for
millionth (10-6) of that experienced at experiments that only need a short
Earth’s surface (1g). Consequently, a duration of microgravity, or for an
microgravity environment is one initial validation for experiments that
where the acceleration induced by will be carried out in longer duration
gravity has little or no measurable of microgravity.
effect. The term zero-gravity is,
obviously inappropriate since the
quantization of gravity [1] shows that
the gravity can have only discrete
values different of zero [1, Appendix B].
Only three methods of creating a
microgravity environment are
currently known: to travel far enough
into deep space so as to reduce the
effect of gravity by attenuation, by
falling, and by orbiting a planet.
The first method is the simplest
in conception, but requires traveling an Aircraft can fly in parabolic arcs
enormous distance, rendering it most to achieve period of microgravity of
impractical with the conventional 20 to 25 seconds with g-level of
spacecrafts. The second method, approximately 0.02 g. The airplane
falling, is very common but climbs rapidly until its nose is about
approaches microgravity only when 45-degree angle to the horizon then the
the fall is in a vacuum, as air resistance engines are cut back. The airplane
will provide some resistance to free slows; the plane remains in free fall
fall acceleration. Also it is difficult to over the top of the parabola, then it
fall for long enough periods of time. nose-dives to complete the parabola,
There are also problems which involve creating microgravity conditions.
avoiding too sudden of a stop at the Aircraft parabolic flights give
end. The NASA Lewis Research the opportunity to perform medical
Center has several drop facilities. One experiments on human subjects in real
provides a 132 meter drop into a hole microgravity environment. They also
in the ground similar to a mine shaft. offer the possibility of direct
This drop creates a reduced gravity intervention by investigators on board
environment for 5.2 seconds. The the aircraft during and between
longest drop time currently available parabolas. In the mid-1980s, NASA
(about 10 seconds) is at a 490 meter KC-135, a modified Boeing 707,
67
provided access to microgravity and potential loss of data.
environment. A parabolic flight Unmanned capsules, platforms or
provided 15 to 20 seconds of 0.01 g or satellites, such as the European
less, followed by a 2-g pull out. On a retrievable carrier Eureka, DLR's
typical flight, up to 40 parabolic retrievable carrier SPAS, or the
trajectories can be performed. The Russian Photon capsules, the US
KC-135 can accommodate up to 21 Space Shuttle (in connection with the
passengers performing 12 different European Spacelab laboratory or the
experiments. In 1993, the Falcon-20 US Spacelab module), provide weeks
performed its first parabolic flight with or months of microgravity.
microgravity experiment on board. A space station, maintaining a
This jet can carry two experimenters low earth orbit for several decades,
and perform up to 3 experiments. Each greatly improves access to
flight can make up to 4 parabolic microgravity environment for up to
trajectories, with each parabola lasting several months.
75 seconds, with 15 to 20 seconds of Thus, microgravity environment
microgravity at 0.01g or less. can be obtained via different means,
providing different duration of
microgravity. While short-duration
microgravity environments can be
achieved on Earth with relative
easiness, longer-duration microgravity
environments are too expensive to be
obtained.
Here, we propose to use the Gravity
Control Cells (GCCs), shown in this
The third method of creating a work, in order to create longer-
microgravity environment is orbiting a duration microgravity environments.
planet. This is the environment As we have seen, just above a GCC
commonly experienced in the space the gravity can be strongly reduced
shuttle, International Space Station, (down to 1μg or less). In this way, the
Mir (no longer in orbit), etc. While this gravity above a GCC can remain at the
scenario is the most suitable for >>1m

scientific experimentation and >>1m

commercial exploitation, it is still


quite expensive to operate in, mostly longer-duration
microgravity
due to launch costs. environment
~1 μ g
A space shuttle provides an ideal up to 3m

laboratory environment to conduct


microgravity research. A large panoply GCC

of experiments can be carried out in


microgravity conditions for up to 17
days, and scientists can make 1g

adjustment to avoid experiment failure


68
promise to develop new materials
microgravity ranging during a very which can not be made on Earth due to
long time (several years). Thus, GCCs gravity. These new materials shall
can be used in order to create longer- have properties that are superior to
duration microgravity environments on those made on Earth and may be used
Earth. In addition, due to the cost of to:
the GCCs to be relatively low, also the -increase the speed of future
longer-duration microgravity computers,
environments will be produced with -improve fiber optics,
low costs. -make feasible Room Temperature
This possibility appears to be Superconductors,
absolutely new and unprecedented in -enable medical breakthroughs to cure
the literature since longer-duration several diseases (e.g., diabetes).
microgravity environments are usually In a microgravity environment
obtained via airplanes, sounding protein crystals can be grown larger
rockets, spacecraft and space station. and with a purity that is impossible to
It is easy to see that the GCCs obtain under gravity of 1g. By
can be built with width and length of analyzing the space-grown crystals it
until some meters. On the other hand, is possible to determine the structure
as the effect of gravity reduction above and function of the thousands of
the GCC can reach up to 3m, we can proteins used in the human body and
then conclude that the longer-duration in valuable plants and animals. The
microgravity environments produced determination of protein structure
above the GCCs can have sufficiently represents a huge opportunity for
large volumes to perform any pharmaceutical companies to develop
microgravity experiment on Earth. new drugs to fight diseases.
The longer-duration microgravity Crystal of HIV protease
environment produced by a GCC will inhibitor grown in microgravity are
be a special tool for microgravity significantly larger and of higher
research. It will allow to improve and quality than any specimens grown
to optimize physical, chemical and under gravity of 1g. This will help in
biological processes on Earth that are defining the structure of the protein
important in science, engineering and crucial in fighting the AIDS virus.
also medicine. The reduction of Protein Crystal Isocitrate Lysase
gravitational effects in a microgravity is an enzyme for fungicides. The
environment shows, for example, that isocitrate lysase crystals grown in
temperature differences in a fluid do microgravity environments are of
not produce convection, buoyancy or larger sizes and fewer structural
sedimentation. The changes in fluid defects than crystals grown under
behavior in microgravity lie at the gravity of 1g. They will lead to more
heart of the studies in materials powerful fungicides to treat serious
science, combustion and many aspects crop diseases such as rice blast, and
of space biology and life sciences. increase crop output.
Microgravity research holds the
69
Improved crystals of human purity fiber optics, optical switches
insulin will help improve treatment for for computing, telecommunications,
diabetes and potentially create a cure. medical surgery and cauterization,
Anchorage dependent cells temperature monitoring, infrared
attached to a polymer and grown in a imaging, fiber-optic lasers, and optical
bioreactor in microgravity will lead to power transmission. A ZBLAN fiber
the production of a protein that is optic cable manufactured in a
closer in structure and function to the microgravity environment has the
three-dimensional protein living in the potential to carry 100 times the
body. amount of data conveyed by
conventional silica-based fibers.
In microgravity environment
where complications of gravity-driven
convection flows are eliminated, we
can explore the fundamental processes
in fluids of several types more easily
and test fundamental theories of three-
dimensional laminar, oscillatory and
turbulent flow generated by various
other forces.
This should help reduce or By improving the basics for
eliminate transplant rejection and is predicting and controlling the behavior
therefore critical for organ transplant of fluids, we open up possibilities for
and for the replacement of damaged improving a whole range of industrial
bone and tissues. Cells grown on Earth processes:
are far from being three-dimensional
due to the effect of 1g gravity. -aCivil engineers can design safe
The ZBLAN is a new substance buildings in earthquake-prone areas
with the potential to revolutionize fiber thanks to a better understanding of the
optics communications. A member of fluid-like behavior of soils under
the heavy metal fluoride family of stress.
glasses, ZBLAN has promising
applications in fiber optics. It can be - Materials engineers can benefit from
used in a large array of industries, a deeper knowledge of the
including manufacture of ultra high determination of the structure and
properties of a solid metal during its
formation and can improve product
quality and yield, and, in some cases,
lead to the introduction of new
products.

- Architects and engineers can design


more stable and performing power
70
plants with the knowledge of the flow appears to have unique radiation
characteristics of vapor-liquid mixture. shielding capabilities, including an
ability to block alpha, beta, gamma
- Combustion scientists can improve rays). Terrafoam can be constructed to
fire safety and fuel efficiency with the be extremely lightweight. Altering the
knowledge of fluid flow in manufacturing process and the
microgravity. inclusion of other materials can vary
In microgravity environment, the properties of Terrafoam. Properties
medical researchers can observe the such as cell structure, tensile strength,
functional changes in cells when the bulk density and temperature
effect of gravity is practically resistance can be varied to suit specific
removed. It becomes possible to study applications. It self-welds to concrete,
fundamental life processes down to the aluminum and other metals. The useful
cellular level. variations on the base product are
Access to microgravity will potentially in the thousands. Perhaps
provide better opportunities for the most exciting potential
research, offer repeated testing applications for Terrafoam stem from
procedures, and enormously improve its extraordinary capability as an ultra-
the test facilities available for life lightweight thermal and radioactive
sciences investigations. This will shield.
provide valuable information for Also, the formation of
medical research and lead to nanoscale carbon structures by
improvements in the health and electrical arc discharge plasma
welfare of the six billion people, which synthesis has already been investigated
live under the influence of 1g gravity in microgravity experiments by
on the Earth's surface. NASA. Furthermore, complex
The utilization of microgravity plasmas are relevant for processes in
to develop new and innovative which a particle formation is to be
materials, pharmaceuticals and other prevented, if possible, as, for example,
products is waiting to be explored. within plasma etching processes for
Access to microgravity environments microchip production.
currently is limited. Better access, as
the produced by GCCs, will help
researchers accelerate the
experimentation into these new
products.
Terrafoam is a rigid, silicate
based inorganic foam. It is
nonflammable and does not five off People will benefit from
noxious fumes when in the presence of numerous microgravity experiments
fire. It does not conduct heat to any that can be conducted in Longer-
measurable degree and thus is an Duration Microgravity Environment
outstanding and possible unsurpassed Produced by Gravity Control Cells
thermal insulator. In addition, it (GCCs) on Earth.
71

APPENDIX D: Antenna with Gravitational Transducer for


Instantaneous Communications at any distance

It was previously shown in this is decreased down to the range of


article that Quantum Gravitational + 0.159miS to − 0.159miS . By analogy, it
Antennas (GCC antennas, Fig.8) can becomes imaginary and goes to the
emit and detect virtual gravitational imaginary Universe. It is easy to show
radiation. The velocity of this radiation that, in these circumstances, also a
is infinite, as we have seen. This means body inside the shielding S becomes
that these quantum antennas can imaginary and goes to the imaginary
transmit and receive communications Universe together with the gravitational
instantaneously to and from anywhere shielding S . In order to prove it,
in the Universe. Here, it is shown how consider, for example, Fig.D1 where
to transmit and receive we clearly see that the Gravitational
communications instantaneously from Shielding Effect is equivalent to a
any distance in the Universe by decrease of χ = m gS miS in the
utilizing virtual electromagnetic (EM) gravitational masses of the bodies A
radiation instead of virtual and B , since the initial gravitational
gravitational radiation. Starting from
masses: m gA ≅ miA and m gB ≅ miB become
the principle that the antennas of usual
transceivers (real antennas) radiate real respectively m gA = χmiA and m gB = χmiB ,
EM radiation, then we can expect that when the gravitational shielding is
imaginary antennas radiate imaginary activated. Thus, when χ becomes less
EM radiation or virtual EM radiation. than + 0.159 , both the gravitational
The velocity of this radiation is also masses of S and A become
infinite, in such a way that respectively:
it can transmit communications
instantaneously from any distance in m gS < +0.159 miS
the Universe. and
It was shown [1] that when the m gA < +0.159 miA
gravitational mass of a body is
decreased down to the range of This proves, therefore, that when a
+ 0.159mi to − 0.159mi ( mi is its inertial Gravitational Shielding S becomes
mass), the body becomes imaginary imaginary, any particle (including
and goes to an imaginary Universe photons ‡‡‡‡‡ ) inside S , also becomes
which contains our real Universe. imaginary and goes to the imaginary
Thus, we have the method to convert
real antennas to imaginary antennas. ‡‡‡‡‡
As shown in the article “Mathematical
Now, consider a Gravitational Foundations of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum
Gravity”, real photons become imaginary photons or
Shielding S , whose gravitational mass virtual photons.
72
antenna becomes imaginary, and,
mgB miB
A g BA = −G 2
≅ −G together with S , it goes to the
r r2
imaginary Universe. In these
r
mgA miA
circumstances, the real photons
g AB = −G ≅ −G radiated from the antenna also become
B r 2
r2
imaginary photons or virtual photons.
Since the velocity of these photons is
(a) infinite, they can reach instantaneously
the receiving antenna, if it is also an
imaginary antenna in the imaginary
mgB χ miB Universe.
g BA = −G = −G
r 2
r2 Therefore, we can say that the
S Gravitational Shielding around the
χ = mgS miS , χ < 1 g AB = −G mgA = −G χ miA antenna works as a Gravitational
2 2
r r Transducer ****** converting real EM
energy into virtual EM energy.
(b) In practice, we can encapsulate
antennas of transceivers with
Aluminum cylinders, as shown in
S
mgS < +0.159 miS Fig.D2(a). By applying an appropriate
ELF electric current through the Al
Virtual photon cylinders, in order to put the
A mgA < +0.159miA gravitational masses of the cylinders
within the range of + 0.159miCyl
to − 0.159miCyl , we can transform real
(c)
antennas into imaginary antennas,
Fig.D1 – (a) (b) The Gravitational Shielding making possible instantaneously
Effect is equivalent to a decrease of χ = mgS miS communications at any distance,
in the gravitational masses of the bodies A including astronomical distances.
and B . (c) When a Gravitational Shielding S Figure D2 (b) shows usual
becomes imaginary, any particle (including transceivers operating with imaginary
photons) inside S , also becomes imaginary. antennas, i.e., real antennas turned into
imaginary antennas. It is important to
Universe together with the note that the communications between
§§§§§
Gravitational Shielding S . them occur through the imaginary
Now, consider a transceiver space-time. At the end of
antenna inside a Gravitational transmissions, when the Gravitational
Shielding S . When the gravitational Transducers are turned off, the
mass of S , m gS , is reduced down to the antennas reappear in the real space-
range of + 0.159miS to − 0.159miS , the time, i.e., they become real antennas
again.
§§§§§
Similarly, the bodies inside a Gravitational
Spacecraft become also imaginaries when the ******
A Transducer is substance or device that converts
Gravitational Spacecraft becomes imaginary. input energy of one form into output energy of another.
73
Imagine now cell phones using to put the transceiver totally inside a
antennas with gravitational transducers. Gravitational Shielding. Then, consider
There will not be any more need of cell a transceiver X inside the gravitational
phone signal transmission stations shielding of a Gravitational Spacecraft.
because the reach of the virtual EM When the spacecraft becomes
radiation is infinite (without imaginary, so does the transceiver X .
scattering). The new cell phones will Imagine then, another real transceiver
transmit and receive communications Y with imaginary antenna. With their
directly to and from one another. In antennas in the imaginary space-time,
addition, since the virtual EM radiation both transceivers X and Y are able to
does not interact with matter, then there transmit and receive communications
will not be any biological effects, as it instantaneously between them, by
happens in the case of usual cell means of virtual EM radiation (See
phones. Fig. D3(a)). Figure D3(b) shows
another possibility: instantaneous
Aluminum cylinder Antenna communications between two
transceivers at virtual state.
Imaginary Space-time
~
ELF electric current
(a) Virtual photons
v→∞
Imaginary antennas +
Imaginary transducers
Virtual Transceiver X
Real Transceiver Y
Virtual photons
v→∞ (a)
Real Transceiver 1
Imaginary Space-time
Imaginary Space-time

Real Space-time
Real Transceiver 2 Virtual photons
(b) v→∞
Fig. D2 – (a) Antenna with Gravitational
Transducer. (b) Transceivers operating with
imaginary antennas (instantaneous Virtual Transceivers
communications at any distance, including
astronomical distances). (b)
Let us now consider the case Fig. D3 – (a) Instantaneous communications
where a transceiver is totally turned between the real Universe and the imaginary
into imaginary (Fig.D3). In order to Universe.(b) Instantaneous communications
convert real antennas into imaginary between two Virtual Transceivers in the
antennas, we have used the imaginary Universe.
gravitational shielding effect, as we
have already seen. Now, it is necessary
74
References

[1] De Aquino, F.(2010) Mathematical Foundations [16] Wadsley, J., et al. (2002). The Universe
of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, in Hot Gas. NASA.
Pacific Journal of Science and Technology, http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap
11(1), June 2010, pp.173-232. Physics/0212033. 020820.html. Retrieved 2009-06-19.
[2] De Aquino, F. (2010) Gravity Control by means [17] Zhan, G.D et al. (2003) Appl Phys. Lett.
of Electromagnetic Field through Gas at Ultra- 83, 1228.
Low Pressure, Pacific Journal of Science and [18] Xianping Lu, Ove Nilsson, Jochen.
Technology, 11(2) November 2010, pp.178- Fricke, Richard W. Pekala,” Thermal and
247, Physics/0701091. electrical conductivity of monolithic
. [3] Isham, C. J. (1975) Quantum Gravity, in carbon aerogels”, Journal of Applied
Oxford Symposium, OUP. Physics, 73, 2, 581-584 (Jan 1993).
[4] Isham, C.J., (1997) “Structural Problems [19] Worsley, M.A et al., (2010) Synthesis of
Facing Quantum Gravity Theory’’, in Graphene Aerogel with High Electrical
M, Francaviglia, G, Longhi, L, Lusanna, Conductivity , J. Am. Chem. Soc., 132
and E, Sorace, eds., Proceedings of the (40), pp 14067–14069.
14th International Conference on [20] Bryning, M., Milkie, D., Islam, M.,
General Relativity and Gravitation, Hough, L., Kikkawa, J. and Yodh, A.
167-209,(World Scientific, Singapore, 1997).
(2007), Carbon Nanotube Aerogels.
[5] Mach, E., (1893) The Science of Mechanics, AdvancedMaterials,19: 661–664.
London, p.229-38. doi: 10.1002/adma.200601748.
[6] Bohm, D. (1951) Quantum Theory,
Prentice-Hall, N.Y, p.415.
[7] D’Espagnat, B. The Question of Quantum
Reality, Scientific American, 241,128.
[8] Teller, P. Relational Holism and
Quantum Mechanics, British Journal for
the Philosophy of Science, 37, 71-81.
[9] De Aquino, F. (2008) “Physical
Foundations of Quantum Psychology”,
http://htpprints.yorku.ca/archive/00000297
[10] Landau, L. and Lifchitz, E. (1969)
Theorie du Champ, Ed.MIR, Moscow,
Portuguese version (1974) Ed. Hemus,
S.Paulo, pp.396-397.
[11] Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. (1968)
Physics, J. Willey & Sons,
Portuguese Version, Ed. USP, p.1118.
[12] Zhan, G.D et al. (2003) Appl. Phys. Lett.
83, 1228.
[13] Davidson, K. & Smoot, G. (2008)
Wrinkles in Time. N. Y: Avon, 158-163.
[14] Silk, Joseph.(1977) Big Bang. N.Y,
Freeman,299.
[15] Jafelice, L.C. and Opher, R. (1992). The
origin of intergalactic magnetic fields
due to extragalactic jets. RAS.
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-
bib query? Bib code = 1992 MNRAS.
257. 135J. Retrieved 2009-06-19.
1

Possibility of controlled nuclear fusion by means of


Gravity Control
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2011 by Fran De Aquino
All Rights Reserved

The gravity control process where K = 1.758× 10−27 and j rms = j 2 .


described in the articles Mathematical
Thus, the gravitational force equation
Foundations of the Relativistic Theory of
can be expressed by
Quantum Gravity [1] and Gravity Control
by means of Electromagnetic Field
through Gas at Ultra-Low Pressure, [2] FG = Gmgm′g r2 = χ2Gmi0mi′0 r2 =
points to the possibility of obtaining ⎧ ⎡
2
⎤⎫⎪
⎪ μ j4
Controlled Nuclear Fusion by means of = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ K r 2rms3 −1⎥⎬ Gmi0mi′0 r2 (3)
increasing of the intensity of the ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ σρ f ⎥⎪
⎦⎭
gravitational interaction between the
nuclei. When the gravitational forces
In order to obtain FG > FE we must have
FG = Gmgm′g r2 become greater than the
electrical forces FE = qq ′ 4πε 0 r 2 ⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫⎪ qq′ 4πε
⎪ ⎢ μr jrms
4
between the nuclei, then nuclear fusion ⎨1− 2 1+ K 2 3 −1⎥⎬ >
0
(4)
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ σρ f ⎥⎪ Gmi0mi′0
reactions can occur. ⎦⎭
The equation of correlation
between gravitational mass and inertial The carbon fusion is a set of
mass [1] nuclear fusion reactions that take place in
massive stars (at least 8M sun at birth). It
⎧ ⎡ 3 ⎤⎫ requires high temperatures ( > 5×108 K ) and
⎪ ⎢
mg μ ⎛ σ ⎞ E4 ⎥⎪
χ = = ⎨1 − 2 1 + 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 2 −1 ⎬

(1) densities ( > 3 × 10 9 kg .m −3 ). The principal
mi ⎪ ⎢ 4c ⎝ 4πf ⎠ ρ
⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
reactions are:

tells us that the gravitational mass can be 23


Na + p + 2.24 MeV
strongly increased. Thus, if
E = E m sin ωt , then the average value for 12
C + 12C → 20
Ne + α + 4.62 MeV
2 2
E is equal to 1
2 E , because E varies
m
24
Mg + γ +13.93 MeV
sinusoidaly ( E m is the maximum value
for E ). On the other hand, Erms = Em 2. In the case of Carbon nuclei (12C) of a
Consequently, we can replace E 4 for thin carbon wire (carbon fiber)
4
E rms . In addition, as j = σE (Ohm's ( σ ≅ 4×104 S.m−1 ; ρ = 2.2 ×103 S.m−1 ) Eq. (4)
vectorial Law), then Eq. (1) can be becomes
rewritten as follows
⎧ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫⎪ e2
⎪ ⎢ −39 jrms ⎥
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫⎪ ⎨ 1 − 2 1 + 9.08×10 −1 ⎬ >
mg ⎪ μ j4 ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f 3 ⎥⎪ 16πε0Gm2p
χ= = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ K r 2rms3 −1⎥⎬ (2) ⎦⎭
mi0 ⎪ ⎢ σρ f ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
2

whence we conclude that the condition irms > 42.4 A


for the 12C + 12C fusion reactions occur
is In order to obtain an ELF current
3
with these characteristics
> 1.7 ×1018 f 4 (5)
jrms
( −6
)
f = 10 Hz; i rms = 42.4 A we can start
If the electric current through the carbon from the following background:
wire has Extremely-Low Frequency Consider an electric current I , which is
(ELF), for example, if f = 1μHz , then the the sum of a sinusoidal current
current density, j rms , must have the iosc = i0 sin ωt 1 and the DC current I DC ,
following value: i.e., I = I DC + i0 sin ωt ; ω = 2πf . If
i0 << I DC then I ≅ I DC . Thus, the current
jrms > 5.4 ×1013 A.m−2 (6) I varies with the frequency f , but the
variation of its intensity is quite small in
Since j rms = i rms S where S = πφ 2 4 is comparison with I DC , i.e., I will be
the area of the cross section of the wire, practically constant (Fig. 1). Thus, we
we can conclude that, for an ultra-thin obtain i rms ≅ I DC ( See Fig.2).
carbon wire with 10μm -diameter, it is
necessary that the current through the
wire, irms , have the following intensity i0
irms > 4.24 k A
Obviously, this current will explode the
carbon wire. However, this explosion IDC
becomes negligible in comparison with
the very strong gravitational implosion,
which occurs simultaneously due to the I = IDC + iosc
enormous increase in intensities of the
gravitational forces among the carbon
nuclei produced by means of the ELF
current through the carbon wire as
predicted by Eq. (3). Since, in this case,
the gravitational forces among the carbon
t
nuclei become greater than the repulsive
electric forces among them the result is Fig. 1 - The electric current I varies with
frequency f . But the variation of I is quite small
the production of 12C + 12C fusion
in comparison with I DC due to i o << I DC . In this
reactions.
way, we can consider I ≅ I DC .
Similar reactions can occur by
using a lithium wire. In addition, it is
important to note that j rms is directly
1
3 In order to generate the ELF electric current
proportional to f (Eq.5).
4 Thus, for
iosc with f = 10 −6 Hz , we can use the widely-
−8
example, if f = 10 Hz , the current known Function Generator HP3325A (Op.002
necessary to produce the fusion reactions High Voltage Output) that can generate sinusoidal
will be i rms = 130 A . However, it seems voltages with extremely-low frequencies down to
that in practice is better to reduce the f = 1 × 10 −6 Hz and amplitude up to 20V
diameter of the wire. For a diameter of (40Vpp into 500Ω load). The maximum output
1μm (10 −6 m) , the intensity of the current current is 0.08 App ; output impedance <2Ω at
ELF .
must have the following value
3

i osc ε2
+ −
R
I DC

~ Ultra thin wire

f = 1μHz
i rms ≅ I DC

I = I DC + i osc

Fig. 2 – Electrical Circuit

REFERENCES

[1] DeAquino, F. (2002). Mathematical


Foundations of the Relativistic Theory of
Quantum Gravity. Physics/0212033.

[2] De Aquino, F. (2007) Gravity Control


by means of Electromagnetic Field
through Gas at Ultra-Low Pressure.
Physics/0701091.
High-power ELF radiation generated by modulated HF heating of the
ionosphere can cause Earthquakes, Cyclones and localized heating
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2011 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved

The High Frequency Active Auroral Research Program (HAARP) is currently the most important
facility used to generate extremely low frequency (ELF) electromagnetic radiation in the ionosphere.
In order to produce this ELF radiation the HAARP transmitter radiates a strong beam of high-
frequency (HF) waves modulated at ELF. This HF heating modulates the electrons’ temperature in the
D region ionosphere and leads to modulated conductivity and a time-varying current which then
radiates at the modulation frequency. Recently, the HAARP HF transmitter operated with 3.6GW of
effective radiated power modulated at frequency of 2.5Hz. It is shown that high-power ELF radiation
generated by HF ionospheric heaters, such as the current HAARP heater, can cause Earthquakes,
Cyclones and strong localized heating.
.

Key words: Physics of the ionosphere, radiation processes, Earthquakes, Tsunamis, Storms.
PACS: 94.20.-y ; 94.05.Dd ; 91.30.Px ; 91.30.Nw; 92.60.Qx

1. Introduction radiation generated by modulated HF heating


of the lower ionosphere, such as that
Generating electromagnetic radiation produced by the current HAARP heater, can
at extremely-low frequencies is difficult cause Earthquakes, Cyclones and strong
because the long wavelengths require long localized heating.
antennas, extending for hundreds of
kilometers. Natural ionospheric currents 2. Gravitational Shielding
provide such an antenna if they can be
modulated at the desired frequency [1-6]. The The contemporary greatest challenge of
generation of ELF electromagnetic radiation the Theoretical Physics was to prove that,
by modulated heating of the ionosphere has Gravity is a quantum phenomenon. Since
been the subject matter of numerous papers General Relativity describes gravity as
[7-13]. related to the curvature of space-time then,
In 1974, it was shown that ionospheric the quantization of the gravity implies the
heater can generate ELF waves by heating quantization of the proper space-time. Until
the ionosphere with high-frequency (HF) the end of the century XX, several attempts
radiation in the megahertz range [7]. This to quantize gravity were made. However, all
heating modulates the electron’s temperature of them resulted fruitless [16, 17].
in the D region ionosphere, leading to In the beginning of this century, it was
modulated conductivity and a time-varying clearly noticed that there was something
current, which then radiates at the unsatisfactory about the whole notion of
modulation frequency. quantization and that the quantization
Several HF ionospheric heaters have process had many ambiguities. Then, a new
been built in the course of the latest decades approach has been proposed starting from the
in order to study the ELF waves produced by generalization of the action function * . The
the heating of the ionosphere with HF result has been the derivation of a theoretical
radiation. Currently, the HAARP heater is background, which finally led to the so-
the most powerful ionospheric heater, with sought quantization of the gravity and of the
3.6GW of effective power using HF heating
*
beam, modulated at ELF (2.5Hz) [14, 15]. The formulation of the action in Classical Mechanics
This paper shows that high-power ELF extends to Quantum Mechanics and has been the basis
for the development of the Strings Theory.
2
space-time. Published with the title equivalent but correlated by means of the
“Mathematical Foundations of the following factor [18]:
Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity”[18],
this theory predicts a consistent unification of ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎛ Δ ⎞ ⎪
Gravity with Electromagnetism. It shows = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜
p
⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (3)
that the strong equivalence principle is mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪
reaffirmed and, consequently, Einstein’s ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
equations are preserved. In fact, Einstein’s
equations can be deduced directly from the Where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass and Δp is
mentioned theory. This shows, therefore, that the variation in the particle’s kinetic
the General Relativity is a particularization momentum; c is the speed of light.
of this new theory, just as Newton’s theory is This equation shows that only for
a particular case of the General Relativity. Δp = 0 the gravitational mass is equal to the
Besides, it was deduced from the new theory inertial mass. Instances in which Δp is
an important correlation between the
produced by electromagnetic radiation, Eq.
gravitational mass and the inertial mass,
(3) can be rewritten as follows [18]:
which shows that the gravitational mass of a
particle can be decreased and even made
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
negative, independently of its inertial mass, mg ⎪ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ r 3 ⎟ − 1⎥⎬
n D
i.e., while the gravitational mass is ⎢ ⎜ρ c ⎟ ⎥
(4)
mi 0 ⎪
progressively reduced, the inertial mass does
⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
not vary. This is highly relevant because it
means that the weight of a body can also be
reduced and even inverted in certain Where nr is the refraction index of the
circumstances, since Newton’s gravity law particle; D is the power density of the
defines the weight P of a body as the electromagnetic radiation absorbed by the
product of its gravitational mass m g by the particle; and ρ , its density of inertial mass.
local gravity acceleration g , i.e., From electrodynamics we know that

dz ω
P = mg g (1) v= = =
c
(5)
dt κ r ε r μr ⎛ ⎞
⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎟
2
2 ⎝ ⎠
It arises from the mentioned law that the
gravity acceleration (or simply the gravity)
produced by a body with gravitational mass where kr is the real part of the
r
M g is given by propagation vector k (also called phase
r
constant ); k = k = k r + iki ; ε , μ and σ, are
GM g
g= (2 ) the electromagnetic characteristics of the
r2 medium in which the incident radiation is
propagating ( ε = εrε0 ; ε0 = 8.854×10−12 F / m ;
The physical property of mass has two
distinct aspects: gravitational mass mg and μ = μ r μ 0 , where μ0 = 4π ×10−7 H / m ).
inertial mass mi. The gravitational mass From (5), we see that the index of
produces and responds to gravitational fields; refraction nr = c v , for σ >> ωε , is given
it supplies the mass factor in Newton's by
famous inverse-square law of μrσ
( )
gravity F = GM g m g r . The inertial mass
2 nr =
4πfε 0
(6)
is the mass factor in Newton's 2nd Law of
Motion (F = mi a ) . These two masses are not Substitution of Eq. (6) into Eq. (4) yields
3
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ Van Allen belts
⎪ ⎛ μσD ⎞
⎟ −1⎥⎪⎬
mg ⎢
χ= = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜
⎜ 4πρ cf ⎟ ⎥ (7)
mi0 ⎪
⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪
⎩ ⎭
It was shown that there is an additional Outer
effect - Gravitational Shielding effect - Inner
belt
produced by a substance whose gravitational belt
mass was reduced or made negative [18].
0 3600km 6600km
This effect shows that just beyond the
Earth
substance the gravity acceleration g 1 will be
reduced at the same proportion χ 1 = m g mi 0 ,
i.e., g1 = χ 1 g , ( g is the gravity acceleration Magnetic
axis
before the substance). Consequently, after a
second gravitational shielding, the gravity
will be given by g 2 = χ 2 g 1 = χ 1 χ 2 g , where Fig.1 – Van Allen belts
χ 2 is the value of the ratio m g mi 0 for the
second gravitational shielding. In a wave is absorbed by the ionospheric plasma,
generalized way, we can write that after the modulating the local conductivity σ . The
nth gravitational shielding the gravity, g n , current density j = σE 0 radiates ELF
will be given by electromagnetic waves that pass through the
Van Allen belts producing two Gravitational
g n = χ 1 χ 2 χ 3 ...χ n g Shieldings where the densities are minima,
i.e., where they are approximately equal to
density of the interplanetary medium near
The dependence of the shielding Earth. The quasi-vacuum of the
effect on the height, at which the samples are interplanetary space might be thought of as
placed above a superconducting disk with beginning at an altitude of about 1000km
radius rD = 0.1375 m , has been recently above the Earth’s surface [20]. Thus, we can
measured up to a height of about 3m [19]. assume that the densities ρi and ρo
This means that the gravitational shielding respectively, at the first gravitational
effect extends, beyond the disk, for shielding Si (at the inner Van Allen belt) and
approximately 20 times the disk radius. at So (at the outer Van Allen belt) are
ρo ≅ ρi ≅ 0.8 ×10−20 kg.m−3 (density of the
3. Gravitational Shieldings in the Van Allen
belts interplanetary medium near the Earth [21]).
The parallel conductivities, † σ 0i
The Van Allen belts are torus of and σ0o , respectively at Si and So, present
plasma around Earth, which are held in place values which lie between those for metallic
by Earth's magnetic field (See Fig.1). The conductors and those for semiconductors
existence of the belts was confirmed by the [20], i.e., σ 0i ≅ σ 0o ~ 1S / m . Thus, in these
Explorer 1 and Explorer 3 missions in early two Gravitational Shielding, according to Eq.
1958, under Dr James Van Allen at the (7), we have, respectively:
University of Iowa. The term Van Allen belts
refers specifically to the radiation belts ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
surrounding Earth; however, similar ⎪ ⎛ ⎞ ⎪
χi = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎜ 4.1×10 ⎟ −1⎥⎥⎬

(8)
4 Di
radiation belts have been discovered around ⎜ f ⎠⎟
⎪ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎥⎦⎪
other planets. ⎩ ⎭
Now consider the ionospheric heating
with HF beam, modulated at ELF (See Fig.
2). The amplitude-modulated HF heating †
Conductivity in presence of the Earth’s magnetic field
4

d ~ 100km

Outer Van Allen belt So

6,600 km

3,600 km
Inner Van Allen belt Si

ELF radiation

~10× d ~1,000km
mair g’sun
E g

Electrojet Electric Field, E0


100km
σ
D

60km
ρ air < 0.01kg.m −3
ELF – modulated 30km
HF heating radiation ρ air ~ 0.7kg .m −3

Fig. 2 – Ionospheric Gravitational Shieldings - The amplitude-modulated HF heating wave is absorbed by the
ionospheric plasma, modulating the local conductivity σ 0 . The current density j = σ 0 E 0 (E0 is the Electrojet
Electric Field), radiates ELF electromagnetic waves (d is the length of the ELF dipole). Two gravitational shieldings
(So and Si) are formed at the Van Allen belts. Then, the gravity due to the Sun, after the shielding Si, becomes g’sun
=χoχi gsun. The effect of the gravitational shielding reaches ~ 20 × rD = ~ 10 × d ≅ 1,000km .
5

Sun to Earth, 1 AU), g = 9.8m / s 2 and


and
g sun = − GM sun rse2 = 5.92 × 10 −3 m / s 2 , is the
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ ⎞
⎟ − 1⎥ ⎪⎬
⎢ gravity due to the Sun at the Earth.
χo = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ 4.1×10

4 Do
⎥ (9)
⎪ f ⎟⎠ The gravitational potential energy
⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎥⎦ ⎪
⎩ ⎭ related to m air , with respect to the Sun’s
where center, considering the effects produced by
the gravitational shieldings So and Si, is
Di ≅ Do ≅
PELF
(10)
Sa
E p = mairrse (g − χo χi g sun ) (14)
PELF is the ELF radiation power, radiated
from the ELF ionospheric antenna; S a is the
Thus, the decrease in the gravitational
area of the antenna. potential energy is
Substitution of (10) into (8) and (9)
leads to
2
( )
ΔEp = Ep − Ep0 = 1− χo χi mairrsegsun (15)
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ ⎞
χoχi = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎜ 4.1×104 PELF ⎟ −1⎥⎪⎬ (11)
⎜ S f ⎟ ⎥ Substitution of (11) into (15) gives
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ a ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪ ⎧ ⎧ ⎡ 2⎫
⎩ ⎣ ⎭ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪⎪ ⎪ ⎢ ⎛ P ⎞ ⎥⎪ ⎪⎪
ΔEp = ⎨1− ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+⎜4.1×104 ELF⎟ −1⎥⎬ ⎬mairrsegsun (16)
⎜ Sa f ⎟⎠
4. Effect of the gravitational shieldings Si ⎪ ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ ⎥⎦⎪ ⎪
and So on the Earth and its environment. ⎩⎪ ⎩ ⎣ ⎭ ⎭⎪
The HF power produced by the
Based on the Podkletnov experiment, HAARP transmitter is PHF = 3.6GW
previously mentioned, in which the effect of modulated at f = 2.5Hz . The ELF conversion
the Gravitational Shielding extends for
efficiency at HAARP is estimated to be
approximately 20 times the disk radius (rD ) ,
~ 10 −4 % for wave generated using sinusoidal
we can assume that the effect of the
amplitude modulation. This means that
gravitational shielding Si extends for
PELF ~ 4kW
approximately 10 times the dipole length
( d ). For a dipole length of about 100km, we Substitution of PELF ~ 4kW , f = 2.5Hz and
can conclude that the effect of the S a = (100,000 )2 = 1 × 1010 m 2 into (16) yields
gravitational shielding reaches about ΔEp ~ 10−4 mairrsegsun ~ 1019 joules (17)
1,000Km below Si (See Fig.2), affecting
therefore an air mass, m air , given by
‡ This decrease in the gravitational potential
energy of the air column, ΔE p , produces a
mair = ρ airVair =
( )
= ~ 0.7kg.m −3 (100,000m)2 (30,000m) =
decrease Δp in the local pressure p ( Bernoulli
principle). Then the pressure equilibrium
~ 1014 kg (12) between the Earth’s mantle and the Earth’s
The gravitational potential energy atmosphere, in the region corresponding to the air
related to m air , with respect to the Sun’s column, is broken. This is equivalent to an
increase of pressure Δp in the region of the
center, without the effects produced by the
mantle corresponding to the air column. This
gravitational shieldings So and Si is
phenomenon is similar to an Earthquake, which
E p0 = mair rse ( g − g sun ) (13) liberates an energy equal to ΔE p (see Fig.3).
where, rse = 1.49 × 1011 m (distance from the


The mass of the air column above 30km height is
negligible in comparison with the mass of the air
column below 30km height, whose average density is
~0.7kg./m3.
6
Note that, by reducing the diameter
Curst
of the HF beam radiation, it is possible to
Earth’s reduce dipole length (d) and consequently to
atmosphere
reduce the reach of the Gravitational
Air column
Shielding, since the effect of the gravitational
shielding reaches approximately18 times the
dipole length. By reducing d, we also reduce
p − Δp p Core
Sun the area S a , increasing consequently the
Mantle value of χ o χ i (See Eq. (18)). This can cause
Earth
an increase in the velocity V0 air (See Eq. (22)).
On the other hand, if the dipole length
(d) is increased, the reach of the
Gravitational Shielding will also be
Fig. 3 - The decrease in the gravitational potential energy
of the air column, Δ E p , produces a decrease Δ p in the
increased. For example, by increasing the
local pressure p (Principle of Bernoulli). Then the
value of d for d = 101km , the effect of the
pressure equilibrium between the Earth’s mantle and the Gravitational Shielding reaches
Earth’s atmosphere, in the region corresponding to the air approximately 1010 km , and can surpass the
column, is broken. This is equivalent to an increase of
surface of the Earth or the Oceans (See
pressure Δ p in the region of the mantle corresponding to
the air column. This phenomenon is similar to an
Fig.2). In this case, the decrease in the
Earthquake, which liberates an amount of energy equal to gravitational potential energy at the local, by
ΔE p . analogy to Eq.(15), is
ΔEp = (1− χo χi )m rsegsun (21)
The magnitude M s in the Richter
scales, corresponding to liberation of an where m is the mass of the soil, or the mass
of the ocean water, according to the case.
amount of energy, ΔEp ~ 1019 joules, is obtained The decrease, ΔE p , in the gravitational
by means of the well-known equation: potential energy increases the kinetic energy
1019 = 10 (5+1.44M s ) (18) of the local at the same ratio, in such way
which gives M s = 9.1 . That is, an Earthquake that the mass m acquires a kinetic
with magnitude of about 9.1 in the Richter energy E k = ΔE p . If this energy is not enough
scales. to pluck the mass m from the soil or the
The decrease in the gravitational ocean, and launch it into space, then E k is
potential energy in the air column whose converted into heat, raising the local
mass is m air gives to the air column an initial temperature by ΔT , the value of which can
kinetic energy E k = 12 mairV02air = ΔE p , where be obtained from the following expression:
ΔE p is given by (15). Ek
≅ kΔT (22)
In the previously mentioned HAARP N
conditions, Eq.(11) gives (1 − χ o χ i ) ~ 10 −4 . where N is the number of atoms in the
volume V of the substance considered;
Thus, from (15), we obtain
k = 1.38 × 10 −23 J / K is the Boltzmann
ΔE p ~ 10 −4 mair rse g sun (19)
constant. Thus, we get
Thus, the initial air speed V0 air is ( )
Ek 1− χ o χ i m rse g sun
ΔT ≅ = =
−4
V0air ≅ 10 g sunrse ~ 10 m / s ~ 400km/ h
2
(20) Nk (nV )k
This velocity will strongly reduce the (1− χ χ ) ρ rse g sun
pressure in the air column (Bernoulli = o i
(23)
nk
principle) and it is sufficient to produce a where n is the number of atoms/m3 in the
powerful Cyclone around the air column substance considered.
(Coriolis Effect).
7
In the previously mentioned HAARP It was experimentally observed that
conditions, Eq. (11) gives (1 − χ o χ i ) ~ 10 −4 . ELF radiation escapes from the Earth–
Thus, from (23), we obtain ionosphere waveguide and reaches the Van
Allen belts [25-28]. In the ionospheric
6.4 × 10 27
ΔT ≅ ρ (24) spherical cavity, the ELF radiation power
n density, D , is related to the energy density
For most liquid and solid substances inside the cavity, W , by means of the well-
the value of n is about 10 28 atoms / m 3 , and known expression:
ρ ~ 10 3 kg / m 3 . Therefore, in this case, Eq. c
D= W (25)
(24) gives 4
ΔT ≅ 640K ≅ 400°C where c is the speed of light, and
This means that, the region in the soil or in W= 1 ε E2 . The electric field E , is given by
2 0
the ocean will have its temperature increased q
by approximately 400°C. E=
4πε 0 r⊕2
By increasing PELF or decreasing the
frequency, f , of the ELF radiation, it is where q = 500,000C [24] and r⊕ = 6.371×106 m .
possible to increase ΔT (See Eq.(16)). In this Therefore, we get
way, it is possible to produce strong E = 110.7V / m,
localized heating on Land or on the Oceans. W = 5.4 ×10−8 J / m3 ,
This process suggests that, by means
D ≅ 4.1 W / m 2 (26)
of two small Gravitational Shieldings built
with Gas or Plasma at ultra-low pressure, as The area, S , of the cross-section of the cavity
12
shown in the processes of gravity control is S = 2πr⊕ d = 2.4 × 10 m 2 . Thus, the ELF
[22], it is possible to produce the same radiation power is P = DS ≅ 9.8 × 1012 W . The
heating effects. Thus, for example, the water total power escaping from the Earth-
inside a container can be strongly heated ionosphere waveguide, Pesc , is only a fraction of
when the container is placed below the
this value and need to be determined.
mentioned Gravitational Shieldings.
When this ELF radiation crosses the
Let us now consider another source of
Van Allen belts the Gravitational Shieldings
ELF radiation, which can activate the
So and Si can be produced (See Fig.4).
Gravitational Shieldings So and Si.
So
It is known that the Schumann d⊕
resonances [23] are global electromagnetic
resonances (a set of spectrum peaks in the Si ELF
radiation
extremely low frequency ELF), excited by
lightning discharges in the spherical
resonant cavity formed by the Earth’s surface Crust
and the inner edge of the ionosphere (60km Mantle
from the Earth’s surface). The Earth– Outer
ionosphere waveguide behaves like a core
resonator at ELF frequencies and amplifies Inner Reach of the Gravitational Shielding
the spectral signals from lightning at the
core ~ 10 × d ⊕ = 126 ,000 km
resonance frequencies. In the normal mode Earth
descriptions of Schumann resonances, the
fundamental mode (n = 1) is a standing wave
in the Earth–ionosphere cavity with a Fig.4 – ELF radiation escaping from the Earth–
ionosphere waveguide can produce the Gravitational
wavelength equal to the circumference of the Shieldings So and Si in the Van Allen belts.
Earth. This lowest-frequency (and highest-
intensity) mode of the Schumann resonance The ELF radiation power densities Di and
occurs at a frequency f1 = 7.83Hz [24].
Do , respectively in Si and So, are given by
8
Di =
Pesc
(27) speed Voc will be null. After a time
4πri2 interval, the progressive increasing of the
and power density of the ELF radiation makes
χ o χ i greater than 1. Equation (29) shows
Do =
Pesc
(28)
4πro2 that, at this moment, the velocity Voc
where ri and ro are respectively, the resurges, but now in the opposite direction.
distances from the Earth’s center up to the The Earth's magnetic field is generated
Gravitational Shieldings Si and So . by the outer core motion, i.e., the molten iron
Under these circumstances, the kinetic in the outer core is spinning with angular
energy related to the mass, m oc , of the speed, ϖ oc , and it's spinning inside the Sun’s
Earth’s outer core § , with respect to the Sun’s magnetic field, so a magnetic field is
center, considering the effects produced by generated in the molten core. This process is
the Gravitational Shieldings So and Si ** is called dynamo effect.
( )
Ek = 1 − χ o χ i moc rse g sun = 12 mocVoc2 (29)
Since Eq. (31) tells us that the
factor (1− χ o χ i ) is currently very close to zero,
Thus, we get
(
Voc = 1 − χ o χ i rse g sun ) (30)
we can conclude that the moment of the
reversion of the Earth’s magnetic field is
The average radius of the outer core very close.
is roc = 2.3 × 10 6 m . Then, assuming that the
average angular speed of the outer core, ϖ oc , 5. Device for moving very heavy loads.
has the same order of magnitude of the
Based on the phenomenon of reduction
average angular speed of the Earth’s
of local gravity related to the Gravitational
crust, ϖ ⊕ , i.e., ϖ oc ~ ϖ ⊕ = 7.29 × 10 −5 rad / s , Shieldings So and Si, it is possible to create a
then we get Voc = ϖ oc roc ~ 10 2 m / s . Thus, Eq. device for moving very heavy loads such as
(30) gives large monoliths, for example.
(1− χ o
)
χ i ~ 10−5 (31) Imagine a large monolith on the
Earth’s surface. At noon the gravity
This relationship shows that, if the acceleration upon the monolith is basically
power of the ELF radiation escaping from given by
the Earth-ionosphere waveguide is g R = g − g sun
progressively increasing (for example, by the
increasing of the dimensions of the holes in where gsun = −GMsun rse2 = 5.92×10−3 m/ s2 is the
the Earth-ionosphere waveguide †† ), then as gravity due to the Sun at the monolith and
soon as the value of χ o χ i equals 1, and the g = 9.8m/ s2 .
If we place upon the monolith a mantle
§
The Earth is an oblate spheroid. It is composed of a with a set of n Gravitational Shieldings
number of different layers. An outer silicate solid inside, the value of g R becomes
crust, a highly viscous mantle, a liquid outer core that g R = g − χ n g sun
is much less viscous than the mantle, and a solid inner
core. The outer core is made of liquid iron and nickel. This shows that, it is possible to reduce g R
**
down to values very close to zero, and thus to
Note that the reach of the Gravitational Shielding transport very heavy loads (See Fig.5). We
is ~ 10 × d ⊕ = 126,000km . will call the mentioned mantle of
††
The amount of ELF radiation that escapes from the Gravitational Shielding Mantle. Figure 5
Earth-ionosphere waveguide is directly proportional to
the number of holes in inner edge of the ionosphere shows one of these mantles with a set of 8
and the dimensions of these holes. Thus, if the amount Gravitational Shieldings. Since the mantle
of holes or its dimensions are increasing, then the thickness must be thin, the option is to use
power of the ELF radiation escaping from the Earth- Gravitational Shieldings produced by layers of
ionosphere waveguide will also be increased. high-dielectric strength semiconductor [22].
When the Gravitational Shieldings are active the
9

Mantle

χ 8 g Sun
g

χ 8 g Sun
g

(a) (b)
High-dielectric strength
semiconductor dielectric
metallic 10 μm 100μm
foils

~ 1 mm

Cross-section of the Mantle


V
Set of 8 Gravitational Shieldings inside the Mantle (c)
~
ELF
f

Fig. 5 – Device for transporting very heavy loads. It is possible to transport very heavy loads by
using a Gravitational Shielding Mantle - A Mantle with a set of 8 semiconductor layers or more (each
layer with 10μm thickness, sandwiched by two metallic foils with 10μm thickness). The total thickness of the
mantle (including the insulation layers) is ~1mm. The metallic foils are connected to the ends of an ELF
voltage source in order to generate ELF electromagnetic fields through the semiconductor layers. The
objective is to create 8 Gravitational Shieldings as shown in (c). When the Gravitational Shieldings are active
the gravity due to the Sun is multiplied by the factor χ 8 , in such way that the gravity resultant upon the
monoliths (a) and (b) becomes g R = g − χ 8 g Sun . Thus, for example, if χ = −2.525 results g R = 0.028m / s 2 .
Under these circumstances, the weight of the monolith becomes 2.9 × 10 −3 of the initial weight.
10

gravity due to the Sun is multiplied by the the total charge[24], then Q = ηAσ q = ηq n
factor χ 8 , in such way that the gravity resultant ( q n = Aσ q is the normal amount of charge in
upon the monolith becomes g R = g − χ 8 g Sun . the area A ).
Thus, for example, if χ = −2.525 the result is By substituting (33) into (32), we get
g R = 0.028m / s 2 . Under these circumstances,
3
the weight of the monolith becomes 2.9 × 10 −3 of ⎛ Qr ⎞ 2
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 2ε A⎟
3 3
the initial weight. 2α ⎛ Q ⎞ 2
V2 ⎝ 0 ⎠
jw = 2 j = 2α 2 = 2α = ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟ (34)
r r2 r ⎝ 2ε 0 A⎠
6. Gates to the imaginary spacetime in the
Earth-ionosphere waveguide.
Since Ew = σ Q 2ε 0 and j w = σ w E w , we can
It is known that strong densities of write that
electric charges can occur in some regions of ⎡ 3

3
the upper boundary of the Earth-ionosphere ⎢ 2α ⎛ Q ⎞ 2 ⎥ Q
σ w Ew = jw Ew =
3 4 3
⎜ ⎟ =
waveguide, for example, as a result of the ⎢ r ⎜⎝ 2ε 0 A ⎟⎠ ⎥ 2ε 0 A
lightning discharges [29]. These anomalies ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
increase strongly the electric field E w in the 0.18α 3Q5.5 0.18α 3σ Q5.5 ( )5.5
0.18α 3 ησq
= = = =
mentioned regions, and possibly can produce r1.5ε 05.5 A5.5 r1.5ε 05.5 r1.5ε 05.5
a tunneling effect to the imaginary
spacetime. = 2.14×1016η 5.5 (35)
The electric field E w will produce an The electric field E w has an oscillating
electrons flux in a direction and an ions flux component, E w1 , with frequency, f , equal to
in an opposite direction. From the viewpoint the lowest Schumann resonance frequency
of electric current, the ions flux can be f1 = 7.83 Hz . Then, by using Eq. (7), that can
considered as an “electrons” flux at the same be rewritten in the following form [18]:
direction of the real electrons flux. Thus, the ⎧ ⎡
mg ⎪ μrσ3E4 ⎤⎫⎪
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+1.758×10−27 2 3 −1⎥⎬ (36)
current density through the air, j w , will be χ=
the double of the current density expressed mi ⎪ ⎢ ρ f ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
by the well-known equation of Langmuir-
Child we can write that
3 3 3 mg ⎧ ⎡
⎪ μ σ 3 E4 ⎤⎫⎪
4
j = εrε0
2e V 2
= α
V2
= 2.33×10−6 V
2
(32) χw = = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+1.758×10−27 rw 2 w 3 w1 −1⎥⎬ (37)
9 me r2 r2 r2
mi ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ρw f1 ⎥⎪
⎦⎭
where ε r ≅ 1 for the air; α = 2.33 × 10 −6 is By substitution of Eq. (35), μ rw = 1 ,
the called Child’s constant; r , in this case, is ρ w = 1 × 10 −2 kg / m 3 and f1 = 7.83Hz into the
the distance between the center of the charges expression above, we obtain
and the Gravitational Shieldings S w1 and S w 2
χw = ⎧⎨1 − 2⎡ 1 + 7.84×10−10η5.5 −1⎤⎫⎬ (38)
( )
(see Fig.6) ( r = 12 1.4×10−15m = 7×10−16m); V is the ⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦⎭
voltage drop given by The gravity below S w 2 will be
σQ decreased by the effect of the Gravitational
V = Ewr = r=
Qr
(33) Shieldings S w1 and S w 2 , according to the
2ε 0 2ε 0 A
where Q is the anomalous amount of charge following expression
in the region with area A , i.e.,
σ Q = Q A = ησ q , η is the ratio of
(g − χ w1 χ w2 g sun )
proportionality, and σ q = q 4πR2 ≅ 9.8×10−10C / m2 where χ w1 = χ w 2 = χ w . Thus, we get
is the normal charge density ; q = 500,000C is
11

Region with much greater


Ionosphere concentration of electric charges
σq σQ
r S w1
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + S w2
A
Ew
Upper boundary
of the
Earth-Ionosphere waveguide

60 km
Earth-Ionosphere waveguide
Reach of the Gravitational Shielding
~10 X d

g g − χ w 1 χ w 2 g sun g

d
ground

Fig. 6 - Gravitational Shieldings S w1 and S w2 produced by strong densities of electric charge in the
upper boundary of the Earth-Ionosphere.
12

⎧⎪ ⎧ ⎡ 1 + 7.84 × 10 −10η 5.5 − 1⎤ ⎫ g sun ⎫⎪g = χg


2 gravitational mass (Eq. (4)). Now, it will be
⎨ ⎨ − −
⎥⎦ ⎬⎭ g ⎬⎪
1 1 2
⎪⎩ ⎩ ⎢⎣ shown that it also affects the length of an
⎭ object. Length contraction or Lorentz
where contraction is the physical phenomenon of a
⎧⎪ g sun ⎫⎪
2
χ = ⎨1 − ⎧⎨1 − 2⎡ 1 + 7.84 ×10 −10 η 5.5 − 1⎤ ⎫⎬
decrease in length detected by an observer of
⎢ ⎥ ⎬ (39)
⎪⎩ ⎩ ⎣ ⎦ ⎭ g ⎪⎭ objects that travel at any non-zero velocity
In a previous article [18], it was shown relative to that observer. If L0 is the length of
that, when the gravitational mass of a body is the object in its rest frame, then the length
reduced to a value in the range of + 0.159 mi L , observed by an observer in relative
to − 0.159 mi or the local gravity (g ) is motion with respect to the object, is given by
L0
reduced to a value in the range of + 0.159 g L= = L0 1 − V 2 c 2 (40)
γ (V )
to − 0.159 g , the body performs a transition
where V is the relative velocity between the
to the imaginary spacetime. This means that, observer and the moving object and c the
if the value of χ given by Eq.(39) is in the speed of light. The function γ (V ) is known as
range 0.159 < χ < −0.159 , then any body the Lorentz factor.
(aircrafts, ships, etc) that enters the region - It was shown that Eq. (3) can be
defined by the volume ( A × ~ 10d ) below the written in the following form [18]:
Gravitational Shielding S w 2 , will perform a ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ ⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎢ ⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎥ ⎪ ⎪ ⎢ 1 ⎪
transition to the imaginary spacetime. ⎜
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎜ ⎟
⎟ −1 ⎬ = ⎨1− 2 −1⎥⎬
⎢ ⎥
mi0 ⎪ ⎝ mi0c ⎠ ⎪ ⎪ ⎢ ⎥⎪
⎦⎥⎭ ⎩ ⎣ 1−V c
2 2
Consequently, it will disappear from our
⎩ ⎣⎢ ⎦⎭
Real Universe and will appear in the
Imaginary Universe. However, the electric This expression shows that
2
field E w1 , which reduces the gravitational ⎛ Δp ⎞
= γ (V ) (41)
1
1+ ⎜⎜ ⎟ =

mass of the body (or the gravitational ⎝ mi0c ⎠ 1 −V c
2 2
shieldings, which reduce the local gravity)
does not accompany the body; they stay at By substitution of Eq. (41) into Eq.(40) we
the Real Universe. Consequently, the body get
L0 L0
returns immediately from the Imaginary L= = (42)
Universe. Meanwhile, it is important to note γ (V ) 2
⎛ Δp ⎞
that, in the case of collapse of the 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟

wavefunction Ψ of the body, it will never ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠
more come back to the Real Universe. It was shown that, the term, Δp mi 0 c , in the
Equation (39) shows that, in order to equation above is equal to Wn r ρ c 2 , where
obtain χ in the range of 0.159< χ < −0.159 the W is the density of electromagnetic energy
value of η must be in the following range: absorbed by the body and nr the index of
127 . 1 < η < 135 . 4 refraction, given by
Since the normal charge density is ε μ
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε )2 +1⎞⎟
c
σq ≅ 9.8×10−10C / m2 then it must be increased v 2 ⎝ ⎠
by about 130 times in order to transform the In the case of σ >> 2πfε , W = (σ 8πf )E 2 and
region ( A × ~ 10d ) , below the Gravitational
Shielding S w 2 , in a gate to the imaginary n r = c v = μσc 2 4πf [30]. Thus, in this case,
spacetime. Eq. (42) can be written as follows
It is known that in the Earth's L=
L0
(43)
atmosphere occur transitorily large densities ⎛ μ σ3 ⎞
1 +1.758×10−27⎜ r2 3 ⎟E4
of electromagnetic energy across extensive ⎜ρ f ⎟
areas. We have already seen how the density ⎝ ⎠
of electromagnetic energy affects the
13
Note that E = E m sin ωt .The average value where ϕ is the gravitational potential.
for E 2 is equal to 1 2 E m2 because E varies Then, it follows that
2 2
sinusoidaly ( E m is the maximum value ⎛ Δp⎞ ⎛ Δp ⎞ V 2 2ϕ
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = V 2 = 2ϕ and ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = =
⎝ mi 0
⎠ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ c2 c2
for E ). On the other hand, E rms = E m 2.
4 4
Consequently, the expression of T becomes
Consequently we can change E by E , rms

and the equation above can be rewritten as T0 2ϕ


follows T= = T0 1+
1 −V c
2 2 c2
L=
L0
(44)
⎛ μ σ3 ⎞ 4
1 +1.758×10−27⎜ r2 3 ⎟Erms which is the well-known expression obtained
⎜ ⎟
⎝ρ f ⎠ in the General Relativity.
Now, consider an airplane traveling in a Based on Eq. (41) we can also write
region of the atmosphere. Suddenly, along a the expression of T in the following form:
distance L0 of the trajectory of the airplane
2
arises an ELF electric field with intensity ⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎛ μ σ3 ⎞ 4
E rms ~ 10 5 V .m −1 and frequency f ~ 1Hz . The
T = T0 1+ ⎜⎜ ⎟ = T0 1+1.758×10−27⎜ r ⎟Erms
⎟ ⎜ ρ2 f 3 ⎟
(45)
⎝ mi0c ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Aluminum density is ρ = 2.7 × 10 3 kg .m −3 and
its conductivity is σ = 3.82 × 10 7 S .m −1 . Now, consider a ship in the ocean. It is
According to Eq. (44), for the airplane the made of steel ( μr = 300; σ = 1.1×106 S.m−1 ;
distance L0 is shortened by 2.7 × 10 −5 . Under ρ = 7.8 × 103 kg.m −3 ). When subjected to a
these conditions, a distance L0 of about uniform ELF electromagnetic field, with
3000km will become just 0.08km. intensity E rms = 1.36 × 10 3 V .m −1 and
Time dilation is an observed frequency f = 1Hz , the ship will perform a
difference of elapsed time between two
transition in time to a time T given by
observers which are moving relative to each
other, or being differently situated from
nearby gravitational masses. This effect ⎛ μ σ3 ⎞ 4
T = T0 1 + 1.758×10−27 ⎜ r2 3 ⎟Erms =
arises from the nature of space-time ⎜ρ f ⎟
⎝ ⎠
described by the theory of relativity. The
= T0 (1.0195574) (46)
expression for determining time dilation in
special relativity is:
If T0 = January ,1 1943, 0h 0 min 0 s then
T = T0γ (V ) =
T0
the ship performs a transition in time
1−V 2 c2
to T = January ,1 1981, 0h 0 min 0 s . Note
where T0 is the interval time measured at the
that the use of ELF ( f = 1Hz ) is fundamental.
object in its rest frame (known as the proper
It is important to note that the
time); T is the time interval observed by an electromagnetic field E rms , besides being
observer in relative motion with respect to
uniform, must remain with the ship during
the object.
the transition to the time T . If it is not
Based on Eq. (41), we can write the
uniform, each part of the ship will perform
expression of T in the following form:
transitions for different times in the future.
2
T0 ⎛ Δp ⎞ On the other hand, the field must remain with
T= = T0 1+ ⎜⎜ ⎟

⎝ ⎠
the ship, because, if it stays at the time T0 ,
1− V 2 2
c mi 0c
the transition is interrupted. In order to the
For V << c , we can write that Δp = mi0V and
electromagnetic field remains at the ship, it is
1
2
mi 0V 2 = mi 0 gr = mi 0ϕ ⇒ V 2 = 2ϕ necessary that all the parts, which are
involved with the generation of the field, stay
14
inside the ship. If persons are inside the ship Other safe way to make transitions
they will perform transitions for different in the time is by means of flights with
times in the future because their relativistic speeds, according to predicted by
conductivities and densities are different. the equation:
Since the conductivity and density of the ship
and of the persons are different, they will
T=
T0
(51)
± 1−V 2 c2
perform transitions to different times. This
means that the ship and the persons must With the advent of the Gravitational
have the same characteristics, in order to Spacecrafts [30], which could reach velocities
perform transitions to the same time. Thus, in close to the light speed, this possibility will
this way is unsuitable and highly dangerous become very promising.
to make transitions to the future with It was shown in a previous paper [18]
persons. However, there is a way to solve that by varying the gravitational mass of the
this problem. If we can control the spacecraft for negative or positive we can go
gravitational mass of a body, in such way respectively to the past or future.
that m g = χ mi 0 , and we put this body inside If the gravitational mass of a particle is
positive, then t is always positive and given
a ship with gravitational mass M g ≅ M i 0 , by
then the total gravitational mass of the ship t = +t0 1 −V 2 c2 (52)
will be given by ‡‡
M g (total ) = M g + m g = M i 0 + χ mi 0
This leads to the well-known relativistic
prediction that the particle goes to the future
or if V → c . However, if the gravitational
M g (total ) χ mi0
χ ship = = 1+ (47 ) mass of the particle is negative, then t is also
M i0 M i0 negative and, therefore, given by
Since t = −t0 1 − V 2 c2 (53)
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
Mg ⎪ ⎢ ⎛ Δp ⎞ In this case, the prevision is that the particle
χship = = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎜⎜ ⎟ −1⎥⎪⎬ goes to the past if V → c . In this way,
⎢ ⎟ ⎥
Mi0 ⎪ ⎝ Mi0c ⎠ ⎪
⎩ ⎣⎢ ⎦⎥⎭ negative gravitational mass is the necessary
we can write that condition to the particle to go to the past.
2 Now, consider a parallel plate
⎛ Δp ⎞ 3 − χship
1+ ⎜⎜ ⎟ =
⎟ (48) capacitor, which has a high-dielectric strength
⎝ Mi0c ⎠ 2 semiconductor between its plates, with the
Then it follows that following characteristics μr = 1; σ = 104 S.m−1 ;
⎛ Δp ⎞
2
⎛ 3 − χship⎞ ρ = 103 kg.m −3 . According to Eq.(45), when
T =T0 1+ ⎜⎜ ⎟ =T0⎜
⎟ ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎟ (49) the semiconductor is subjected to a uniform
⎝ Mi0c ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
ELF electromagnetic field, with intensity
Substitution of Eq. (47) into Eq. (49) gives
E rms = 10 5 V .m −1 (0.1KV / mm ) and frequency
⎛ χ mi0 ⎞
T =T0⎜⎜1− ⎟
⎟ (50) f = 1Hz , it should perform a transition in
⎝ 2Mi0 ⎠ time to a time T given by
Note that, if χ = −0.0391148 (M i 0 mi 0 ) , Eq.
⎛ μ σ3 ⎞ 4
(50) gives T = T0 1 + 1.758×10−27 ⎜ r2 3 ⎟Erms =
⎜ρ f ⎟
T = T0 (1.0195574) ⎝ ⎠
which is the same value given by Eq.(46). = T0 (1.08434) (54)
However, the transition is not performed,
because the electromagnetic field is external
‡‡
This idea was originally presented by the author in to the semiconductor, and obviously would
the paper: The Gravitational Spacecraft [30]. not accompany the semiconductor during the
transition. In other words, the field stays at
15
the time T0 , and the transition is not Hooke’s law tells us that P = ρ v , 2

performed. thus Eq. (55) can be rewritten as follows


⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤⎫⎪
7. Detection of Earthquakes at the Very P
mg = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2 −1⎥⎬mi0 (56)
Early Stage ⎪⎩ ⎣⎢ 4c ρ ⎦⎥⎪⎭
or
When an earthquake occurs, energy ⎧⎪
mg ⎡ ⎤⎫⎪
radiates outwards in all directions. The χ=
P
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2 −1⎥⎬ (57)
energy travels through and around the earth mi0 ⎪
⎩ ⎣⎢ 4c ρ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
as three types of seismic waves called Thus, the matter subjected to the
primary, secondary, and surface waves (P- pressure P works as a Gravitational
wave, S-wave and Surface-waves). All Shielding. Consequently, if the gravity below
various types of earthquakes follow this it is g ⊕ , then the gravity above it is χg ⊕ , in
pattern. At a given distance from the
epicenter, first the P-waves arrive, then the such way that a gravimeter on the Earth
S-waves, both of which have such small surface (See Fig.7) shall detect a gravity
energies that they are mostly not threatening. anomaly Δg given by
Finally, the surface waves arrive with all of
their damaging energies. It is predominantly Δg = g ⊕ − χg ⊕ = (1 − χ )g ⊕ (58)
the surface waves that we would notice as the
earthquake. This knowledge, that, preceding Substitution of Eq. (57) into this Eq. (58)
any destructive earthquake, there are telltales yields
P-waves, are used by the earthquake warning ⎡ ⎤
systems to reliably initiate an alarm before
P
Δg = 2⎢ 1+ 2 −1⎥ g ⊕ (59)
the arrival of the destructive waves. ⎣⎢ 4c ρ ⎥⎦
Unfortunately, the warning time of these
earthquake warning systems is less than 60 Thus, when a gravity anomaly is detected,
seconds. we can evaluate, by means of Eq. (59), the
Earthquakes are caused by the magnitude of the ratio P ρ in the
movement of tectonic plates. There are three compressing region. On the other hand,
types of motion: plates moving away from several experimental observations of the time
each other (at divergent boundaries); moving interval between the appearing of gravity
towards each other (at convergent anomaly Δg and the breaking of the obstacle
boundaries) or sliding past one another (at (beginning of the Earthquake) will give us a
transform boundaries). When these statistical value for the mentioned time
movements are interrupted by an obstacle interval, which will warn us (earthquake
(rocks, for example), an Earthquake occurs warning system) when to initiate an alarm.
when the obstacle breaks (due to the sudden Obviously, the earthquake warning time, in
release of stored energy). this case becomes much greater than 60
The pressure P acting on the obstacle seconds.
and the corresponding reaction modifies the
gravitational mass of the matter along the
pressing surfaces, according to the following
expression [18]:
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ P2 ⎞ ⎪
mg = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎜ 2 3 ⎟ −1⎥⎬mi0 (55)
⎜ 2ρ cv ⎟ ⎥
⎪ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭

where ρ and v are respectively, the density
of matter and the speed of the pressure waves
in the mentioned region.
16

Δg = (1 − χ )g ⊕

χg

g⊕
(a)

Δg = (1− χ)g ⊕

χg ⊕

g⊕

(b)

Δg = (1 − χ )g ⊕

χg ⊕

g⊕

(c)

Fig. 7 – Three main types of movements: (a) Divergent (tectonic plates diverge). (b) Convergent
(plates converge). (c) Transform (plates slide past each other). Earthquakes occur when the obstacle
breaks (due to the sudden release of stored energy).
17
References
[1] Rietveld, M. T. , Stubbe, P. and Kopka, H., (1987), On [17] Isham, C.J., (1997) “Structural Problems Facing
the frequency dependence of ELF/VLF waves produced Quantum Gravity Theory’’, in M, Francaviglia, G,
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On the efficient operation of the plasma antenna driven Scientific, Singapore, 1997).
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Symposium, OUP.
The Universal Quantum Fluid
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2011 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved
The quantization of gravity showed that the matter is also quantized, and that there is an elementary quantum of
matter, indivisible, whose mass is ± 3.9 ×10−73 kg . This means that any body is formed by a whole number of these
particles (quantization). It is shown here that these elementary quanta of matter should fill all the space in the
Universe forming a Quantum Fluid continuous and stationary. In addition, it is also explained why the
Michelson-Morley experiment was not able to detect this Universal Quantum Fluid.

Key words: Quantum Fluids, Quantum Gravity, Quantum Cosmology


PACS: 67.10.-j; 04.60.-m; 98.80.Qc

1. Introduction there is an elementary quantum of matter,


Until the end of the century XX, indivisible, whose mass is ± 3.9 ×10−73 kg [3].
several attempts to quantize gravity were Considering that the inertial mass of
made. However, all of them resulted fruitless the Observable Universe is MU = c3 2H0G ≅1053 kg ,
[1, 2]. In the beginning of this century, it was
and that its volume is
clearly noticed that there was something
unsatisfactory about the whole notion of VU = 3 πRU = 3 π (c H 0 ) ≅ 10 m , where
4 3 4 3 79 3

quantization and that the quantization H 0 = 1.75 × 10 −18 s −1 is the Hubble constant,
process had many ambiguities. Then, a new
we can conclude that the number of these
approach has been proposed starting from the
particles in the Observable Universe is
generalization of the action function * . The MU
result has been the derivation of a theoretical nU = ≅ 10125 particles (1)
mi 0(min )
background, which finally led to the so-
sought quantization of gravity and of matter By dividing this number by VU , we get
[3]. The quantization of matter shows that nU
≅ 10 46 particles / m 3 (2)
there is an elementary quantum of matter VU
whose mass is ± 3.9 ×10−73 kg . This means that Obviously, the dimensions of the
there are no particles in the Universe with elementary quantum of matter depend on its
masses smaller than this, and that any body is state of compression. In free space, for
formed by a whole number of these particles. example, its volume is VU nU .
Here, it will be shown that these elementary
Consequently, its “radius” is RU 3 nU ≅10−15m.
quanta of matter should fill all the space in
the Universe, forming a quantum fluid If N particles with diameter φ fill all
continuous and stationary. In addition, it is space of 1m 3 then Nφ 3 = 1 . Thus, if
also explained why the Michelson-Morley
φ ≅ 10 −15 m then the number of particles, with
experiment found no evidence of the existence
of the universal fluid [4]. A modified this diameter, necessary to fill all 1m 3 is
Michelson-Morley experiment is proposed in N ≅ 10 45 particles . Since the number of
order to observe the displacement of the elementary quantum of matter in the
interference bands.
Universe is nU VU ≅ 1046 particles/ m3 we can
2. The Universal Quantum Fluid
The quantization of gravity showed conclude that these particles fill all space in
that the matter is also quantized, and that the Universe, forming a Quantum Fluid
continuous and stationary, the density of
*
The formulation of the action in Classical Mechanics
which is
nU m i 0 (min )
extends to Quantum Mechanics and has been the basis ρ CUF = ≅ 10 − 27 kg / m 3 (3)
for the development of the Strings Theory. VU
Note that this density is smaller than the
2
density of the Intergalactic Medium be detected. That is to say that the
( )
ρ IGM ≅ 10 −26 kg / m 3 . propagation of these photons through the
The density of the Universal Quantum Universal Quantum Fluid is equivalent to its
Fluid is clearly not uniform along the propagation in the free space. In practice, it
Universe, since it can be strongly works as if there was not the Universal
compressed in several regions (galaxies, Quantum Fluid. This conclusion is highly
stars, blackholes, planets, etc). At the normal important, because it can easily explain why
state (free space), the mentioned fluid is in the historical Michelson-Morley
invisible. However, at supercompressed experiment there was no displacement of the
state, it can become visible by giving origin interference bands namely because the
to the known matter, since matter, as we have wavelength of the light used in the Michelson-
seen, is quantized and consequently, formed Morley experiment was λ = 5×10−7 m fact that led
by an integer number of elementary quantum Michelson to conclude that the hypothesis of
of matter with mass mi 0(min ) . Inside the a stationary ether was incorrect. Posteriorly,
proton, for example, there are several experiments [7-13] have been carried
out in order to check the Michelson-Morley
np = mp mi0(min) ≅10 elementary quanta of matter
45
experiment, but the results basically were the
at supercompressed state, with volume same obtained by Michelson.
V proton n p and “radius” Rp 3 np ≅10−30m . Thus, actually there was no
displacement of the interference bands in the
Therefore, the solidification of the
Michelson-Morley experiment because the
matter is just a transitory state of this
wavelength used in the experiment
Universal Quantum Fluid, which can turn
back into the primitive state when the was λ = 5 ×10−7 m , which is a value clearly
cohesion conditions disappear. much greater than 10 −14 m , and therefore,
Due to the cohesion state of the does not satisfy the condition
elementary quanta of matter in the Universal −14
λ ≤ 2πΔx ≈10 m derived from the Uncertainty
Quantum Fluid, any amount of linear Principle. The substitution of light used in
momentum transferred to any elementary the Michelson-Morley experiment by
quantum of matter propagates totally to the
radiation with λ ≤ 10−14m is clearly
neighboring and so on, in such way that,
impracticable. However, the Michelson-
during the propagation of the momentum, the
Morley experiment can be partially modified
elementary quanta of matter do not move, in
so as to yield the displacement of the
the same way as the intermediate spheres in
interference bands. The idea is based on the
Newton’s pendulum (the well-known device
generalized expression for the momentum
that demonstrates conservation of momentum
obtained recently[3], which is given by
and energy) [5, 6]. Thus, whether it is a
photon that transfers its momentum to the
p = M gV (4)
elementary quanta of matter, then the where Mg = mg 1−V 2 c2 is the relativistic
momentum variation due to the incident
photon is Δp = h λ , where λ is its gravitational mass of the particle and V its
wavelength. As we have seen, the diameter velocity; mg = χ mi0 the general expression
of the elementary quantum of matter is of the correlation between the gravitational
Δx ≈ 10 −15 m . According to the Uncertainty and inertial mass; χ is the correlation
Principle the variation Δp can only be factor[3].Thus, we can write
detected if ΔpΔx ≥ h . In order to satisfy this mg χ mi0
condition we must have λ ≤ 2πΔx ≈ 10 m . −14 = (5)
1−V 2 c 2 1 −V 2 c 2
This means that momentum variations, in the
elementary quanta of matter, caused by Therefore, we get
photons with wavelength λ > 10 −14 m cannot
3
M g = χ Mi (6 )
(1 − χ ) ⎛⎜ V ⎞⎟ h and (1 − χ ) hf , are
The Relativistic Mechanics tells us that ⎝ c ⎠λ
transferred to the imaginary particle
p=
UV
2
(7 ) associated to the real particle † (material
c
where U is the total energy of the particle. particles or real photons) that penetrated the
This expression is valid for any velocity V of mentioned region.
the particle, including V = c . It was previously shown that, when the
By comparing Eq. (7) with Eq. (4) we gravitational mass of a particle is reduced to
obtain a range between + 0.159 M i to − 0.159M i ,
U = M gc2 (8) i.e., when χ < 0.159 , it becomes
It is a well-known experimental fact that imaginary[3], i.e., the gravitational and the
M i c 2 = hf (9) inertial masses of the particle becomes
imaginary. Consequently, the particle disappears
Therefore, by substituting Eq. (9) and Eq. (6) from our ordinary space-time. It goes to the
into Eq. (4), gives Imaginary Universe. On the other hand, when the
p=
V
χ
h
(10) gravitational mass of the particle becomes greater
c λ than + 0.159 M i , or less than − 0.159M i , i.e.,
Note that this expression is valid for any when χ > 0.159 , the particle return to our
velocity V of the particle. In the particular
Universe.
case of V = c , it reduces to Figure 1 (a) clarifies the phenomenon of
p= χ
h
(11) reduction of the momentum for χ > 0.159 , and
λ
Figure 1 (b) shows the effect in the case of
By comparing Eq. (10) with Eq. (7), we
χ < 0.159 . In this case, the particles become
obtain
U = χ hf (12) imaginary and, consequently, they go to the
imaginary space-time when they penetrate the
Note that only for χ = 1 Eq. (11) and Eq. electric field E . However, the electric field E
(12) are reduced to the well=known stays in the real space-time. Consequently, the
expressions of DeBroglie (q = h λ ) and particles return immediately to the real space-
Einstein (U = hf ) . time in order to return soon after to the imaginary
space-time, due to the action of the electric
Equations (10) and (12) show, for field E . Since the particles are moving at a
example, that any real particle (material direction, they appear and disappear while they
particles, real photons, etc) that penetrates a are crossing the region, up to collide with the
region (with density ρ , conductivity σ and plate (See Fig.1) with a momentum,
relative permeability μ r ), where there is an pm = χ ⎜
⎛ V ⎞ h , in the case of a material

electromagnetic field (E , B ) , will have its ⎝ c ⎠ λ
h
momentum p and its energy U reduced by particle, and p r = χ in the case of a photon.
λ
the factor χ , where χ is given by[3]: If this photon transfers its momentum
mg
⎧ ⎡ 2
⎪ ⎢ ⎛⎜ Δp ⎞⎟ ⎥⎪
⎤⎫ (
to elementary quanta of matter Δx ≈10−15 m , )
χ= = ⎨1− 2 1+ −1 ⎬ = then the momentum variation due to the
mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎜⎝ mi0c ⎟⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦⎭ incident photon is Δp = χ h λ . According to
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ the Uncertainty Principle the variation Δp
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ 3⎞
−27⎜ μrσ ⎟ 4 4 ⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+1.758×10
⎜ ⎟
c Brms −1⎥⎬ (13) can only be detected if ΔpΔx ≥ h , i.e., if
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ρ f ⎠ ⎥⎪
2 3
⎦⎭ λ ≤ 2π χ Δx (14)
where B rms is the rms value of the magnetic We conclude, then, that the interaction
field B . between the light used in the Michelson-
The remaining amount of momentum

and energy, respectively given by As previously shown, there are imaginary particles
associated to each real particle[3].
4
(
Morley experiment λ = 5×10 m and the−7
) −3
plasma at 6 ×10 Torr and 318.15 K , and an
Universal Quantum Fluid just can be ELF magnetic field with frequency f = 1Hz
detected, and to produce of the displacement and intensity Brms ≥ 0.32T is applied through
of the interference bands, if this plasma (Fig. 2), then the displacement of
χ ≥ 8 × 10 7 (15) the interference bands should appear.
In order to satisfy this condition in the It is important to note that due to the
Michelson-Morley experiment, we must modify Gravitational Shielding effect [3], the gravity
the medium where the experiment is performed above the magnetic field is given by
(for example substituting the air by low-pressure
χ g ≥ 7.8 × 108 m.s −2 . This value, extends
Mercury plasma), and apply through it an
electromagnetic field with frequency f . Under above the vacuum chamber for
these conditions, according to Eq. (13), the value approximately 10 times its length. In order to
of χ will be given by eliminate this problem we can replace the
ELF magnetic field, B , shown in Fig. 2, by
⎧ ⎡ ⎛ μr σ 3 ⎞ 4 4 ⎤⎫ two ELF magnetic fields, B1 and B2 , sharing
⎪ ⎟c Brms −1⎥⎪⎬ (16)
χ = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+1.758×10−27 ⎜
⎢ ⎜ 2 3⎟ ⎥⎪ the same frequency, f = 1Hz . The field, B1 , is
⎪⎩ ⎣ ⎝ρ f ⎠ ⎦⎭
placed vertically through the region of the
If the low-pressure Mercury plasma is experimental set-up. The field, B2 , is also
at P = 6 ×10−3Torr= 0.8N.m−2 and T ≅ 318.15 K placed vertically, just above B1 (See Fig. 3).
[14], then the mass density, according to the Thus, the gravity above B2 is given by
well-known Equation of State, is
χ1 χ 2 g where χ1 = m g1 mi1 and
PM 0
ρ= ≅ 6.067 × 10 −5 kg.m −3 (17) χ 2 = m g 2 mi 2 are respectively, the
ZRT
where M 0 = 0.2006kg.mol−1 is the molecular correlation factors in the Gravitational
mass of the Hg; Z ≅ 1 is the compressibility Shieldings 1 and 2, produced by the ELF
factor for the Hg plasma; magnetic fields B1 and B2 , respectively. In
R = 8.314 joule.mol . K
−1 0 −1
is the gases order to become χ 1 χ 2 g = g we must make
universal constant. χ 2 = 1 χ1 = 1 − 8 × 10 7 . According to Eq.
The electrical conductivity of the Hg (19), this value can be obtained if
plasma, under the mentioned conditions, has Brms(2) = 5.331481522× 10−5 T and Brms(1) = 0.32T .
already been calculated [15], and is given by
Note that the value of Brms (2 ) is less than the
σ ≅ 3.419 S .m −1 (18)
By substitution of the values of ρ and σ into value of the Earth’s magnetic field
Eq. (16) yields ( B ⊕ ≅ 6 × 10 −5 T ). However, this is not a
⎧ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫ problem because the steel of the vacuum
⎪ ⎢ 17 Brms ⎪
χ = ⎨1− 2 1+1.5471×10 −1⎥⎬ (19) chamber works as a magnetic shielding,
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎪
3
f
⎦⎭ isolating the magnetic fields inside the
vacuum chamber.
By comparing with (15), we get
4
Brms
≥ 0.01037 (20)
f3
Thus, for f = 1Hz , the ELF magnetic field
must have the following intensity:

Brms ≥ 0.32T (21)

This means that, if in the Michelson-Morley


experiment the air is substituted by Hg
5

χ > 0.159

⎛V ⎞ h ⎛V ⎞ h
pm = χ ⎜ ⎟ pm ≅ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ c ⎠λ ⎝ c ⎠λ
material particle
imaginary particle
pi = [1 − χ ] ⎜ ⎟
⎛V ⎞ h pi = 0 * associated to the
⎝c⎠λ material particle
E, f ρ,σ
h h
pr = χ pr ≅
λ λ
real photon

imaginary photon
associated to the
p i = [1 − χ ]
h pi = 0 real photon
λ
(a)
* There are a type of neutrino, called "ghost” neutrino, predicted by General Relativity, with zero mass
and zero momentum. In spite its momentum be zero, it is known that there are wave functions that
describe these neutrinos and that prove that really they exist.

χ < 0.159

⎛V ⎞ h pi = 0
pm = χ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ c ⎠λ
material particle
imaginary particle
pi = 0
pi = [1− χ ] ⎜ ⎟
⎛V ⎞ h associated to the
⎝c⎠λ material particle
E, f ρ,σ
h h
pr = χ pr ≅
λ λ
real photon

imaginary photon
associated to the
p i = [1 − χ ]
h pi = 0 real photon
λ
(b)
Fig. 1 –The correlation factor in the expression of the Momentum. (a) Shows the
momentum for χ > 0.159 . (b) Shows the effect when χ < 0.159 . Note that in both cases,
the material particles collide with the cowl with the momentum p m = χ (V c ) λh , and
h
the photons with p r = χ .
λ
6

Vacuum
Manometer Chamber

Hg
Plasma Hg Plasma ( 6 ×10−3Torr, 318.15K ) Movable
Mirror
Vacuum
Pump
B

ELF magnetic Field

f = 1Hz
Brms ≥ 0.32T
Coherent
Light source

Beam splitter Compensator Fixed


Mirror

Detector

Fig. 2 - The modified Michelson-Morley experiment. The air is substituted by Hg plasma at


6 ×10−3Torr and 318.15 K , and an ELF magnetic field with frequency f = 1Hz and intensity
Brms ≥ 0.32T is applied through this plasma, then the displacement of the interference bands should
appear.
7

Vacuum
Chamber

Steel χ1 χ 2 g = g

χ2
N2 L2
B2

χ1
Wire
B1 N1 L1
Region of the experimental set-up

Fig. 3 – Cross-section of the vacuum chamber showing the magnetic fields B1 and B2 .
⎛N ⎞ ⎛N ⎞
B1 = μ 0 ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟i1 ; B2 = μ 0 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟i 2
⎝ L1 ⎠ ⎝ L2 ⎠
8

References
[1] Isham, C. J. (1975) Quantum Gravity, in Oxford
Symposium, OUP.

[2] Isham, C.J., (1997) “Structural Problems Facing


Quantum Gravity Theory’’, in M, Francaviglia, G,
Longhi, L, Lusanna, and E, Sorace, eds., Proceedings
of the 14th International Conference on General
Relativity and Gravitation, 167-209,(World
Scientific, Singapore, 1997).

[3] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations


of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity,
Pacific Journal of Science and Technology,
11(1), pp.173-232.

[4] Michelson, A. A., (1881) Am. J. Sci, 122, 120.

[5] Hermann, F. and Schmälzle, P. (1981), Am. J.


Phys.,49,761.

[6] Lovett, D. R. et al (1988) Eur. J. Phys., 9, 323-328.

[7] Morley. E. W. and Miller, D.C. (1905), Proceedings of


the American Academy of Arts and Sciences XLI
(12):321–8.

[8] Tomaschek, R. (1924). "Über das Verhalten des Lichtes


außerirdischer Lichtquellen". Annalen der Physik 378
(1): 105–126. doi:10.1002/and p.19243780107.
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k153753/f115.

[9] Miller, Dayton C. (1925). "Ether-Drift Experiments at


Mount Wilson". Proceedings of the National Academy
of Sciences 11 (6): 306–314. doi:10.1073/pnas.11.6.306.
http://www.pnas.org/content/11/6/306.full.pdf+html.

[10] Kennedy, Roy J. (1926). "A Refinement of the


Michelson-Morley Experiment". Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 12 (11): 621–629.

[11] Illingworth, K. K. (1927). "A Repetition of the


Michelson-Morley Experiment Using Kennedy's
Refinement". Physical Review 30 (5): 692–696.
doi:10.1103/PhysRev.30.692.

[12] Joos, G. (1930). "Die Jenaer Wiederholung des


Michelsonversuchs". Annalen der Physik 399 (4): 385–
407. doi:10.1002/andp.19303990402.

[13] Miller, Dayton C. (1933). "The Ether-Drift Experiment


and the Determination of the Absolute Motion of the
Earth". Reviews of Modern Physics 5 (3): 203–242.

[14] GE Technical Publications (2007), 80044 – F20T12/


C50/ECO, GE Ecolux ®T12.

[15] De Aquino, F. (2010) Gravity Control by means


of Electromagnetic Field through Gas at Ultra-
Low Pressure, Pacific Journal of Science and
Technology, 11(2) November 2010, pp.178-247,
Physics/0701091.
The Gravitational Mass of a Charged Supercapacitor
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2011 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved

Electric double-layer capacitors (EDLCs), also known as supercapacitors, electrochemical double layer
capacitors, or ultracapacitors, are electrochemical capacitors that have an unusually high energy density when
compared to common capacitors, typically on the order of thousands of times greater than a high capacity
electrolytic capacitor. It is shown here that when an EDLC is fully charged its gravitational mass is considerably
greater than when it is discharged.
Key words: Supercapacitors, Energy storage systems, Experimental tests of gravitational theories
PACS: 88.80.fh; 84.60.Ve , 04.80.Cc

1. Introduction activated carbon inside the capacitor. During


the charging process, ions from the
The electric double-layer capacitor electrolyte accumulate on the surface of each
effect was first noticed in 1957 by General carbon-coated plate.
Electric engineers experimenting with Here it is shown that when an EDLC is
devices using porous carbon electrode [1]. It fully charged its gravitational mass is
was believed that the energy was stored in considerably greater than when it is
the carbon pores and it exhibited discharged.
"exceptionally high capacitance", although
the mechanism was unknown at that time. 2. Theory
General Electric did not immediately
follow up on this work, and the modern Consider the cross-section of an
version of the devices were eventually EDLC as shown in Fig. 1. The double-layer
developed by researchers at Standard Oil of in the EDLCs is generally made of activated
Ohio in 1966, after they accidentally re- carbon immersed in an electrolyte whose
discovered the effect while working on conductivity is much less than carbon
experimental fuel cell designs [2]. Their cell conductivity [4]. The result is that the
design used two layers of activated carbon conductivity of the double-layer becomes
separated by a thin porous insulator, and this much less than the conductivity of the
basic mechanical design remains the basis of activated carbon and, in this way, the double-
most electric double-layer capacitors to this layer can withstand a low voltage, and no
day. significant current flows through the
An electric double-layer capacitor activated carbon layers of an ELDC [3]. This
(EDLC), is known as supercapacitor, or means that they are similar to dielectrics with
ultracapacitor. Their energy density is very low dielectric strength. Thus, due to the
typically hundreds of times greater than electrical charge stored in the activated
conventional electrolytic capacitors. They carbon layers, each layer can be considered
also have a much higher power density than as a non-conducting plane of charge, with
batteries or fuel cells. As of 2011 EDLCs had density of charge, σ = q S , where S is the
a maximum working voltage of 5 volts and area of the plates of the capacitor, and
capacities of up to 5,000 farads [3]. q = CV is the amount of electrical charge
Currently, the EDLCs are used for stored in the activated carbon layers; C is the
energy storage rather than as general-purpose capacity of the EDLC. Thus, according to the
circuit components. The EDLCs also have well-known expression of the electric field
two metal plates, but they are coated with produced by a non-conducting plane of
activated carbon immersed in an electrolyte, charge [5], we can conclude that the electric
and separated by an intervening insulator, field through the layers of activated carbon
forming in this manner, the double-layer of (See Fig.1) is given by
2
σ the supercapacitor is fully charged. Since
E(layer) = E − = E + = =
CV
(1)
2ε r (layer)ε 0 2ε r (layer)ε 0 S the mass of the double-layer is a significant
part of the total mass of the supercapacitor,
we can conclude that, when fully charged the
Consequently, the density of electromagnetic
supercapacitor will display considerably
energy in the carbon layers is
more mass than when it is discharged.
2 It is important to note that the
⎛ CV ⎞
Wlayer = 12 ε r (layer)ε 0 Elayer
2
=
1
⎜ ⎟ (2) gravitational mass of the double-layer can
8ε r (layer)ε 0 ⎝ S ⎠ also be reduced, decreasing the total mass of
the supercapacitor. This can occur, for
It was shown that the relativistic example, when 1.5Volts < V < 3.1Volts .
gravitational mass M g is correlated with the
Conclusion
relativistic inertial mass M i by means of the
following factor [6]: The theoretical results here obtained
for the gravitational mass of an EDLC are
M g = χ Mi (3) general for energy accumulator cells which
contain non-conducting planes of charges
where χ can be expressed by similar to the activated carbon + electrolyte
layers of the EDLCs.
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎛nW⎞ ⎥⎪
χ = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ r 2 ⎟ −1⎥⎬ (4)
⎜ρ c ⎟
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭

where n r is the refraction index and ρ the


density of the material.
Substitution of Eq. (2) into Eq. (4),
yields

⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎡ nr(layer)μ0 ⎛ CV ⎞2 ⎤ ⎥⎪
χ = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ − 1⎥⎬ (5)
⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎣8ε r(layer)ρlayer ⎝ S ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭

In the case of activated carbon layer:


nr(layer) ≅ 1 ; ε r(layer) ≅ 12 and ρ layer ≅ 800kg.m −3 .
Thus, if the supercapacitor has C = 3,000F ;
S = 0.08 × 0.45 = 0.036m 2 and is subjected to
V = 4Volts then Eq. (5) gives

χ = −1.14 (6 )

Substitution of Eq.(6) into Eq. (3) yields

M g (layer) = −1.14 M i(layer) = 1.14M i(layer) (7)

This means an increase of 14% in the


gravitational mass of the double-layer when
3

Activated Carbon layer


Electrode + Insulator
Electrolyte

− + +
− −
+ +
− − +
− + + +

− − +
+
+ − − + −
E− E− + E
+
E+
− +
− + +

− +
− +
− + +
− −
+ + +

− − +

d

Fig. 1 – Cross-section of an Electric Double-Layer Capacitor (Supercapacitor) - Each activated


carbon + electrolyte layer works as a non-conducting plane of charge, with density of charge
σ − = q − S and σ + = q + S respectively. The electric fields through the layers, due to these
( )
densities of charges E − , E + , are shown in the figure above.
4

References
[1] Becker, H.I., (1957) Low voltage electrolytic capacitor,
US Patent 2800616 (A), 1957-07-23.

[2] Schindall, J. (2007) The Charge of the Ultra-Capacitors,


IEEE Spectrum, November 2007.

[3] Electric Double-Layer Capacitor http://en.wikipedia.org/


wiki / Electric_double-layer_capacitor

[4] Miller, J. and Simon, P. (2008) Fundamentals of


Electrochemical Capacitor Design and Operation, The
Electrochemical Society Interface, Spring 2008.

[5] Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. (1966) Physics, vol.2, John


Wiley & Sons, NY. Portuguese version (1968) Física,
Vol. 2, Ao Livro Técnico SA, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil,
pp. 768-769.

[6] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of the


Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific Journal
of Science and Technology, 11(1), pp. 173-232.
Beyond the Material Universe
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2011 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved

Science and Religion have always observed the events from their exclusive viewpoint. It was necessary
the arising of a bond that would make possible the unification of them. This bond was revealed in the last
decades by Quantum Physics, which has shown us that some physical laws extend beyond the material
world, pointing to the existence of the spiritual world. Thus, the spiritual world exists now no longer as
supernatural one, but as world as real as our material world. This discovery marked the beginning of the
understanding of the spiritual world nature and its relationship with the material world. Starting from this
knowledge, here widely detailed, it is now possible to understand the eternal puzzles: where have we
come from, because here we are, and where do we go.

Key words: Science, Religion, Spiritual World, Quantum Gravity, Quantum Cosmology, Quantum
Consciousness.

1. Introduction

The Spiritual World has always been considered something supernatural. Only recently,
with the advent of Quantum Physics, the first evidences of its existence arose. However, it was
the theoretical background derived from Quantum Gravity [1] that has shown that our Real
Universe is contained in an Imaginary Universe. Here, the terms real and imaginary are
borrowed from mathematics (real and imaginary numbers). In addition, it has been possible to
show that the Imaginary Energy has the same characteristics of the Psychic Energy, that is, both
are equivalent. This means that the Imaginary Universe is in fact the Psychic Universe. This
discovery was the starting point for understanding the nature of the Spiritual World and beings
it contains. It also made possible the acquisition of a strong knowledge about the relationship of
the beings of the Spiritual World with us, and with our Material World. This knowledge, which
leads us beyond the Material Universe, is widely detailed in this work.

2. The Psychic Energy

It is known that the De Broglie waves are characterized by a variable quantity called the
wave function, denoted by the symbolψ. While the frequencies of the De Broglie waves are
determined by a simple form, the value of ψ is usually very complicated. The value of Ψ 2 (or
ΨΨ * ) calculated for a particular point x, y, z, t is proportional to the probability of finding the
particle experimentally in that place and time 1 .
Thus, each particle has a particular wave function, which describes the particle fully.
Roughly, it is similar to the "identity card" of the particle, containing all information about the
particle or the body.
Since Ψ 2 is proportional to the probability P of finding the particle described by Ψ , the
integral of Ψ 2 on the whole space must be finite – inasmuch as the particle is someplace.
Therefore, if
+∞
∫− ∞ Ψ
2
dV = 0 (01 )
The interpretation is that the particle does not exist. However, if

1
Interpretation by Max Born in 1926.
2

+∞
∫− ∞ Ψ
2
dV = ∞ (02 )
the particle will be everywhere simultaneously.
Despite the fact that the De Broglie waves are normally associated to material particles
and, in general associated to material bodies, it is known that they are also associated to exotic
particles that cannot even be detected, such as a type of neutrinos called "ghost” neutrinos,
predicted by General Relativity. These are called "ghost” neutrinos, because they have zero
mass and zero momentum, and cannot be detected. But even so, it is known that there are wave
functions that describe them, which means that they exist and can be present in any place. As a
rough analogy, it is like a person who, despite of existing and possessing an identity card, is
never seen by anyone. The existence of a wave function associated with the "ghost” neutrino is
very important, because, in this context, we can conclude that even a thought may have a wave
function associated with it.
It is a proven quantum fact that the wave function Ψ may "collapse" and, in that instant,
the possibilities that it describes, suddenly express themselves in reality. The moment of the
"collapse" of the wave function is then a decision point where the pressing need of realization
of the possibilities described by the wave function occurs.
For an observer in our universe something is real when it is in the form of matter or
radiation. Therefore, it can occur that the possibilities described by the wave function realize
themselves in the form of radiation, i.e., they did not materialize. This obviously must occur
when the energy that forms the content described by the wave function is not equal to the
amount of energy needed for its materialization.
Then consider any thought. A thought is a psychic body, with a well-defined psychic
energy, and, as such, with a wave function of its own as any other psychic body. When its wave
function collapses, two possibilities may occur: (a) the psychic energy contained in the thought
is not sufficient to materialize its content - in this case, the collapse of the wave function is
realized in the form of radiation: (b) the psychic energy is sufficient for its materialization - in
this case, the collapse of the wave function content will be fully materialized.
However, in both cases, there must always be production of "virtual" photons to
communicate the psychic interaction to other bodies of the universe, because, according to the
quantum theory, only through this type of quanta, can the interaction be communicated, since it
has infinite range just in the same way as the electromagnetic interaction has, which we know is
communicated by exchanging "virtual" photons. The term "virtual" derives from the principle of
uncertainty due to the impossibility to detect these photons. This is a limitation imposed by
Nature proper.
It can be easily seen that this materialization process, although theoretically possible,
requires enormous amounts of psychic energy, because, according to Einstein's famous equation
E = mc2, even a tiny object contains an enormous amount of energy. Moreover, one can
conclude that materializations of this type could only be produced by great consciousness with
large psychic energy. In addition, it is evident, in this context, that the larger the amount of
psychic energy of a consciousness the greater its chances of realization.
This is a materialization process that can explain the materialization of the Primordial
Universe. In addition, it becomes evident that the Psychic Energy is a type of mother-energy or
Universal Fluid, which can produce anything.
Since it is in the continuum 4-dimensional (space-time) that the realization of the wave
functions which describe the psychic bodies occurs, then we can assume that they are generated
in a continuum that, despite of containing all psychic forms, also interpenetrates the space-time
continuum. Let us call it, hereafter, Psychic Continuum. By definition this continuum should
also contain the Supreme Consciousness. Therefore, it should be infinite.
3

Then, from the above we can see that an accurate description of the universe cannot
exclude the psychic energy, psychic particles and psychic bodies. That is, the situation calls for
a cosmology that includes the psyche in the description of the Universe, thus complementing the
traditional cosmology that is only a matter of cosmology. This idea is not new; it has existed for
some time and seems to have arisen mainly in Princeton and Pasadena in the USA in the 70s [2]
as a result of the joint effort of eminent physicists, biologists, psychologists and theologians as
well. [3].
In traditional cosmology, the universe comes from a big bang where everything that
exists would be concentrated in a tiny particle with the size of a proton and an enormous mass
equal to the mass of the Universe at the instant before the Big Bang,. But its origin is not
explained, nor the why of its critical volume.
The critical volume, in our opinion denotes knowledge of what would happen from these
initial conditions, a fact which points to the existence of a Creator. In this case, the
materialization process described above would explain the materialization of the Primordial
Universe. That is, the Primordial Universe arose at the exact moment that the primordial wave
function collapsed (initial instant) realizating the contents of the psychic form generated in the
consciousness of the Creator when He thought of creating the universe.
The psychic form described by this primordial wave function must then have been
generated in a consciousness with psychic energy much larger than that needed to materialize
the Universe. This enormous consciousness in turn, not only would be the biggest of all
consciences, but also would be the substratum of everything that exists, and obviously
everything that exists would be wholly contained therein, including all space-time.
Based on the General Theory of Relativity and the recent cosmological observations, it is
known that the Universe occupies a space of positive curvature. This space, as we know, is
"closed in itself", its volume is finite, but rest well understood, the space has no boundaries, it is
unlimited. Thus, if the consciousness which we refer to contains all the space, its volume is
necessarily infinite, and therefore contains an infinite psychic energy.
This means that it contains all the psychic energy that exists and therefore, any other
consciousness will be contained in it. Thus, we can conclude that it is the Supreme
Consciousness, and there is no other like it: it is unique. In addition, since it contains all the
psychic energy, it can accomplish everything that it wants, and therefore is omnipotent.
Previously, we showed in the article "Physical Foundations of Quantum Psychology" the
manifestation of knowledge, or auto-accessible knowledge in a consciousness, should be related
to its quantity of psychic energy. In the Supreme Consciousness, whose psychic energy is
infinite, the manifestation of the knowledge is total, thus, necessarily, it must be omniscient.
Being omniscient, we cannot doubt its justice or goodness. Thus, God is supremely just and
good. Moreover, as it also contains all the time, with past, present and future merging into it in
an eternal present, so that the time will not flow as it does for us, in the four-dimensional
continuum called space-time, as "we see" the future changing continuously into present and the
present into past. Similarly, an observer in five-dimensional continuum would not have access
to all time as the Supreme Consciousness, but his dimensional "vision" of the time would
certainly be wider than that of the observer positioned in the four-dimensional continuum [3]. In
this context, only the Supreme Consciousness would have a perfect "vision" of all dimensional
levels.
When we speak of creation of the universe, the use of the verb to create means that
anything that was not came to be; assuming therefore, the concept of time flow. For the
Supreme Consciousness however, the instant of the creation coincides with all the other times,
not existing neither before nor after the creation, and in this way, questions like "What did the
Supreme Consciousness do before creation?” are not justified.
4

We can also infer from the above that the existence of the Supreme Consciousness has
no defined limit (beginning and end), which gives It the peculiar qualities of uncreated and
eternal.
Being eternal, its wave function ψ never collapses. Moreover, as it has infinite psychic
energy, the value of ψ will also be infinite. In this way, according to Quantum Mechanics, it
means that the Supreme Consciousness is simultaneously everywhere, or omnipresent.
All conclusions presented here about the Supreme Consciousness were mathematically
demonstrated in the article "Mathematical Foundations of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum
Gravity" [1], and represent nothing more than a formal finding of what was already accepted by
most religions.
It is then justified the intuitive feeling that people have about the existence of God, and
reveals that God is the Supreme Consciousness, the first cause of all things.
Although we can understand this and, thus, learn that God is psychic energy, we can say
nothing about the nature of psychic energy. Likewise, we do not know the nature of electric
charge, etc. This is a limitation imposed by the Creator Himself.
The option of the Supreme Consciousness in materializing the Primordial Universe into a
critical volume, as we have seen, means that It knew what would happen from that initial
condition. Therefore It also knew how the universe would behave under existing laws. Thus, the
laws were not created for the Universe, and therefore are not "laws of Nature" or "laws that have
been placed in Nature" as Descartes wrote. They already existed as an intrinsic part of the
Supreme Consciousness; Thomas Aquinas had a very clear understanding about this. He speaks
of the Eternal Law, "... those exist in the mind of God and rules the entire Universe."
The Supreme Consciousness had then complete freedom to choose the initial conditions
of the Universe. But opted for the concentration of the early Universe in the critical volume in
order that its development should be performed in the most convenient way for the purposes It
had in mind, according to laws inherent in its very nature. This responds to Einstein's famous
question: "What level of choice would God have had to build the universe?"
It seems that Newton was the first to realize the divine option. In his book Opticks, he
gives us a perfect view of how he imagined the creation of the Universe:

"It seems to me that God, at the beginning, first gave way to matter in solid particles, compacted
[...] in such way that best contribute to the purpose He had in mind ..."

For what purpose the Supreme Consciousness created the universe? This is a question that
seems difficult to answer. However, if we assume the natural desire of the Supreme
Consciousness of procreating, that is, of generating individual consciousness from itself so that
they could evolve and express themselves creating attributes to Her, then, we can infer that in
order to evolve, such consciousness would need a Universe, and this may have been the main
reason for its creation. Thus, the origin of the Universe would be related to the generation of
said consciousness and, consequently, the materialization of the Primordial Universe must have
occurred at the same time at which the Supreme Consciousness decided to individualize the
Primordial Consciousnesses.
As the Supreme Consciousness occupies all the space, it follows that it cannot be
displaced by another consciousness, and not for himself. Therefore, the Supreme Consciousness
is immovable.
As Augustine says (Gen. Ad lit vii, 20), "The Creator does not move either in time or
space."
The immobility of God had been deemed necessary also by Thomas Aquinas, "we can
infer be necessary that the God who puts into motion all the objects, it is immovable." (Summa
Theologica).
5

Due to fact that they were individualized directly from the Supreme Consciousness, the
primordial consciousnesses certainly contained in themselves - albeit in a latent state, all the
possibilities of the Supreme Consciousness, including the germ of independent will that allows
the establishment of original points of departure. However, although similar to the Supreme
Consciousness, the primordial consciousnesses could have no understanding of themselves.
This understanding comes only with the creative mental state that the consciousnesses can only
achieve by evolution.
Thus, in the first evolutionary period, the primordial consciousnesses must have
remained in complete unconsciousness. It was then, the beginning of a pilgrimage from
unconsciousness to the superconsciousness.

3. The Good and the Evil

Basically, in the Universe there are two types of radiation: the real radiation constituted
by of real photon, and the “virtual” radiation constituted by "virtual" photons. Previously, we
talked about the "virtual" quanta, which are responsible for the interaction among the psychic
particles. According to the Uncertainty Principle, “virtual” quanta cannot be observed
experimentally. However, since they are interaction quanta, their effects may be verified in the
very particles or bodies subjected to the interactions.
Obviously, only one specific type of interaction occurs between two particles if each one
absorbs the quanta of said interaction emitted by the other; otherwise, the interaction will be
null. Thus, the null interaction between psychic bodies particularly means that there is no
mutual absorption of the “virtual” psychic photons (psychic interaction quanta) emitted by
them. That is, the emission spectrum of each one of them does not coincide with the absorption
spectrum of the other.
It was shown that, in all interactions (gravitational, electromagnetic, strong nuclear and
weak nuclear), the "virtual" quanta are "virtual" photons [1].
It is obvious, then, that an interaction between two particles only occurs if each of them
absorbs the "virtual" photons emitted by the other, otherwise the interaction will be zero. Thus,
the null interaction means specifically that the emission spectrum of each particle does not
coincide with the absorption spectrum of the other.
By analogy with material bodies, the emission spectra of which are, as we know, identical
to the absorption spectra, also the psychic bodies must absorb radiation within the spectrum they
emit. Specifically, in the case of human consciousness, their thoughts cause them to become
emitters of psychic radiation in certain frequency spectra and, consequently, receivers in the
same spectra. Thus, when a human consciousness, by its thoughts, is receptive to a radiation
coming from a certain thought, said radiation will be absorbed by the consciousness (resonance
absorption). Under these circumstances, the radiation absorbed must stimulate – through the
Resonance Principle – said consciousness to emit in the same spectrum, just as it happens with
matter.
Nevertheless, in order for that emission to occur in a human consciousness, it must be
preceded by the individualization of thoughts identical with that which originated the radiation
absorbed, because obviously only identical thoughts will be able to reproduce - when they
collapse - the spectrum of “virtual” psychic radiations absorbed.
These induced thoughts – such as the thoughts of consciousnesses themselves – must
remain individualized for a period of time Δt (lifetime of the thought) after which its wave
functions collapse, thus producing the “virtual” psychic radiation in the same spectrum of
frequencies absorbed.
The Supreme Consciousness, just as other consciousnesses, has Its own spectrum of
absorption determined by Its thoughts – which make up the standard of a good-quality thought.
6

Thus, the concept of good-quality thoughts is immediately established. That is, they are
resonant thoughts in the Supreme Consciousness. Thus, only thoughts of this kind, produced in
human consciousnesses, may induce the individualization of similar thoughts in the Supreme
Consciousness.
In this context, a system of judgment is established in which the good and the evil are
psychic values, with their origin in free thought. The good is related to the good-quality
thoughts, which are thoughts resonant in the Supreme Consciousness. The evil, in turn, is
related to the bad-quality thoughts, non-resonant in the Supreme Consciousness.
Consequently, the moral derived thereof results from the Law itself, inherent in the
Supreme Consciousness and, therefore, this psychic moral must be the fundamental moral.
Thus, fundamental ethics is neither biological nor located in the aggressive action, as thought by
Nietzsche. It is psychic and located in the good-quality thoughts. It has a theological basis and,
in it, the creation of the Universe by a pre-existing God is of an essential nature, opposed, for
instance, to Spinoza’s “geometrical ethics”, which eliminated the ideas of Creation of the
Universe by a pre-existing God, the main underpinning of Christian theology and philosophy.
However, it is very close to Aristotle’s ethics, to the extent that, from it, we understand that we
are what we repeatedly do (think) and that excellence is not an act, but a habit (Ethics, II, 4).
According to Aristotle: ‘” the goodness of a man is a work of the soul towards excellence in a
complete lifetime: … it is not a day or a short period that makes a man fortunate and happy. “
(Ibid, I, 7).
The “virtual” psychic radiation coming from a thought may induce several similar
thoughts in the consciousness absorbing it, because each photon of radiation absorbed carries in
itself the electromagnetic expression of the thought which produced it and, consequently, each
one of them stimulates the individualization of a similar thought. However, the amount of
thoughts induced is, of course, limited by the amount of psychic mass of the consciousness
proper.
In the specific case of the Supreme Consciousness, the “virtual” psychic radiation coming
from a good-quality thought must induce many similar thoughts. On the other hand, since
Supreme Consciousness involves human consciousness, the induced thoughts appear in the
surroundings of the very consciousness which induced them. These thoughts are then strongly
attracted by said consciousness and fuse therewith, for, just as the thoughts generated in a
consciousness have a high degree of positive mutual affinity [4] with it, they will also have the
thoughts induced by it.
The fusion of these thoughts in the consciousness obviously determines an increase in its
psychic mass. We then conclude that the cultivation of good-quality thoughts is highly
beneficial to the individual. Reversally, the cultivation of bad-quality thoughts makes
consciousness lose psychic mass.
When bad-quality thoughts are generated in a consciousness, they do not induce identical
thoughts in Supreme Consciousness, because the absorption spectrum of Supreme
Consciousness excludes psychic radiations coming from bad-quality thoughts. Thus, such
radiation directs itself to other consciousnesses; however, it will only induce identical thoughts
in those that are receptive in the same frequency spectrum. When this happens and right after
the wave functions corresponding to these induced thoughts collapse and materialize said
thoughts or change them into radiation, the receptive consciousness will lose psychic mass,
similarly to what happens in the consciousness which first produced the thought. Consequently,
both the consciousness which gave rise to the bad-quality thought and those receptive to the
psychic radiations coming from this type of thoughts will lose psychic mass.
We must observe, however, that our thoughts are not limited only to harming or
benefiting ourselves, since they also can, as we have already seen, induce similar thoughts in
other consciousnesses, thus affecting them. In this case, it is important to observe that the
7

psychic radiation produced by the induced thoughts may return to the consciousness which
initially produced the bad-quality thought, inducing other similar thoughts in it, which evidently
cause more loss of psychic mass in said consciousness.
The fact that our thoughts are not restricted to influencing ourselves is highly relevant,
because it leads us to understand we have a great responsibility towards other persons as regards
what we think.

4. The Psychic Universe

When we studied elementary Mathematics, we learned the called Imaginary Numbers.


Just as there are the real numbers and imaginary numbers, there are also the real space-time and
imaginary time. In the article "Mathematical Foundations of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum
Gravity", we showed that the former contains our Real Universe, and the latter contains the
Imaginary Universe. We also saw how a material body can make a transition to the Imaginary
Universe. Simply reducing its gravitational mass to the range + 0.159 M i to − 0.159M i .
Under these circumstances, its gravitational and inertial masses become imaginaries, and
therefore, the body becomes imaginary. Consequently, the body disappears from our ordinary
space-time and resurges in the imaginary space-time like an imaginary body. In other words, it
becomes invisible for persons in the Real Universe.
What will an observer see when in the imaginary space-time? It will see light, bodies,
planets, stars, etc., everything formed by imaginary photons, imaginary atoms, imaginary
protons, imaginary neutrons and imaginary electrons. That is to say, the observer will find an
Universe similar to ours, just formed by particles with imaginary masses. The term imaginary
adopted from the Mathematics, as we already saw, gives the false impression that these masses
do not exist. In order to avoid this misunderstanding we researched the true nature of that new
mass type and matter.
The existence of imaginary mass associated to the neutrino is well-known. Although its
imaginary mass is not physically observable, its square is. This amount is found experimentally
to be negative. Recently, it was shown [1] that quanta of imaginary mass exist associated to the
photons, electrons, neutrons, and protons, and that these imaginary masses would have psychic
properties (elementary capability of “choice”). Thus, the true nature of this new kind of mass
and matter shall be psychic and, therefore we should not use the term imaginary any longer.
Consequently, from the previously described, we can conclude that the gravitational spacecraft
penetrates in the Psychic Universe and not in an “imaginary” Universe.
In this Universe, the matter would be, obviously composed by psychic molecules and
psychic atoms formed by psychic neutrons, psychic protons and psychic electrons. i.e., the
matter would have psychic mass and consequently it would be subtle, much less dense than the
matter of our real Universe.
From the quantum viewpoint, the psychic particles are similar to the material particles, so
that we can use the Quantum Mechanics to describe the psychic particles. In this case, by
analogy to the material particles, a particle with psychic mass mΨ will be described by the
following expressions:
r r
pψ = h kψ (02 )
Eψ = h ωψ (03 )
r r r
where pψ = m ΨV is the momentum carried by the wave and Eψ its energy; kψ = 2π λψ is
the propagation number and λψ = h m Ψ V the wavelength and ωψ = 2πfψ its cyclic
frequency.
As we already have seen, the variable quantity that characterizes DeBroglie’s waves is
called Wave Function, usually indicated by Ψ .
8

The wave function Ψ corresponds, as we know, to the displacement y of the undulatory


motion of a rope. However, Ψ as opposed to y , is not a measurable quantity and can, hence, be
a complex quantity. For this reason, it is admitted that Ψ is described in the x -direction by
− (2 π i h )( Et − px )
Ψ = Be (04 )
This equation is the mathematical description of the wave associated with a free material
particle, with total energy E and momentum p , moving in the direction + x .
As concerns the psychic particle, the variable quantity characterizing psyche waves will
also be called wave function, denoted by ΨΨ ( to differentiate it from the material particle wave
function), and, by analogy with equation Eq. (04), expressed by:
− (2π i h )( E Ψ t − p Ψ x )
ΨΨ = Ψ0 e (05 )
If an experiment involves a large number of identical particles, all described by the same
wave function Ψ , real density of mass ρ of these particles in x, y, z, t is proportional to the
corresponding value Ψ 2 ( Ψ 2 is known as density of probability. If Ψ is complex then
Ψ 2 = ΨΨ* . Thus, ρ ∝ Ψ 2 = Ψ.Ψ* ). Similarly, in the case of psychic particles, the density
of psychic mass, ρ Ψ , in x, y, z, will be expressed by ρ Ψ ∝ ΨΨ2 = ΨΨ Ψ*Ψ . It is known that
ΨΨ2 is always real and positive while ρ Ψ = mΨ V is an imaginary quantity. Thus, as the
modulus of an imaginary number is always real and positive, we can transform the proportion
ρ Ψ ∝ ΨΨ2 , in equality in the following form:
Ψ Ψ2 = k ρ Ψ (06 )
Where k is a proportionality constant (real and positive) to be determined.
In Quantum Mechanics we have studied the Superposition Principle, which affirms that,
if a particle (or system of particles) is in a dynamic state represented by a wave function Ψ1 and
may also be in another dynamic state described by Ψ2 then, the general dynamic state of the
particle may be described by Ψ , where Ψ is a linear combination (superposition) of Ψ1 and
Ψ2 , i.e.,
Ψ = c1 Ψ1 + c 2 Ψ 2 (07 )
Complex constants c1 e c2 respectively indicate the percentage of dynamic state, represented
by Ψ1 e Ψ2 in the formation of the general dynamic state described by Ψ .
In the case of psychic particles (psychic bodies, consciousness, etc.), by analogy, if ΨΨ1 ,
ΨΨ 2 ,..., ΨΨn refer to the different dynamic states the psychic particle assume, then its general
dynamic state may be described by the wave function ΨΨ , given by:
Ψ Ψ = c1 Ψ Ψ1 + c 2 Ψ Ψ 2 + ... + c n Ψ Ψ n (08 )
The state of superposition of wave functions is, therefore, common for both psychic and
material particles. In the case of material particles, it can be verified, for instance, when an
electron changes from one orbit to another. Before effecting the transition to another energy
level, the electron carries out “virtual transitions” [5]. A kind of relationship with other
electrons before performing the real transition. During this relationship period, its wave function
remains “scattered” by a wide region of the space [6] thus superposing the wave functions of
the other electrons. In this relationship the electrons mutually influence each other, with the
9

possibility of intertwining their wave functions 2 . When this happens, there occurs the so-called
Phase Relationship according to quantum-mechanics concept.
In the electrons “virtual” transition mentioned before, the “listing” of all the possibilities
of the electrons is described, as we know, by Schrödinger’s wave equation. Otherwise, it is
general for material particles. By analogy, in the case of psychic particles, we may say that the
“listing” of all the possibilities of the psyches involved in the relationship will be described by
Schrödinger’s equation – for psychic case, i.e.,
p2
∇ 2 Ψ Ψ + Ψ2 Ψ Ψ = 0 (09 )
h
Because the wave functions are capable of intertwining themselves, the quantum systems
may “penetrate” each other, thus establishing an internal relationship where all of them are
affected by the relationship, no longer being isolated systems but becoming an integrated part of
a larger system. This type of internal relationship, which exists only in quantum systems, was
called Relational Holism [7].
The idea of psyche associated with matter dates back to the pre-Socratic period and is
usually called panpsychism. Remnants of organized panpsychism may be found in the Uno of
Parmenides or in Heracleitus’s Divine Flux. Scholars of Miletus’s school were called hylozoists,
that is, “those who believe that matter is alive”. More recently, we will find the panpsychistic
thought in Spinoza, Whitehead and Teilhard de Chardin, among others. The latter one admitted
the existence of proto-conscious properties at level of elementary particles.
Generally, the people believe that there is some type of psyche associated to the animals,
and some biologists agree that even very simple animals like the ameba and the sea anemone are
endowed with psychism. This led several authors to consider the possibility of the psychic
phenomena to be described in a theory based on Physics [8-11].
The fact that an electron carries out “virtual” transitions to several energetic levels before
performing the real transition [5] clearly shows a “choice” made by the electron. Where there is
“choice” isn’t there also psyche, by definition?
An elementary psyche associated to the electron would be an entity very similar to the
elementary electric charge associated to the electron, whose existence was necessary to
postulate for the establishment of electromagnetic theory. However, the elementary psyche has
unique characteristics. Being a discrete quantity (quantum) of the Supreme Consciousness,
which is omniscient, it must also contain within it all knowledge. In the Supreme
Consciousness, whose psychic energy is infinite, the manifestation of this knowledge is total. In
the case of the elementary psyche, would be minimal by definition, remaining the rest of the
knowledge in a latent state.
But still this knowledge would be sufficient, for example, for electrons to define their
orbital position (energy level) around the nuclei when they were electromagnetically attracted
by the such nuclei.
How else could they have the knowledge of the exact orbit to stay? The electrosphere of
atoms is a complex and accurate structure, and in no way could have been created randomly. Its
construction undoubtedly involves knowledge.
Due to the fact that the formation of the electrosphere of the atoms is an organized
process, the psyches of the electrons is also grouped in an organized manner, specifically in
phase condensates, forming, what we can define as the Individual Consciousnesses of the
atoms. Ice and NaCl crystals are common examples of imprecisely-structured phase
condensates. Lasers, superfluids, superconductors, and magnets are examples of better-
structured phase condensates.

2
Since the electrons are simultaneously waves and particles, their wave aspects will interfere with each
other. Besides superposition, there is also the possibility of occurrence of intertwining of their wave
functions.
10

If electrons, protons and neutrons have psychic mass, then we can infer that the psychic
mass of the atoms are Phase Condensates. In the case of the molecules the situation is similar.
More molecular mass means more atoms and consequently, more psychic mass. In this case the
phase condensate also becomes more structured because the great amount of elementary
psyches inside the condensate requires, by stability reasons, a better distribution of them. Thus,
in the case of molecules with very large molecular masses (macromolecules) it is possible that
their psychic masses already constitute the most organized shape of a Phase Condensate, called
Bose-Einstein Condensate 3 .
The fundamental characteristic of a Bose-Einstein condensate is, as we know, that the
various parts making up the condensed system not only behave as a whole but also become a
whole, i.e., in the psychic case, the various consciousnesses of the system become a single
consciousness with psychic mass equal to the sum of the psychic masses of all the
consciousness of the condensate. This obviously, increases the available knowledge in the
system since it is proportional to the psychic mass of the consciousness. This unity confers an
individual character to this type of consciousness. For this reason, from now on they will be
called Individual Material Consciousness.
It derives from the above that most bodies do not possess individual material
consciousness. In an iron rod, for instance, the cluster of elementary psyches in the iron
molecules does not constitute Bose-Einstein condensate; therefore, the iron rod does not have an
individual consciousness. Its consciousness is consequently, much more simple and constitutes
just a phase condensate imprecisely structured made by the consciousness of the iron atoms.
The existence of consciousnesses in the atoms is revealed in the molecular formation,
where atoms with strong mutual affinity (their consciousnesses) combine to form molecules. It
is the case, for instance of the water molecules, in which two Hydrogen atoms join an Oxygen
atom. Well, how come the combination between these atoms is always the same: the same
grouping and the same invariable proportion? In the case of molecular combinations the
phenomenon repeats itself. Thus, the chemical substances either mutually attract or repel
themselves, carrying out specific motions for this reason. It is the so-called Chemical Affinity.
This phenomenon certainly results from a specific interaction between the consciousnesses.
From now on, it will be called Psychic Interaction.
After the formation of the first planets, some of them came to develop favorable conditions for the
appearance of macromolecules. These macromolecules, as we have shown, may have a special type of
consciousness formed by a Bose-Einstein condensate (Individual Material Consciousness). In this case,
since the molecular masses of the macromolecules are very large, they will have individual material
consciousness of large psychic mass and, therefore, have access to a considerable amount of information
in its own consciousness. Consequently, macromolecules with individual material consciousness are
potentially very capable of, and some certainly already can carry out, autonomous motions, thus being
considered as “living” entities.
However, if we decompose one of these molecules so as to destroy its individual
consciousness, its parts will no longer have access to the information which “instructed” said
molecule and, hence, will not be able to carry out the autonomous motions it previously did.
Thus, the “life” of the molecule disappears – as we can see, Delbrück’s Paradox is then solved 4 .

3
Several authors have suggested the possibility of the Bose-Einstein condensate occur in the brain, and
that it might be the physical base of memory, although they have not been able to find a suitable
mechanism to underpin such a hypothesis. Evidences of the existence of Bose-Einstein condensates in
living tissues abound (Popp, F.A Experientia, Vol. 44, p.576-585; Inaba, H., New Scientist, May89, p.41;
Rattermeyer, M and Popp, F. A. Naturwissenschaften, Vol.68, Nº5, p.577.)
4
This paradox ascribed to Max Delbrück (Delbrück, Max., (1978) Mind from Matter? American Scholar,
47. pp.339-53.) remained unsolved and was posed as follows: How come the same matter studied by
Physics, when incorporated into a living organism, assumes an unexpected behavior, although not
contradicting physical laws?
11

The appearance of “living” molecules in a planet marks the beginning of the most
important evolutionary stage for the psyche of matter, for it is from the combination of these
molecules that there appear living beings with individual material consciousness with even
larger psychic masses.
Biologists have shown that all living organisms existing on Earth come from two types of
molecules – aminoacids and nucleotides – which make up the fundamental building blocks of
living beings. That is, the nucleotides and aminoacids are identical in all living beings, whether
they are bacteria, mollusks or men. There are twenty different species of aminoacids and five of
nucleotides.
In 1952, Stanley Miller and Harold Urey proved that aminoacids could be produced from
inert chemical products present in the atmosphere and oceans in the first years of existence of
the Earth. Later, in 1962, nucleotides were created in laboratory under similar conditions. Thus,
it was proved that the molecular units making up the living beings could have formed during the
Earth’s primitive history.
Therefore, we can imagine what happened from the moment said molecules appeared.
The concentration of aminoacids and nucleotides in the oceans gradually increased. After a long
period of time, when the amount of nucleotides was already large enough, they began to group
themselves by mutual psychic attraction, forming the molecules that in the future will become
DNA molecules.
When the molecular masses of these molecules became large enough, the distribution of
elementary psyches in their consciousnesses took the most orderly possible form of phase
condensate (Bose-Einstein condensate) and such consciousnesses became the individual
material consciousness.
Since the psychic mass of the consciousnesses of these molecules is very large (as
compared with the psychic mass of the atoms), the amount of self-accessible knowledge in such
consciousnesses became considerable and, thus, they became apt to instruct the joining of
aminoacids in the formation of the first proteins (origin of the Genetic Code). Consequently, the
DNA’s capability to serve as guide for the joining of aminoacids in the formation of proteins is
fundamentally a result of their psychism.
In the psychic of DNA molecules, the formation of proteins certainly had a definite
objective: the construction of cells.
During the cellular construction, the most important function played by the
consciousnesses of the DNA molecules may have been that of organizing the distribution of the
new molecules incorporated to the system so that the consciousnesses of these molecules jointly
formed with the consciousness of the system a Bose-Einstein condensate. In this manner, more
knowledge would be available to the system and, after the cell is completed, the latter would
also have an individual material consciousness.
Afterwards, under the action of psychic interaction, the cells began to group themselves
according to different degrees of positive mutual affinity, in an organized manner so that the
distribution of their consciousnesses would also form Bose-Einstein condensates. Hence,
collective cell units began to appear with individual consciousnesses of larger psychic masses
and, therefore, with access to more knowledge. With greater knowledge available, these groups
of cells began to perform specialized functions to obtain food, assimilation, etc. That is when
the first multi-celled beings appeared.
Upon forming the tissues, the cells gather structurally together in an organized manner.
Thus, the tissues and, hence, the organs and the organisms themselves also possess individual
material consciousnesses.
The existence of the material consciousness of the organisms is proved in a well-known
experiment by Karl Lashley, a pioneer in neurophysiology.
12

Lashley initially taught guinea pigs to run through a maze, an ability they remember and
keep in their memories in the same way as we acquire new skills. He then systematically
removed small portions of the brain tissue of said guinea pigs. He thought that, if the guinea
pigs still remembered how to run through the maze, the memory centers would still be intact.
Little by little he removed the brain mass; the guinea pigs, curiously enough, kept
remembering how to run through the maze. Finally, with more than90% of their cortex
removed, the guinea pigs still kept remembering how to run through the maze. Well, as we have
seen, the consciousness of an organism is formed by the concretion of all its cellular
consciousnesses. Therefore, the removal of a portion of the organism cells does not make it
disappear. Their cells, or better saying, the consciousnesses of their cells contribute to the
formation of the consciousness of the organism just as the others, and it is exactly due to this
fact that, even when we remove almost all of the guinea pigs’ cortex, they were still able to
remember from the memories of their individual material consciousnesses. In this manner, what
Lashley’s experiment proved was precisely the existence of individual material consciousnesses
in the guinea pigs.
Another proof of the existence of the individual material consciousnesses in organisms is
given by the regeneration phenomenon, so frequent in animals of simple structure: sponges,
isolated coelenterates, worms of various groups, mollusks, echinoderms and tunicates. The
arthropods regenerate their pods. Lizards may regenerate only their tail after autotomy. Some
starfish may regenerate so easily that a simple detached arm may, for example, give origin to a
wholly new animal.
The organization of the psychic parts in the composition of an organism’s individual
material consciousness is directly related to the organization of the material parts of the
organism, as we have already seen. Thus, due to this interrelationship between body and
consciousness, any disturbance of a material (physiological) nature in the body of the being will
affect its individual material consciousness, and any psychic disturbance imposed upon its
consciousness affects the physiology of its body.
When a consciousness is strongly affected to the extent of unmaking the Bose-
Einstein’s condensate, which gives it the status of individual consciousness, there also occurs
the simultaneous disappearance of the knowledge made accessible by said condensation.
Therefore, when a cell’s consciousness no longer constitutes a Bose-Einstein condensate, there
is also the simultaneous disappearance of the knowledge that instructs and maintains the
cellular metabolism. Consequently, the cell no longer functions thus initiating its decomposition
(molecular desegregation).
Similarly, when the consciousness of an animal (or vegetables) no longer constitutes a
Bose-Einstein condensate, the knowledge that instructs and maintains its body functioning also
disappears, and it dies. In this process, after the unmaking of the being’s individual
consciousness, there follows the unmaking of the individual consciousnesses of the organs; next
will be the consciousnesses of their own cells which no longer exist. At the end there will
remain the isolated psyches of the molecules and atoms. Death, indeed, destroys nothing,
neither what makes up matter nor what makes up psyche.
As we have seen, all the information available in the consciousnesses of the beings is
also accessible by the consciousnesses of their organs up to their molecules’. Thus, when an
individual undergoes a certain experience, the information concerning it not only is recorded
somewhere in this consciousness but also pervades all the individual consciousnesses that make
up its total consciousness. Consequently, psychic disturbances imposed to a being reflect up to
the level of their individual molecular consciousnesses, perhaps even structurally affecting said
molecules, due to the interrelationship between body and consciousness already mentioned here.
13

Therefore, some modifications in the sequences of nucleotides of the DNA


molecules can occur when the psychism of the organism in which the molecules are
incorporated is sufficiently affected.
It is known that such modifications in the structure of DNA molecules may also occur as
consequence of chemical products in the blood stream (as in the case of the mustard gas used in
chemical warfare) or exposition to high-energy radiation.
Modifications in the sequences of nucleotides in DNA molecules are called mutations.
Mutations, as we know, determine hereditary variations, which are the basis of Darwin’s theory
of evolution.
It is known that mutations of two types, “favorable” or “unfavorable”, can occur. The
former type enhances the individuals’ possibility of survival, whereas the second reduces such
possibility.
The theory of evolution is established as a consequence of individuals’ efforts to survive
in the environment where they live. This means that their descendants may become different
from their ancestors. This is the mechanism that leads to frequent appearance of new species.
Darwin believed that the mutation process was slow and gradual. Nevertheless, it is known
today that this is not the general rule, for there are evidences of the appearance of new species in
a relatively short period of time [12]. We also know that individual’s characteristics are
transmitted from parents to offsprings by means of genes and that the recombination of the
parents’ genes, when genetic instructions are transmitted, by such genes.
However, it was shown that the genetic instructions are basically associated with the
psychism of DNA molecules. Consequently, the genes transmit not only physiological but also
psychic differences.
Thus, as a consequence of genetic transmission, besides the great physiological difference
between individuals of the same species, there is also a great psychic dissimilarity.
Such psychic dissimilarity associated with the progressive enhancement of the
individual’s psychic quantities may have given rise, in immemorial time, to a variety of
individuals (most probably among anthropoid primates) which unconsciously established a
positive mutual affinity with primordial consciousnesses that must have been attracted to Earth.
Thus, the relationship established among them and the consciousnesses of said individuals is
enhanced.
In the course of evolutionary transformation, there must have been a time when the
fetuses of said variety already presented such a high degree of mutual affinity with the
primordial consciousnesses attracted to Earth that, during pregnancy, the incorporation of
primordial consciousnesses may have occurred in said fetuses.
In spite of absolute psychic mass of the fetus’s material consciousness be much smaller
than that of the mother’s consciousness, the degree of positive mutual affinity between the
fetus’s consciousness and the primordial consciousness that is going to be incorporated is much
greater than that between the latter and the mother’s, which makes the psychic attraction
between the fetus’s consciousness and primordial consciousness much stronger than the
attraction between the latter and the mother’s. That is the reason why primordial consciousness
incorporates the fetus. Thus, when these new individuals are born, they bring with them their
individual material consciousness, an individualized consciousness of the Supreme
Consciousness. In this way were the first hominids born.
Having been directly individualized from Supreme Consciousness, the primordial
consciousnesses are perfect individualities and not phase condensates as the consciousnesses of
the matter. In this manner, they do not dissociate after the death of those that incorporated them.
Afterwards, upon the action of psychic attraction, they are again able to incorporate into other
fetuses to proceed on their evolution.
14

These consciousnesses (hereinafter called human consciousness) constitutes


individualities and, therefore, the larger their psychic mass the more available knowledge they
will have and, consequently, greater ability to evolve.
Just as the human race evolves biologically, human consciousnesses have also been
evolving. When they are incorporated, the difficulties of the material world provide them with
more and better opportunities to acquire psychic mass (later on we will see how said
consciousnesses may gain or lose psychic mass). That is why they need to perform successive
reincorporations. Each reincorporation arises as a new opportunity for said consciousnesses to
increase their psychic mass and thus evolve.
The belief in the reincarnation is millenary and well known, although it has not yet been
scientifically recognized, due to its antecedent probability being very small. In other words,
there is small amount of data contributing to its confirmation. This, however, does not mean that
the phenomenon is not true, but only that there is the need for a considerable amount of
experiments to establish a significant degree of antecedent probability.
The rational acceptance of reincarnation entails deep modifications in the general
philosophy of the human being. For instance, it frees him from negative feelings, such as
nationalistic or racial prejudices and other response patterns based on the naive conception that
we are simply what we appear to be.
Darwin’s lucid perception upon affirming that not only the individual’s corporeal
qualities but also his psychic qualities tend to improve made implicit in his “natural selection”
one of the most important rules of evolution: the psychic selection, which basically consists in
the survival of the most apt consciousnesses. Psychic aptitude means, in the case of human
consciousnesses, mental quality, i.e., quality of thinking.
In this context, the human consciousnesses are equivalent to the called Spirits,
mentioned in the Kardecist literature [13], where the reincarnation was strongly considered.

5. The Spirits

Origin and Nature of the Spirits

As we have already seen, the origin of the spirits is related to the natural desire of the Supreme
Consciousness to procreate, that is, of generating individual consciousnesses in itself so that
they could evolve and express the same creative attributes pertinent to Her. In this way, the
nature of Spirits is the same of the Supreme Consciousness.

Form and Ubiquity of the Spirits

By definition the consciousnesses, the thought, etc., are psychic bodies, i.e., psychic
energy locally concentrated. In the material world, we can not distinguish the form of thoughts
probably because the density of concentrated psychic energy is so low that would be equivalent
to a fluid with a density much lower than the densities of gases. We know that we can only see a
body if the light emitted by it can be detected by our eyes. The solids and liquids generally
reflect light well and this makes them visible. The gases, on the contrary, are only visible in a
state of high density, as in the case of the clouds. In a state of low density, like the wind,
become invisible, because, practically, do not reflect the rays of light. In the case of thoughts,
whose density would be much lower than the density of the gases, we also cannot distinguish its
shape. The same is true in the case of Spirits. Thus, it becomes very difficult for us to see the
Spirits. However, as the concentration of energy in spirits is greater than the thoughts it is
possible that we can see traces of its forms in certain circumstances. This would then
15

correspond to the vision of figures, flashes, etc. Thus, the perfect vision of the forms of the
spirits will probably only be possible for an observer in the Spiritual World.
As concerns the ubiquity of the Spirits, it is necessary to use the Quantum Physics in
order to understand it. We start from the Uncertainty Principle, under the form obtained in 1927
by Werner Heisenberg, i.e.,
Δ xΔ p ≥ h (10 )
This expression shows that the product of the uncertainty Δx in the position of a particle in a
certain instant by the uncertainty Δp in its momentum is equal or greater than the Planck’s
constant h. We cannot measure simultaneously both, position and momentum, with perfect
accuracy. If we reduce Δp , then Δx will be increased and vice-versa. Such uncertainties are not
in our appliances, but in Nature.
A mathematical approach more accurate than the one proposed by Heisenberg presents
to the uncertainty principle the following relationship:
ΔxΔp ≥
h
(11)

When we want to correlate the uncertainty ΔE in the energy with the uncertainty Δt in the time
interval it is customary to write the Uncertainty Principle in the following form:
ΔE Δt ≈ h (12 )
where h = h 2π .
According to this expression, an event in which an amount of energy ΔE is not
conserved is not prohibited, provided that the duration of the event does not exceed Δt . This
means that it can occur variations of energy in a system, that even in principle are impossible to
determine them. The emission of a meson by a nucleus that does not change its mass - clear
violation of the principle of conservation of energy - can occur if the nucleon reabsorb the
meson (or similar) in a time interval less than h ΔE = h mπc2 , ( mπ is the mass of the meson).
Therefore, it can also occur that a material particle moves temporarily to a certain position
without actually leaving your starting position. In this case, it is said that the particle made a
Virtual Transition to a certain position.
The designation virtual must not lead the reader to imagine that the transition was not
made. It is effectively carried out: it is real. But, according to the uncertainty principle, it is
impossible to be observed. This is a limitation imposed by Nature.
However, although we cannot observe the virtual transitions, their occurrence can often
be detected by the produced effects.
The psychic particles can also perform virtual transitions, since the uncertainty principle
also applies to them.
This means, therefore, that quanta of human consciousnesses (from the minds’ conscious,
subconscious and unconscious) can perform "temporary exits" but without leaving them
effectively.
These transitions correspond to virtual transitions of the own minds where the quanta are
originated, since these, when individualized, form Bose-Einstein condensates with the mind
where they are originated, and therefore, share all the knowledge and attributes relevant to it.
During pseudo-medical deaths, projections, etc., people report later that they "saw"
themselves out of the body, a clear indication of virtual transitions originating from the
conscious and subconscious. In dreams, besides such transitions, there are also indications of
transitions from the unconscious.
According to Feynman’s Quantum Theory of Electromagnetic Interaction [14], no energy
is spent in virtual transitions, which can occur around at any distance. Moreover, as is easily
concluded from the uncertainty principle, one single quantum can perform several virtual
16

transitions simultaneously. It all depends on how quickly it makes the transitions. Therefore,
through this process, the quanta of human consciousnesses or it all may go to several places
simultaneously. We conclude, therefore, that a spirit can be in several places at a time. But of
course this is not a division of Spirit, but himself present simultaneously in several places.

Incarnation of Spirits

The great dissimilarity associated with the progressive enhancement of the individual’s
psychic quantities may have given rise, in immemorial time, to a variety of individuals (most
probably among anthropoid primates) which unconsciously established a positive mutual
affinity with Primordial Spirits, previously mentioned.
As this affinity was developed with the psychic enhancement, it is expected that natural
selection has made it much higher in the offspring of this variety. Thus, due to the psychic
interaction, several Primordial Spirits must have been attracted to the Earth. With this, the
relationship established among them and the material consciousnesses of said individuals was
intensified.
In the course of evolutionary transformation, there was a time when the fetuses of said
variety already presented such a high degree of mutual affinity with the primordial
consciousnesses attracted to the Earth that, during pregnancy, the incorporation of Primordial
Spirits may have occurred in said fetuses 5 .
This phenomenon should not have occurred only on Earth, may also have occurred in the
same way on other planets with evolutionary conditions similar to Earth's. The belief that this
phenomenon occurred only in the incarnation of Spirits on Earth would question the wisdom of
God, favoring only the Earth and excluding thousands of other worlds.
As we have already seen, these Spirits constitute perfect individualities and, therefore, as
greater their psychic energy greater auto-knowledge accessible and, consequently, they will
have greater opportunities to evolve.
Thus, also the Spirits evolve as the human race evolved biologically.

Return to Corporal Life

Just as the consciousnesses of the children have a high degree of positive mutual affinity
with the consciousnesses of their parents, and among themselves (principle of familiar
formation), the embryo cells, by having originated from cellular duplication, have a high degree
of positive mutual affinity. The embryo cells result, as we know, from the cellular duplication of
a single cell containing the paternal and maternal genes and, hence, have a high degree of
positive mutual affinity.
Thus, under the action of psychic interaction the cells of the internal cellular mass start
gathering into small groups, according to the different degrees of mutual affinity.
When there is a positive mutual affinity between two consciousnesses there occurs the
intertwining between their wave functions, and a Phase Relationship is established among them.
Consequently, since the degree of positive mutual affinity among the embryo cells is high, also
the relationship among them will be intense, and it is exactly this what enables the construction
of the organs of the future child. In other words, when a cell is attracted by certain group in the
embryo, it is through the cell-group relationship that determines where the cell is to aggregate to

5
When incarnated, the Spirit is commonly called of Soul. However, considering that while incarnated the
Spirit form a Bose-Einstein condensate with the material consciousness of the body, we can define the
Soul as the individual consciousness of being, i.e., a Bose-Einstein condensate containing the incarnated
Spirit and material consciousness of the body.
17

the group. In this manner, each cell finds its correct place in the embryo; that is why observers
frequently say that, ”the cells appear to know where to go”, when experimentally observed.
The cells of the internal cellular mass are capable of originating any organ, and are hence
called totipotents; thus, the organs begin to appear. In the endoderm, there appear the urinary
organs, the respiratory system, and part of the digestive system; in the mesoderm are formed the
muscles, bones, cartilages, blood, vessels, heart, kidneys; in the ectoderm there appear the skin,
the nervous system, etc.
Thus, it is the mutual affinity among the consciousnesses of the cells that determines the
formation of the body organs and keeps their own physical integrity. For this reason, every body
rejects cells from other bodies, unless the latter have positive mutual affinity with their own
cells. The higher the degree of cellular positive mutual affinity, the faster the integration of the
transplanted cells and, therefore, the less problematic the transplant. In the case of cells from
identical twins, this integration takes place practically with no problems, since said degree of
mutual affinity is very high.
In eight weeks of life, all organs are practically formed in the embryo. From there on, it
begins to be called fetus.
The embryo’s material individual consciousness is formed by the consciousnesses of its
cells united in a Bose-Einstein condensate. As more cells become incorporated into the embryo,
its material consciousness acquires more psychic mass. This means that this type of
consciousness will be greater in the fetus than in the embryo and even greater in the child.
Thus, the psychic mass of the mother-fetus consciousness progressively increases during
pregnancy, consequently increasing the psychic attraction between this consciousness and that
new one about to incorporate. In normal pregnancies, this psychic attraction also increases due
to the habitual increase in the degree of positive mutual affinity between said consciousnesses.
Since the embryo's consciousness has greater degree of positive mutual affinity with the
consciousness that is going to incorporate, then the embryo's consciousness becomes the center
of psychic attraction to where the human consciousness (Spirit) destined to the fetus will go.
When the psychic attraction becomes intense enough, human consciousness penetrates the
mother consciousness, forming with it a new Bose–Einstein condensate. From that instant on,
the fetus begins to have two consciousnesses: the individual material one and the human
consciousness attracted to it.
However, this should only occur after eight weeks, when all organs are practically formed
in the embryo, and it is called fetus. This is a critical period in which the imperfections of matter
can cause fetal death. Thus, the Spirit waits to complete formation of the fetus. If the fetus can
not be structured conveniently, it will naturally be aborted and the Spirit will look for another
body to reincarnate.
We conclude, therefore, that the initial eight weeks are a period imposed by Nature
herself to finish the building of the fetus and test whether it will be able to be used by the Spirit
that want to incarnate. Thus, in this period of "construction" of the fetus, both the Spirit and the
mother, based on free will, also have the freedom to give up the process. In this case, breaks
easily the Bose-Einstein condensate, and the Spirit and both the mother can restart on other
basis, making sure they have fully exercised their rights and have not harmed or caused harm to
either party involved in the process.
However, if the fetus is able, the process to continue the psychic attraction between
material consciousness of the fetus and the Spirit that want to incarnate, accepted by the mother
and by said Spirit, will progressively increase. In this way, with the psychic attraction, this
human consciousness tends to continue, being progressively compressed until effectively
incorporating the fetus. When this takes place, it will be ready to be born.
18

It is probably due to this psychic compression process that the incorporated consciousness
suffers amnesia of its preceding history. Upon death, after the psychic decompression that arises
from the definitive disincorporation of the consciousness, the preceding memory must return.

Evolutionary Degree and Fate of the Spirit

We have already seen that, when the gravitational mass, Mg, of a body is smaller than
−0.159Mi or larger than +0.159 Mi it is in the Material World. However, if its gravitational mass
is reduced to the range between −0.159Mi < Mg < +0.159 Mi, it performs a transition to the
Psychic World or Spiritual World. [1] When this occurs, its real gravitational mass, m g (real ) , is
totally converted into imaginary gravitational mass, m g (imaginaria ) , due to the Principle of
Conservation of Energy.
On the other hand, it was shown that the psychic mass, mΨ , is equal to the imaginary
gravitational mass[1] , i.e.,
m Ψ = m g (imaginaria ) (13)
Thus, when a body perform a transition to the Psychic World, its real gravitational mass
m g (real ) , is totally converted into psychic mass.
mΨ = m g (imaginaria) ≡ m g (real )
Since the mass is quantized, the body performs a transition to a quantum level
correspondent to its psychic mass (See Fig.1). Thus, the body goes to a region corresponding to
the gravitational mass that it acquired in the Material World.
According to the new concepts of spacecraft and aerospatial flight shown in the book
Física dos UFOs 6 , the called Gravitational Spacecrafts must use the Psychic Universe in order
to viabilize trips that would require much time in the Material Universe.
As the mentioned spacecrafts just perform transition to the Psychic Universe if and only if
its gravitational masses are reduced to the range −0.159Mi < Mg < +0.159 Mi, then, with
negative gravitational mass in the range −0.159Mi < Mg, they perform the transition, and their
gravitational masses would be transformed into negative gravitational mass. Thus, they will
enter the Psychic Universe by the zone energetically located in the range −∞ < MΨ < 0 (See Fig.
1). In the case of the gravitational mass of the spacecraft be reduced to the positive range, i.e.,
0< Mg < +0.159 Mi, the spacecraft will enter the Psychic Universe by zone of positive energy of
the psychic spectrum.
Only after the discovery of the correlation between the gravitational mass and the
inertial mass could the finding of negative gravitational mass be achieved, making it possible to
find ways to obtain it. It is clear, then, that the common material in the Material Universe is the
existence of bodies with positive gravitational mass. Similarly, in the Psychic Universe, the
common is to find psychic bodies with positive psychic mass. Thus, to find the World of Spirits,
a Gravitational Spacecraft must enter the Psychic Universe with positive psychic mass.
When a spirit disincarnates, he does not makes a transition to the Spiritual Universe
because, due to its own nature, the Spirit is already in the Spiritual Universe. Thus, the Spirit
just turn off the material body which they lived. As it leaves the Material World with a given
positive psychic mass 7 , mΨ − acquired during its evolution, and during its recent reincarnation
in the Material World − it should proceed to the region of the World of Spirits corresponding to
its psychic mass. Thus, as the evolutionary degree of each Spirit is defined by the amount of

6
See at www.frandeaquino.org
7
It is fact that the presence of negative psychic energy in the Spirits would cause a decrease in its total psychic
energy, which would imply involution (since the addition of positive psychic energy implies in evolution) and, as we
have seen, the Spirits do not involute.
19

psychic mass contained in the Spirit 8 , then the Spirits proceed precisely to the regions that
correspond to their evolutionary degrees, and there, brought together by mutual affinity, they
continue the evolutionary process and wait for the time of new reincarnation. Driven by the
need for progress, this is therefore the destiny of Spirits.
Thus, in the World of Spirit there is a natural selection that brings together Spirits with
the same level of evolution, and that does not allow the less evolved access to more evolved
regions. The most evolved Spirits, however, can transit through the lower regions, making the
already mentioned "virtual" transitions. In this way, they may intervene with less evolved
regions.

+ ∞ + ∞

M g M Ψ
Transição

UNIVERSO UNIVERSO

0 0
MATERIAL ESPÍRITUAL

− ∞ − ∞
Fig. 1 – When the gravitational mass, Mg, of a body is in
the range −0.159Mi > Mg > +0.159 Mi it is in the Material
Universe. However, If Mg is reduced to the range −0.159Mi
< Mg < +0.159 Mi, then it makes a transition to the Psychic
Universe (or Spiritual) with its gravitational mass converted
to in psychic mass. Since the mass is quantized, the body
performs a transition to a quantum level correspondent to its
psychic mass. Thus, it follows to a region correspondent to
the gravitational mass, which it acquired in the Material
Universe.

Life in the World of Spirits

By doing the good, spirits acquire more psychic mass, and thus, more latent powers are
awaken, which facilitates their achievements, and makes them happier9 . But they should not
occupy themselves only with their personal improvement, since life in the Spirit World, such as
life in the Material World, is a continuous occupation. We can also conclude from the above

8
As already seen, the Spirits were individualized in the Supreme Consciousness, and therefore brought with them, in
a latent state, the same attributes pertinent to Her. With the progressive evolution of the Spirit, these attributes are
being awakened, so that the degree of evolution of a Spirit is directly related to the quantity of attributes it aroused.
On the other hand, the number of attributes in a Spirit is directly correlated to the amount of mass psychic of the
Spirit. Thus, more psychic mass the Spirit has greater the amount of attributes awakened and, therefore, more
evoluted is the Spirit.
9
The happiness of the good Spirits certainly consists in knowing more and more; not having hate,
jealousy, envy, or any of the passions that make the misery of men. They don't experience needs or
suffering, or the anxieties of material life, and this in itself is synonymous of great happiness.
20

that even the spirits of the highest order, in having nothing more to improve, do not cease their
activities, once the eternal idleness would also be an eternal punishment.
We have seen that the realization of what we want requires an expenditure of psychic
energy proportional to the nature of desire. In other words, in order to have what we want
realized through the collapse of its wave function, it is necessary an expenditure of psychic
energy sufficient for its accomplishment. As the density of material bodies is much greater than
the density of psychic bodies, the realization of our desires in the Material Universe usually
requires much more the psychic energy than in the Psychic Universe. Thus, life in the World of
Spirit becomes much easier and more enjoyable than in the Material World. But the difficulties
of the Material World are what allow the Spirits to progress in their evolution, and that might
have been the main reason for the creation of the Material Universe.
The possibility of transition to the Psychic Universe increased the likelihood of close
encounters with beings from other planets in our ordinary Universe, and also with the people
who live in planets of the Psychic Universe, since Gravitational Spacecraft trips can also be
carried over in this Universe, as already shown. The characteristics associated to the subtle
psychic mass indicate that the life of these beings should not be finite as the lives of the humans.
This makes us think that maybe life in the Psychic Universe be the real life while our brief life
in this Universe has only specific goals such as, for example, a learning period.
The Psychic Universe, by its very nature, it is constituted of photons, atoms and
molecules psychics. This means that all types of photons, atoms and molecules that exist here
may have its corresponding counterparts in the Psychic Universe. Therefore, all we have here
can exist there with a similar form. However, considering the characteristics associated to the
subtle psychic mass, we can conclude that life here may be an imperfect copy of the life there.

Time in the World of Spirits

We have already seen that the Real Universe, where we live, is contained in the Psychic
Universe (Imaginary Universe), so the real space-time that corresponds to the Real Universe is
within the Imaginary space-time, which forms the Psychic Universe, where the Spirits live. By
definition, in the imaginary space-time both the space coordinates and the time coordinate are,
obviously, imaginary. This means that the time in the Universe of the Spirits (imaginary time) is
different from the real time of our Universe.
Only recently the concept of imaginary time was considered by physicists. Difficult to
understand, but deemed essential to connect the Statistical Mechanics to Quantum Mechanics,
the concept of imaginary time also became instrumental in Quantum Cosmology, where it was
introduced in order to eliminate singularities (points where the curvature of space-time becomes
infinite), which occur in the real time (See Hartle-Hawking state [15]). Twenty-two years ago,
Hawking popularized the concept of imaginary time in his book: A Brief History of Time [16].
The imaginary time is not imaginary in the sense that it does not exist. Nor is it a
mathematical artifice. No, it really exists, however, it has different characteristics of the time
which we are used to.
The existence of the imaginary time is mathematically sustained by a mechanism called
Wick Rotation 10 , which transform the metrics of the Minkowski space-time
( )
ds 2 = − dt 2 + dx 2 + dy 2 + dz 2 (14)
into the metrics of the Euclidean space-time
ds 2 = dτ 2 + dx 2 + dy 2 + dz 2 (15)
where τ = it ; i = − 1 is called imaginary unit, which defines the imaginary numbers in the
form z = a + bi , where a and b are real numbers, called respectively, the real part of “z” and
the imaginary part of “z”.

10
It is the called rotation because when we multiply an imaginary number by i the result, on the Cartesian plane, is
equivalent to a rotation of 900 of the vector that represents the number. Assim, − dt2 = − dt. dt = i2 dt. dt = i(i
dt). dt = dτ . 2
21

From the definition of complex numbers follows that they can interpreted as points in the
Cartesian plane (where conventionally we mark on the x-axis the real part and on the y-axis the

imaginary part of a imaginary number “z”) or, as vectors OZ whose origin “O” is at the origin
of the Cartesian grid, and the point “Z” with the coordinates (a, b). (See Fig. 2).
Thus, imaginary numbers can be conceived as a new type of number perpendicular to the
real numbers. This leads to the possibility of expressing mathematically imaginary time in a
direction perpendicular to the common real time. In this model, the imaginary time is a function
of real time and vice versa (See Fig.3). Thus, the imaginary time appears as a new dimension
that makes a right angles to real time, and thereby, as Hawking showed [17], it has much more
possibilities than the real time, which always flows from past to future, and only may have a
beginning and an end.

Im

b Z

0 a Re
(a)

Im

b Z

Z’ a

-b 0 a Re
(b)

Fig. 2 – (a) The Imaginary Plane (or Argand-


Gauss Plane) is a way to visualize the space of
imaginary numbers. Can be understood as a
modified Cartesian plane, where the real part is
represented on the x-axis and the imaginary part
on the y-axis. The x-axis is called real axis while
the y-axis is called imaginary axis. (b) When we
multiply a imaginary number z = a+bi by i (iz
= ai - b = z’) the result on the Cartesian plane is
equivalent to a rotation of 90° of the vector OZ
that represents the number.
22

t Im

5
4
3
2
1

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t Re
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5

Fig.3 – Mathematically, it is possible to express the


imaginary time in a direction perpendicular to the
common real time. In this model, the imaginary time is a
function of real time and vice versa.

Universo Imaginário
espaço-tempo plano

Universo Real
espaço-tempo curvo

Fig. 4 – The Model of the Imaginary Universe (or


Psychic Universe) containing the Real Universe. In the
Imaginary Universe the space-time is flat (Euclidean
metric), whereas in the Real Universe space-time is
curved due to the presence of matter. In this model, the
boundaries of the Real Universe confuse itself with the
Imaginary Universe that is unlimited.
23

Imaginary time is measured in imaginary units (e.g., 2i seconds instead of 2 seconds).


This imaginary unit of time may seem strange to us, such as our unit of real time measurement
seems to the spirits, accustomed in their world measuring time in imaginary units. It all
depends, of course, on the Universe where we are.
Based on the very definition of imaginary time, it is easy to see that we can interpret it as a

vector OZ . Thus, being a vector, the imaginary time need not necessarily be always oriented in
the same direction as the real time. It can freely change direction and intensity. This means that
an observer in imaginary time can move in any direction for the future or past, such as we can
move in any direction in space. This unique feature creates for us − accustomed to the flow of
time always in the same direction − a horizon of events full of possibilities, hard to imagine
because of the limitations imposed upon our consciousnesses by the Material Universe.
The existence of imaginary time derives from the very existence of the imaginary space-
time contained in the Psychic Universe. As already shown, the speed of propagation of
interactions in the Psychic Universe is infinite, which means that the metrics of space-imaginary
time is Euclidean (or flat), while the metrics of the real universe is non-Euclidean (or curve).
Since the Psychic Universe contains the Real Universe, we can conclude that the limits of the
Real Universe mix itself up with the Psychic Universe that is unlimited (See Fig. 4).
The fact that the Psychic Universe have no limits implies that it has no singularities or
boundaries in the imaginary time direction. With this condition, there is no beginning or end of
the imaginary time.

Conclusion

Both the traditional physicists and most people recognize that there are phenomena where
matter does not act alone, i.e., which involves also what we call psychism (consciousness,
thought). These phenomena had hitherto been relegated to the professional affair of experts
other than the traditional physicists. However, in recent decades, Quantum Physics has shown
us that some physical laws are stretched beyond the Material World, revealing the existence of
the Spiritual World. Thus, the Spiritual World arises not as a supernatural world 11 , but as
something as real as our Material World. On the other hand, this knowledge paved the way for
Physics to study psychic phenomena using the same criteria adopted for the study of physical
phenomena. In other words, it was evident that psychic phenomena could also be described by
the laws of Physics. This unification is the basis for the Grand Unification of Science and
Religion. Thereafter, both could no longer follow on separately. It was clear that Science could
more accurately describe the truth postulated by Religion.
In this context, the Religion - absorbed by Science, must leave the scene just as the purely
philosophical Cosmology gave way, in the past century, to Quantum Cosmology, when
Quantum Physics discovered the laws that accurately describe the structures of the Universe.
The unification of Science and Religion is highly relevant because it will eliminate the
spread of religious beliefs that have caused so much harm to Humanity in recent millennia.
Now, the truth postulated by Religion will be transmitted by Science in schools and universities,
and the human beings will understand it and use it, such as they use and understand, for
example, the electric current, knowing that it can cause harm and also benefits for its users.
It would be too much presumptuous to believe that, due to the simple revelation of this
new knowledge, the human nature could change suddenly. It will certainly take several decades
for a complete assimilation of such truth.
It will then be taught to people from early stages of learning, the fundamental importance
of the quality of our thoughts, since it is from them that the psychic interaction is defined and,

11
In the eyes of the general public, all phenomena of unknown cause become readily supernatural,
wonderful and miraculous: the cause, once known, shows that the phenomenon, for more extraordinary it
may seems, is nothing but a consequence of one or more natural laws. It is in this way that the set of
supernatural facts is reduced with the Science progress.
24

consequently, the extraordinary relationship that is established among the human


consciousnesses, the Universe and God.
Mankind then will begin to develop its psychic possibilities starting from the regular
training at school.
There will come a time when, on Earth, the good will prevail over evil. The good spirits
incarnated on Earth will become more numerous and, by the law of Psychic Interaction and
Mutual Affinity, they will attract more and more the good spirits to Earth, warding off evil
Spirits. The great transformation of Humanity then will be made by the progressive incarnation
of better Spirits, which will give origin, on Earth, to a generation much more evolved than the
current one.
25

References

[1] DeAquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of the Relativistic Theory


of Quantum Gravity, Pacific Journal of Science and Technology, 11(1), pp.173-232.
[2] Ruyer, R. (1976) La Gnose de Princeton, Fayard.
[3] Dunne, J. W (1934) An Experiment with Time, 3ª Ed. Faber, London
[4] De Aquino, F. (2010) Physical Foundations of Quantum Psychology, Bulletin of Pure and
Applied Science, Vol.29D, Number 2, Section D, pp.105-130.
[5] Bohm, D. (1951) Quantum Theory, Prentice-Hall, N.Y, p.415.
[6] D’Espagnat, B. The Question of Quantum Reality, Scientific American,
241,128.
[7] Teller, P. Relational Holism and Quantum Mechanics, British Journal for the
Philosophy of Science, 37, 71-81.
[8] Winger, K. (1967) Symmetries And Reflections, Blooming, Ind., Indiana
University Press.
[9] Young, A.M. (1976) The Geometry of Meaning, Delacorte Press, N.Y;
Young, A.M. The Reflexive Universe: Evolution of Consciousness, Delacorte
Press, N.Y.
[10] Herbert, N. (1979) Mind Science: A Physics of Consciousness Primer,
Boulder Creek, Cal: C -Life Institute.
[11] Bohm, D. (1980) A New Theory of Relation of Mind and Matter, The Journal
of the American Society of Psychical Research, Vol. 80, Nº 2, p.129.
[12] Grant, P.R., and Grant, B.R. (1995). Predicting microevolutionary responses
to directional selection on heritable variation. Evolution 49:241-251.
[13] Kardec, A. (1954) Le Livre des Esprits, Èdition de L’U.S.K.B, Paris.
[14] Feynman, R. (1950) Mathematical Formulation of the Quantum Theory of
Electromagnetic Interaction, Phys. Rev. 80, 440.
[15] Hartle, J. and Hawking, S. (1983). "Wave function of the Universe". Physical Review D 28:
2960
[16] Hawking, S. (1988) A Brief History of Time, Bantam Books, ISBN 0-553-380016.8.
[17] Hawking, S. (2001) The Universe in a Nutshell, United States & Canada: Bantam Books.
pp. 58–61, 63, 82–85, 90–94, 99, 196. ISBN 055380202X.
On the Cosmological Variation of the Fine Structure Constant
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2011 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved

Recently, evidence indicating cosmological variations of the fine structure constant, α, has been
reported. This result led to the conclusion that possibly the physical constants and the laws of
physics vary throughout the universe. However, it will be shown here that variations in the value of
the elementary electric charge, e, can occur under specific conditions, consequently producing
variations in the value of α.
Key words: Fine Structure Constant, Elementary Electric Charge, Cosmology, Physics of Black-Holes.
PACS: 06.20. Jr, 98.80.-k, 98.80.Jk, 04.70.-s.

The well-known Fine Structure where mi0e(im) = − 2 mi0e(real) i , mi0e(real) =9.11×10−31kg


3
Constant determines the strength of the
electromagnetic field and is expressed by the and U e(im) = η e kTe i . In this expression
following equation (in SI units) [1]: η e ≅ 0.1 is the absorption factor for the

2
electron and Te ≅ 6.2 ×1031K is its internal
α=
e
=
1
(1) temperature (temperature of the Universe
4πε 0 hc 137.03599958(52) when the electron was created);
−23
k =1.38×10 J /º K is the Boltzmann constant.
However, recently, Webb, J.K et al., [2] Thus, according to Eq. (3), the value of
using data of the Very Large Telescope
χ e is given by χ e = −1.8 × 1021 . Then,
(VLT) and of the ESO Science archive,
noticed small variation in the value of α in according to Eq. (2), the electric charge of
several distant galaxies. This led to the the electron is
conclusion that α is not a constant [2- 4].
It will be shown here, that variations in q e = 4πε 0 G m ge (im ) i =
the value of the elementary electric charge, e,
(
= 4πε 0 G χ e m i 0 e (im )i = )
( )
can occur under specific conditions,
consequently producing variations in the = 4πε 0 G − χ e 2 m i 0 e (real )i 2 =

4πε G (χ )
3
value of α. This effect may be explained
starting from the expression recently = 0 e
2 m i 0 e (real ) = −1.6 × 10 −19 C
3
obtained for the electric charge [5], i.e.,
q = 4πε 0 G m g (im ) i (2 ) As we know, the absolute value of this
charge is called the elementary electric
where m g (im ) are the imaginary gravitational
charge, e .
mass of the elementary particle; Since the internal temperature of the
−12
ε 0 = 8.854×10 F / m is the permittivity of the particle can vary, we then conclude that χ is
free space and G = 6.67 × 10 −11 N .m 2 .kg −1 is not a constant, and consequently the value of
the universal constant of gravitation. e also cannot be a constant in the Universe.
For example, in the case of the Its value will depend on the local conditions
electron, it was shown [5] that that can vary the internal temperature of the
particle. The gravitational compression, for
⎧ example, can reduce the volume V of the
⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ U e(im) ⎞ ⎥⎪ particles, diminishing their internal
mge(im) = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ −
⎜m 2⎟
1⎥⎬mi 0e(im) = temperature T to a temperature
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ i 0e(im) ⎠
c ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ T ′ according to the well-known equation:
= χ e mi 0e(im) (3) T ′ = (V ′ V )T [6]. This decreases the value of
U (im) , decreasing consequently the value of
2
χ . Equation (2) shows that e is proportional
to χ , i.e.,

e = 4πε 0 G m g (im ) i =

(
= 4πε 0 G χ m i 0 (im )i = )
(
= 4πε 0 G − χ 2 )
m i 0 (real )i 2 =

4πε G (χ )
3

= 0
2 m i 0 (real )
3

Therefore, when the volume of the particle


decreases, the value of e will be less
than 1.6 × 10 −19 C . Similarly, if the volume
V is increased, the temperature T will be
increased at the same ratio, increasing the
value of χ , and also the value of e . The
gravitational traction, for example, can
increase the volume V of the particles,
increasing their internal temperature T , and
consequently increasing their electric charges
(See Fig.1).
Conclusions – Our theoretical results
show that variations in the value of the
elementary electric charge, e, can occur
under specific conditions, consequently
producing variations of the fine structure
constant, α, as shown in Fig.1. This excludes
totally the erroneous hypothesis that the laws
of physics vary throughout the universe.
3

Extremely large
White-hole

The strong gravitational


compression in this region
decreases the volumes of
the particles, decreasing
the values of α .
Extremely large The strong traction upon
Black-hole the particles increases
their volumes, increasing
(QUASAR) the value of α .

Fig. 1 – A spatial dipole that can explain the dipole variation of α reported by Webb. J.K. et
al.
4

References
[1] P. J. Mohr, and B. N. Taylor, (2000) Rev. Mod. Phys.,
72, 351

[2] Webb, J.K. et al., (2011) Phys. Rev. Lett., 107, 191101.

[3] King, J.A. et al., “Spatial variation in the fine structure


constant- new results from VLT/UVES” to be published.

[4] Koch, F. E. et al., “Spatial variation in the fine structure


constant- a search for systematic effects” to be published.

[5] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations


of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity,
Pacific Journal of Science and Technology,
11(1), pp. 173-232.

[6] M.J. Moran and H.N. Shapiro (2000), Fundamentals of


Engineering Thermodynamics, Wiley, 4th Ed.
The velocity of neutrinos
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2011 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved

Recently, the OPERA neutrino experiment at the underground Gran Sasso Laboratory has
measured the velocity of neutrinos from the CERN CNGS beam over a baseline of about 730
km. The experiment shows that neutrinos can have superluminal velocities. This result could, in
principle, be taken as a clear violation of the Special Relativity. However, it will be show here
that neutrinos can actually travel at velocities faster than light speed, without violating Special
Relativity.

Key words: Neutrino mass, Neutrino interactions, Special relativity.


PACS: 14.60.Pq, 13.15.+g, 03.30.+p.

The mass of the electron neutrino (ν e ) The quantization of velocity shows


is usually measured using the beta decay. that there is a speed upper limit, c i > c , for
The continuous spectrum of beta decay imaginary particles in the real spacetime
electrons terminates at a maximal energy, (real Universe) * . This means that Einstein's
which depends on the neutrino mass and on speed limit (c ) not applies to imaginary
the emitting nucleus type. Because of the particles propagating in the real spacetime.
way that the neutrino mass affects the Theoretical predictions show that
electron energy spectrum, the measured 12 −1
ci ≈ 10 m .s [4]. Consequently, the
quantity is the square of the neutrino mass.
imaginary particles, such as the neutrinos,
All recent measurements show that the
can reaches velocities faster than light speed.
neutrino mass squared is negative [1].
Therefore, in the case of imaginary particles,
However, the square root of a negative
we must replace c in the Lorentz
number is an imaginary number. Thus, the
measurements suggest that the electron transformation by C (im ) = ci i in order to
neutrino has an imaginary mass. Assuming generalize the equations of Special relativity.
that the neutrino has no real mass, and Thus, the imaginary kinetic energy of
considering that the imaginary momentum imaginary particles, for example, is written
has a real value, i.e., L(im) = I (im)ω(im) ≡ S(real) in the following form:
and p(im) = M g(im)V(im) ≡ p(real) , we can infer that ⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
the neutrino is an imaginary particle with a ⎜ ⎟
measurable property; the square of its ( )
K(im) = mi(im) − mi0(im) C(im) =
2 ⎜

1
2
−1⎟mi0(im)C(2im) =

imaginary mass. ⎜ 1− V(im) ⎟
The OPERA neutrino experiment [2] ⎜ C(2im) ⎟
⎝ ⎠
at the underground Gran Sasso Laboratory
⎛ ⎞
(LNGS) was designed to perform the first ⎜ ⎟
detection of neutrino oscillations. Recently, it ⎜ ⎟
=⎜ −1⎟mi0(im)C(2im)
1
was reported that the OPERA neutrino ⎜ 2 ⎟
experiment had discovered neutrinos with ⎜ 1− V ⎟
velocities greater than the light speed [3]. ⎜ c2 ⎟
⎝ i ⎠
The neutrinos in question appear to be
reaching the detector 60 nanoseconds faster
where mi 0(im ) is the imaginary mass of the
than light would take to cover the same
distance. That translates to a speed 0.002% particle at rest. The expression above shows
higher than c = 299,792,458 m.s -1 (the speed *
The speed upper limit for real particles in the imaginary
upper limit for real particles in the real spacetime is c , because the relativistic expression of the
spacetime). mass shows that the velocity of real particles cannot be
larger than c in any space-time.
2
that the imaginary particle has a real velocity
V . This means that imaginary particles
propagating in the real spacetime can be
detected. This is the case, for example, of the
neutrinos with V > c observed in the OPERA
neutrino experiment.
Note that the imaginary kinetic energy
of the particle is what gives to the neutrino
its real velocity (K (im ) → V ) . This solves
therefore, the problem of how the neutrino
propagates in the space.
In addition, we can conclude that in the
neutrino-electron reactions, mediated by the
Z particle, the neutrino does not enter as a
real mass but as a real angular momentum
(spin ½). The real mass of the neutrino is
null, but the real angular momentum and the
imaginary angular momentum of the neutrino
are not null. The real angular momentum of
the neutrino, S(real) , derives from its imaginary
angular momentum, according to the
following relation: L(im) = I(im)ω(im) ≡S(real) = s(s +1)h.
3

References
[1] Eidelman, S. et al. (Particle Data Group), Phys. Lett. B
592, 1 (2004) and (2005) partial update for edition 2006
(URL: http://pdg.lbl.gov).

[2] OPERA Collaboration, R. Acquafredda et al., JINST 4


(2009) P04018.

[3] Measurement of the neutrino velocity with the OPERA


detector in the CNGS beam (2011) [arXiv:1109.4897v1]

[4] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of the


Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific Journal
of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.
Proca Equations and the Photon Imaginary Mass
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2011 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved
It has been recently proposed that the photon has imaginary mass and null real mass. Proca equations are
the unique simplest relativistic generalization of Maxwell equations. They are the theoretical expressions
of possible nonzero photon rest mass. The fact that the photon has imaginary mass introduces relevant
modifications in Proca equations which point to a deviation from the Coulomb’s inverse square law.

Key words: Quantum electrodynamics, Specific calculations, Photons


PACS: 12.20.-m, 12.20.Ds, 14.70.Bh.

For quite a long time it has been where μ γ = mγ c h , with the real variables
known that the effects of a nonzero photon μ γ and mγ . However, according to Eq. (1)
rest mass can be incorporated into
electromagnetism through the Proca mγ is an imaginary mass. Then, μ γ must be
equations [1-2]. It is also known that also an imaginary variable. Thus, μ γ2 is a
particles with imaginary mass can be
described by a real Proca field with a negative real number similarly to mγ2 .
negative mass square [3-5]. They could be Consequently, we can write that
generated in storage rings, jovian m γ2 c 2 4 ⎛ 2π ⎞
2
magnetosphere, and supernova remnants. μγ =
2
= ⎜ ⎟
4
= k r2 (6 )
The existence of imaginary mass associated h 2
3⎝ λ ⎠ 3
to the neutrino is already well-known. It has whence we recognize k r = 2π λ as the real
r
been reported by different groups of part of the propagation vector k ;
experimentalists that the mass square of the r
neutrino is negative [6]. Although the k = k = kr + iki = kr2 + ki2 (7)
imaginary mass is not a measurable amount, Substitution of Eq. (6) into Proca
its square is [7]. Recently, it was shown that equations, gives
an imaginary mass exist associated to the r ρ 4 2
∇⋅E = − kr φ (8 )
electron and the photon too [8]. The photon ε0 3
imaginary mass is given by r
(
m γ = 23 hf c 2 i ) (1) ∇⋅B = 0 (9 )
r
r ∂B
This means that the photon has null real ∇×E = − (10 )
mass and an imaginary mass, mγ , expressed ∂t
r
r r ∂E 4 2 r
by the previous equation. ∇ × B = μ 0 j + μ 0ε 0 − kr A (11)
Proca equations may be found in many ∂t 3
textbooks [9-11]. They provide a complete In four-dimensional space these
and self-consistent description of equations can be rewritten as
electromagnetic phenomena [12].r In the ⎛ 2 1 ∂2 4 2 ⎞ r
presence of sources ρ and j , these
⎜∇ −
⎜ − k r
⎟ Aμ = − μ 0 j μ
⎟ (12 )
⎝ c 2
∂ t 2
3 ⎠
equations may be written as (in SI units) r
where Aμ and j μ are the 4-vector of
r ρ
∇⋅E = − μ γ2φ (2 ) potential ( A, iφ c ) and the current density
ε0
r (rj, icρ ), respectively. In free space the above
∇⋅B = 0 (3 ) equation reduces to
r
r ∂B
∇×E = − (4 )
∂t ⎛ 2 1 ∂2 4 2 ⎞
r
r
r
⎜∇ −
⎜ − k r ⎟⎟ Aμ = 0 (13 )
r ∂E 2
∂ 2
∇ × B = μ 0 j + μ 0ε 0 − μ γ2 A (5 ) ⎝ c t 3 ⎠
∂t
2
−4
which is essentially the Klein-Gordon becomes relevant if r > 10 m . Then, if we
equation for the photon. take r = 0.1m , the result is
Therefore, the presence of a photon in
a static electric field modifies the wave
equation for all potentials (including the
2
(k r r ) = 4π ⎛⎜ r ⎞⎟ = 0.73
Coulomb potential) in the form 3 3⎝λ ⎠
and
⎛ 2 1 ∂2 ⎞ ρ
⎜∇ −

4
− k r2 ⎟⎟φ = − (14 ) ⎡ ⎤ −
2
(k r r )
⎝ c ∂t
2 2
3 ⎠ ε0 ⎢1 +
2
(k r r )⎥e
3
= 0.83
For a point charge, we obtain ⎣ 3 ⎦
1 q − 3 (k r r )
2
φ (r ) = e (15 ) Therefore, a deviation of 17% in respect to
4πε 0 r the value predicted by the Coulomb’s law.
and the electric field Then, why the above deviation is not
experimentally observed? Theoretically
⎡ ⎤ −
2
(k r r ) because of the presence of Schumann
E (r ) =
q

4πε 0 r 2 ⎣
1 +
2
3
(k )
r ⎥e
r

3
(16 ) (
radiation f 1 = 7 . 83 Hz , λ 1 = 3 . 8 × 10 7 m )
[14-15]. According to Eq. (18),
Note that only in the absence of the photon for λ1 = 3.8 × 10 m , the deviation only
7

(k r = 0) the expression of E (r ) reduces to becomes significant if


r > ~ 10 −4 λ1 = 3.8 Km
the well-known expression: E(r) = q 4πε0 r 2 .
Since the values of r in usual experiments
Thus, these results point to an exponential
are much smaller than 3.8Km the result is
deviation from Coulomb’s inverse square
that the deviation is negligible. In fact, this is
law, which, as we know, is expressed by the
easy to verify. For example, if r = 0.1m , we
following equation (in SI units):
r r r get
1 q1q2 r12
F12 = − F21 = (17)
4πε 0 rr12 3 ⎛ ⎞
2
(kr r ) = 4π ⎜⎜ r ⎟⎟ = 4π ⎛⎜ ⎞
0.1
⎟ = 1.9 ×10
−8
As seen in Eq. (16), the term 3 3 ⎝ λ1 ⎠ 3 ⎝ 3.8 ×10 ⎠ 7

2
(k r r )
3 and
only becomes significant if ⎤ − 3 (k r r )
2

r > ~ 10 −4 λ (18) ⎢1 +
2
(k r ⎥
r ) e = 0.999999999
⎣ 3 ⎦
This means that the Coulomb’s law is a good Now, if we put the experiment inside an
approximation when r < ~10−4 λ . However, if aluminum box whose thickness of the walls
r > ~ 10−4 λ , the expression of the force are equal to 21cm * the experiment will be
shielded for the Schumann radiation. By
departs from the prediction of Maxwell’s putting inside the box a photons source of
equations. λ ≈ 1m , and making r = 0.1m , then it will be
The lowest-frequency photons of the possible to observe the deviation previously
primordial radiation of 2.7K is about computed of 17% in respect to the value
108 Hz [13]. Therefore, the wavelength of predicted by the Coulomb’s law.
these photons is λ ≈ 1m . Consider the
presence of these photons in a terrestrial *
The thickness δ necessary to shield the experiment
experiment designed to measure the force for Schumann radiation can be calculated by means of
between two electric charges separated by a the well-known expression [16]: δ = 5 z = 10 2πμσf
distance r . According to Eq. (18), the where μ and σ are, respectively, the permeability
deviation from the Coulomb’s law only and the electric conductivity of the material; f is the
frequency of the radiation to be shielded.
3

References
[1] Proca A 1936 J. Phys. Radium Ser. VII 7 347–53

[2] Proca A 1937 J. Phys. Radium Ser. VII 8 23–8

[3] Tomaschitz, R. (2001) Physica A 293, 247.

[4] Tomaschitz, R. (2004) Physica A 335, 577.

[5] Tomaschitz, R. (2005) Eur. Phys. J. D. 32, 241.

[6] S. Eidelman et al. (Particle Data Group), Phys. Lett. B


592, 1 (2004) and 2005 partial update for edition 2006
(URL: http://pdg.lbl.gov).

[7] Pecina-Cruz, J. N., (2006) arXiv: physics/0604003v2

[8] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of the


Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific Journal
of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.

[9] Greiner, W. (2000) Relativistic Quantum Mechanics,


Springer, Berlin, 3rd edition.

[10] Itzykson, C., and Zuber, J.B., (1980) Quantum Field


Theory, McGraw-Hill, N.Y.).

[11] Morse. P.M., Feshbach, H., (1953) Methods of


Theoretical Physics (McGraw-Hill, N.Y.).

[12] Byrne J C 1977 Astrophys. Space Sci. 46 115–32

[13] Audouze, J. (1980) An introduction to Nuclear


Astrophysics, D. Reidel Publishing Company-Holland,
p. 22.

[14] Schumann W. O. (1952). "Über die strahlungslosen


Eigenschwingungen einer leitenden Kugel, die von
einer Luftschicht und einer Ionosphärenhülle umgeben
ist". Zeitschrift und Naturfirschung 7a: 149–154

[15] Volland, H. (1995), Handbook of Atmospheric


Electrodynamics, CRC Press, vol.I, Chapter11.

[16] Quevedo, C. P. (1977) Eletromagnetismo, McGraw-


Hill, p.270.
Gravity Control by means of Modified Electromagnetic Radiation
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2011 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.
Here a new way for gravity control is proposed that uses electromagnetic radiation modified to have a smaller
wavelength. It is known that when the velocity of a radiation is reduced its wavelength is also reduced. There are
several ways to strongly reduce the velocity of an electromagnetic radiation. Here, it is shown that such a reduction
can be done simply by making the radiation cross a conductive foil.

Key words: Modified theories of gravity, Experimental studies of gravity, Electromagnetic wave propagation.
PACS: 04.50.Kd , 04.80.-y, 41.20.Jb, 75.70.-i.

It was shown that the gravitational be strongly reduced simply by making the
mass mg and inertial mass mi are correlated radiation cross a conductive foil.
by means of the following factor [1]: From Electrodynamics we know that
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ when an electromagnetic wave with
mg ⎪ ⎛ Δ ⎞ ⎪
⎢ ⎜
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜
p

⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (1) frequency f and velocity c incides on a
mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪ material with relative permittivity ε r ,
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the relative magnetic permeability μ r and
electrical conductivity σ , its velocity is
particle and Δp is the variation in the
reduced to v = c nr where nr is the index of
particle’s kinetic momentum; c is the speed
of light. refraction of the material, given by [8]
When Δp is produced by the ε μ
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ (3)
c 2
absorption of a photon with wavelength λ , it v 2 ⎝ ⎠
is expressed by Δp = h λ . In this case, Eq. If σ >> ωε , ω = 2πf , the Eq. (3) reduces to
(1) becomes μrσ
nr = (4)
m g ⎧⎪ ⎡
⎛ h mi 0 c ⎞
2 ⎤⎫ 4πε0 f
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎪⎬
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎥⎪ Thus, the wavelength of the incident
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ radiation becomes
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ λ 4π
⎛λ ⎞ v c f
(5)
2
⎪ ⎪ λmod = = = =
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ 0 ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬ (2) f nr nr μfσ
⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎪⎭
where λ0 = h mi0 c is the De Broglie
wavelength for the particle with rest inertial v=c v = c/nr
mass mi 0 .
It is easily seen that m g cannot be
strongly reduced simply by using nr
electromagnetic waves with wavelength λ λ = c/f λmod = v/f = c/nr f
because λ0 is very smaller than 10 −10 m .
However, it is known that the wavelength of
Fig. 1 – Modified Electromagnetic Wave. The
a radiation can be strongly reduced simply by
wavelength of the electromagnetic wave can be
strongly reducing its velocity. strongly reduced, but its frequency remains the same.
There are several ways to reduce the
Now consider a 1GHz ( λ ≅ 0.3m )
velocity of an electromagnetic radiation. For
radiation incident on Aluminum foil with
example, by making light cross an ultra cold
atomic gas, it is possible to reduce its velocity σ = 3.82×107 S / m and thickness ξ = 10.5μm .
down to 17m/s [2-7]. Here, it is shown that the According to Eq. (5), the modified
velocity of an electromagnetic radiation can wavelength is
2
4π power of the radiation flux incident on the
λmod = = 1.6 × 10 −5 m (6) foil.
μfσ When an electromagnetic wave incides
Consequently, the wavelength of the 1GHz on the Aluminum foil, it strikes on N f front
atoms, where N f ≅ (nS f )φ atom . Thus, the
radiation inside the foil will be
λmod =1.6 ×10−5 m and not λ ≅ 0.3m .
wave incides effectively on an area
It is known that a radiation with
S = N f S a , where S a = 14 πφ atom
2
is the cross
frequency f, propagating through a material
with electromagnetic characteristics ε, μ and section area of one Aluminum atom. After these
σ , has the amplitudes of its waves decreased collisions, it carries out ncollisions with the
in e−1=0.37 (37%), when it passes through a other atoms of the foil (See Fig.2).
distance z, given by
1
z= (7)

ω 2 εμ⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) − 1⎟
1 2 ⎞
⎝ ⎠
The radiation is totally absorbed at a atom
Sa
distance δ≅5z [8]. foil
Wave
In the case of the 1GHz radiation
propagating through the Aluminum foil Eq. Fig. 2 – Collisions inside the foil.
(7), gives Thus, the total number of collisions in the
z=
1
= 2.57×10−6 = 2.57μm (8) volume Sξ is
πμσ f Ncollisions= N f + ncollisions= nSφatom + (nSξ − nSφatom) =
Since the thickness of the Aluminum foil is = nSξ (11)
ξ = 10.5μm then, we can conclude that, The power density, D , of the radiation on
practically all the incident 1GHz radiation is the foil can be expressed by
absorbed by the foil.
If the foil contains n atoms/m3, then D=
P
=
P
(12 )
S N f Sa
the number of atoms per area unit is nξ .
The same power density as a function of the
Thus, if the electromagnetic radiation with
power P0 radiated from the antenna, is given by
frequency f incides on an area S of the foil
P
it reaches nSξ atoms. If it incides on the total D = 02 (13)
area of the foil, S f , then the total number of 4πr
where r is the distance between the antenna
atoms reached by the radiation is N = nS f ξ . and the foil. Comparing equations (12) and
The number of atoms per unit of volume, n , (13), we get
is given by ⎛ N f Sa ⎞
N0 ρ
P = ⎜⎜ ⎟P
2 ⎟ 0
(14)
n= (9) ⎝ 4πr ⎠
A We can express the total mean number
of collisions in each atom, n1 , by means of
where N 0 = 6.02 × 10 26 atoms / kmole is the
the following equation
Avogadro’s number ; ρ is the matter density
ntotal photons N collisions
of the foil (in kg/m3) and A is the atomic n1 = (15 )
mass. In the case of the Aluminum N
( )
ρ = 2700kg / m3 , A = 26.98kmole the result is
Since in each collision is transferred a
momentum h λ to the atom, then the total
n Al = 6.02 × 1028 atoms / m3 (10) momentum transferred to the foil will be
The total number of photons inciding on the Δp = (n1 N ) h λ . Therefore, in accordance
foil is ntotal photons = P hf 2 , where P is the with Eq. (1), we can write that
3
−5
⎧ ⎡ ⎫ λmod = 1.6 ×10 m . Thus, by substitution of
λ0 ⎤ ⎤⎥⎪
2
mg ⎪ ⎢ ⎡
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢(n1 N ) ⎥ −1 ⎬ = λ by λmod into Eq. (22), we get the
mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎣ λ ⎦ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ following expression
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ m g ( Al )
λ0 ⎤ (23)
2
⎪ ⎢ ⎡ ⎪ ≅ −1
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢ntotal photonsNcollisions ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (16) mi 0( Al )
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎣ λ⎦ ⎥⎪ r
⎦⎭ r
Since P = m g g then the result is
Since Eq. (11) gives N collisions = nSξ , we get r r r
⎛ P ⎞
P( Al ) = mg ( Al ) g ≅ −mi 0( Al ) g (24)
ntotal = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nSξ )
photons N collisions (17 ) This means that, in the mentioned conditions,
⎝ hf ⎠ the weight force of the Aluminum foil is
Substitution of Eq. (17) into Eq. (16) yields inverted.
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ It was shown [1] that there is an
mg ⎪ ⎡⎛ P ⎞ λ0 ⎤ ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nSξ ) ⎥ − 1⎥⎬ (18)
⎢ additional effect of Gravitational Shielding
⎢ λ ⎦⎥ ⎥
mi 0 ⎪
⎢⎣ ⎣⎢⎝ hf ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
produced by a substance whose gravitational
⎩ mass was reduced or made negative. This
Substitution of Eq. (14) into Eq. (18) gives effect shows that just above the substance the
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ gravity acceleration g 1 will be reduced at the
mg ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ N f Sa P0 ⎞⎛ nSξ ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎜
⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (19) same ratio χ 1 = m g mi 0 , i.e., g1 = χ1 g , ( g
2 2⎟
mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎣⎝ 4π r f ⎠⎝ mi0c ⎠ λ ⎥⎦


⎩ ⎢
⎣ ⎦⎥⎭ is the gravity acceleration bellow the
Substitution of N f ≅ (nS f )φatomand S = N f Sa substance). This means that above the
Aluminum foil the gravity acceleration will
into Eq. (19) it reduces to be modified according to the following
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ expression
⎡⎛ n3S 2f Sa2φatom
2
P0ξ ⎞ 1 ⎤
⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎪⎬ (20)
mg ⎪ ⎢
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎥ ⎛ mg ( Al ) ⎞
mi0 ⎪
⎢ ⎢⎣⎜⎝ 4π r mi0cf ⎟⎠ λ ⎥⎦
2 2
⎥⎪
g1 = χ1 g = ⎜ ⎟g
⎜ mi 0( Al ) ⎟
(25)
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ ⎝ ⎠
In the case of a 20cm square Aluminum foil, where the factor χ 1 = m g ( Al ) mi 0 ( Al ) will be
with thickness ξ = 10.5μm , we get given Eq. (21).
mi0 =1.1×10−3 kg, S f = 4×10−2 m2 , φatom≅10−10m2 In order to check the theory presented
here, we propose the experimental set-up
Sa ≅10−20m2 , n = n Al = 6.02 × 10 28 atoms / m 3 ,
shown in Fig. 3. The distance between the
Substitution of these values into Eq. (20), Aluminum foil and the antenna is r = 1m .
gives The maximum output power of the 1GHz
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ transmitter is 32W CW. A 10g body is
mg( Al) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ P0 ⎞ 1⎤ ⎥⎪
= ⎨1−2 1+ ⎢⎜8.84×10 2 2 ⎟⎟ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (21)
11 placed above Aluminum foil , in order to
mi0( Al) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎣⎜⎝ r f ⎠ λ⎥⎦ ⎥⎪ check the Gravitational Shielding Effect. The
⎩ ⎢
⎣ ⎦⎥⎭ distance between the Aluminum foil and the
Thus, if the Aluminum foil is at a distance 10g body is approximately 10 cm. The
r = 1m from the antenna, and the power alternative device to measure the weight
radiated from the antenna is P0 = 32W , and variations of the foil and the body (including
the frequency of the radiation is f = 1GHz the negative values) uses two balances (200g
then Eq.(21) gives / 0.01g) as shown in Fig .3.
In order to check the effect of a second
⎧ ⎤⎫
mg( Al) ⎪ ⎡⎢
2
⎡2.8×10−5 ⎤ ⎪ Gravitational Shielding above the first
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢ ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (22)
mi0( Al) ⎪ ⎢ ⎣ λ ⎦ ⎥⎪ one(Aluminum foil), we can remove the 10g
⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦⎭ body, putting in its place a second Aluminum
In the case of the Aluminum foil and 1Ghz foil, with the same characteristics of the first
radiation, Eq. (6) shows that one. The 10g body can be then placed at a
4
distance of 10cm above of the second
Aluminum foil. Obviously, it must be
Sa = 1
2 [4π (φ atom
2
]
2) = 2 πφ1 2
atom
−20
≅ 1× 10 m ,2

connected to a third balance.


εr = 2.1 (Teflon 24KV/ mm, Short Time, 1.6
As shown in a previous paper [9] the mm [10]), ρ Al = 2700kg.m −3 , we get
gravity above the second Gravitational ⎧

⎡ S 2f ⎛ Vrms ⎞ 4 ⎤⎫⎪
Shielding, in the case of χ 2 = χ1 , is given by ⎢
χ = ⎨1 − 2 1 + 1.4 ×10 −29
⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (30)
g 2 = χ 2 g1 = χ12 g (26) ⎪⎩ ⎢ N 4
⎝ d ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭
If a third Aluminum foil is placed above the Note that, based on the equation above,
second one, then the gravity above this foil is it is possible to create a device for moving
g 3 = χ 3 g 2 = χ 3 χ 2 χ 1 g = χ 13 g , and so on. very heavy loads such as large monoliths, for
In practice, Multiple Gravitational example.
Shieldings can be constructed by inserting N Imagine a large monolith on the
several parallel Aluminum foils inside the Earth’s surface. If we place below the
dielectric of a parallel plate capacitor (See monolith some sets with Multiple
Fig. 4). In this case, the resultant capacity of Gravitational Shieldings (See Fig.4), the
the capacitor becomes Cr = C N = εrε0S f Nd, value of the gravity acceleration above each
set of Gravitational Shieldings becomes
where S f is the area of the Aluminum foils
gR = χη g (31)
and d the distance between them; ε r is the where η is the number of Gravitational
relative permeability of the dielectric. By Shieldings in each set.
applying a voltage Vrms on the plates of the Since we must have Vrms d < 24KV / mm
capacitor a current irms is produced through (dielectric strength of Teflon) [10] then, for
the Aluminum foils. It is expressed by d = 1.6mm → Vrms < 38.4KV . For Vrms = 37KV ,
irms = Vrms X C = 2πfCrVrms . d = 1.6mm, S f = 2.7m 2 , N = 2 and η = 3 Eq.
Since j rms = σE rms and jrms = irms S f we (30) gives χ = −0.36 and Eq. (31) shows
get E rms = irms S f σ , which is the oscillating that g R = χ 3 g ≅ −0.46m / s 2 . The sign (-)
electric field through the Aluminum foils. By shows that the gravity acceleration above the
substituting this expression into Eq. (20), and six sets of Gravitational Shieldings becomes
considering that λ = λmod = (4π μfσ ) 2 (Eq.6)
1
repulsive in respect to the Earth. Thus, by
controlling the value of χ it is possible to
and D = P0 4πr 2 = nr Erms
2
2μ r μ 0 c , where
make the total mass of the monolith slightly
nr = (μ r σ 4πε 0 f ) (Eq. 4), we obtain:
1
2
negative in order to the monolith can float
⎧⎪ ⎡ n 6Al S a4φatom
4 4
irms ⎤⎫⎪ and, in this way, it can be displaced and
χ = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + −1⎥⎬ (27) carried to anywhere with ease.
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 64π 2 ρ Al2 c 2 S 2f σ Al2 f 4 ⎥⎦⎪⎭ Considering the dielectric strength of
Since known dielectrics, we can write that
irms = Vrms X C = 2πfC r Vrms = 2πf (ε r ε 0 S f Nd )Vrms (Vrms d )max < 200KV / mm . Thus, for a single
Then capacitor ( N = 1) Eq. (30) gives
irms
= 2π (ε r ε 0 S f Nd)Vrms (28) { [
χ = 1 − 2 1 + (<< 2.2 × 104 S 2f ) − 1 ]} (31)
f
Substitution of this equation into Eq. (27) gives The Gravitational Shielding effect becomes
negligible for χ < 0.01 (variation smaller
⎧ ⎡ π 2nAl6 Sa4φatomε r4ε 04 S 2f Vrms ⎤ ⎫⎪

4 4

χ = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + − 1⎥ ⎬ (29) than 1% in the gravitational mass). Thus,


⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 4ρ Al2 c2σ Al2 N 4d 4 ⎥⎪ considering Eq. (31), we can conclude that
⎦⎭
the Gravitational Shielding effect becomes
Substitution of the known value of
significant only for S f >> 10−2 m 2 . Possibly
nAl = 6.02×1028 atoms/ m3 , φatom ≅ 1×10−10 m ,
this is why it was not yet detected.
5

1.0 m 2.0 m 1.0 m

10g
10 cm Nylon thread
Aluminum foil
Transmitter
1GHz Balances
Coaxial
32W CW 200g / 0.01g
50 Ω 1m
Antenna 100g 100g

1m
PVC tube

Fig. 3 – Experimental Set-up


6

Monolith

χ3g χ3g χ3g χ3g χ3g χ3g


Sf

1 g
Dielectric
2 Six sets of Gravitational Shieldings
Each one with three (N = 3) Gravitational Shieldings
Aluminum foil
3
Capacitor Plates
(Aluminum)

(a)

Monolith

χ3g χ3g χ3g χ3g χ3g χ3g

g g g g g g g

(b)

Fig. 4 – System with six sets of Gravitational Shieldings for moving very heavy loads.
For Vrms = 37KV , d = 1.6mm, S f = 2.7m 2 , N = 2 and η = 3 Eq. (30) gives χ = −0.36 and Eq. (31)
shows that g R = χ 3 g ≅ −0.46m / s 2 . The sign (-) shows that the gravity acceleration above the six
sets of Gravitational Shieldings becomes repulsive in respect to the Earth. Thus, by controlling the
value of χ it is possible to make the total mass of the monolith slightly negative in order to the
monolith can float and, in this way, it can be displaced and carried to anywhere with ease.
7

References
[1] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of the
Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific Journal
of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.

[2] Hau, L.V., et al., (1999) Nature, 397, 594-598.

[3] Kash, M. M. et al., (1999) Phys. Rev. Lett. 82, 5229.

[4] Budiker, D. et al., (1999) Phys. Rev. Lett. 83, 1767.

[5] Liu, Ch. et al., (2001) Nature 409, 490.

[6] Dutton, Z., et al., (2001) Science 293, 663.

[7] Turukhin, A. V., et al., (2002) Phys. Rev. Lett. 88,


023602

[8] Quevedo, C. P. (1977) Eletromagnetismo, McGraw-


Hill, p. 270.

[9] De Aquino, F. (2010) Gravity Control by means


of Electromagnetic Field through Gas at Ultra-
Low Pressure, Pacific Journal of Science and
Technology, 11(2) November 2010, pp.178-
247.

[10] Teflon® PTFE, Properties Handbook, Du Pont, (7/96)


220313D, USA.
Transmission of DNA Genetic Information into Water by means
of Electromagnetic Fields of Extremely-low Frequencies
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2012 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.
Recently it was experimentally shown that the DNA genetic information can be transmitted into water when
the DNA and the water are subjected jointly to an electromagnetic field with 7Hz frequency. As announced,
the reported phenomenon could allow developing highly sensitive detection systems for chronic bacterial and
viral infections. Here, it is shown a possible explanation for the phenomenon based on the recent framework
of Quantum Gravity. It is shown that, if volume of water with a DNA molecule is placed near another
volume of pure water, and the gravitational masses of the two water volumes are simultaneously reduced to
values in the range + 0.159mi0 to − 0.159mi0, by means of electromagnetic fields of extremely-low frequency
(ELF), then the DNA genetic information are transmitted to pure water, imprinting onto it the structure of the
DNA molecule. After several hours, as final result, a replication of the DNA can arise in the pure water.

Key words: DNA, Modified theories of gravity, Experimental studies of gravity, Memory of Water.
PACS: 87.14.gk , 04.50.Kd , 04.80.-y, 41.20.Jb.

1. Introduction Here, based on the framework of a


recently proposed theory of Quantum Gravity
A recent experiment showed that the [3], is presented a consistent explanation
DNA genetic information can be transmitted showing how an exact copy of the structure of
into water when the DNA and the water are the DNA molecule is imprinted onto the pure
subjected jointly to an electromagnetic field water.
with 7Hz frequency. The main researcher
behind the new DNA experiment is a recent 2. Theory
Nobel prizewinner, Luc Montagnier. He and
his research partners have made a summary of The quantization of gravity showed
his findings [1]. Montagnier’s experiment that the gravitational mass mg and inertial
basically consists in two test tubes, one of mass mi are correlated by means of the
which contained a tiny piece of bacterial following factor [3]:
DNA, the other pure water. The tubes were ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎪
then placed close to one another inside a ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (1)
horizontally oriented solenoid. Both tubes mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪
were jointly subjected to a weak ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
electromagnetic field with 7Hz frequency. where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the
Eighteen hours later, after DNA amplification particle and Δp is the variation in the
using a polymerase chain reaction, as if by particle’s kinetic momentum; c is the speed of
magic, the DNA was detectable in the test tube light.
containing pure water, showing that, under When Δp is produced by the absorption
certain conditions, DNA can project copies of of a photon with wavelength λ , it is expressed
itself in another place.
by Δp = h λ . In this case, Eq. (1) becomes
As mentioned in a recently published
article in the New Scientist [2], ‘physicists in ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎛ h m c ⎞ ⎪
Montagnier's team suggest that DNA emits = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ i 0
⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎥⎪
low-frequency electromagnetic waves which ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
imprint the structure of the molecule onto the
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
λ
2
water. This structure, they claim, is preserved ⎪ ⎛ ⎞ ⎪
and amplified through quantum coherence = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
0
(2)
⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎥
effects, and because it mimics the shape of the ⎣ ⎦ ⎪⎭
original DNA, the enzymes in the PCR where λ0 = h mi0 c is the De Broglie
process mistake it for DNA itself, and
wavelength for the particle with rest inertial
somehow use it as a template to make DNA
mass mi 0 .
match that which "sent" the signal’.
2
It is easily seen that m g cannot be If a water lamina with thickness equal
to ξ contains n molecules/m3, then the number of
strongly reduced simply by using
electromagnetic waves with wavelength λ molecules per unit area is nξ . Thus, if the
electromagnetic radiation with frequency
because λ0 is much smaller than 10 −10 m .
f incides on an area S of the lamina it
However, it is known that the wavelength of a reaches nS ξ molecules. If it incides on the total
radiation can be strongly reduced simply by
strongly reducing its velocity. area of the lamina, S f , then the total number of
From Electrodynamics we know that molecules reached by the radiation is N = nS f ξ .
when an electromagnetic wave with frequency The number of molecules per unit volume, n , is
f and velocity c incides on a material with given by
relative permittivity ε r , relative magnetic N0 ρ
permeability μ r and electrical conductivity
n= (7)
A
σ , its velocity is reduced to v = c nr where where N 0 = 6.02 × 10 molecules / kmole is the
26
nr is the index of refraction of the material, Avogadro’s number; ρ is the matter density of the
given by [3] lamina(kg/m3)and A is the Molar Mass. In the case
ε μ
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟
c 2
(3) (
of pure Water ρ = 103 kg / m3 , A = 18.01kg.kmole−1 )
v 2 ⎝ ⎠ the result is
If σ >> ωε , ω = 2πf , the Eq. (3) reduces to nwater = 3.34 × 10 28 molecules/ m 3 (8)
μrσ
nr = (4) The total number of photons inciding on
4πε0 f the water is ntotal photons = P hf 2 , where P is the
Thus, the wavelength of the incident radiation power of the radiation flux incident on the water.
becomes When an electromagnetic wave incides
λ 4π on the water, it strikes on N f front molecules,
λmod =
v c f
= = = (5) where N f ≅ (nS f )φ m . Thus, the wave incides
f nr nr μfσ
effectively on an area S = N f S m , where
v=c v = c/nr S m = 14 πφ m2 ≅ 7 × 10 −21 m 2 is the cross
section area of one molecule of the water
molecule. After these collisions, it carries out
nr ncollisions with the other atoms of the foil (See
λ = c/f λmod = v/f = c/nr f Fig.2).

Fig. 1 – Modified Electromagnetic Wave. The


wavelength of the electromagnetic wave can be
strongly reduced, but its frequency remains the same.

Now consider a 7 Hz ( λ ≅ 4.3 × 10 7 m )


radiation incident on pure water molecule
−4
( σ = 2 ×10 S / m ). According to Eq. (5), the Sm
modified wavelength is water


Wave
λmod = = 8.4 ×104 m (6) Fig. 2 – Collisions inside the water.
μfσ Thus, the total number of collisions in the
Consequently, the wavelength of the 7 Hz volume Sξ is
radiation inside the water will be
λmod = 8.4 ×104 m and not λ ≅ 4.3 × 10 7 m .
3
( )
Ncollisions= N f + ncollisions= nS f δ + nSξ − nS f δ = ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ n3 S 2f Sm2 φm2 Dξ ⎞ 1 ⎤
(9) ⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎪⎬
mg
= nSξ = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎥
mi0 ⎪ ⎢⎣⎜⎝ mi0 cf 2 ⎟ λ⎥
The power density, D , of the radiation on the ⎢ ⎠ ⎦ ⎥⎪
water can be expressed by ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭

D=
P
=
P
(10 ) ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎡⎛ n3 Sm2 φm2 S D ⎞ 1 ⎤
S N f Sm ⎪ ⎢
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢⎜
f ⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎪ (16)
⎟ λ⎥ ⎥⎬
⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎜ ρ cf 2
⎥⎪
We can express the total mean number ⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎦
of collisions in each molecule, n1 , by means of ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
the following equation
ntotal photons N collisions In the case of the water, we can take the
n1 = (11) following values: n = 3.34 × 10 molecules/ m ;
28 3
N
Since in each collision a momentum h λ is S f ≅ 1.9×10−5 m2 ( S f is the area of the
transferred to the molecule, then the total horizontal cross-section of the test tube);
momentum transferred to the water will be Sm ≅ 7×10−21m2 ; φm ≅ 1× 10−10 m ; ξ (height of
Δp = (n1 N ) h λ . Therefore, in accordance water inside the test tube). Substitution of
with Eq. (1), we can write that these values into Eq. (16), gives
mg ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎡ λ0 ⎤ ⎤⎥⎪
2 ⎫ ⎧ ⎡
⎡⎛ ⎞ 1⎤
2 ⎤⎫
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢(n1 N ) ⎥ −1 ⎬ =
⎢ mg(water) ⎪ ⎢ ⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜⎜1.1×10 2 ⎟⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (17)
9 D
mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎣ λ ⎦ ⎥⎪ ⎢ f ⎠ λ ⎦⎥ ⎥
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ mi0(water) ⎪ ⎣⎢⎝ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
⎩ ⎢⎣
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ In the case of a 7Hz radiation, Eq.
λ0 ⎤ (6)
2
⎪ ⎢ ⎡ ⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢ntotal photonsNcollisions ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (12) shows that λmod = 8.4 ×104 m .
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎣ λ⎦ ⎥⎪ Thus, by
⎦⎭ substitution of λ by λmod into Eqs. (17) , we
Since Eq. (9) gives N collisions = nSξ , we get get the following expression
ntotal
⎛ P ⎞
= ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nSξ )
photons N collisions
⎝ hf ⎠
(13) mg (water)
mi0(water)
{ [
≅ 1 − 2 1 + 7.1×104 D2 − 1 ]} (18)
Substitution of Eq. (13) into Eq. (12) yields Now, considering that the water is inside a
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ solenoid, which produces a weak ELF
mg ⎪ ⎡⎛ P ⎞ λ0 ⎤ ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nSξ ) ⎥ − 1⎥⎬ (14)
⎢ electromagnetic field with E m and Bm , then
⎢ λ ⎦⎥ ⎥
mi 0 ⎪
⎢⎣ ⎣⎢⎝ hf ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭ we can write that [4]

Em2 2
vwater Bm2 cBm2
Substitution of P given by Eq. (10) into Eq. D= = = (19)
(14) gives 2μ0 vwater 2μ0 vwater 2μ0 n(water)
Equation (4) shows that for f = 7 Hz ,
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ n r (water ) = 506.7 .Substitution of this value
mg ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ N f Sm D ⎞⎛ nSξ ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎜
⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (15)
mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎟ ⎥
⎠⎝ mi0c ⎠ λ ⎥⎦
2 into Eq.(19) gives
⎢ ⎢⎣⎝ f ⎥⎦⎪⎭
⎩ ⎣ D = 2.3 × 1011 Bm2
Substitution of this value into Eq. (19) gives
Substitution of N f ≅ (nS f )φm and S = N f Sm
into Eq. (15) the result is mg(water)
mi0(water)
{ [ ]}
≅ 1− 2 1+ 3.7×1027 Bm4 −1 (20)
4

r Water with DNA water


S F F
Imaginary Universe
Sf Real Universe

Test tube Test tube


r
ξ
with water with water
B and DNA
r 1 2
E
(a)
Test tube
Fusion of the two waters.
The DNA prints a tenuous
Coil copy of itself in the water
r r r of the second tube.
Fig. 3 – The vector of Pointing S = E × B at
the test tube. The electromagnetic radiation Imaginary Universe
propagates in the direction of the vector of Real Universe
Pointing
In Montagnier’s experiment, the set-up
was placed in a container shielded by 1 mm
thick layer of mumetal in order to avoid
interference from the earth's natural magnetic (b)
field, whose intensity is B⊕ ≅ 6 × 10−5 T . This
is because the intensity of magnetic field in
Montagnier’s experiment was much smaller
than B⊕ . Note that, if the intensity of the
magnetic field is in the range
Imaginary Universe
−7 −7
1.2 × 10 T < Bm < 1.4 × 10 T , then, according Real Universe

to Eq. (20), the gravitational masses of the


water with DNA and the water inside the other
test tube are reduced to values in the range
+ 0.159mi 0 to − 0.159mi 0 . It was shown in a
First impression of
DNA into water. It is a
previous paper [3] that, when this occurs the (c) tenuous copy that
cannot yet be detected.
gravitational masses becomes imaginaries and
the bodies leave our Real Universe, i.e., they Imaginary Universe
Real Universe
perform transitions to the Imaginary Universe,
which contains our Real Universe. The terms
real and imaginary are borrowed from DNA
After several hours
mathematics (real and imaginary numbers). It the copy of the
was also shown that in the Imaginary (d) DNA is sufficiently
intensified in order
Universe the imaginary bodies are subjected to be detected
to the Imaginary Interaction that is similar to
the Gravitational Interaction. If the masses of
the bodies have the same sign, then the Fig. 4 – (a) Transition to the Imaginary Universe and
interaction among them will be attractive. attraction. (b) Fusion of the two waters. (c) Return to
Real Universe. (d) After several comings and goings to
The masses of the water with DNA and the Imaginary Universe a real copy of the DNA can be
the pure water are decreased at the same ratio, detected in the tube with pure water.
5
in such way that they remain with the same
sign. Thus, when they arrive the Imaginary
Universe the attractive imaginary interaction
approaches each other. Due to the small
distance between them * , they are subjected to
a significative attraction. Consequently, they
entered one another (fusion). This imprints in
the pure water an exactly copy of the DNA
molecule. However, the water with DNA and
the pure water return immediately to the real
universe because the ELF electromagnetic
field does not accompany them during the
transition. When they get back to the real
universe, the effect previously produced by
the ELF electromagnetic field sends again the
water with DNA and pure water to Imaginary
Universe, and again a new imprint of the
DNA is produced at the same place of the first
one, strengthening the copy of DNA onto the
water.
Thus, during the time interval in what
the ELF electromagnetic field remains on, the
process continue. After some hours (16 to 18
hours in the case of Montagnier’s experiment)
the copy of the DNA can become sufficiently
strong to be detected. Thus, when the ELF
electromagnetic field is turned off, the water
can contain a real DNA molecule, which is an
exactly equal to that one that exists in the
other tube.
The physicists in Montagnier's team
suggest that the imprints of the DNA are
preserved through quantum coherence effects
[1]. This conclusion is based on the
framework of a recently proposed theory of
liquid water based on Quantum Field Theory
(QFT) [5-10]. Jacques Benveniste [11] has
been the first to propose (1988) that water has
memory. The fact that the water contains
electric dipoles, which can give to it a
significant memory capacity, has been also
considered by Brian Josephson [12] and, more
recently by J. Dunning-Davies [13].

*
Due to the small distance between the two test tubes. The
tubes were then placed near to one another inside a
horizontally oriented solenoid.
6

References
[1] L. Montagnier, J. Aissa, E. Del Giudice, C. Lavalee,
A. Tedeschi, and G. Vitiello, “DNA Waves and
Water,” (2010) http://arxiv.org/pdf/1012.5166

[2] Coghlan, A. (2011) Scorn over claim of teleported DNA,


New Scientist, 12 January.

[3] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of the


Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific Journal
of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.

[4] Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. (1968)


Physics, J. Willey & Sons,
Portuguese Version, Ed. USP, p.1124.

[5] Preparata G 1995 QED Coherence in matter (Singapore:


World Scientific)

[6] Arani R, Bono I, Del Giudice E, Preparata G 1995 Int. J.


Mod. Phys. B 9 1813–1841

[7] Del Giudice E, Preparata G and Vitiello G 1988 Phys.


Rev. Lett. 61 1085–1088

[8] Del Giudice E and Vitiello G 2006 Phys. Rev. A 74


022105

[9] Del Giudice E and Tedeschi A 2009 Electr. Biol. Med.


26 48–54

[10] Del Giudice E, Spinetti P R and Tedeschi A 2010


Water 2 566–586 (online Journal).

[11] Benveniste, Jacques (2005) Ma vérité sur la 'mémoire


de l'eau', Albin Michel. ISBN 2-226-15877-4.

[12] Brian Josephson (1997) Molecule Memories, New


Scientist letters, 1 November.

[13] J. Dunning-Davies (2011) Structure and Memory in


Water, General Science and Philosophy,
vixra.org/abs/1101.0081
A Possible Explanation for Anomalous Heat Production in
Ni-H Systems
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2012 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.
Anomalous heat production has been detected in Ni-H Systems. Several evidences point to the occurrence of
nuclear fusion reactions. A possible explanation for this phenomenon is shown here based on the recent
discovery that electromagnetic fields of extremely-low frequencies (ELF) can increase the intensities of
gravitational forces. Under certain circumstances, the intensities of gravitational forces can even overcome
the intensity of the electrostatic repulsion forces, and, in this way, produce nuclear fusion reactions, without
need high temperatures for these reactions occur.

Key words: Modified theories of gravity, Nuclear Fusion, Fusion Reactors.


PACS: 04.50.Kd , 89.30.Jj , 28.52.-s.

1. Introduction 2. Theory

Since the experiment of Fleischmann, The quantization of gravity shown that


Hawkins and Pons [1] the anomalous the gravitational mass mg and inertial mass
production of heat has been searched for in mi are correlated by means of the following
various systems. Recently, a large anomalous factor [4]:
production of heat has been reported by ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎪
Focardi et al., [2] in a nickel rod filled with ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (1)
hydrogen. This phenomenon was posteriorly mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪
confirmed by Cerron-Zeballos et al., [3]. ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
The called “cold fusion” was a process where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the
of nuclear fusion that was first conceived of particle and Δp is the variation in the
by Fleischmann, Hawkins and Pons during particle’s kinetic momentum; c is the speed
their experiment that involved heavy water of light.
electrolysis through hydrogen on a palladium When Δp is produced by the
electrode surface [1]. They made claims
absorption of a photon with wavelength λ , it
originally that there was heat and energy
being created from the reaction taking place is expressed by Δp = h λ . In this case, Eq.
at room temperature. This is why it is (1) becomes
referred to as cold fusion, because it occurred m g ⎧⎪ ⎡
⎛ h mi 0 c ⎞
2 ⎤⎫

in an environment that was previously ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
considered too cool for nuclear fusion to mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
occur.
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
⎛ λ0 ⎞
2
Here it is shown that nuclear fusion ⎪ ⎪
can be produced at room temperature by = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
⎢ (2)
⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝λ ⎠ ⎥⎪
increasing the gravitational forces in order ⎣ ⎦⎭
to overcome the electrostatic repulsion where λ0 = h mi0 c is the De Broglie
forces between the nuclei. This process
wavelength for the particle with rest inertial
became feasible after the Quantization of
Gravity [4], with the discovery that the mass mi 0 .
gravitational mass mg can be made negative From Electrodynamics we know that
and strongly intensified by means of when an electromagnetic wave with
electromagnetic fields of extremely-low frequency f and velocity c incides on a
frequencies. material with relative permittivity ε r ,
This effect can provide a consistent and relative magnetic permeability μ r and
coherent explanation for anomalous heat
electrical conductivity σ , its velocity is
production detected in Ni-H Systems.
2
reduced to v = c nr where nr is the index of intensity) mode of the Schumann resonance
refraction of the material, given by [5] occurs at a frequency f1 = 7.83Hz [7].
ε μ Now consider a 7.83Hz
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ (3)
c 2
v 2 ⎝ ⎠ ( λ ≅ 3.8×10 m) radiation passing through a
7

Nickel powder cylinder ( σ =1.6 ×107 S / m;


If σ >> ωε , ω = 2πf , Eq. (3) reduces to μr = 2.17 [8,9]) as shown in Fig.2.
According to Eq. (5), the modified
wavelength is
μrσ
nr = (4) 4π
4πε0 f λ mod = = 0.19m (6)
μfσ
Thus, the wavelength of the incident
radiation (See Fig . 1) becomes Consequently, the wavelength of the 7.83Hz
radiation inside the Nickel powder will be
λ 4π
λmod = 0.19m and not λ ≅ 3.8 ×107 m .
λmod =
v c f
= = = (5) If a Nickel powder * lamina with
f nr nr μfσ
thickness equal to ξ contains n
3
molecules/m , then the number of molecules
per area unit is nξ . Thus, if the
electromagnetic radiation with frequency
f incides on an area S of the lamina it
v=c v = c/nr
reaches nSξ molecules. If it incides on the
total area of the lamina, S f , then the total
nr number of molecules reached by the
λ = c/f λmod = v/f = c/nr f radiation is N = nS f ξ . The number of
molecules per unit of volume, n , is given by
Fig. 1 – Modified Electromagnetic Wave. The
wavelength of the electromagnetic wave can be N0 ρ
strongly reduced, but its frequency remains the same. n= (7)
A

It is known that the Schumann where N 0 = 6.02 × 10 26 molecules / kmole is


resonances [6] are global electromagnetic the Avogadro’s number; ρ is the matter
resonances (a set of spectrum peaks in the
extremely low frequency ELF), excited by density of the lamina (in kg/m3) and A is the
molar mass. In the case of Nickel powder
( )
lightning discharges in the spherical
resonant cavity formed by the Earth’s surface ρ = 8800kg / m3 , A = 58.71kg.kmole−1 the result is
and the inner edge of the ionosphere (60km
from the Earth’s surface). The Earth– n( Ni) = 9.02 ×1028 molecules/ m3 (8)
ionosphere waveguide behaves like a
resonator at ELF frequencies and amplifies
The total number of photons inciding
the spectral signals from lightning at the
resonance frequencies. In the normal mode on the Nickel powder is ntotal photons = P hf 2 ,
descriptions of Schumann resonances, the where P is the power of the radiation flux
fundamental mode (n = 1) is a standing wave incident on the Nickel powder.
in the Earth–ionosphere cavity with a
*
wavelength equal to the circumference of the Ultra fine nickel powder (e.g. Inco type 210) with
Earth. This lowest-frequency (and highest- particle size of 0.5-1.0μm.
3

7.83 Hz current Thus, the total number of collisions in the


Solenoid
volume Sξ is
α

Ncollisions= Nf +ncollisions=n( Ni)Sφ( Ni) +(n( Ni)Sξ −n( Ni)Sφ( Ni) ) =


=n( Ni)Sξ (9)
S=EmXBm
The power density, D , of the radiation on the
ξ Nickel powder can be expressed by
D=
P
=
P
(10 )
S N f S ( Ni )
Metal tube Nickel powder
We can express the total mean number
of collisions in each Ni molecule, n1 , by
means of the following equation
ntotal photons N collisions
n1 = (11)
N
Mumetal Since in each collision a momentum h λ is
Fig.2 – Experimental set-up. The transferred to the molecule, then the total
electromagnetic radiation propagates in the direction of
r r r momentum transferred to the Nickel will be
the vector of Pointing S = E × B . The set-up is Δp = (n1 N ) h λ . Therefore, in accordance
placed in a container shielded by 1 mm thick layer of
mumetal in order to avoid interference from external with Eq. (1), we can write that
electromagnetic fields. In practice, the solenoid is not
mg(w) ⎧⎪ ⎡ λ
2 ⎤⎫
⎡ ⎤ ⎪
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢(n1 N ) ⎥ −1⎥⎬ =
necessary, since the 7.83 Hz electromagnetic field 0
naturally exists inside the spherical resonant cavity
mi0(w) ⎪ ⎢ ⎣ λ⎦ ⎥⎪
formed by the Earth’s surface and the inner edge of the
ionosphere. (Schumann resonance).
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
⎧ ⎡
λ0 ⎤
2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎡ ⎪
When an electromagnetic wave incides = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢ntotal photonsNcollisions ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (12)
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎣ λ⎦ ⎥⎪
on a solid lamina of Nickel, it strikes on N f ⎦⎭
front molecules, where N f ≅ (n( Ni) S f )φ( Ni) . Since Eq. (9) gives N collisions = n( Ni )Sξ , we
Thus, the electromagnetic wave incides get
effectively on an area S = N f S( Ni) , where ⎛ P ⎞
ntotal photons Ncollisions = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(n( Ni )Sξ ) (13)
S ( Ni ) = 14 πφ(2Ni ) ≅ 1.2 × 10 −20 m 2 is the cross ⎝ hf ⎠
section area of one Ni atom. After these Substitution of Eq. (13) into Eq. (12) yields
collisions, it carries out ncollisions with the ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎡⎛ P ⎞ λ0 ⎤
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(n( Ni)Sξ ) ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (14)
mg( Ni) ⎪ ⎢ ⎪
other atoms of the Nickel powder (See Fig.3).
mi0( Ni) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎣⎝ hf ⎠ λ ⎥⎦ ⎥

⎩ ⎣⎢ ⎦⎥⎭
Substitution of P given by Eq. (10) into Eq.
(14) gives
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg( Ni) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ Nf S( Ni) D⎞⎛ n( Ni)Sξ ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
= ⎨1−2 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (15)
mi0( Ni) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎣⎜⎝ f 2 ⎟⎠⎜⎝ mi0( Ni)c ⎟⎠ λ⎥⎦ ⎥⎪
molecule ⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦⎭
S(Ni)
Nickel powder Substitution of Nf ≅ (n( Ni)S f )φ( Ni) and S = N f S( Ni)
Wave
into Eq. (15) results
Fig. 3 – Collisions inside the Nickel powder.
4
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ electromagnetic field) and λ = λmod = 0.19m
mg( Ni) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ n(3Ni)S2f S(2Ni)φ(2Ni)ξD⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (16) into Eq.(17), gives
mi0( Ni) ⎪ ⎢ ⎟ λ⎥ ⎥
{ [ ]}

⎢⎣⎝
2
⎢⎣
m i0( Ni)cf ⎠ ⎦ ⎥⎪ mg( Ni)
⎩ ⎦⎭ = 1− 2 1+ 3.9×1021 x 4 D2 −1 (18)
( )
where mi 0( Ni ) = ρ( Ni )Vcyl = ρ( Ni ) πα 4 ξ .2
mi0( Ni)
Now, considering that the Nickel
Thus, Eq. (16) reduces to powder is inside a solenoid, which produces
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ a weak ELF electromagnetic field with
mg( Ni) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ n(3Ni)S2f S(2Ni)φ(2Ni) D⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1 (17)
( )
E m and Bm , then we can write that [10]
mi0( Ni) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎜ ρ( Ni) πα2 4 cf 2 ⎟ λ ⎥ ⎥⎬
⎢ ⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎦ ⎥⎪ E m2 v2 B2 cBm2
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ D= = Ni m = (19)
−3 2 μ 0 v Ni 2 μ 0 v Ni 2 μ 0 nr ( Ni )
For φ = 5cm we get Sα =πα 4 =1.9×10 m .2 2

Note that S f is not equal to Sα because the Equation (4) shows that, for f = 7.83 Hz ,
area is not continuous, but expressed by nr ( Ni ) = 2 × 10 8 .Substitution of this value into
S f = nS p , where S p is the area of the cross- Eq.(19) gives
section of one Ni particle, and n is the D = 5.9 × 10 5 Bm2 (21)
number of particles in the front area, which Substitution of this value into Eq. (18) gives
is expressed by n = x (n pφ p S α ) , x << 1 ,
where n pφ p S α is the number of particles
χ=
mg( Ni)
mi0( Ni)
{ [
≅ 1 − 2 1 +1.3×1033 x4 Bm4 −1 ]}
(22)
inside area Sα ; n p is the number of Ni The value of Bm is limited by the
particles/m , given by n p = N p S α ξ where
3
ionization energy of the atoms, which is, as
N p = Sα ξ V p + Vv ; V p is the mean volume of we known, the energy required to remove
electrons from atoms. Since the minimum
one Ni particle and VV is the void volume, energy required for the electron to leave the
corresponding to that particle. This volume atom is: Umin = − e2 4πε0φmax = 7.7×10−19 joules
can be calculated considering one sphere
then, for the ionization does not occur, the
with φ p - diameter inside a cube whose edge
energy of the wave (hf ) must be smaller than
is φ p . The result is VV ≅ 0.48φ p3 . The mean U min . Thus, it follows that
size of the particles is φ p = 0.75μm . Thus, hf 2 Sa < U min f Sa ⇒ D < U min f Sa ≅ f
V p ≅ 2.2 × 10 −19 m 3 and S p ≅ 4 .4 × 10 −13 m 2 . According to Eq. (19), D max = cB max
2
2μ 0 .
Consequently, V p + VV ≅ 4.2 × 10−19 m2 . Then, Then, the result is
we get n p = 2.4 × 1018 particles/ m3 . Now, we Bmax < 9 × 10 −8 f
In the case of f = 7.83 Hz , we conclude that
can calculate the value of S f :
Bmax < 2 × 10−7 T (23)
( ) (
S f = x n pφ p S α S p ≅ x 1.5 × 10 −3 m 2) −7
Assuming that Bmax ≅ 2 × 10 T then Eq. (22)
yields
Substitution of this value jointly with
n( Ni) = 9.02×1028molec/ m3 ; φ( Ni) =1.24×10−10m;
χ=
mg ( Ni)
mi0( Ni)
{ [
≅ 1 − 2 1 + 2.1×106 x 4 − 1 (24)]}
Sα =πα2 4 =1.9×10−3 m2 ; S( Ni) ≅ 1.2 ×10−20 m2 ; Since x << 1 , we can conclude that there is
no significant variation in the gravitational
ρ ( Ni ) = 8800 kg .m − 3 ; f = 7 . 83 Hz (Note mass of the Nickel powder.
that, this is lowest-frequency mode of the However, if the air inside the Nickel
Schumann resonance. Therefore, in practice, powder is evacuated by means of a vacuum
is not necessary to provide the 7.83 Hz pump, and after Hydrogen (or Deuterium,
5
Tritium, Helium, etc) is injected into the D= cBm2 2 μ 0 nr ( H ) , where n r ( H ) ≅ 1 . Thus,
Nickel powder (See Fig.4) then, the area S f
we get D = 1.2 × 1014 Bm2 . Substitution of this
to be considered, in order to calculate the
expression into Eq. (26) yields
{ [ ]}
gravitational mass of the Hydrogen, is the
mg (H )
surface area of the Nickel powder, which χ= = 1 − 2 1 + 2.1 × 10 76 Bm4 − 1 (27)
can be obtained by multiplying the specific mi 0( H )
surface area of the Nickel powder † It is known that, at any time in the
( ~ 4 × 10 3 m 2 / Kg ) by the total mass of the spherical resonant cavity formed by the
(
Nickel powder ( m i 0 ( Ni ) = ρ ( Ni ) πα 2 4 ξ ). ) Earth’s surface and the inner edge of the
ionosphere (60km from the Earth’s surface)
Thus, we get S f ≅ 4 × 10 3 ρ ( Ni ) S α ξ . there is a drop voltage of 200KV. This,
The characteristics of the Nickel prevail produces an electric field with intensity
on those of the Hydrogen, in the Ni-H E m ≅ 3V / m , which gives Bm ≅ 1×10−8 T .
systems, because the Nickel amount is much Substitution of this value into Eq. (27), yields
larger than the Hydrogen amount. Thus, we
must take the values of ρ , μ r , and σ equal χ ≅ −2 ×1022 (28)
Thus, the gravitational forces between two
to ρ ( Ni ) , μ r ( Ni ) and σ ( Ni ) respectively, in
protons (hydrogen nuclei) becomes
order to calculate m g ( H ) , in Ni-H systems. In F = − Gmgp
2
r 2 = − χ 2Gmip2 r 2 ≅ −7×10−20 r 2
addition, since n = N0ρ A and Comparing with the electrostatic repulsion
λmod = 4π μfσ we can conclude that also forces between the nuclei, which is given by
n ≡ n( Ni ) and λ mod = λ mod ( Ni ) = 0 .19 m . Fe = e2 4πε0 r 2 = 2.3 ×10−28 r 2
Therefore, in order to obtain the expression We conclude that the intensities of the
m g ( H ) mi 0( H ) we can take Eq. (17) only gravitational forces overcome the intensities
of the electrostatic repulsion forces between
substituting S f for the expression above the nuclei. This is sufficient to produce their
( )
obtained S f ≅ 4 × 10 3 ρ ( Ni ) S α ξ . Thus we fusion.
get α
mg(H)
=
mi0(H)
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛⎜ n( Ni) ρ( Ni) Sαξ S( Ni)φ( Ni) D⎞⎟ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪ S=EmXBm
3 2 2 2

⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (25)


⎢ ⎟ λ
⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎥⎪
2
⎪ ⎢ ⎣⎝ 18 .7 f H2

⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ ξ
For ξ = 0.1m (length of the Ni-H cylinder in
Focardi experiment) Eq.(25) gives
{ [ ]} Metal tube Nickel powder
m g (H )
χ= = 1 − 2 1 + 1.5 × 10 48 D 2 − 1 (26)
+
Hydrogen
mi 0( H )
Based on Eq. (19), we can write that

† Fig.4 – Cold Fusion Reactor on Earth. Note


Ultra fine nickel powder (e.g. Inco type 210) with
that here the 7.83 Hz electromagnetic field is what
particle size of 0.5-1.0μm has specific surface areas naturally exists inside the spherical resonant cavity
range from 1.5 to 6m2/g [11]. Hydrogen production formed by the Earth’s surface and the inner edge of the
with nickel powder cathode points to a value of ionosphere. (Schumann resonance).
4.31m2 /g in the case of new cathodes, and 3.84 m2 /g
in the case of used cathodes [12].
6
The enormous value of χ (Eq. 28) nH = N0 ρ H AH 2 = 3.01×10 ρ H atoms/ m
26 3

strongly increases the gravitational masses of the Then, the number of H atoms inside the
Hydrogen nuclei ( m gp = χmi 0 p ) and their Nickel powder is given by
respective electrons ( m ge = χmi 0 e ). Thus, the
gravitational force between a nucleus (proton) nH VH = nH S f δ H ≅ 8.3 ×1024 ρ H α 2ξ
and the corresponding electron is given by
F pe = − χ 2 Gmi 0 p mi 0e r 2 and the gravitational where δ H = Δ Ni − φ Ni ≅ 1nm ; φ Ni is the
force between two Hydrogen nuclei is diameter of Ni atom; Δ Ni is the average
F pp = − χ Gmi 0 p mi 0 p r .
2 2
Therefore, two molecular separation in the Ni. Then, we get
well-known types of fusions can occur, i.e., n H V H = n H S f δ H ≅ 6.4 × 1018 atoms . Thus,
p + e− → n +ν e (29) the total energy realized in the p-p fusions is

p + p → d + ν e + e + + 0.42MeV (30) E=
nH VH
(0.42MeV) =
Due to the strong gravitational attraction, the 2
6.4 × 1018
following fusions occur instantaneously:
= (0.42MeV) = 1.3 ×1024 eV ≅
d +ν e → n + p +ν e 2
and ≅ 2.1× 105 J ≅ 0.05 Kwh
n + e+ → p +ν e
These reactions are widely known because This energy correspond to a power of
they have been studied extensively due to 0.05Kwh h = 50W , which is the same value
their importance in astrophysics and neutrino detected in the Focardi’s experiments.
physics [13–16]. Thus, the term p +ν e + e+ in This explains the anomalous heat
Eq. (30) reduces instantaneously to production in Ni-H Systems detected in the
Focardi’s experiments.
p + p +ν e +ν e .
Since the 7.83 Hz electromagnetic
In these fusion reactions, neutrons (Eq. field (Schumann resonances) does not
(29)), neutrinos and antineutrinos, and disappear when the device is switched off,
energy (0.42MeV at each fusion of two the energy conversion can remain running
Hydrogen nuclei) are produced. Note that for long period after it is switched off
there is no gamma ray emission during the because, when the device is switched off, the
process. The evidence of neutron emission value of the electrical conductivity of the Ni-
during energy production in Ni-H systems H system, which was approximately equal to
has been reported by Battaglia, A. et al., [17]. σ Ni , slowly decreases, tending to σ H , which
In order to calculate the number of
Hydrogen atoms/m3 inside the Nickel is much smaller than 1. When the electrical
powder we will calculate the density of the conductivity becomes smaller than ωε the
Hydrogen. According to Focardi’s value of nr becomes approximately equal to
experiments, the pressure of the Hydrogen is 1. Consequently, λmod becomes equal to
P = 0.051atm = 5.166×103 N / m2 at temperature c f = 3.8 × 10 7 m and, according to Eq.(17),
T = 400K . Thus, according to the well-kwon the result is χ ≅ 1 .
Equation of State ρ = PM 0 ZRT , we get
This explain why in the Focardi’s
ρH =
(5.166 × 10 N / m )(2 × 10 kg.mol ) =
3 2 −3 −1
experiment the device remained running for
(~ 1)(8.314 joule.mol .K )(400 K )
−1 −1 twenty four days after being switched off.
It is evident that the discovery of this
= 3.1 × 10 −3 kg / m 3 energy conversion device is highly relevant.
Thus, the number of Hydrogen atoms/m3 inside However, this system is not an efficient
the Nickel powder is energy source if compared to the
Gravitational Motor [18], which can provide
7
219KW/m3 while the Ni-H system only very place of the target (For example,
20Kw/m3 (by increasing α from 5cm up to inside a house or apartment at the target
100cm). Furthermore, the Gravitational city.). This means that, in the most of cases
Motor converts gravitational energy into missiles are not necessary to launch them. In
rotational mechanical energy directly from addition, they cannot be easily detected
the gravitational field, while the Ni-H system during their building because the necessary
needs to produce vapor in order to convert materials are trivial, and there is no
the energy into rotational mechanical energy. radioactive material.

3. Transforming a Ni-H system into a


Hydrogen Bomb.

It is easy to see that a Ni-H System can


be transformed into a Hydrogen bomb,
simply increasing the volume of the Ni-H
cylinder and substituting the Hydrogen by a
liquid deuterium LD (12.5 MeV of energy is
produced at each fusion of two deuterium
nuclei ‡ ). For example, if α = 0.27m, ξ = 2
m, and, if a liquid deuterium
−3
( ρ H = 67.8 kg.m [19]) is injected into the Ni
powder, then the total energy realized in the
fusions becomes

nH VH
E= (12.5MeV) =
2
8.4 ×1024 ρ H α 2ξ
= (12.5MeV) ≅ (2)
2
≅ 5.2 ×1031 ρ H α 2ξ eV ≅ 8.2 × 1013 J ≅ 20 kilotons

The Hiroshima’s atomic bomb had 20


kilotons.
It is important to note that this bomb
type is much easier to build than the
conventional nuclear bombs. Basically, these
bombs are made of Nickel powder (99%),
liquid deuterium-tritium mixture and
Mumetal. These materials can be easily
obtained. Due to the simplicity of its
construction these bombs can be built at the


The d + d fusion reaction has two branches that occur with
nearly equal probability: (T + p + 4.03MeV and 3He + n +
3.27MeV ). Then, a deuteron d is produced by the fusion of
the proton p (produced in the first branch) with the neutron
(produced in the second branch). Next, occurs the fusion of
this deuteron with the tritium T produced in the first branch,
i.e., (d + T → 23 He + n + 17.6 MeV). Thus, we count the d +
d fusion energy as Efus = (4.03+17.6+3.27)/2 = 12.5 MeV.
8
References
[1] Fleischmann M., Hawkins, M. and Pons S., (1989) J.
Electroanal. Chem., 261, 301.

[2] Focardi, S., Habel, R. and Piantelli, F., (1994) Nuovo


Cimento A, 107, 163.

[3] Cerron-Zeballos et al., (1996) Nuovo Cimento A, 109, 1645.

[4] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of the


Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific Journal
of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.

[5] Quevedo, C. P. (1977) Eletromagnetismo, McGraw-


Hill, p. 270.

[6] Schumann W. O. (1952). "Über die strahlungslosen


Eigenschwingungen einer leitenden Kugel, die von
einer Luftschicht und einer Ionosphärenhülle
umgebenist". Zeitschrift und Naturfirschung 7a: 149–154

[7] Volland, H. (1995), Handbook of Atmospheric


Electrodynamics, CRC Press, vol.I, Chapter11.

[8] Lin Li and Chung D.,(1991) Composites, 22, 3, p.212.

[9] Göktürk, H., et al., (1993) J. App. Polymer Science, 50,


p.1900.

[10] Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. (1968) Physics, J. Willey &


Sons, Portuguese Version, Ed. USP, p.1124.

[11] Neikov, O.D, et al., (2009) Handbook of Non-Ferrous


Metal Powders: Technologies and Applications, Elsevier
Ltd., p.374.

[12]Selembo, P. A, et al., (2010) Hydrogen production with


nickel powder cathode catalysts in microbial electrolysis cells,
International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 35, p. 431, p.433.

[13] Park T. S. et al., (1998) Astrophys. J. 507 443.

[14] Kong X and Ravndal, F. (1999) Nucl. Phys. A 656


421; Kong X and Ravndal, F. (1999) Phys. Lett. B 470, 1;
Kong X and Ravndal (2001) F. Phys. Rev. C 64 , 044002.

[15] Butler. M. and Chen, J. W., (2001) Phys. Lett. B 520 , 87.

[16] Park T. S. et al., (2003) Phys. Rev. C 67 055206


(nucl-th/0208055); Park T. S. et al., nucl-th/0106025
and nucl-th/0107012.

[17] Battaglia, A. et al., (1999) NuovoCimento A, 112, 921.

[18] De Aquino, F. (2010) Gravity Control by means of


Electromagnetic Field through Gas at Ultra-Low
Pressure, Pacific Journal of Science and Technology,
11(2) November 2010, pp. 178-247, Physics /0701091.

[19] Rossini, F.D. (1968) IPTS-1968, Butterworths, London.


Engineering the Ni-H Bomb
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2012 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.
The anomalous heat production detected in Ni-H systems was recently explained based on the fact that
electromagnetic fields of extremely-low frequencies (ELF) can increase the intensities of gravitational forces
and overcome the intensity of the electrostatic repulsion forces, producing nuclear fusion reactions. This
effect can provide a consistent and coherent explanation for anomalous heat production detected in Ni-H
Systems, and shows that a Ni-H System can be easily transformed into a Hydrogen bomb. Here, a Ni-H bomb
of 20 kilotons is engineered.

Key words: Modified theories of gravity, Nuclear Fusion, Fusion Reactors.


PACS: 04.50.Kd , 89.30.Jj , 28.52.-s.

1. Introduction

Recently, a large anomalous production where ρ H is the Hydrogen density;


of heat in a nickel rod filled with hydrogen N 0 = 6.02 × 10 26 molecules/ kmole is the
has been reported by Focardi et al., [1]. This
phenomenon was posteriorly confirmed by Avogadro’s number and A is the molar mass.
Then, the number of atoms inside the Nickel
Cerron-Zeballos et al., [2].
powder is given by
Nuclear fusion can be produced by
increasing the gravitational forces in order
to overcome the electrostatic repulsion nH VH = nH S f δ H ≅ 8.3 ×1024 ρ H α 2ξ
forces between the nuclei. This process
became feasible after the Quantization of where S f ≅ 4×103 ρ( Ni) Sα ξ ; ρ( Ni) = 8800kg.m−3 ;
Gravity [3], with the discovery that the
gravitational mass mg can be made negative Sα = πα2 4 and δ H = Δ Ni − φ Ni ≅ 1nm ; φ Ni is
and strongly intensified by means of the diameter of Ni atom; Δ Ni is the average
electromagnetic fields of extremely-low molecular separation in the Ni.
frequencies. This effect can provide a
consistent and coherent explanation for
anomalous heat production detected in Ni-H α

Systems, and shows that a Ni-H System can


be easily transformed into a Hydrogen bomb
[4]. Here, a Ni-H bomb of 20 kilotons is Nickel powder
engineered. +
Hydrogen

2. Theory
ξ
Consider the Ni-H system showed in
Fig. 1. In a previous paper [4] it was showed
that, if the air inside the Nickel powder is Metal tube
evacuated by means of a vacuum pump
(down to P = 0.051atm = 5.166×103 N / m2 at
temperature T = 400K ) and after Hydrogen
is injected into the Nickel powder, then, the Fig.1 – Ni-H system. Note that, on Earth, the system
number of Hydrogen atoms/m3 inside the Nickel is subjected to a 7.83 Hz electromagnetic field. This
powder is field is what naturally exists inside the spherical
resonant cavity formed by the Earth’s surface and the
inner edge of the ionosphere. (Schumann resonance).
nH = N0 ρH AH 2 = 1.94×1029 ρH atoms/ m3
2
Thus, the total energy realized in the protons conventional nuclear bombs. Basically,
fusions is * these bombs are made of Nickel powder
nHVH 8.3×1024 ρHα 2ξ (99%), liquid deuterium and Mumetal. These
E= = (0.42MeV) ≅ (1) materials can be easily obtained. Due to the
2 2
simplicity of its construction, these bombs
≅ 1.7×1030 ρHα 2ξ eV ≅ 2.7×1011ρHα 2ξ Joules can be built at the very location of the target
It is easy to see that a Ni-H System can (For example, inside a house or apartment at
be transformed into a Hydrogen bomb, the target city.). This means that, in most of
simply increasing the volume of the Ni-H cases missiles are not necessary to deliver
cylinder and substituting the Hydrogen by a them, except for launching the Ni-H bomb at
liquid deuterium LD (12.5 MeV of energy is the height of explosion (<1Km ‡ ) when
produced at each fusion of two deuterium necessary.
nuclei † ). For example, if α = 0.27m, ξ = 2 Thus, the Ni-H bomb so far seems to be
m (See Fig.2), and, if a liquid deuterium the simplest atomic bomb ever to be built. It
( ρ H = 67.8 kg.m−3 [5]) is injected into the Ni can be made by every nation, in such a way
powder, then the total energy realized in the that, peace in the World will be reached in
fusions becomes the future due to the equilibrium of forces
among nations.
Figure 3 shows the Ni-H bomb. It is
8.4 × 1024 ρ H α 2ξ
E= (12.5MeV) ≅ (2) enveloped by a Mumetal box in order to
2 avoid the action of the 7.83Hz
≅ 5.2 × 1031 ρ H α 2ξ eV ≅ 8.3 × 1013 J ≅ 20 kilotons electromagnetic field that naturally exists
inside the spherical resonant cavity formed
The Hiroshima’s atomic bomb had 20 by the Earth’s surface and the inner edge of
kilotons. the ionosphere. (Schumann resonance [6, 7]).
When the mumetal shielding is exploded the
α =0.27 m 7.83Hz electromagnetic field acts on the core
of the Ni-H bomb and it explodes.

Nickel powder Antenna


+
ξ= 2 m LD

Mumetal boxes

Metal tube

LD
Control
Fig.2 – The core of the Ni-H bomb of 20
Detonator
kilotons. Mumetal
Shielding
It is important to note that this bomb
Explosives
type is much easier to build than the in order to
explode the Nickel
powder
*
0.42MeV are realized at each fusion of two Hydrogen Mumetal
nuclei. shielding

The d + d fusion reaction has two branches that occur with
nearly equal probability: (T + p + 4.03MeV and 3He + n +
3.27MeV ). Then, a deuteron d is produced by the fusion of
the proton p (produced in the first branch) with the neutron
(produced in the second branch). Next, occurs the fusion of
this deuteron with the tritium T produced in the first branch, Fig.3 – The Ni-H bomb of 20 kilotons.
i.e., (d + T → 23 He + n + 17.6 MeV). Thus, we count the d +
d fusion energy as Efus = (4.03+17.6+3.27)/2 = 12.5 MeV.

Hiroshima 600m above. Nagasaki 500m above.
3

References

[1] Focardi, S., Habel, R. and Piantelli, F., (1994) Nuovo


Cimento A, 107, 163.

[2] Cerron-Zeballos et al., (1996) Nuovo Cimento A, 109, 1645.

[3] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of the


Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific Journal
of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.

[4] De Aquino, F. (2012), A Possible Explanation for


Anomalous Heat Production in Ni-H Systems,
http://vixra.org/pdf/1202.0039v3.pdf

[5] Rossini, F.D. (1968) IPTS-1968, Butterworths, London.

[6] Schumann W. O. (1952). "Über die strahlungslosen


Eigenschwingungen einer leitenden Kugel, die von
einer Luftschicht und einer Ionosphärenhülle
umgebenist". Zeitschrift und Naturfirschung 7a: 149–154

[7] Volland, H. (1995), Handbook of Atmospheric


Electrodynamics, CRC Press, vol.I, Chapter11.
Gravitational Shockwave Weapons
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2012 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

Detonation velocities, greater than that generated by high explosives (~104m/s), can be achieved by using the
gravitational technology recently discovered. This possibility leads to the conception of powerful shockwave
weapons. Here, we show the design of a portable gravitational shockwave weapon, which can produce
detonation velocities greater than 105m/s, and detonation pressures greater than 1010N/m2 .

Key words: Modified theories of gravity, Detonation waves, Shockwaves, Nozzle flow.
PACS: 04.50.Kd, 47.40.Rs, 47.40.-x, 47.60.Kz.

1. Introduction

The most important single property of TNT has a detonation velocity of 6,900m/s;
an explosive is the detonation velocity. It is Military explosives used to destroy strong
the speed at which the detonation wave concrete and steel structures have a
travels through the explosive. Typical detonation velocity of 7,000 to 8,000 m/s [3].
detonation velocities in solid explosives often
range beyond 3,000 m/s to 10,300 m/s [1]. 2. Theory
At the front of the detonation zone, an
energy pulse or “shockwave” is generated The contemporary greatest challenge
and transmitted to the adjacent region. of the Theoretical Physics was to prove that,
The shockwave travels outward as a Gravity is a quantum phenomenon. The
compression wave, moving at or near quantization of gravity showed that the
detonation velocity. When the intensity of the gravitational mass mg and inertial mass mi
shockwave exceeds the compression strength are correlated by means of the following
of the materials they are destroyed. If the factor [4]:
mass of the body is too large the wave energy
is simply absorbed by the body [2]. ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎛ Δ ⎞ ⎪
The pressure produced in the explosion χ= ⎢ ⎜
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜
p

⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (1)
zone is called Detonation Pressure. It mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪
expresses the intensity of the generated ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
shockwave. A high detonation pressure is
necessary when blasting hard, dense bodies. where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the
Detonation pressures of high explosives are in particle and Δp is the variation in the
6 2 7 2
the range from 10 N/m to over 10 N/m [3]. particle’s kinetic momentum; c is the speed
Here, we show the design of a portable of light.
shockwave weapon, which uses the When Δp is produced by the
Gravitational Shielding Effect (BR Patent
absorption of a photon with wavelength λ , it
Number: PI0805046-5, July 31, 2008) in
order to produce detonations velocities is expressed by Δp = h λ . In this case, Eq.
greater than 100,000m/s, and detonation (1) becomes
pressures greater than 1010N/m2. It is
important to remember that an aluminum- ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎛ h m c ⎞ ⎪
nitrate truck bomb has a relatively low = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ i 0
⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
detonation velocity of 3,500 m/s (sound mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
speed is 343.2m/s) * . High explosives such as
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
λ
2
⎪ ⎛ ⎞ ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
0
(2)
⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝λ ⎠ ⎥⎪
*
When a shockwave is created by high explosives it ⎣ ⎦⎭
will always travel at high supersonic velocity from its
point of origin.
2
where λ0 = h mi0 c is the De Broglie μrσ
nr = (5)
wavelength for the particle with rest inertial 4πε0 f
mass mi 0 .
Thus, the wavelength of the incident
It was shown that there is an radiation (See Fig. 1) becomes
additional effect - Gravitational Shielding
effect - produced by a substance whose
λ 4π
gravitational mass was reduced or made λmod =
v c f
= = = (6)
negative [5]. The effect extends beyond f nr nr μfσ
substance (gravitational shielding) , up to a
certain distance from it (along the central
axis of gravitational shielding). This effect v=c v = c/nr
shows that in this region the gravity
acceleration, g 1 , is reduced at the same
proportion, i.e., g1 = χ 1 g where nr
χ 1 = m g mi 0 and g is the gravity λ = c/f λmod = v/f = c/nr f
acceleration before the gravitational
shielding). Consequently, after a second Fig. 1 – Modified Electromagnetic Wave. The
gravitational shielding, the gravity will be wavelength of the electromagnetic wave can be
given by g 2 = χ 2 g 1 = χ 1 χ 2 g , where χ 2 is strongly reduced, but its frequency remains the same.
If a lamina with thickness equal to ξ
the value of the ratio m g mi 0 for the second
contains n molecules/m3, then the number of
gravitational shielding. In a generalized way,
molecules per area unit is nξ . Thus, if the
we can write that after the nth gravitational
shielding the gravity, g n , will be given by electromagnetic radiation with frequency
f incides on an area S of the lamina it
reaches nSξ molecules. If it incides on the
g n = χ 1 χ 2 χ 3 ...χ n g (3)
total area of the lamina, S f , then the total
number of molecules reached by the
This possibility shows that, by means radiation is N = nS f ξ . The number of
of a battery of gravitational shieldings, we
can make particles acquire enormous molecules per unit of volume, n , is given by
N0 ρ
accelerations. In practice, this can lead to the
conception of powerful particles accelerators,
n= (7)
A
kinetic weapons or weapons of shockwaves.
From Electrodynamics we know that where N 0 = 6.02 × 10 26 molecules / kmole is
when an electromagnetic wave with the Avogadro’s number; ρ is the matter
frequency f and velocity c incides on a density of the lamina (in kg/m3) and A is the
material with relative permittivity ε r , molar mass.
relative magnetic permeability μ r and When an electromagnetic wave incides
on the lamina, it strikes on N f front
electrical conductivity σ , its velocity is
reduced to v = c nr where nr is the index of ( )
molecules, where Nf ≅ n Sf φm , φ m is the
refraction of the material, given by [6] “diameter” of the molecule. Thus, the
electromagnetic wave incides effectively on an
ε μ area S = Nf Sm , where S m = 14 πφm2 is the cross
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ (4)
c 2
v 2 ⎝ ⎠ section area of one molecule. After these
collisions, it carries out ncollisions with the
If σ >> ωε , ω = 2πf , Eq. (4) reduces to other molecules (See Fig.2).
3
Substitution of Eq. (12) into Eq. (11) yields

⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎡⎛ P ⎞ λ0 ⎤
mg (l ) ⎪ ⎢ (
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ n Sξ

)
⎥⎪
⎥ − 1⎥⎬ (13)
λ ⎥⎦
molecule
mi0(l ) ⎪
⎢⎣ ⎢⎣⎝ hf ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭

Sm
Wave
Substitution of P given by Eq. (9) into Eq.
Fig. 2 – Collisions inside the lamina. (13) gives

Thus, the total number of collisions in the ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫


mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ Nf SmD⎞⎛ n Sξ ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
volume Sξ is = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (14)
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎣⎢⎝ f ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎠⎝ i0(l ) ⎠ λ ⎦⎥ ⎥⎪
m c

(
Ncollisions= Nf +ncollisions= n Sφm + n Sξ −nmSφm = ) ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭

= nmSξ (8) ( )
Substitution of N f ≅ n S f φm and S = N f Sm
into Eq. (14) results
The power density, D , of the radiation on the
lamina can be expressed by
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ n3 S 2f Sm2 φm2ξD ⎞ 1 ⎤
⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎪⎬ (15)
mg(l )
D=
P
=
P
(9 ) = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎥
mi0(l ) ⎪
⎢ ⎢⎜⎝ mi0(l ) cf 2 ⎟ λ⎥
⎠ ⎦ ⎥⎪
S N f Sm ⎣
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
We can express the total mean number
where mi 0(l ) = ρ(l )V(l ) .
of collisions in each molecule, n1 , by means
Now, considering that the lamina is
of the following equation
inside a ELF electromagnetic field with
E and B , then we can write that [7]
ntotal N collisions
n1 =
photons
(10 )
N n r (l ) E 2
D= (16 )
Since in each collision a momentum h λ is 2μ 0 c
transferred to the molecule, then the total
momentum transferred to the lamina will be Substitution of Eq. (16) into Eq. (15) gives
Δp = (n1 N ) h λ . Therefore, in accordance
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
with Eq. (1), we can write that mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nr(l )n3S2f Sm2φm2ξE2 ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (17)
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎜
⎢⎣⎝ 2 μ m
0 i0(l )c2 2 ⎟
f ⎥
⎠ λ ⎥⎦ ⎥⎪
⎧ ⎡
λ ⎤
2 ⎤⎫ ⎢
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎡ ⎪ ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢(n1 N) 0 ⎥ −1⎥⎬ =
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎣ λ⎦ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ Now assuming that the lamina is a
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ cylindrical air lamina (diameter = α ;
λ0 ⎤
2
⎪ ⎢ ⎡ ⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢ntotal photonsNcollisions ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (11) thickness = ξ) where nr (l ) ≅ 1 ;
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎣ λ⎦ ⎥⎪
⎦⎭ n = N 0 ρ (l ) A = 2 .6 × 10 25 molecules / m 3 ;

Since Eq. (8) gives N collisions = n Sξ , we get


φm =1.55×10−10m; Sm = πφm2 4 = 1.88×10−20 m2 ,
then, Eq. (17) reduces to
⎛ P ⎞
ntotal photons N collisions = ⎜⎜ 2 (
⎟ n Sξ
⎟ ) (12)
⎝ hf ⎠
4
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎡
2⎤
⎛ 2
ξ ⎞
⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎪⎬ (18)
mg(l ) S E 4π
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢6.6×105⎜ (20)
f
⎜ mi0(l ) f ⎟ λ ⎥ ⎥
2 λ = λmod =
⎢⎣ ⎢⎣ μ0 fσ
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎦⎭
where f is the frequency of the ELF
An atomized water spray is created by
forcing the water through an orifice. The electromagnetic field.
energy required to overcome the pressure Substitution of Eq. (20) into Eq. (19)
drop is supplied by the spraying pressure at yields
each detonation. Spraying pressure depends
on feed characteristics and desired particle ⎧ ⎡ σE4 ⎤⎫⎪
mg(l ) ⎪
size. If atomizing water is injected into the air χ= = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ~10−7 2 3 −1⎥⎬ (21)
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ Sα f ⎥⎪
lamina, then the area S f to be considered is ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
the surface area of the atomizing water,
which can be obtained by multiplying the Note that E = E m sin ωt .The average value
specific surface area(SSA) of the atomizing
water (which is given by for E 2 is equal to 1 2 E m2 because E varies
SSA = A ρwV = 3 ρwrd ) by the total mass of the sinusoidaly ( E m is the maximum value
atomizing water ( mi 0(w) = ρwV N ). for E ). On the other hand, E rms = E m 2.
water droplets d
Assuming that the atomizing water is Consequently we can change E 4 by E rms4
,
composed of monodisperse particles with and the equation above can be rewritten as
( )
10 μm radius rd = 1 × 10 −5 m , and that the follows
atomizing water has N p ≈ 10 droplets/ m3 [8]
8
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫⎪
−7 σErms
4
mg(l ) ⎪
then we obtain SSA = 3 ρ w rd = 300m kg and 2
χ= = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1+ ~ 10 2 3 −1⎥⎬ (22)
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ Sα f ⎥⎦⎪
mi 0(w) = ρ wVwater droplets N d ≈ 10−5 kg . Thus, we ⎩ ⎣ ⎭
get Now consider the weapon showed in Fig. 3
(α = 12.7mm) . When an ELF
S f = (SSA)mi 0(w) ≈ 10 −3 m 2 (18) electromagnetic field with frequency
f = 10 Hz is activated, an electric field E rms
Substitution of S f ≈ 10 −3 m 2 and passes through the 7 cylindrical air laminas.
mi 0(l ) = ρ air S α ξ = 1.2 S α ξ into Eq. (18) Then, according to Eq. (22) the value of χ
gives (for σ >> 0.005S / m ) at each lamina is

m g (l ) ⎧

⎡ E4 ⎤⎫

= ⎨1 − 2 1+ ~ 2 4 2 − 1⎥ ⎬ (19)

{ [
χ >> 1 − 2 1+ ~ 10−9 Erms
4
−1 ]} (23)
mi 0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ Sα f λ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
For example, if E rms ≅ 10 4 V / m we
The injection of atomized water increases the get
electrical conductivity of the mean, making it
greater than the conductivity of water χ >> −103 (24)
(σ >> 0.005S / m) . Under these conditions,
the value of λ , given by Eq. (6), becomes Therefore, according to Eq. (3) the
gravitational acceleration produced by the
gravitational mass M g = 4.23kg , just after
5
the 7 cylindrical air lamina (r7 = 150mm ) ,
th

will be given by

GM g
g 7 = χ 7 g = −χ 7 >> +1013 m / s 2 (25)
r72

This is the acceleration acquired by the air


molecules that are just after the 7th
cylindrical air lamina. Obviously, this
produces enormous pressure in the air after
the 7th cylindrical air lamina, in a similar way
that pressure produced by a detonation. The
detonation velocity after the 7th cylindrical
air lamina is

vd = 2g7 (Δr) >>105 m / s (26)

Consequently, the detonation pressure is

p = 2 ρ air v d2 >> 1010 N / m 2 (27)


These values show how powerful can be the
gravitational shockwaves weapons. The
maxima resistance of the most resistant steels
is of the order of 1011N/m2 (Graphene
~1012N/m2). Since the gravitational
shockwave weapons can be designed to
produce detonation pressures of these
magnitudes, we can conclude that it can
destroy anything.
6

Tungsten Carbide
ρWC = 15,800 kg.m-3
Mg = 4.23 kg
40 mm radius
Nozzle
Ruby-orifice
(0.38 mm diameter) Spherical
Filter detonation
Capacitor plates

HV Transformer E
g7
1 2 A 7 12 D 2 1 α
Mg

ELF Battery
Oscillator ξ

r7 = 150 mm

Water

Fig. 3 – Portable Weapon of Gravitational Shockwaves. Note that there are two sets of
Gravitational Shieldings (GS): the set A (accelerator) with 7 GS and the set D (decelerator) with 12
GS. The objective of the set D, with 12 GCC, is to reduce strongly the value of the external gravity
along the axis of the tube (in the opposite direction of the acceleration g 7 ). In this case, the value
of the external gravity, g ext , is reduced by the factor χ d12 g ext , where χ d = 10−2 . For example, if the
opening of the tube (α ) of the weapon is positioned on the Earth surface then g ext = 9.81m / s 2 is
reduced to χ d12 g ext and, after in the set A, it is increased by χ 7 . Without the set D, the back of the
weapon can explode.
7

References
[1] Cooper, P. W.(1996) Explosives Engineering, New
York: Wiley-VCH.

[2] Lee, J.H.(1984)"Dynamic parameters of gaseous


detonations" ,Ann. Rev. Fluid Mech., 16

[3] Fickett, W. and Davis, W.C. (1979)"Detonation",


University of California Press, Berkeley.

[4] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of the


Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific Journal
of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.

[5] De Aquino, F. (2010) Gravity Control by means of


Electromagnetic Field through Gas at Ultra-Low
Pressure, Pacific Journal of Science and Technology,
11(2) November 2010, pp.178-247, Physics/0701091.

[6] Quevedo, C. P. (1977) Eletromagnetismo, McGraw-


Hill, p. 270.

[7] Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. (1968) Physics, J. Willey &


Sons, Portuguese Version, Ed. USP, p.1124.

[8] Yashiro, H., et al., (2010) Measurement of Number


Density of Water Droplets in Aerosol by Laser-Induced
Breakdown, Applied Physics Express 3, 036601.
A System to convert Gravitational Energy
directly into Electrical Energy
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2012 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

We show that it is possible to produce strong gravitational accelerations on the free electrons of a
conductor in order to obtain electrical current. This allows the conversion of gravitational energy directly
into electrical energy. Here, we propose a system that can produce several tens of kilowatts of electrical
energy converted from the gravitational energy.

Key words: Modified theories of gravity, Electric fields effects on material flows, Electron tubes, Electrical instruments.
PACS: 04.50.Kd, 83.60.Np , 84.47.+w, 07.50.-e.

1. Introduction

In a previous paper [1], we have Here, it is shown that the electrical flow can
proposed a system to convert gravitational also be achieved by means of gravitational
energy into rotational kinetic energy forces (F = me g ) . The Gravitational
(Gravitational Motor), which can be Shielding Effect (BR Patent Number:
converted into electrical energy by means of PI0805046-5, July 31, 2008 [4]), shows that
a conventional electrical generator. Now, we a battery of Gravitational Shieldings can
propose a novel system to convert strongly intensify the gravitational
gravitational energy directly into electrical acceleration in any direction and, in this way,
energy. it is possible to produce strong gravitational
It is known that, in some materials, accelerations on the free electrons of a
called conductors, the free electrons are so conductor in order to obtain electrical
loosely held by the atom and so close to the current.
neighboring atoms that they tend to drift
randomly from one atom to its neighboring 2. Theory
atoms. This means that the electrons move in
all directions by the same amount. However, From the quantization of gravity it
if some outside force acts upon the free follows that the gravitational mass mg and
electrons their movement becomes not the inertial mass mi are correlated by means
random, and they move from atom to atom at of the following factor [1]:
the same direction of the applied force. This
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
flow of electrons (their electric charge) mg ⎪ ⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎪
through the conductor produces the electrical χ= ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (1)
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪
current, which is defined as a flow of electric ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
charge through a medium [2]. This charge is where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the
typically carried by moving electrons in a particle and Δp is the variation in the
conductor, but it can also be carried by ions
in an electrolyte, or by both ions and particle’s kinetic momentum; c is the speed
electrons in a plasma [3]. of light.
Thus, the electrical current arises in a When Δp is produced by the
conductor when an outside force acts upon absorption of a photon with wavelength λ , it
the free electrons. This force is called, in a is expressed by Δp = h λ . In this case, Eq.
generic way, of electromotive force (EMF). (1) becomes
Usually, it is of electrical nature (F = eE ) .
2
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ ε μ
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟
2
mg ⎪ ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜
⎛ h mi 0 c ⎞ ⎪
⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
c 2
(4)
v 2 ⎝ ⎠
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ If σ >> ωε , ω = 2πf , Eq. (4) reduces to
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ μrσ
⎪ ⎛ λ0 ⎞
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
⎢ ⎪
(2) nr = (5)
4πε0 f
⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝λ ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭ Thus, the wavelength of the incident
where λ0 = h mi 0 c is the De Broglie radiation (See Fig. 1) becomes
wavelength for the particle with rest inertial λ 4π
mass mi 0 . λmod =
v c f
= = = (6)
f nr nr μfσ
It has been shown that there is an
additional effect - Gravitational Shielding
effect - produced by a substance whose
v=c v = c/nr
gravitational mass was reduced or made
negative [5]. The effect extends beyond
substance (gravitational shielding) , up to a nr
certain distance from it (along the central
axis of gravitational shielding). This effect λ = c/f λmod = v/f = c/nr f
shows that in this region the gravity
acceleration, g 1 , is reduced at the same Fig. 1 – Modified Electromagnetic Wave. The
proportion, i.e., g1 = χ 1 g where wavelength of the electromagnetic wave can be
strongly reduced, but its frequency remains the same.
χ 1 = m g mi 0 and g is the gravity
If a lamina with thickness equal to ξ
acceleration before the gravitational contains n atoms/m3, then the number of
shielding). Consequently, after a second atoms per area unit is nξ . Thus, if the
gravitational shielding, the gravity will be
given by g 2 = χ 2 g 1 = χ 1 χ 2 g , where χ 2 is electromagnetic radiation with frequency
f incides on an area S of the lamina it
the value of the ratio m g mi 0 for the second
reaches nSξ atoms. If it incides on the total
gravitational shielding. In a generalized way, area of the lamina, S f , then the total number
we can write that after the nth gravitational
shielding the gravity, g n , will be given by of atoms reached by the radiation is
N = nS f ξ . The number of atoms per unit of
g n = χ 1 χ 2 χ 3 ...χ n g (3) volume, n , is given by

N0 ρ
This possibility shows that, by means n= (7)
A
of a battery of gravitational shieldings, we
can make particles acquire enormous where N 0 = 6.02 × 10 26 atoms / kmole is the
accelerations. In practice, this can lead to the Avogadro’s number; ρ is the matter density
conception of powerful particles accelerators,
of the lamina (in kg/m3) and A is the molar
kinetic weapons or weapons of shockwaves.
mass(kg/kmole).
From Electrodynamics we know that
When an electromagnetic wave incides
when an electromagnetic wave with
on the lamina, it strikes N f front atoms,
frequency f and velocity c incides on a
material with relative permittivity ε r , ( )
where Nf ≅ n Sf φm , φ m is the “diameter” of
relative magnetic permeability μ r and the atom. Thus, the electromagnetic wave
incides effectively on an area S = Nf Sm , where
electrical conductivity σ , its velocity is
reduced to v = c nr where nr is the index of S m = 14 πφm2 is the cross section area of one atom.
refraction of the material, given by [6]
3
After these collisions, it carries out ncollisions ⎛ P ⎞
ntotal photons N collisions = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nl Sξ ) (12)
with the other atoms (See Fig.2). ⎝ hf ⎠

Substitution of Eq. (12) into Eq. (11) yields

⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg (l ) ⎪ ⎡⎛ P ⎞ λ0 ⎤ ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nl Sξ ) ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (13)

mi 0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎣⎝ hf ⎠ λ ⎥⎦ ⎥
⎥⎦⎪⎭
atom
Sm ⎩ ⎣⎢
Wave
Fig. 2 – Collisions inside the lamina. Substitution of P given by Eq. (9) into Eq.
(13) gives

Thus, the total number of collisions in the ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫


volume Sξ is mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ N f SmD⎞⎛ n Sξ ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎜ l ⎟ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (14)
2 ⎟⎜
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎣⎝ f ⎟ ⎥
⎠⎝ mi0(l )c ⎠ λ ⎥⎦ ⎥⎪
Ncollisions= Nf +ncollisions= nlSφm +(nlSξ −nmSφm) = ⎩ ⎣ ⎢ ⎦⎭
= nlSξ (8)
Substitution of N f ≅ (nl S f )φm and S = N f Sm
The power density, D , of the radiation on the into Eq. (14) results
lamina can be expressed by
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nl3S 2f Sm2φm2ξD ⎞ 1 ⎤
⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎪⎬ (15)
mg(l )
D=
P
=
P
(9 ) = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎥
⎢⎣⎜⎝ mi0(l )cf ⎟⎠ λ ⎥⎦
2
S N f Sm mi0(l ) ⎪
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦⎪
⎩ ⎭
We can express the total mean number where mi 0(l ) = ρ (l )V(l ) .
of collisions in each atom, n1 , by means of Now, considering that the lamina is
the following equation inside an ELF electromagnetic field with
E and B , then we can write that [7]
ntotal photons N collisions
n1 = (10 ) n r (l ) E 2
N D= (16 )
2μ 0 c
Since in each collision a momentum h λ is
transferred to the atom, then the total Substitution of Eq. (16) into Eq. (15) gives
momentum transferred to the lamina will be
Δp = (n1 N ) h λ . Therefore, in accordance ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nr(l )nl3S2f Sm2φm2ξE2 ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
with Eq. (1), we can write that = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1 (17)
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎜ 2μ0mi0(l )c2 f 2 ⎟ λ ⎥ ⎥⎬
⎢ ⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎦ ⎥⎪
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡ λ0 ⎤ ⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢(n1 N) ⎥ −1⎥⎬ =
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎣ λ⎦ ⎥⎪ In the case in which the area S f is just the
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ area of the cross-section of the lamina (Sα ) ,
⎪ ⎢ ⎡ λ0 ⎤ ⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢ntotal photonsNcollisions ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (11) we obtain from Eq. (17), considering that
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎣ λ⎦ ⎥⎪ mi0(l) = ρ(l)Sαξ , the following expression
⎦⎭

Since Eq. (8) gives N collisions = nl Sξ , we get


4
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ N 0 ρ air
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢
2
⎡⎛ nr(l )nl3Sα Sm2φm2 E2 ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪ nair = = 5.16×1025 atoms/ m3 (23)
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (18) AN
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎜
⎢⎣⎝ 2 μ ρ
0 (l )c2 2 ⎟
f ⎥
⎠ λ ⎥⎦ ⎥⎪ The parallel metallic plates (p), shown

⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ in Fig.3 are subjected to different drop
If the electrical conductivity of the lamina, voltages. The two sets of plates (D), placed
σ (l ) , is such that σ (l ) >> ωε , then the value of on the extremes of the tube, are subjected to
λ is given by Eq. (6), i.e., V ( D )rms = 3 .847 kV at f = 60 Hz , while the
4π central set of plates (A) is subjected to
λ = λmod = (19) V ( A )rms = 7 .827 kV at f = 60 Hz . Since
μfσ
Substitution of Eq. (19) into Eq. (18) gives d = 14mm , then the intensity of the electric
field, which passes through the 36 cylindrical
mg(l ) ⎧⎪ ⎡ nr2(l )nl6Sα2Sm4φm4σ(l ) E4 ⎤⎫⎪
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ −1⎥⎬ (20) air laminas (each one with 5mm thickness)
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ 16πμ0ρ(2l )c4 f 3 ⎥⎪ of the two sets (D), is
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
E( D )rms = V( D )rms d = 2.748 × 105 V / m
Note that E = E m sin ωt .The average value
and the intensity of the electric field, which
for E 2 is equal to 1 2 E m2 because E varies passes through the 19 cylindrical air laminas
sinusoidaly ( E m is the maximum value of the central set (A), is given by
for E ). On the other hand, E rms = E m 2. E( A)rms = V( A)rms d = 5.591× 105 V / m
Note that the metallic rings (5mm
Consequently we can change E 4 by E rms4
,
thickness) are positioned in such way to
and the equation above can be rewritten as block the electric field out of the cylindrical
follows air laminas. The objective is to turn each one
m
χ = g (l ) = of these laminas into a Gravity Control Cells
mi0(l ) (GCC) [5]. Thus, the system shown in Fig. 3
has 3 sets of GCC. Two with 18 GCC each,
⎧ ⎡ nr2(l )nl6Sα2 Sm4φm4σ (l ) Erms
4 ⎤⎫ and one with 19 GCC. The two sets with 18

= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + − 1⎥⎪⎬ (21) GCC each are positioned at the extremes of
⎪⎩ ⎢ 16πμ0 ρ(l )c f
2 4 3
⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭ the tube (D). They work as gravitational
Now consider the system shown in decelerator while the other set with 19 GCC
Fig.3. It was designed to convert (A) works as a gravitational accelerator,
Gravitational Energy directly into Electrical intensifying the gravity acceleration
Energy. Thus, we can say that it is a produced by the mass M gs of the Lead
Gravitational EMF Source. sphere. According to Eq. (3), this gravity,
Inside the system there is a dielectric after the 19 th GCC becomes g19 = χ19GMgs r02 ,
tube ( ε r ≅ 1) with the following characteristics:
where χ = mg (l ) mi (l ) given by Eq. (21) and
α = 8mm (diameter), Sα =πα2 4 = 5.03×10−5 m2 .
r0 = 9mm is the distance between the center
Inside the tube there is a Lead sphere
( ρ s = 11340 Kg / m 3 ) with 4mm radius and of the Lead sphere and the surface of the first
GCC of the set (A).
mass M gs = 3.04 × 10 −3 kg . The tube is filled The objective of the sets (D), with 18
with air at ambient temperature and 1atm. GCC each, is to reduce strongly the value of
Thus, inside the tube, the air density is the external gravity along the axis of the
ρ air = 1 . 2 kg .m − 3 (22 ) tube. In this case, the value of the external
The number of atoms of air (Nitrogen) per gravity, g ext , is reduced by the factor χ d18 gext ,
unit of volume, n air , according to Eq.(7), is where χ d = 10−2 . For example, if the base
given by BS of the system is positioned on the Earth
5

d = 14 mm
α=8mm Dielectric tube
εr ≅ 1
Air
1 ξ = 5 mm

Air Air 2 Air Metallic ring


1 atm 300K (5 mm thickness)
D Parallel plate
ED(rms) capacitor (p)
17
Lead sphere Electric field of
(8 mm diameter) 18 E capacitor

Air 3.847kV
Mg 60Hz
r0=9mm
1 Aluminum
Air 7.827kV
Air 2 60Hz 100 mm
Iron rod
EA(rms) r+
(8 mm diameter,
100 mm height) A Inductor
Fe +Fp+Fn = 0
18 1 turn (inner radius: r =5mm)
ΣF=0
19
is = 58.6A, # 1 AWG Cable
T 500AWG
xB = 100 mm B 2.2kV 220V 60Hz
128.9 kW
2.5m T 60Hz
Np =100 turns
1 Ns =10 turns
Air Nucleus
2 i=4A
# 14 AWG μ r = 60
(iron cast)
D 5Ω
80W
Air 17
Relay
18 20V
1μHz
BS Initialization
source ~

Converter
60Hz / 1μHz

Transformer

Fig. 3 – A Gravitational EMF Source (Developed from a process patented in July, 31 2008, PI0805046-5)
6
surface, then gext = 9.81m / s 2
is reduced ⎛ M gs ⎞
Fe = mge ae = χ Be me ⎜⎜ χ 7 G 2 ⎟⎟ (28)
to χ d18 gext and, after the set A, it is increased ⎝ r0 ⎠
by χ 19 . Since the system is designed for
χ = −6.4138 , then the gravity acceleration ⎛ M gs ⎞
Fp = mgp a p = χ Bp m p ⎜⎜ χ 7 G 2 ⎟⎟ (29)
on the sphere becomes ⎝ r0 ⎠
χ χd gext = 2.1×10 m/ s , this value is much
19 18 −20 2

smaller than gsphere = GMgs rs2 =1.27×10−8 m/ s 2 . ⎛ M gs ⎞


Fn = mgn an = χ Bn mn ⎜⎜ χ 7 G 2 ⎟⎟ (30)
The electrical conductivity of air, ⎝ r0 ⎠
inside the dielectric tube, is equal to the The factors χ B are due to the electrons,
electrical conductivity of Earth’s atmosphere protons and neutrons are inside the magnetic
near the land, whose average value is field B.
σ air ≅ 1 × 10 −14 S / m [8]. This value is of In order to make null the resultant of
fundamental importance in order to obtain these forces in the Iron (and also in the
the convenient values of the electrical current sphere) we must have Fe = F p + Fn , i.e.,
i and the value of χ and χ d , which are m e χ Be = m p χ Bp + m n χ Bn (31)
given by Eq. (21), i.e., It is important to note that the set with
⎧ ⎡ nr2(air) nair
6
Sα2 S m4 φm4σ air E(4A)rms ⎤⎫⎪ 19 GCC (A) cannot be turned on before the

χ = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + − 1⎥⎬ = magnetic field B is on. Because the
⎪⎩ ⎢ 16πμ0 ρ air 2 4 3
c f ⎥⎪ gravitational accelerations on the Iron rod
⎣ ⎦⎭
{ [
= 1 − 2 1 + 2.165× 10−22 E(4A)rms − 1 ]} (24)
and Lead sphere will be enormous
( )
χ 19 GM gs r02 ≅ 5.4 × 10 6 m / s 2 , and will
explode the device.
⎧⎪ ⎡ nr2(air)nairSα SmφmσairE(4D)rms ⎤⎫⎪
6 2 4 4
The force Fe is the electromotive force
χd = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ −1⎥⎬ =
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 16πμ0ρair2 4 3
cf ⎥⎦⎪ (EMF), which produces the electrical current.
⎭ Here, this force has gravitational nature. The
{ [
= 1− 2 1+ 2.165×10−22E(4D)rms −1 ]} (25) corresponding force of electrical nature
is Fe = eE . Thus, we can write that
where n r ( air ) = ε r μ r ≅ 1 , since (σ << ωε ) ;
m ge a e = eE (32 )
nair = 5.16 ×1025 atoms/ m3 , φm = 1.55×10−10 m , The electrons inside the Iron rod (See Fig. 3)
Sm = πφm2 4 = 1.88×10−20m2 and f = 60 Hz . are subjected to the gravity acceleration
produced by the sphere, and increased by the
Since E ( A )rms = 5 . 591 × 10 V / m
5
and
19 GCC in the region (A). The result is
E ( D )rms = 2.748 × 10 V / m , we get
5
M gs
a e = χ 19 g s = χ 19 G 2 (33 )
χ = −6.4138 (26) r0
Comparing Eq. (32) with Eq.(33), we obtain
and ⎛ m ge ⎞ 19 M gs
E = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ χ G 2 (34)
χ d ≅ 10−2 (27) ⎝ e ⎠ r0

The electron mobility, μ e , considering


Note that there is a uniform magnetic
field, B , through the Iron rod. Then, the various scattering mechanisms can be
gravitational forces due to the gravitational obtained by solving the Boltzmann equation
mass of the sphere (M gs ) acting on electrons in the relaxation time approximation. The
result is [9]
(Fe ) , protons (Fp ) and neutrons (Fp ) of the
Iron rod, are respectively expressed by the
following relations
7
eτ ⎧⎪ ⎡45.56π 2re4Brms
4 ⎤⎫⎪
μe = (35) χBe = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ −1⎥⎬ (41)
m ge
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ μ02me2c2 f 2 ⎥⎦⎪⎭
where τ is the average relaxation time over Similarly, in the case of proton and neutron
the electron energies and m ge is the we can write that
gravitational mass of electron, which is the ⎧ ⎡ 45.56π 2rp4 Brms
4 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎪
effective mass of electron. χBp = ⎨1− 2 1+ 2 2 2 2 −1⎥⎬ (42)
Since τ can be expressed by ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ μ0 mpc f ⎥⎪
⎦⎭
τ = m geσ ne 2 [10], then Eq. (35) can be
⎧ ⎡ 45.56π 2 rn4 Brms
4 ⎤⎫⎪
written as follows ⎪
σ
χBn = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2 2 2 2 −1⎥⎬ (43)
μe = (36) ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ μ0 mn c f ⎥⎦⎪
ne ⎭
Thus, the drift velocity will be expressed by The radius of free electron is re = 6.87×10−14 m
σ ⎛ m ge ⎞ 19 M gs (See Appendix A) and the radius of protons
v d = μ e E = ⎜⎜ ⎟χ G 2 (37)
ne ⎝ e ⎟⎠ r0 inside the atoms (nuclei) is rp = 1.2 ×10−15 m ,
and the electrical current density expressed rn ≅ r p , then we obtain from Eqs. (41) (42)
by and (43) the following expressions:
⎛ m ge ⎞ 19 M gs ⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫⎪
j e = ρ qe v d = σ iron ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ χ G 2 (38 ) ⎪
χ Be = ⎨1− 2 1+ 8.49×10 2 −1⎥⎬

4
4 Brms
(44)
⎝ e ⎠ r0
⎢ ⎥
⎪⎩ ⎣ f ⎦⎪⎭
where ρ qe = ne , and m ge = χ Be me .
Therefore, Eq. (38) reduces to ⎧ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫⎪
⎪ −9 Brms

χ Bn ≅ χ Bp = ⎨1− 2 1+ 2.35×10 −1⎥⎬ (45)
⎛m ⎞ M gs 2
je = σ iron ⎜ e ⎟χ Be χ 19G 2 (39) ⎪⎩ ⎣ ⎢ f ⎥⎦⎪

⎝ e ⎠ r0
Then, from Eq. (31) it follows that
In order to calculate the expressions of m e χ Be ≅ 2m p χ Bp (46 )
χ Be , χ Bp and χ Bn we start from Eq. (17), for
Substitution of Eqs. (44) and (45) into Eq.
the particular case of single electron in the region
(46) gives
subjected to the magnetic field B (Iron rod). In
⎧ ⎡ 4 ⎤ ⎫⎪
this case, we must substitute nr (l ) by ⎪ 4 Brms
⎨ 1 − 2 ⎢ 1 + 8 .49 × 10 − 1⎥⎬
n riron = (μ r (iron )σ iron 4πε 0 f )2 ;
2
⎢ ⎥⎦ ⎪
1
nl by ⎪⎩ ⎣ f
⎭ = 3666.3 (47)
1 Ve = 1 43 πre3 ( re is the electrons radius), S f ⎧ ⎡ 4 ⎤ ⎫⎪
⎪ −9 Brms
⎨ 1 − 2 ⎢ 1 + 2 .35 × 10 − 1 ⎥⎬
by (SSAe )ρ eVe ( SSAe is the specific surface ⎢⎣ f2 ⎥⎦ ⎪
⎪⎩ ⎭
area for electrons in this case:
For f = 1μHz , we get
SSAe = 12 Ae me = 12 Ae ρ e Ve = 2πre2 ρ eVe ),
S m by S e = π re2 , ξ by φ m = 2re and mi 0(l )
{1 − 2[ 1 + 8.49 × 10 B 6 4
−1 ]} = 3666.3 (48)
{1 − 2[ 1 + 2.35 × 10 B − 1]}
rms
by me . The result is −7 4

⎧⎪ ⎤⎫⎪
rms
⎡ 45.56π 2 re4 nriron 2
E4
χ Be = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + − 1⎥⎬ (40) whence we obtain
⎪⎩ ⎢
⎣ μ 2 2 4 4 2
0 em c f λ ⎥⎦⎪⎭ B rms = 2 .5 m T (49 )
Electrodynamics tells us that Consequently, Eq. (44) and (45) yields
E rms = vBrms = (c n r (iron ) )Brms , and Eq. (19) χ Be = −3666.3 (50)
gives λ = λmod = (4π μironσ iron f ) . Substitution of and
these expressions into Eq. (40) yields
8
χ Bn ≅ χ Bp ≅ 0.999 (51)
In order to the forces Fe and F p have ⎛m ⎞ M gs
je = σ iron ⎜ e ⎟ χ Be χ 19G 2
contrary direction (such as occurs in the ⎝ e ⎠ r0
case, in which the nature of the electromotive
force is electrical) we must have χ Be < 0 Since σ iron = 1.03 × 10 7 S / m , χ = −6.4138 ,
and χ Bn ≅ χ Bp > 0 (See equations (28) (29) χ Be = −3666 .3 , M gs = 3.04 × 10 −3 kg and
and (30)), i.e., r0 = 9mm , we obtain
⎧⎪ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫⎪ je = 1.164×106 A / m2
⎨ 1− 2⎢ 1+ 8 .49×10 4 Brms
2
−1 ⎥⎬ < 0 (52)
⎪⎩ ⎣ ⎢ f ⎥
⎦⎪⎭ Given that Sα = πα 2 4 = 5.03 × 10−5 m 2 we get
and
⎧⎪ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫⎪ isource = je Sα ≅ 58.6 A
⎨ 1− 2⎢ 1+ 2.35 ×10−9 Brms
2
−1⎥⎬ > 0 (53)
⎪⎩ ⎣ ⎢ f ⎥
⎦⎪⎭ The resistance of the Iron rod is
This means that we must have ⎛ xB ⎞
Rsource = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 1.93 × 10 −4 Ω
0.06 f < B rms < 151 .86 f (54 ) ⎝ σ iron Sα ⎠
In the case of f = 1μHz = 10 −6 Hz the result is Thus, the dissipated power by the Iron rod is
6.5×10−5 T < Brms < 0.151T (55) Pd = Rsource isource
2
≅ 0.66W (56)
Note the cylindrical format (1turn, Note that this Gravitational EMF
r = 5mm ) of the inductor (Figs. 3 and 6). By source is a Current Source. As we known, a
using only 1 turn it is possible to eliminate Current Source is a device that keeps
the capacitive effect between the turns. This invariable the electric current between its
is highly relevant in this case because the terminals. So, if the source is connected to an
extremely-low frequency f = 1μHz would external load, and the resistance of the load
strongly increase the capacitive reactance varies, then the own source will increase or
( X C ) associated to the inductor. When a decrease its output voltage in order to
maintain invariable the value of the current in
current i passes through this inductor, the the circuit.
value of B inside the Iron rod is given by
B = μ r μ0i xB where x B = 100mm is Rsource
inductor’s length and μ r = 4000 (very pure
Iron). However, the effective permeability is
defined as μr(eff) = μr 1+(μr −1) Nm, where N m is
Vsource ~ isource V R
the average demagnetizing factor [11]. Since Load
the iron rod has 5mm diameter and 100mm
height, then we obtain the factor
γ = 100mm / 5mm = 20 which gives N m = 0.02 Fig. 4 – Current Source
(See table V[12]). Therefore, we obtain
Based on Kirchhoff’s laws we can
μr (eff ) = 49.4 . Thus, for Brms = 2.5mT (See Eq.
express the electric voltage between the
(49)) ,i.e., B = μ r (eff ) μ 0 i x B = 2.5mT , the value terminals of the Current Source, Vs , by means
of i must be i = 4 A . Then, the resistor in of the following relation (See Fig.4):
Fig.3. must have 20V 4 A = 5Ω . The V source = R source i source + V
dissipated power is 80W. where V is the voltage applied on the
Let us now calculate the current charge.
density through the Iron rod (Fig. 3). The transformer T connected to
According to Eq. (39) we have Gravitational EMF Source (See Fig. 3) is
9
designed * to make the voltage Since σ iron = 1.03×10 S / m
7
and
V = 2.2kV @60Hz. Since Rsource isource <<V , then χ Be = −3666.3 , then the value of je is
we can write that V source ≅ V . Thus, in the ⎛m ⎞ M gs
primary circuit, the voltage is je = σ iron ⎜ e ⎟ χ Be χ 19G 2 =
⎝ e ⎠ r0
V p = V source ≅ V = 2.2kV and the current is
= 5.29 × 105 A / m 2
i p = isource = 58.6 A ; the winding turns ratio
and
is N p N s = 10 ; thus, in the secondary circuit isource = je Sα ≅ 1.66 A
the output voltage is Vs = 220V @ 60 Hz and
the current is is = 586A . Consequently, the The resistance of the iron rod is given by
source output power is ⎛ xB ⎞
Rsource = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 3.1× 10 −4 Ω
P = V s i s = 128 .9 kW
⎝ σ iron Sα ⎠
Note that, in order to initializing the Thus, the dissipated power by the Iron rod is
Gravitational EMF Source, is used an Pd = Rsourceisource
2
≅ 0.9mW
external source, which is removed after the
initialization of the Gravitational EMF In the case of the miniaturized source, the
Source. iron rod has 2mm diameter and 10mm
Now it will be shown that this height, then we obtain the factor
Gravitational EMF source can be γ = 10mm / 2mm = 5 which gives
miniaturized. N m = 0.06 (See table V[12]). Therefore, we
We start making x B = 10mm and obtain μ r (eff ) = 16.6 .
ξ = 0.5mm ; α = 2mm, d A = 8mm , d D = 16mm Since Vs = V A( rms) = VD( rms) = 26mV and
and r0 = 1.5mm (See Fig. 5). The sphere with the resistance of the resistor R1 is
2mm diameter is now of Tungsten carbide 21.6mΩ / 31mW (See Fig.5), then the current
(W+Cobalt) with 15,630kg / m3 density. from the first source is i = 1.2A. Thus, we get
Then M gs = 6.54×10−5 kg and Sα = 3.14×10 m .
−6 2
B = μr (eff ) μ0i xB = 2.5mT .
Thus, for f = 1μHz Eq.(24) gives Since the current through the second
{ [
χ = 1− 2 1+ 0.1822E(4A)rms −1 ]} (57) source is isource = 1.66 A , and, if the voltage
required by the charge, is V = 3.7V (usual
For VA(rms) = 26mV and d A = 8mm we get lithium batteries’ voltage), then the source
E( A )rms = 3.250V / m , and Eq. (57) yields voltage is given by
χ = −6.236 Vsource = Rsource i source + V ≅ 3.7V
For VD(rms) = 26mV and d D = 16mm we get Consequently, the miniaturized source can
provide the power:
E ( D )rms = 1.625V / m and χ d = −0.01 . P = V source i sorce = (3 . 7V )1 .66 A ≅ 6 . 1W
This is the magnitude of the power of lithium
*
The impedances are respectively, batteries used in mobiles. Note that the
( )
Z p ≅ 2πfL p = 2πf μ r μ 0 N p2 A p l p = 14.36Ω miniaturized source of Gravitational EMF
Z s ≅ 2πfLs = 2πf (μ μ )
r 0 N As l s = 6.154 × 10 Ω
2
s
−4 does not need to be recharged and it
occupies a volume (8mm x 70mm x 80mm.
Z p (total ) = Z p + Z reflected = Z p + (N p N s )Z s = 37.56Ω See Fig.6) similar to the volume of the
where μr = 60 (iron cast), N p = 100, Ns = 10, mobile batteries. In addition, note that the
l p = l s = 0.18m , φ p = 107.6mm , φs = 136.8mm , dimensions of this miniaturized source can
be further reduced (possibly down to a few
A p = 0 .0091 m 2 , A s = 0 .0147 m 2 . millimeters or less).
10

Metallic ring dA = 8 mm dA = 8 mm
(0.5 mm thickness) dD = 16 mm dD = 16 mm 3.7V DC
α=2mm α=2mm 6.1W

Air Air
ξ = 0.5 mm 1 1

Air Air 2 Air 2 Air


Dielectric tube 1 atm 300K
εr ≅ 1 D D
ED(rms) 17 17
Full
26mV
1μHz
18 E 18 wave
Tungsten carbide sphere rectifier
(2 mm diameter)
Mg Mg
Lead sphere
(2 mm diameter) r0=1.5mm
1 1
Air Air
EA(rms) 2 2

A A V=3.7V
26mV
Iron rod 1μHz 18 18
(2 mm diameter, is=1.66A
10 mm height) 19 19
Printed circuit board Vs=26mV Vs=V=3.7V
xB = 10 mm B i=1.2 A B
2.5m T 2.5m T
Cylindrical Inductor R1
1 turn (inner radius: r = 2mm) 80mm
1 1
26mV Air Air
1μHz 2 2
R1 21.6mΩ / 31mW
D D
26mV
~ Air 17 17
1μHz
18 18

Initialization 70 mm
source

Fig. 5 – A Miniaturized Source of Gravitational EMF


11
Iron rod 18mm
(8 mm diameter,
100mm height)
3.847kV/60Hz 18mm
3 8 3
1
Aluminum 7.827kV/60Hz 12
Inductor
1 turn (inner radius: 1
B R=5mm) 2.2kV/60Hz Cross-section

220V 60Hz
128.9 kW
μ r μ0i
B= = 2.5mT
2r 5Ω
80W
i = 4 A; r = 5mm
20V
μ r ≅ 49.4 1μHz
Initialization
source

Transformers and
Converter (60Hz/1μHz)
(inside)

High-power Source
12mm
2
1
Cross-section 6
1
μ r μ0i 26mV
B= = 2.5mT 1μHz
2r 26mV
i = 1.2 A; r = 2mm 1μHz
3.7V DC
μ r ≅ 16 6.1W
80mm
Full wave
Initialization rectifier
source
R1
••

70mm 8mm thickness

Low-power Source

Fig. 6 – Schematic Diagram in 3D of the Gravitational EMF Sources


12

Appendix A: The “Geometrical Radii” of Electron and Proton

It is known that the frequency of


oscillation of a simple spring oscillator is 1 Gmge χe
f= ( A6)
2π Re3
1
f =
K
( A1) The value of χ e varies with the density of
2π m
energy [1]. When the electron and the
positron are distant from each other and the
where m is the inertial mass attached to the
local density of energy is small, the value of
spring and K is the spring constant (in
N·m−1). In this case, the restoring force χ e becomes very close to 1. However, when
exerted by the spring is linear and given by the electron and the positron are penetrating
one another, the energy densities in each
F = − Kx ( A2) particle become very strong due to the
proximity of their electrical charges e and,
where x is the displacement from the consequently, the value of χ e strongly
equilibrium position. increases. In order to calculate the value of
Now, consider the gravitational force: χ e under these conditions ( x = r = Re ), we
For example, above the surface of the Earth, start from the expression of correlation
the force follows the familiar Newtonian between electric charge q and gravitational
function, i.e., F = − GM g ⊕ m g r 2 , where mass, obtained in a previous work [1]:
M g ⊕ the mass of Earth is, m g is the
gravitational mass of a particle and r is the q = 4πε 0 G m g (imaginary ) i ( A7 )
distance between the centers. Below Earth’s
surface the force is linear and given by where m g (imaginary ) is the imaginary
GMg⊕mg
F =− r ( A3) gravitational mass, and i = − 1 .
R⊕3
where R⊕ is the radius of Earth. In the case of electron, Eq. (A7) gives
By comparing (A3) with (A2) we
obtain qe = 4πε0G mge(imaginary) i =
K
=
K GMg⊕ ⎛ r ⎞
= 3 ⎜ ⎟ ( A4) (
= 4πε0G χ e mi0e(imaginary)i = )
( )
mg χ m R⊕ ⎝ x ⎠
= 4πε0G − χe 2
mi0e(real)i 2 =
Making x = r = R⊕ , and substituting (A4) 3

into (A1) gives = 4πε G (


0
2
3
)
χe mi0e(real) = −1.6 ×10−19 C ( A8)

1 GMg⊕ χ where we obtain


f= ( A5)
2π R⊕3
χ e = −1.8 × 10 21 ( A9)
In the case of an electron and a positron, we
substitute M g ⊕ by m ge , χ by χ e and R⊕ by This is therefore, the value of χ e increased
Re , where Re is the radius of electron (or by the strong density of energy produced by
the electrical charges e of the two particles,
positron). Thus, Eq. (A5) becomes under previously mentioned conditions.
13
Given that m ge = χ e mi 0 e , Eq. (A6) Thus, the result is
yields
1 2
1 Gχ e2 mi0e ⎛ G ⎞3 ⎛ χ ph ⎞ 3
f= ( A10) Rp = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = 3.72×10−17 m ( A17)
⎜ mi0 p ⎟ ⎜ 2π c 2 ⎟
2π Re3 ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Note that these radii, given by
From Quantum Mechanics, we know that Equations ( A14) and ( A17) , are the radii of
free electrons and free protons (when the
hf = mi 0 c 2 ( A11) particle and antiparticle (in isolation)
penetrate themselves mutually).
where h is the Planck’s constant. Thus, in Inside the atoms (nuclei) the radius of
the case of mi 0 = mi 0e we get protons is well-known. For example, protons,
as the hydrogen nuclei, have a radius given
by R p ≅ 1.2 ×10−15 m [14, 15]. The strong
mi 0e c 2
f= ( A12) increase in respect to the value given by Eq.
h
(A17) is due to the interaction with the
electron of the atom.
By comparing (A10) and (A12) we
conclude that

mi 0e c 2 1 Gχ e2 mi 0e
= ( A13)
h 2π Re3

Isolating the radius Re , we get:

1 2
⎛ G ⎞ 3 ⎛ χeh ⎞ 3
Re = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = 6.87×10−14 m ( A14)
⎝ i 0e ⎠ ⎝ 2π c ⎠
2
m

Compare this value with the Compton sized


electron, which predicts Re = 3.86 × 10 −13 m
and also with standardized result recently
obtained of Re = 4 − 7 × 10 −13 m [13].
In the case of proton, we have

q p = 4πε0G mgp(imaginary) i =

(
= 4πε0G χ p mi0 p(imaginary)i = )
(
= 4πε0G − χ p 2
3
mi0 p(real)i 2 =)
= 4πε G(
0
2
)
χ p mi0 p(real) = −1.6×10−19 C ( A15)
3

where we obtain

χ p = −9.7 × 1017 ( A16)


14

References
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the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific
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Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2012 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

We show that by intensifying the gravitational interaction between electron pairs it is possible to produce
pair binding energies on the order of 10−1eV, enough to keep electron’s pairs (Cooper Pairs) at ambient
temperatures. By means of this method, metals can be transformed into superconductors at ambient
temperature.

Key words: Modified theories of gravity, Theories and models of superconducting state, superconducting materials,
Nonconventional mechanisms.
PACS: 04.50.Kd, 74.20.-z, 74.70.-b, 74.20.Mn.

1. Introduction
+ + + +

A pair of weakly bound electrons in a


superconductor is called Cooper pair; it was
+ +
first described in 1956 by Leon Cooper [1]. + +
As showed by Cooper, an attraction between -
electrons in a metal can cause a paired state + +
of electrons to have a lower energy than the + +
Fermi energy, which implies that the pair is
bound. In conventional superconductors, this
attraction is due to the electron–phonon + + + +
interaction. The Cooper pair state is (a)
responsible for superconductivity, as
described in the BCS theory developed by + + + +
John Bardeen, John Schrieffer and Leon
Cooper for which they shared the 1972 Nobel
Prize [2]. + +
In spite of Cooper pairing to be a + +
-
-
quantum effect the reason for the pairing can + +
be seen from a simplified classical + +
explanation [3]. In order to understand how
an attraction between two electrons can
occur, it is necessary to consider the + + + +
interaction with the positive ions lattice of
(b)
the metal. Usually an electron in a metal
behaves as a free particle. Its negative charge + + + +
causes attraction between the positive ions
that make up the rigid lattice of the metal.
This attraction distorts the ion lattice, moving + + + +
the ions slightly toward the electron,
increasing the positive charge density of the - -
lattice in the local (See gray glow in Fig.1 + + + +
(a)). Then, another electron is attracted to the
positive charge density (gray glow) created
by the first electron distorting the lattice + + + +
around itself. This attraction can overcome
the electrons' repulsion due to their negative (c)
Fig. 1 – Cooper Pair Formation
charge and create a binding between the two
2
electrons (See Fig.1 (b)). The electrons can ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎢ ⎛ h mi 0 c ⎞ ⎪
then travel through the lattice as a single = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
entity, known as a Cooper Pair (See Fig.1 mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
(c)). While conventional conduction is
resisted by thermal vibrations within the ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ λ0 ⎞ ⎪
lattice, Cooper Pairs carry the supercurrent = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
⎢ (2)
relatively unresisted by thermal vibrations. ⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝λ ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭
The energy of the pairing interaction is
quite weak, of the order of 10−3eV, and
where λ0 = h mi0 c is the DeBroglie
thermal energy can easily break the pairs. So
only at low temperatures, are a significant wavelength for the particle with rest inertial
number of the electrons in a metal in Cooper mass mi 0 .
pairs. In general, the momentum variation
Here is showed that, by intensifying the Δp is expressed by Δp = FΔt where F is the
gravitational interaction * [4] between applied force during a time interval Δt . Note
electrons pairs, it is possible to produce pair that there is no restriction concerning the
binding energies on the order of 10−1eV, nature of the force, i.e., it can be mechanical,
enough to keep them paired at ambient electromagnetic, etc. For example, we can
temperatures. Thus, by this way, metals at look on the momentum variation Δp as due
ambient temperature can have a significant to absorption or emission of electromagnetic
number of the electrons in Cooper pairs, energy by the particle.
transforming such metals in superconductors
This means that, by means of
at ambient temperature.
electromagnetic fields, the gravitational mass
can be decreased down to become negative
2. Theory and increased (independently of the inertial
mass mi ). In this way, the gravitational
The quantization of gravity showed
that the gravitational mass mg and the forces can be intensified. Consequently, we
inertial mass mi are correlated by means of can use, for example, oscillating magnetic
the following factor [4]: fields in order to intensify the gravitational
interaction between electrons pairs, in order
to produce pair binding energies enough to
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ keep them paired at ambient temperatures.
mg ⎪ ⎛ Δ ⎞ ⎪
χ= ⎢ ⎜
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜
p

⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (1) We will show that the magnetic field used in
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ this case must have extremely-low frequency
(ELF).
where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the From Electrodynamics we know that
when an electromagnetic wave with
particle and Δp is the variation in the
frequency f and velocity c incides on a
particle’s kinetic momentum; c is the speed
material with relative permittivity ε r ,
of light.
When Δp is produced by the relative magnetic permeability μ r and
absorption of a photon with wavelength λ , it electrical conductivity σ , its velocity is
is expressed by Δp = h λ . In this case, Eq. reduced to v = c nr where nr is the index of
(1) becomes refraction of the material, given by [5]

* εμ
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ (3)
De Aquino, F. (2008) Process and Device for Controlling c 2
the Locally the Gravitational Mass and the Gravity v 2 ⎝ ⎠
Acceleration, BR Patent Number: PI0805046-5, July 31,
2008.
3
If σ >> ωε , ω = 2πf , Eq. (3) reduces to the atom. Thus, the electromagnetic wave
incides effectively on an area S = Nf Sm , where
μrσ Sm = 14 πφm2 is the cross section area of one atom.
nr = (4)
4πε0 f After these collisions, it carries out ncollisions
with the other atoms (See Fig.3).
Thus, the wavelength of the incident
radiation (See Fig. 2) becomes

λ 4π
λmod =
v c f
= = = (5)
f nr nr μfσ
atom
Sm
Wave
Fig. 3 – Collisions inside the lamina.
v=c v = c/nr

Thus, the total number of collisions in the


nr volume Sξ is
λ = c/f λmod = v/f = c/nr f
Ncollisions= Nf +ncollisions= nlSφm +(nlSξ −nmSφm) =

Fig. 2 – Modified Electromagnetic Wave. The = nmSξ (7)


wavelength of the electromagnetic wave can be
strongly reduced, but its frequency remains the same. The power density, D , of the radiation on the
lamina can be expressed by
If a lamina with thickness equal to ξ
contains n atoms/m3, then the number of
D=
P
=
P
(8 )
S N f Sm
atoms per area unit is nξ . Thus, if the We can express the total mean number
electromagnetic radiation with frequency of collisions in each atom, n1 , by means of
f incides on an area S of the lamina it
the following equation
reaches nSξ atoms. If it incides on the total
area of the lamina, S f , then the total number n total N collisions
of atoms reached by the radiation is
n1 =
photons
(9 )
N
N = nS f ξ . The number of atoms per unit of
volume, n , is given by Since in each collision a momentum h λ is
transferred to the atom, then the total
N0 ρ momentum transferred to the lamina will be
n= (6) Δp = (n1 N ) h λ . Therefore, in accordance
A
with Eq. (1), we can write that

where N 0 = 6.02 × 10 26 atoms / kmole is the ⎧ ⎡


λ0 ⎤ ⎤⎫⎪
2
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡
Avogadro’s number; ρ is the matter density = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢(n1 N ) ⎥ −1⎥⎬ =
of the lamina (in kg/m3) and A is the molar mi0(l ) ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎣ λ ⎦ ⎥⎪
⎦⎭
mass(kg/kmole).
⎧ ⎡
λ0 ⎤ ⎤⎫⎪
2
When an electromagnetic wave incides ⎪ ⎢ ⎡
on the lamina, it strikes N f front atoms, = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢ntotal photonsNcollisions ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (10)
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎣ λ ⎦ ⎥⎪
( )
where Nf ≅ n Sf φm , φ m is the “diameter” of ⎦⎭
4
Since Eq. (7) gives N collisions = nl Sξ , we get Thus, for λ = λ mod , the equation above can
⎛ P ⎞ be rewritten as follows
ntotal photons N collisions = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nl Sξ ) (11)
⎝ hf ⎠
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nr(l )nl3S2f Sm2φm2ξErms
2
⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎟ −1 (17)
Substitution of Eq. (11) into Eq. (10) yields mi0(l ) ⎢ ⎜
⎢⎣⎝ 2 μ m c2 2
f ⎟ λ ⎥⎥ ⎥⎬
⎪ ⎢ 0 i0(l ) ⎠ mod⎦ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg (l ) ⎪ ⎡⎛ ⎞ λ ⎤ ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎢⎜ 2 ⎟(nl Sξ ) ⎥ − 1⎥⎬ (12)
⎢ P
⎜ ⎟ 0
Electrodynamics tells us that
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢
⎣⎢ ⎣⎝ hf ⎠ λ⎦ ⎥⎪
⎥⎦⎭ E rms = vBrms = (c n r (l ) )Brms . Substitution of

this expression into Eq. (17) gives
Substitution of P given by Eq. (8) into Eq.
(12) gives ⎧ ⎡ n6S 4 S 4φ 4ξ 2 B4 ⎤⎫⎪
mg(l ) ⎪
χ= = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ l2 f2 m m4 2 rms2 −1⎥⎬ (18)
mi0(l ) ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 4μ0 mi0(l ) f λmodnr(l ) ⎥⎪
⎧ ⎡ ⎫ ⎦⎭
⎡⎛ Nf SmD⎞⎛ n Sξ ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎤⎥⎪
2
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟⎜ ⎟ −1 (13)
⎜ m c ⎟ λ ⎥⎥ ⎥⎬
l

mi0(l ) ⎢ ⎢ ⎝ f ⎠ Since λmod = λ nr (l ) then Eq. (18) can be


⎪ ⎢ ⎣ ⎝ i 0( l ) ⎠ ⎦ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
rewritten in the following form

Substitution of N f ≅ (nl S f )φm and S = N f Sm mg (l ) ⎧


⎪ ⎡ n6S 4 S 4φ 4ξ 2 B4 ⎤⎫⎪
χ= = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + l f2 m2 m 2 rms − 1⎥⎬ (19)
into Eq. (13) results mi0(l ) ⎪⎩ ⎢ 4μ m ( ) c f 2
⎥⎦⎪
⎣ 0 i 0 l

⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nl3 S 2f Sm2φm2ξD ⎞ 1 ⎤ In order to calculate the expressions of
⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎪⎬ (14)
mg(l )
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎥ χ Be for the particular case of a free electron
mi0(l ) ⎢⎣⎜⎝ mi0(l ) cf
2 ⎟ λ⎥
⎪ ⎢ ⎠ ⎦ ⎥⎦⎪⎭ inside a conductor, subjected to an external
⎩ ⎣
where mi 0(l ) = ρ (l )V(l ) . magnetic field Brms with frequency f , we
must consider the interaction with the
Now, considering that the lamina is positive ions that make up the rigid lattice of
inside an ELF electromagnetic field with the metal.
E and B , then we can write that [6] The negative charge of the free
electron causes attraction between the
n r (l ) E 2
D= (15) positive ions lattice of the metal. This
2μ 0 c attraction distorts the ion lattice, moving the
Substitution of Eq. (15) into Eq. (14) gives ions slightly toward the electron, increasing
the positive charge density of the lattice in
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ the local (See gray glow in Fig.1 (a)). Then,
⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛⎜ nr(l )nl Sf SmφmξE ⎞⎟ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
3 2 2 2 2
mg(l ) another electron is attracted to the positive
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢ −1 (16)
mi0(l ) ⎢ ⎢⎜ 2μ m c2 f 2 ⎟ λ ⎥⎥ ⎥⎬ charge density (gray glow) created by the
⎪ ⎢ ⎣⎝ 0 i 0( l ) ⎠ ⎦ ⎥⎪ first electron distorting the lattice around
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
itself, which produces a strong attraction
Note that E = E m sin ωt .The average value upon the electron deforming its surface as
showed in Fig. 4. Under these circumstances,
for E 2 is equal to 1
2 E m2 because E varies the volume of the electron does not vary, but
sinusoidaly ( E m is the maximum value its external surface is strongly increased,
for E ). On the other hand, E rms = E m 2. becomes equivalent to the external area of a
sphere with radius rxe >> re ( re is the radius
Consequently we can replace E 4 for E rms
4
.
of the free electron out of the ions “gage”
5
showed in Fig. 1 (a)). Based on such S m by S e = π r , ξ by φm = 2rxe and mi 0(l )
2
xe
conclusions, we substitute in Eq.(19) nl by
by me . The result is

⎧⎪ ⎡ 45.56π 2rxe22Brms
4 ⎤⎫⎪
χBe = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ − 1⎥⎬ (20)
c2μ02me2re18 f 2
+ + ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦⎪⎭

Ve = 43 πre3 In order to calculate the value of rxe we


start considering a hydrogen atom, where the
re electron spins around the proton with a
rxe
velocity v e = 3 × 10 6 m.s −1 . The electrical
electron force acting on the proton is Fe = e 2 4πε 0 r12 ,
which is equal to the centrifuge force
Ae ≡ 4π rx2 Fc = m pω e2 r0 where ω e is the angular velocity

+ + of the electron and r0 is the distance between


the inertial center of the proton and the center
of the moving proton (See Fig. 5, where we
conclude that 2(r0 + rp ) = rxp + r p ; rxp is the
radius of the sphere whose external area is
Fig. 4 – Schematic diagram of Electrons’ equivalent to the increased area of the
proton). Thus, we get r0 = 12 (rxp − rp ) .
structure inside the ion lattice. The positive ions
lattice around the electron produces a strong
attraction upon the electron deforming its surface. Substitution of this value into expression of
The volume of the electron does not vary, but its Fc = Fe gives
external surface is increased and becomes
equivalent to the area of a sphere with radius e2
rxp = + rp = 3.2 × 10 −14 m
rxe >> re . 4πε 0 m p ve
2

Therefore, we can write that rxp = k xp rp ,


where
ve
- rxp
Fe k xp = = 25.6
K
rp
rxp ve
Fe The electron is similarly deformed by the
relative movement of the proton in respect to
r0 the electron. In this case, by analogy, we can
rp write that
e2
rxe = + re = 6.4 × 10 −11 m
4πε 0 m e v e
2

and rxe = k xe re , where rxe is the radius of the


Fig. 5 – The deformation of the proton. sphere whose external area is equivalent to
the increased area of the electron. The radius
1 Ve =1 43 πre3 , S f by (SSAe )ρ eVe ( SSAe is the of free electron is re = 6.87×10−14 m (See
specific surface area for electrons in this Appendix A). However, for electrons in the
case: SSAe = 12 Ae me = 12 Ae ρe Ve = 2πrxe2 ρeVe ), atomic eletrosphere the value of re can be
calculated starting from Quantum Mechanics.
6
The wave packet that describes the electron In the case of the neutron, k xn = 1 due to its
satisfies an uncertainty principle electric charge be null. The radius of protons
(ΔpΔx ≥ 2 h ) , where Δp = hΔk and Δk is
1
inside the atoms (nuclei) is rp = 1.2 ×10−15 m
the approximate extension of the wave
[7,8], rn ≅ r p , then we obtain from Eqs. (22)
packet. Thus, we can write that (ΔkΔx ≥ 12 ) .
and (23) following expressions:
For the ``square'' packet the full width in k is
Δk = 2π λ0 ( λ0 = h me c is the average ⎧⎪ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫⎪
22 Brms
χ Bp = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2.2×10 2
−1⎥⎬ (24)
wavelength). The width in x is a little harder ⎪⎩ ⎣ ⎢ f ⎥
⎦⎪⎭
to define, but, lets use the first node in the
probability found at (2π λ0 )x 2 = π or ⎧⎪ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫⎪
−9 Brms
χBn = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2.35×10 2 −1⎥⎬ (24a)
x = λ0 . So, the width of the wave packet is ⎪⎩ ⎣⎢ f ⎦⎥⎪⎭
twice this or Δx = 2λ0 . Obviously, 2re
cannot be greater than Δx , i.e., re must be Since m ge = χ Be me , m gp = χ Bp m p and
smaller and close to λ0 = h mec = 2.43×10−12 m . m gn = χ Bn m n , it easy to see, by means of
Then, assuming that re ≅ 2.4 × 10 −12 m , we Eqs. (21), (24) and (24a), that m ge is much
get greater than m gp and m gp . This means that, in
r
k xe = xe = 26 .6 the calculation of the gravitational force
re Fg (between the positive ions + electron and
the external electron), we can disregard the
Note that k xe ≅ k xp . In the case of electrons effects of the gravitational masses of the
inside the ion lattice (See Fig. 4), we can note ions. Thus, the expression of Fg reduces to
that, in spite of the electron speed ve be null, the the expression of the gravitational forces
deformations are similar, in such way that, in this between the two electrons, i.e.,
case, we can take the values above.
Substitution of these values into Eq. 2
mge me2
(20) gives Fg = −G = − χ Be
2
G (25)
r2 r2
⎧⎪ ⎡ k xe22 re4 Brms
4 ⎤ ⎫⎪ For the creation of the Cooper Pairs Fg
χ Be = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 3.8 × 1057 − 1⎥⎬ =
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f2 ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭ must overcome the electrons' repulsion due
to their negative charge (e2 4πε0r 2 ) . Thus, we
⎧⎪ ⎡ B4 ⎤ ⎫⎪
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 2.8 × 1042 rms − 1 ⎥⎬ (21) must have χ Be
2
Gme2 > e 2 4πε0 or
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f2 ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
(e me )
Similarly, in the case of proton and neutron χ Be > = −2×1021 (26)
4πε0G
we can write that
For the Cooper Pairs not be destructed by the
⎧ ⎡ 45.56π 2kxp22rp4Brms
4 ⎤⎫⎪
⎪ thermal vibrations due to the temperature T ,
χBp = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ −1⎥⎬ (22) we must have χ Be 2
Gme2 r > kT whence we
⎪⎩ ⎣ ⎢ c μ
2 2 2 2
m f ⎥⎦⎪
0 p

conclude that T < χ Be
2
Gm e2 r . Consequently,
⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤⎫⎪ the transition temperature, Tc , can be
45.56π 2 rn4 Brms
4
χBn = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2 2 2 2 −1⎥⎬ (23) expressed by the following expression
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ μ0 mn c f ⎥⎦⎪⎭
7
χ Gm
2 2
magnetic field is used only during a time
Tc = Be e
(27 ) interval sufficient to transform the Aluminum

into a superconductor. This means that the
process is a some sort of “magnetization”
where ξ is the size of the Cooper pair, which
that transforms a conductor into a
is given by the coherence length of the “permanent” superconductor. After the
Cooper-pair wavefunction. It is known that “magnetization” the magnetic field can be
the coherence length is typically 1000 Å turned off, similarly to the case of
(though it can be as small as 30Å in the “magnetization” that transforms an iron rod
copper oxides). The coherence length of the into a “permanent” magnet.
Cooper-pair in Aluminum superconductor is
quite large ( ξ ≅ 1 micron [9]). Substitution
of this value into Eq. (27) gives

Tc = 4 × 10 −42 χ Be
2
(28)

For Tc = 400 K (~ 127°C ) we obtain

χ Be = −1 × 10 22 (29 )
By comparing (29) with (26), we can
conclude that this value of χ e is sufficient
for the creation of the Cooper Pairs, and also
in order that they do not be destructed by the
thermal vibrations due to the temperature up
to Tc = 400 K (~ 127°C ) .
In order to calculate the intensity of the
magnetic field Bm with frequency f ,
necessary to produce the value given by
Eq.(29), it is necessary the substitution of Eq.
(29) into Eq. (21). Thus, we get

⎧⎪ ⎡ 4
42 Brms
⎤⎫⎪
⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 2.8 × 10 2
− 1⎥⎬ ≅ −1× 1022 (30)
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f ⎥⎦⎪⎭

For f = 2 Hz the value of Brms is

Brms > 3T

Therefore, if a magnetic field with frequency


f = 2 Hz and intensity Brms > 3T † is applied
upon an Aluminum wire it becomes
superconductor at ambient temperature
( Tc = 400 K (~ 127°C ) ). Note that the


Modern magnetic resonance imaging systems work
with magnetic fields up to 8T [10, 11].
8

Appendix A: The “Geometrical Radii” of Electron and Proton

It is known that the frequency of


oscillation of a simple spring oscillator is 1 Gmgeχe
f= ( A6)
2π Re3
1
f =
K
( A1) The value of χ e varies with the density of
2π m
energy [4]. When the electron and the
positron are distant from each other and the
where m is the inertial mass attached to the
local density of energy is small, the value of
spring and K is the spring constant (in
N·m−1). In this case, the restoring force χ e becomes very close to 1. However, when
exerted by the spring is linear and given by the electron and the positron are penetrating
one another, the energy densities in each
F = − Kx ( A2) particle become very strong due to the
proximity of their electrical charges e and,
where x is the displacement from the consequently, the value of χ e strongly
equilibrium position. increases. In order to calculate the value of
Now, consider the gravitational force: χ e under these conditions ( x = r = Re ), we
For example, above the surface of the Earth, start from the expression of correlation
the force follows the familiar Newtonian between electric charge q and gravitational
function, i.e., F = − GM g⊕ m g r 2 , where mass, obtained in a previous work [4]:
M g ⊕ is the mass of Earth, m g is the
gravitational mass of a particle and r is the q = 4πε 0 G m g (imaginary ) i ( A7 )
distance between the centers. Below Earth’s
surface the force is linear and given by where m g (imaginary ) is the imaginary
GMg⊕mg
F =− r ( A3) gravitational mass, and i = − 1 .
R⊕3
where R⊕ is the radius of Earth. In the case of electron, Eq. (A7) gives
By comparing (A3) with (A2) we
obtain qe = 4πε0G mge(imaginary) i =
K
=
K GMg⊕ ⎛ r ⎞
= 3 ⎜ ⎟ ( A4) (
= 4πε0G χ e mi0e(imaginary)i = )
( )
mg χ m R⊕ ⎝ x ⎠
= 4πε0G − χe 2
mi0e(real)i 2 =
Making x = r = R⊕ , and substituting (A4) 3

into (A1) gives = 4πε G (


0
2
3
)
χe mi0e(real) = −1.6 ×10−19 C ( A8)

1 GMg⊕ χ where we obtain


f= ( A5)
2π R⊕3
χ e = −1.8 × 10 21 ( A9)
In the case of an electron and a positron, we
substitute M g ⊕ by m ge , χ by χ e and R⊕ by This is therefore, the value of χ e increased
Re , where Re is the radius of electron (or by the strong density of energy produced by
the electrical charges e of the two particles,
positron). Thus, Eq. (A5) becomes under previously mentioned conditions.
9
Given that m ge = χ e mi 0 e , Eq. (A6) Thus, the result is
yields
1 2
1 Gχ e2 mi0e ⎛ G ⎞3 ⎛ χ ph ⎞ 3
f= ( A10) Rp = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = 3.72×10−17 m ( A17)
⎜ mi0 p ⎟ ⎜ 2π c 2 ⎟
2π Re3 ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Note that these radii, given by
From Quantum Mechanics, we know that Equations ( A14) and ( A17) , are the radii of
free electrons and free protons (when the
hf = mi 0 c 2 ( A11) particle and antiparticle (in isolation)
penetrate themselves mutually).
where h is the Planck’s constant. Thus, in Inside the atoms (nuclei) the radius of
the case of mi 0 = mi 0e we get protons is well-known. For example, protons,
as the hydrogen nuclei, have a radius given
by R p ≅ 1.2 × 10−15 m [7, 8]. The strong
mi 0e c 2
f= ( A12) increase in respect to the value given by Eq.
h
(A17) is due to the interaction with the
electron of the atom.
By comparing (A10) and (A12) we
conclude that

mi 0e c 2 1 Gχ e2 mi 0e
= ( A13)
h 2π Re3

Isolating the radius Re , we get:

1 2
⎛ G ⎞ 3 ⎛ χeh ⎞ 3
Re = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = 6.87×10−14 m ( A14)
⎝ i 0e ⎠ ⎝ 2π c ⎠
2
m

Compare this value with the Compton sized


electron, which predicts Re = 3.86 × 10 −13 m
and also with standardized result recently
obtained of Re = 4 − 7 × 10 −13 m [12].
In the case of proton, we have

q p = 4πε0G mgp(imaginary) i =

(
= 4πε0G χ p mi0 p(imaginary)i = )
(
= 4πε0G − χ p 2
3
mi0 p(real)i 2 =)
= 4πε G(
0
2
)
χ p mi0 p(real) = −1.6×10−19 C ( A15)
3

where we obtain

χ p = −9.7 × 1017 ( A16)


10
References

[1] Cooper, Leon N. (1956). "Bound electron pairs in a


degenerate Fermi gas". Physical Review 104 (4): 1189–
1190.

[2] Bardeen, J.; Cooper, L. N., Schrieffer, J. R. (April 1957).


"Microscopic Theory of Superconductivity". Physical
Review 106 (1): 162–164. Bardeen, J.; Cooper, L. N.;
Schrieffer, J. R. (December 1957). "Theory of
Superconductivity". Physical Review 108 (5): 1175–
1204.

[3] Nave, Carl R. (2006). "Cooper Pairs". Hyperphysics.


Dept. of Physics and Astronomy, Georgia State Univ..
Retrieved 2008-07-24; Kadin, Alan M. (2005). "Spatial
Structure of the Cooper Pair". Journal of
Superconductivity and Novel Magnetism 20 (4): 285.

[4] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of


the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific
Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-
232.

[5] Quevedo, C. P. (1977) Eletromagnetismo, McGraw-


Hill, p. 270.

[6] Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. (1968) Physics, J. Willey &


Sons, Portuguese Version, Ed. USP, p.1124.

[7] N.D. Cook (2010). Models of the Atomic Nucleus (2nd


ed.). Springer. p. 57 ff.. ISBN 978-3-642-14736-4.

[8] K.S. Krane (1987). Introductory Nuclear Physics.


Wiley-VCH. ISBN 0-471-80553-X.

[9] Fujiki, H. et al. Nonlinear resistivity in the mixed state of


superconducting aluminum films. Physica C 297, 309
(1998).

[10] Smith, Hans-Jørgen. "Magnetic resonance imaging".


Medcyclopaedia Textbook of Radiology. GE
Healthcare. Retrieved 2007-03-26.

[11]Orenstein, Beth W. (2006-02-16). "Ultra High-Field


MRI — The Pull of Big Magnets". Radiology Today 7
(3): pp. 10. Archived from the original on March 15,
2008. Retrieved 2008-07-10

[12] Mac Gregor. M. H., (1992) The Enigmatic Electron.


Boston: Klurer Academic, 1992, pp. 4-5.
Gravitational Separator of Isotopes
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2012 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

In this work we show a gravitational separator of isotopes which can be much more effective than those used
in the conventional processes of isotopes separation. It is based on intensification of the gravitational
acceleration, and can generate accelerations tens of times more intense than those generated in the most
powerful centrifuges used for Uranium enrichment.

Key words: Modified theories of gravity, Isotope separation and enrichment, Nonconventional mechanisms.
PACS: 04.50.Kd, 28.60.+ s, 74.20.Mn.

1. Introduction

A conventional gas centrifuge is series. A cascade of identical stages produces


basically a cylinder that spins around its successively higher concentrations of 235U.
central axis with ultra-high angular speed This process is called Uranium enrichment.
while a gas is injected inside it. Under these Uranium occurs naturally as two
conditions, the heavier molecules of the gas isotopes: 99.3% is Uranium-238 and 0.7% is
move towards the cylinder wall and the Uranium-235. Their atoms are identical
lighter ones remain close to the center. In except for the number of neutrons in the
addition, if one creates a thermal gradient in nucleus: Uranium-238 has three more and
a perpendicular direction by keeping the top this makes it less able to fission. Uranium
of the rotating column cool and the bottom enrichment is used to increase the percentage
hot, the resulting convection current carries of the fissile U-235. Nuclear reactors
the lighter molecules to the top while the typically require uranium fuel enriched to
heavier ones settle at the bottom, from which about 3% to 5% U-235. Nuclear bombs
they can be continuously withdrawn. typically use ‘Highly Enriched Uranium’,
An important use of gas centrifuges is enriched to 90% U-235 [2].
for the separation of uranium-235 from In order to extract the 235U from the
235
uranium-238. As a first step, the uranium UF6 it is necessary to add Calcium. The
metal is turned into a gas (uranium Calcium reacts with the gas producing a salt
hexafluoride, UF6). Next, the UF6 is injected and pure 235U.
inside a gas centrifuge, which spins at about The conventional gas centrifuges used
100.000 rpm in order to produce a strong in the Uranium enrichment are very
centrifugal force upon the UF6 molecules. expensive, and they consume much energy
Thus, the UF6 is separated by the difference during the process. Here, it is proposed a new
in molecular weight between 235UF6 and type of separator of isotopes based on the
238
UF6 [1]. The heavier molecules of the gas intensification the gravitational acceleration
238 *
( UF6) move towards the cylinder wall and [3]. It can generate accelerations tens times
the lighter ones (235UF6) remain close to the more intense than those generated in the most
center. The convection current carries the powerful centrifuges used for Uranium
lighter molecules (235UF6) to the top while enrichment.
the heavier ones (238UF6) settle at the bottom.
However, the gas at the top is not composed
totally by 235UF6 it contains also 238UF6, in *
De Aquino, F. (2008) Process and Device for Controlling
such way that we can say that the gas at the the Locally the Gravitational Mass and the Gravity
top is only a gas rich in 235U. In practice, Acceleration, BR Patent Number: PI0805046-5, July 31,
several of such centrifuges are connected in 2008.
2
2. Theory
g n = χ 1 χ 2 χ 3 ...χ n g (3)
From the quantization of gravity
it follows that the gravitational mass mg and
the inertial mass mi are correlated by means This possibility shows that, by means
of the following factor [3]: of a battery of gravitational shieldings, we
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ can make particles acquire enormous
mg ⎪ ⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎪ accelerations.
χ= ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (1) From Electrodynamics we know that
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ when an electromagnetic wave with
where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the frequency f and velocity c incides on a
particle and Δp is the variation in the material with relative permittivity ε r ,
particle’s kinetic momentum; c is the speed relative magnetic permeability μ r and
of light. electrical conductivity σ , its velocity is
When Δp is produced by the reduced to v = c nr where nr is the index of
absorption of a photon with wavelength λ , it refraction of the material, given by [5]
is expressed by Δp = h λ . In this case, Eq. ε μ
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ (4)
c 2
(1) becomes
v 2 ⎝ ⎠
m g ⎧⎪ ⎡
⎛ h mi 0 c ⎞
2 ⎤⎫
⎪ If σ >> ωε , ω = 2πf , Eq. (4) reduces to

= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎥⎪ μrσ
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ nr = (5)
4πε0 f
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ λ0 ⎞ ⎪ Thus, the wavelength of the incident

= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬ (2)
⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝λ ⎠ ⎥⎪ radiation (See Fig. 1) becomes
⎣ ⎦⎭
λ 4π
where λ0 = h mi0 c is the De Broglie λmod =
v c f
= = = (6)
f nr nr μfσ
wavelength for the particle with rest inertial
mass mi 0 .
It has been shown that there is an v=c v = c/nr
additional effect - Gravitational Shielding
effect - produced by a substance whose
gravitational mass was reduced or made nr
negative [4]. The effect extends beyond
substance (gravitational shielding) , up to a λ = c/f λmod = v/f = c/nr f
certain distance from it (along the central
axis of gravitational shielding). This effect Fig. 1 – Modified Electromagnetic Wave. The
shows that in this region the gravity wavelength of the electromagnetic wave can be
acceleration, g 1 , is reduced at the same strongly reduced, but its frequency remains the same.

proportion, i.e., g1 = χ 1 g where If a lamina with thickness equal to ξ


χ 1 = m g mi 0 and g is the gravity contains n atoms/m3, then the number of
atoms per area unit is nξ . Thus, if the
acceleration before the gravitational
electromagnetic radiation with frequency
shielding). Consequently, after a second
gravitational shielding, the gravity will be f incides on an area S of the lamina it
given by g 2 = χ 2 g 1 = χ 1 χ 2 g , where χ 2 is reaches nSξ atoms. If it incides on the total
the value of the ratio m g mi 0 for the second area of the lamina, S f , then the total number
gravitational shielding. In a generalized way, of atoms reached by the radiation is
we can write that after the nth gravitational N = nS f ξ . The number of atoms per unit of
shielding the gravity, g n , will be given by volume, n , is given by
3
Since in each collision a momentum h λ is
N0 ρ transferred to the atom, then the total
n= (7) momentum transferred to the lamina will be
A
Δp = (n1 N ) h λ . Therefore, in accordance
where N 0 = 6.02 × 10 26 atoms / kmole is the
with Eq. (1), we can write that
Avogadro’s number; ρ is the matter density
of the lamina (in kg/m3) and A is the molar ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡ λ0 ⎤ ⎪
mass(kg/kmole). = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢(n1 N) ⎥ −1⎥⎬ =
When an electromagnetic wave incides mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎣ λ⎦ ⎥⎪
on the lamina, it strikes N f front atoms, ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭

( )
where Nf ≅ n Sf φm , φ m is the “diameter” of ⎧ ⎡
⎪ ⎢ ⎡ λ0 ⎤
2 ⎤⎫

= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢ntotal photonsNcollisions ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (11)
the atom. Thus, the electromagnetic wave ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎣ λ⎦ ⎥⎪
incides effectively on an area S = Nf Sm , where ⎦⎭

Sm = 14 πφm2 is the cross section area of one atom. Since Eq. (8) gives N collisions = nl Sξ , we get
After these collisions, it carries out ncollisions ⎛ P ⎞
with the other atoms (See Fig.2). ntotal photons N collisions = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nl Sξ ) (12)
⎝ hf ⎠

Substitution of Eq. (12) into Eq. (11) yields

⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg (l ) ⎪ ⎡⎛ P ⎞ λ0 ⎤ ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nl Sξ ) ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (13)

atom mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎣⎝ hf ⎠ λ ⎥⎦ ⎥
Sm ⎩ ⎣⎢ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
Wave
Fig. 2 – Collisions inside the lamina. Substitution of P given by Eq. (9) into Eq.
(13) gives
Thus, the total number of collisions in the
volume Sξ is ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ N f SmD⎞⎛ n Sξ ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎜ l ⎟ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (14)
2 ⎟⎜
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎣⎝ f ⎟ ⎥
⎠⎝ mi0(l )c ⎠ λ ⎥⎦ ⎥⎪
Ncollisions= Nf +ncollisions=nl Sφm +(nl Sξ −nmSφm) = ⎩ ⎣ ⎢ ⎦⎭
=nmSξ (8)
Substitution of N f ≅ (nl S f )φm and S = N f Sm
The power density, D , of the radiation on the into Eq. (14) results
lamina can be expressed by
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nl3S 2f Sm2φm2ξD ⎞ 1 ⎤
⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎪⎬ (15)
mg(l )
D=
P
=
P
(9 ) = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎥
⎢⎣⎜⎝ mi0(l )cf ⎟⎠ λ ⎥⎦
S N f Sm 2
mi0(l ) ⎪
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦⎪
⎩ ⎭
We can express the total mean number where mi 0(l ) = ρ(l )V(l ) .
of collisions in each atom, n1 , by means of Now, considering that the lamina is
the following equation inside an ELF electromagnetic field with
E and B , then we can write that [6]
ntotal photons N collisions
n1 = (10 ) n r (l ) E 2
N
D= (16 )
2μ 0 c
4
Substitution of Eq. (16) into Eq. (15) gives Inside the Gravitational Separator of
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ Isotopes there is a dielectric tube ( ε r ≅ 1) with
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nr(l )nl3S2f Sm2φm2ξE2 ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1 (17) the following characteristics: α = 60mm ,
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎜ 2μ0mi0(l )c2 f 2 ⎟ λ ⎥ ⎥⎬ Sα = πα 2 4 = 2 .83 × 10 − 3 m 2 . Inside the
⎢ ⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎦ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
tube there is an Aluminum sphere with 30mm
In the case in which the area S f is just the radius and mass M gs = 0.30536kg . The tube
area of the cross-section of the lamina (Sα ) , is filled with air at ambient temperature and
we obtain from Eq. (17), considering that 1atm. Thus, inside the tube, the air density is
mi0(l) = ρ(l)Sαξ , the following expression
ρ air = 1 . 2 kg .m − 3 (22 )
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nr(l )nl3Sα Sm2φm2 E2 ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (18) The number of atoms of air (Nitrogen) per
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎜ 2 2 ⎟
⎢⎣⎝ 2μ0ρ(l )c f ⎠ λ ⎥⎦ ⎥⎪

unit of volume, nair , according to Eq.(7), is

⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
given by
If the electrical conductivity of the lamina,
N 0 ρ air
σ (l ) , is such that σ (l ) >> ωε , then the value of nair = = 5.16×1025 atoms/ m3 (23)
AN
λ is given by Eq. (6), i.e.,
The parallel metallic plates (p), shown in

λ = λmod = (19) Fig.3 are subjected to different drop voltages.
μfσ The two sets of plates (D), placed on the
Substitution of Eq. (19) into Eq. (18) gives extremes of the tube, are subjected to
V( D )rms = 1.64kV at f = 1Hz , while the central
mg (l ) ⎧⎪ ⎡ nr2(l )nl6Sα2Sm4φm4σ(l )E4 ⎤⎫⎪
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ −1⎥⎬ (20) set of plates (A) is subjected to
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢⎣ 16πμ0ρ(2l )c4 f 3 ⎥⎦⎪
⎩ ⎭ V( A )rms = 19.7kV at f =1Hz. Since d = 98mm ,
Note that E = E m sin ωt .The average value then the intensity of the electric field, which
2
for E is equal to 1 E m2 because E varies passes through the 36 cylindrical air laminas
2
(each one with 5mm thickness) of the two
sinusoidaly ( E m is the maximum value sets (D), is
for E ). On the other hand, E rms = E m 2.
Consequently we can replace E 4 for E rms
4
, E( D )rms = V( D )rms d = 1.67 × 104 V / m
and the equation above can be rewritten as
follows and the intensity of the electric field, which
m passes through the 7 cylindrical air laminas
χ = g (l ) = of the central set (A), is given by
mi0(l )
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ E( A)rms = V( A)rms d = 2.012 × 105 V / m
nr2(l )nl6Sα2 Sm4φm4σ (l ) Erms
4

= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + − 1⎥⎪⎬ (21)
⎪⎩ ⎢ 16πμ0 ρ(l )c f
2 4 3
⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭ Note that the metallic rings (5mm
Now consider the system shown in thickness) are positioned in such way to
Fig.3. It was originally designed to convert block the electric field out of the cylindrical
Gravitational Energy directly into Electrical air laminas. The objective is to turn each one
Energy [7]. Here, it works as Separator of of these laminas into a Gravity Control Cells
Isotopes. These systems are basically similar, (GCC) [4]. Thus, the system shown in Fig. 3
except in the core. The core of the original has 3 sets of GCC. Two with 18 GCC each,
system has been replaced by the one shown and one with 7 GCC. The two sets with 18
in Fig.3 and Fig.4 (detailed). GCC each are positioned at the extremes of
the tube (D). They work as gravitational
5
decelerator while the other set with 7 GCC ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤⎫⎪
nr2(air)nairSα SmφmσairE(4D)rms
6 2 4 4
(A) works as a gravitational accelerator, χd = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ −1⎥⎬ =
intensifying the gravity acceleration ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 16πμ0ρair
2 4 3
cf ⎥⎦⎪

produced by the mass M gs of the Aluminum
sphere. According to Eq. (3), this gravity,
{ [
= 1− 2 1+1.48×10−17E(4D)rms −1 ]} (25)
after the 7th GCC becomes g7 = χ 7GMgs r02 ,
where n r ( air ) = ε r μ r ≅ 1 , since (σ << ωε ) ;
where χ = mg (l ) mi (l ) given by Eq. (21) and
r0 = 35mm is the distance between the nair = 5.16 ×1025 atoms/ m3 , φm = 1.55×10−10 m ,
center of the Aluminum sphere and the Sm = πφm2 4 = 1.88 × 10−20 m2 and f = 60Hz.
surface of the first GCC of the set (A). Since E ( A )rms = 2 . 012 × 10 5 V / m and
The objective of the sets (D), with 18
GCC each, is to reduce strongly the value of E ( D )rms = 1.67 × 10 4 V / m , we get
the external gravity along the axis of the
tube. In this case, the value of the external χ = −308.5 (26)
gravity, gext , is reduced by the factor χ d18 gext ,
where χ d = 10−2 . For example, if the base and
BS of the system is positioned on the Earth
χ d ≅ 10−2 (27)
surface, then gext = 9.81m / s 2 is reduced
to χ d18 gext and, after the set A, it is increased It is important to note that the set with
by χ . Since the system is designed for
7 7 GCC (A) cannot be turned on before the
magnetic field B is on. Because the
χ = −308 .5 (See Eq. (26)), then the gravity
gravitational accelerations on the dielectric
acceleration on the sphere becomes chamber and Al sphere will be enormous
χ7χd18gext = 2.6×10−18m/ s2 . This value is much (χ 7 GM gs r02 ≅ 4.4 × 10 9 m / s 2 , and will )
−8
smaller than gsphere= GMgs rs2 = 2.26×10 m / s . 2
explode the device.
Note that there is a uniform magnetic The isotopes inside the Dielectric
field, B , through the core of the Chamber are subjected to the gravity
Gravitational Separator of Isotopes (a acceleration produced by the sphere, and
cylindrical Dielectric Chamber with 60mm increased by the 7 GCC in the region (A). Its
external diameter; 50mm internal diameter value is
and 100mm height). The electrical
conductivity of air, inside the dielectric tube, M gs
is equal to the electrical conductivity of ai = χ 7 g s = χ 7 G ≅ 6.0 × 109 m / s 2 (28)
rs2
Earth’s atmosphere near the land, whose
average value is σ air ≅ 1 × 10 −14 S / m [8]. Comparing this value with the produced in
This value is of fundamental importance in the most powerful centrifuges (at 100,000
order to obtain the convenient values of the rpm), which is of the order of 107m/s2, we
electrical current i and the value of χ and conclude that the accelerations in the
χ d , which are given by Eq. (21), i.e., Gravitational Separator of Isotopes is about
600 times greater than the values of the
centrifuges.

⎪ ⎡ nr2(air) nair
6
Sα2 S m4 φm4σ air E(4A)rms ⎤⎫⎪ In the case of Uranium enrichment, the
χ = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + − 1⎥⎬ = gas UF6 is injected inside this core where it is
⎪⎩ ⎢ 16 πμ ρ 2 4 3
c f ⎥⎪
⎣ 0 air
⎦⎭ strongly accelerated. Thus, the UF6 is
{ [
= 1 − 2 1 + 1.480×10−17 E(4A)rms − 1 ]} (24) separated by the difference in molecular
weight between 235UF6 and 238UF6 (See
Fig.4). The heavier molecules of the gas
6
(238UF6) move towards the cylinder bottom S m by S e = π re2
, ξ by φ m = 2re and
and the lighter ones (235UF6) remain close to
mi 0(l ) by me . The result is
the center. The convection current, produced
by a thermal gradient of about 300°C
between the bottom and the top of the ⎧⎪ ⎡45.56π 2 re4 nr2 E 4 ⎤⎫⎪
cylinder, carries the lighter molecules χ Be = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + − 1⎥⎬ (33)
(235UF6) to the top while the heavier ones ⎪⎩ ⎢
⎣ μ 2 2 4 4 2
m
0 e c f λ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
(238UF6) settle at the bottom, from which they Electrodynamics tells us that
can be continuously withdrawn. The gas E rms = vBrms = (c nr )Brms , and Eq. (19) gives
λ = λmod = (4π μrσ f ). Substitution of
withdrawn at the top of the cylinder is a gas
these
rich in 235U.
The gravitational forces due to the expressions into Eq. (33) yields
gravitational mass of the sphere (M gs ) acting
on electrons (Fe ) , protons (Fp ) and neutrons ⎧⎪ ⎡ 45.56π 2 re4 Brms ⎤⎫⎪
4
χ Be = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ −1⎥⎬ (34)
(Fp ) of the dielectric of the Dielectric ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ μ02 me2c2 f 2 ⎥⎦⎪⎭
Chamber, are respectively expressed by the
following relations Similarly, in the case of proton and neutron
we can write that
⎛ M gs ⎞ ⎧ ⎡ 45.56π 2 rp4 Brms ⎤⎫⎪
(29)
4
Fe = mge ae = χ Be me ⎜⎜ χ 7 G 2 ⎟⎟ ⎪
⎝ r0 ⎠ χBp = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2 2 2 2 −1⎥⎬ (35)
⎪⎩ ⎣ ⎢ μ ⎥
⎦⎪⎭
m
0 p c f

⎛ M gs ⎞
Fp = mgp a p = χ Bp mp ⎜⎜ χ 7 G 2 ⎟⎟ (30) ⎧⎪ ⎡ 45.56π 2 rn4 Brms
4 ⎤⎫⎪
⎝ r0 ⎠ χBn = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2 2 2 2 −1⎥⎬ (36)
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ μ0 mn c f ⎥⎦⎪⎭
⎛ M gs ⎞
Fn = mgn an = χ Bnmn ⎜⎜ χ 7 G 2 ⎟⎟ (31)
⎝ r0 ⎠ The radius of free electron is re = 6.87×10−14 m
(See Appendix A) and the radius of protons
In order to make null the resultant of these inside the atoms (nuclei) is rp = 1.2 ×10−15 m ,
forces in the Dielectric Chamber (and also in
the sphere) we must have Fe = F p + Fn , i.e., rn ≅ r p [9, 10], then we obtain from Eqs. (34)
(35) and (36) the following expressions:
m e χ Be = m p χ Bp + m n χ Bn (32 )
⎧⎪ ⎡ 4
Brms ⎤⎫⎪
χ Be = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 8.49×104 −1⎥⎬ (37)
In order to calculate the expressions of ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f2 ⎥⎦⎪⎭
χ Be , χ Bp and χ Bn we start from Eq. (17),
for the particular case of single electron in ⎧⎪ ⎡ 4
Brms ⎤⎫⎪
the region subjected to the magnetic field B. χ Bn ≅ χ Bp = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2.35×10−9 −1⎥⎬ (38)
In this case, we must substitute nr (l ) by ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f2 ⎥⎦⎪⎭
nr = (μrσ 4πε0 f )2 ; nl by 1 Ve = 1 43 πre3 ( re is
1

Then, from Eq. (32) it follows that


the electrons radius), S f by (SSAe )ρ eVe
( SSAe is the specific surface area for m e χ Be ≅ 2 m p χ Bp (39 )
electrons in this case:
SSAe = 12 Ae me = 12 Ae ρ e Ve = 2πre ρ eVe ),
2
Substitution of Eqs. (37) and (38) into Eq.
(39) gives
7
⎧⎪ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫⎪
4 Brms
⎨ 1 − 2 ⎢ 1 + 8.49 × 10 − 1⎥⎬
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f2 ⎥⎦⎪⎭
= 3666.3 (40)
⎧⎪ ⎡ B 4 ⎤ ⎫⎪
−9
⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 2.35 × 10 − 1⎥⎬
rms
2
⎪⎩ ⎢
⎣ f ⎥⎦⎪⎭

For f = 0.1Hz , we get

{1 − 2[ 1 + 8.49 × 10 B 6 4
−1 ]} = 3666.3 (41)
{1 − 2[ 1 + 2.35 × 10 B − 1]}
rms
−7 4
rms

whence we obtain

Brms = 0.793 T (42)


Consequently, Eq. (37) and (38) yields

χ Be = −3666.3 (43)
and
χ Bn ≅ χ Bp ≅ 0.999 (44)

In order for the forces Fe and F p have


contrary direction (such as it occurs in the
case, in which the nature of the electromotive
force is electrical) we must have χ Be < 0
and χ Bn ≅ χ Bp > 0 (See equations (29) (30)
and (31)), i.e.,
⎧⎪ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫⎪
⎨ ⎢
1− 2 1+ 8 .49 ×10 4 Brms
2
−1 ⎥⎬ < 0 (45)
⎪⎩ ⎣⎢ f ⎦⎥⎪⎭
and
⎧⎪ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫⎪
⎨ 1− 2⎢ 1+ 2.35 ×10 −9 Brms
−1⎥⎬ > 0 (46)
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f 2 ⎥⎦⎪

This means that we must have

0.06 f < B rms < 151 .86 f (47 )


In the case of f = 0.1Hz the result is

0.01T < Brms < 48.02T (48)


8

d = 98 mm
α=60mm Dielectric tube
εr ≅ 1
Air
1 ξ = 5 mm

Air Air 2 Air Metallic ring


1 atm 300K (5 mm thickness)
D
Parallel plate
17 capacitor (p)
ED(rms) Electric field of
18 E
capacitor

Air
Aluminum sphere
Mg (60 mm diameter)
r0=35mm EA(rms)
Coil
(f = 0.1Hz) 1
Air
Air 2
Core of the
Gravitational
A Separator of Isotopes
(Dielectric Chamber)
6

7
235
UF6
UF6
235
UF6
238
UF6
1
Air
2
Fe
Fe
D
Air 17
18

BS

Fig. 3 – Schematic Diagram of a Gravitational Separator of Isotopes (Based on a process of gravity


control patented in July, 31 2008, PI0805046-5). In the case of Uranium enrichment, the gas UF6 is injected inside the
core of the Gravitational Separator of Isotopes where it is strongly accelerated. Thus, the UF6 is separated by the
difference in molecular weight between 235UF6 and 238UF6. The heavier molecules of the gas (238UF6) move towards the
cylinder bottom and the lighter ones (235UF6) remain close to the center. The convection current, produced by a thermal
gradient of about 300°C between the bottom and the top of the cylinder, carries the lighter molecules (235UF6) to the top
while the heavier ones (238UF6) settle at the bottom, from which they can be continuously withdrawn. The gas
withdrawn at the top of the cylinder is a gas rich in 235U.
9

Fe 235 UF6
UF6
235 235
UF6 UF6
Dielectric
Chamber
235
UF6

238
UF6

238
UF6
238 Fe
UF6 330°C

235
UF6

D
Coil Coil

Fig. 4 – Details of the core of the Gravitational Separator of Isotopes. In the case of Uranium enrichment,
the heavier molecules of the gas (238UF6) move towards the cylinder bottom and the lighter ones (235UF6) remain close
to the center. The convection current, produced by a thermal gradient of about 300°C between the bottom and the top of
the Dielectric Chamber, carries the lighter molecules (235UF6) to the top while the heavier ones (238UF6) settle at the
bottom, from which they can be continuously withdrawn. The gas withdrawn at the top of the chamber is a gas rich in
235
U.
10

Appendix A: The “Geometrical Radii” of Electron and Proton


Re , where Re is the radius of electron (or
It is known that the frequency of positron). Thus, Eq. (A5) becomes
oscillation of a simple spring oscillator is

1
( A1) 1 Gmge χe
K
f =
2π m f= ( A6)
2π Re3
where m is the inertial mass attached to the The value of χ e varies with the density of
spring and K is the spring constant (in energy [3]. When the electron and the
N·m−1). In this case, the restoring force positron are distant from each other and the
exerted by the spring is linear and given by local density of energy is small, the value of
χ e becomes very close to 1. However, when
F = − Kx ( A2) the electron and the positron are penetrating
one another, the energy densities in each
where x is the displacement from the particle become very strong due to the
equilibrium position. proximity of their electrical charges e and,
Now, consider the gravitational force: consequently, the value of χ e strongly
For example, above the surface of the Earth, increases. In order to calculate the value of
the force follows the familiar Newtonian
χ e under these conditions ( x = r = Re ), we
function, i.e., F = − GM g⊕ m g r 2 , where
start from the expression of correlation
M g ⊕ is the mass of Earth, m g is the between electric charge q and gravitational
gravitational mass of a particle and r is the mass, obtained in a previous work [3]:
distance between the centers. Below Earth’s
surface the force is linear and given by q = 4πε 0 G m g (imaginary ) i ( A7 )
GMg⊕mg
F =− r ( A3)
R⊕3 where m g (imaginary ) is the imaginary
where R⊕ is the radius of Earth. gravitational mass, and i = − 1 .
By comparing (A3) with (A2) we
obtain In the case of electron, Eq. (A7) gives
GMg⊕ ⎛ r ⎞
K
=
K
= 3 ⎜ ⎟ ( A4)
mg χ m R⊕ ⎝ x ⎠ qe = 4πε0G mge(imaginary) i =
Making x = r = R⊕ , and substituting (A4) (
= 4πε0G χ e mi0e(imaginary)i = )
into (A1) gives
(
= 4πε0G − χe 2
3
mi0e(real)i 2 =)
1 GMg⊕ χ = 4πε G ( 2
)
χe mi0e(real) = −1.6 ×10−19 C ( A8)
f= ( A5) 0 3
2π R⊕3
where we obtain
In the case of an electron and a positron, we
substitute M g ⊕ by m ge , χ by χ e and R⊕ by χ e = −1.8 × 10 21 ( A9)
11
This is therefore, the value of χ e increased
by the strong density of energy produced by χ p = −9.7 × 1017 ( A16)
the electrical charges e of the two particles,
under previously mentioned conditions. Thus, the result is
Given that m ge = χ e mi 0 e , Eq. (A6)
yields 1 2
⎛ G ⎞3 ⎛ χ ph ⎞ 3
1 Gχ e2 mi0e Rp = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = 3.72×10−17 m ( A17)
f= ( A10) ⎜ mi0 p ⎟ ⎜ 2π c 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
2π Re3
Note that these radii, given by
Equations ( A14) and ( A17) , are the radii of
From Quantum Mechanics, we know that
free electrons and free protons (when the
particle and antiparticle (in isolation)
hf = mi 0 c 2 ( A11) penetrate themselves mutually).
Inside the atoms (nuclei) the radius of
where h is the Planck’s constant. Thus, in protons is well-known. For example, protons,
the case of mi 0 = mi 0e we get as the hydrogen nuclei, have a radius given
by R p ≅ 1.2 ×10−15 m [9, 10]. The strong
mi 0e c 2 increase in respect to the value given by Eq.
f= ( A12) (A17) is due to the interaction with the
h
electron of the atom.
By comparing (A10) and (A12) we
conclude that

mi 0e c 2 1 Gχ e2 mi 0e
= ( A13)
h 2π Re3

Isolating the radius Re , we get:

1 2
⎛ G ⎞ 3 ⎛ χeh ⎞ 3
Re = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = 6.87×10−14 m ( A14)
⎝ i 0e ⎠ ⎝ 2π c ⎠
2
m

Compare this value with the Compton sized


electron, which predicts Re = 3.86 × 10 −13 m
and also with standardized result recently
obtained of Re = 4 − 7 × 10 −13 m [11].
In the case of proton, we have

q p = 4πε0G mgp(imaginary) i =

(
= 4πε0G χ p mi0 p(imaginary)i = )
(
= 4πε0G − χ p 2
3
mi0 p(real)i 2 =)
= 4πε G(
0
2
)
χ p mi0 p(real) = −1.6×10−19 C ( A15)
3

where we obtain
12

References

[1] Emsley, John (2001). "Uranium". Nature's Building


Blocks: An A to Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford:
Oxford University Press. p. 478.

[2] "Uranium Enrichment". Argonne National Laboratory.


Retrieved 2007-02-11.

[3] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of


the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific
Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-
232.

[4] De Aquino, F. (2010) Gravity Control by means of


Electromagnetic Field through Gas at Ultra-Low
Pressure, Pacific Journal of Science and Technology,
11(2) November 2010, pp.178-247, Physics/0701091.

[5] Quevedo, C. P. (1977) Eletromagnetismo, McGraw-


Hill, p. 270.

[6] Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. (1968) Physics, J. Willey &


Sons, Portuguese Version, Ed. USP, p.1124.

[7] De Aquino, F. (2012) A System to convert Gravitational


Energy directly into Electrical Energy,
http://viXra.org/abs/1205.0119

[8] Chalmers, J.A., (1967) Atmospheric Electricity,


Pergamon press, Oxford, London; Kamsali, N. et al.,
(2011) Advanced Air Pollution, chapter 20, DOI:
10.5772/17163, edited by Farhad Nejadkoorki, Publisher:
InTech, ISBN 978-953-307-511-2, under CC BY-NC-
SA 3.0 license.
[9] N.D. Cook (2010). Models of the Atomic Nucleus (2nd
ed.). Springer. p. 57 ff.. ISBN 978-3-642-14736-4.

[10] K.S. Krane (1987). Introductory Nuclear Physics.


Wiley-VCH. ISBN 0-471-80553-X.

[11] Mac Gregor. M. H., (1992) The Enigmatic Electron.


Boston: Klurer Academic, 1992, pp. 4-5.
Gravitational Atomic Synthesis at Room Temperature
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2012 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

It is described a process for creating new atoms starting from pre-existing atoms. We show that all the elements of
the periodic table can be synthesized, at room temperature, by a gravitational process based on the intensification of
the gravitational interaction by means of electromagnetic fields.

Key words: Modified theories of gravity, Atom manipulation, Atomic forces.


PACS: 04.50.Kd, 37.90.+j, 34.20.-b.

1. Introduction 2. Theory

Rutherford [1] was the first to observe The quantization of gravity showed
the transmutation of the atoms, and also the that the gravitational mass mg and the
first to perform transmutation of the atoms. inertial mass mi are correlated by means of
That gave him a double justification for the following factor [5]:
being labeled an alchemist.
It is currently believed that the ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎪
synthesis of precious metals, a symbolic goal χ= ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (1)
long sought by alchemists, is only possible mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥
with methods involving either nuclear ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎪⎭
reactors or particle accelerators. However, it
will be shown here that all the elements of where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the
the periodic table can be synthesized, at room particle and Δp is the variation in the
temperature, by a gravitational process based particle’s kinetic momentum; c is the speed
on the intensification of the gravitational of light.
interaction by means of electromagnetic When Δp is produced by the
fields. The process is very simple, but it
absorption of a photon with wavelength λ , it
requires extremely-low frequency (ELF)
magnetic field with very strong intensity is expressed by Δp = h λ . In this case, Eq.
(Brms > 2,500T).
B
(1) becomes
The strongest continuous magnetic m g ⎧⎪ ⎡
⎛ h mi 0 c ⎞
2 ⎤⎫

field yet produced in a laboratory had 45 T ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
(Florida State University's National High mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
Magnetic Field Laboratory in Tallahassee,
USA) [2]. The strongest (pulsed) magnetic ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ λ0 ⎞ ⎪
field yet obtained non-destructively in a = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
⎢ (2)
⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝λ ⎠ ⎥⎪
laboratory had about 100T. (National High ⎣ ⎦⎭
Magnetic Field Laboratory, Los Alamos
National Laboratory, USA) [3]. The strongest where λ0 = h mi0 c is the DeBroglie
pulsed magnetic field yet obtained in a
wavelength for the particle with rest inertial
laboratory, destroying the used equipment,
but not the laboratory itself (Institute for mass mi 0 .
Solid State Physics, Tokyo) reached 730 T . In general, the momentum variation
The strongest (pulsed) magnetic field ever Δp is expressed by Δp = FΔt where F is the
obtained (with explosives) in a laboratory applied force during a time interval Δt . Note
(VNIIEF in Sarov, Russia, 1998) reached that there is no restriction concerning the
2,800T [4]. nature of the force, i.e., it can be mechanical,
electromagnetic, etc. For example, we can
2
look on the momentum variation Δp as due If a lamina with thickness equal to ξ
to absorption or emission of electromagnetic contains n atoms/m3, then the number of
energy by the particle. atoms per area unit is nξ . Thus, if the
This means that, by means of electromagnetic radiation with frequency
electromagnetic fields, the gravitational mass f incides on an area S of the lamina it
can be decreased down to become negative reaches nSξ atoms. If it incides on the total
and increased (independently of the inertial
area of the lamina, S f , then the total number
mass mi ). In this way, the gravitational
forces can be intensified. Consequently, we of atoms reached by the radiation is
can use, for example, oscillating magnetic N = nS f ξ . The number of atoms per unit of
fields in order to intensify the gravitational volume, n , is given by
interaction between electrons and protons. N0 ρ
From Electrodynamics we know that n= (6)
A
when an electromagnetic wave with
frequency f and velocity c incides on a where N 0 = 6.02 × 10 26 atoms / kmole is the
material with relative permittivity ε r , Avogadro’s number; ρ is the matter density
relative magnetic permeability μ r and of the lamina (in kg/m3) and A is the molar
electrical conductivity σ , its velocity is mass(kg/kmole).
reduced to v = c nr where nr is the index of When an electromagnetic wave incides
on the lamina, it strikes N f front atoms,
refraction of the material, given by [6]
( )
where Nf ≅ n Sf φm , φ m is the “diameter” of
εμ the atom. Thus, the electromagnetic wave
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ (3)
c 2

v 2 ⎝ ⎠ incides effectively on an area S = Nf Sm , where


Sm = 14 πφm2 is the cross section area of one atom.
After these collisions, it carries out ncollisions
If σ >> ωε , ω = 2πf , Eq. (3) reduces to with the other atoms (See Fig.3).

μrσ
nr = (4)
4πε0 f

Thus, the wavelength of the incident


radiation (See Fig. 2) becomes atom
Sm
Wave
λ 4π
λmod =
v c f
= = = (5) Fig. 3 – Collisions inside the lamina.
f nr nr μfσ
Thus, the total number of collisions in the
volume Sξ is
v=c v = c/nr
Ncollisions= Nf +ncollisions= nlSφm +(nlSξ −nmSφm) =
nr = nmSξ (7)
λ = c/f λmod = v/f = c/nr f
The power density, D , of the radiation on the
lamina can be expressed by
Fig. 2 – Modified Electromagnetic Wave. The
wavelength of the electromagnetic wave can be D=
P
=
P
(8 )
strongly reduced, but its frequency remains the same. S N f Sm
3
We can express the total mean number where mi 0(l ) = ρ(l )V(l ) .
of collisions in each atom, n1 , by means of Now, considering that the lamina is
the following equation inside an ELF electromagnetic field with
E and B , then we can write that [7]
n total N collisions n r (l ) E 2
n1 =
photons
(9 ) D= (15)
N 2μ 0 c
Substitution of Eq. (15) into Eq. (14) gives
Since in each collision a momentum h λ is
transferred to the atom, then the total ⎧ ⎡ ⎫
⎡⎛ nr(l )nl3S2f Sm2φm2ξE2 ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎤⎥⎪
2
momentum transferred to the lamina will be mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢
Δp = (n1 N ) h λ . Therefore, in accordance = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (16)
⎢ ⎢⎣⎜⎝ 2μ0mi0(l )c f ⎟⎠ λ ⎥⎦ ⎥⎥⎪
2 2
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢
with Eq. (1), we can write that ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭

⎧ ⎡ Note that E = E m sin ωt .The average value


λ ⎤ ⎤⎫⎪
2
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎡
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢(n1 N ) 0 ⎥ −1⎥⎬ = for E 2 is equal to 1 2 E m2 because E varies
mi0(l ) ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎣ λ ⎦ ⎥⎪
⎦⎭ sinusoidaly ( E m is the maximum value
⎧ ⎡
λ0 ⎤ ⎤⎫⎪
2
⎪ ⎢ ⎡ for E ). On the other hand, E rms = E m 2.
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢ntotal photonsNcollisions ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (10)
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎣ λ ⎦ ⎥⎪ Consequently we can replace E for E . 4 4
⎦⎭ rms

Thus, for λ = λmod , the equation above can


Since Eq. (7) gives N collisions = nl Sξ , we get be rewritten as follows
⎛ P ⎞
ntotal N collisions = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nl Sξ ) (11) ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
photons
⎝ hf ⎠ mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nr(l )nl3S2f Sm2φm2ξErms
2
⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜
⎢ ⎜

⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (17)
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎣⎢⎝ 2 μ m
0 i0(l )c2 2
f λ
⎠ mod⎦⎥ ⎥⎪
Substitution of Eq. (11) into Eq. (10) yields ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭

⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ Electrodynamics tells us that


E rms = vBrms = (c n r (l ) )Brms . Substitution of
2
mg (l ) ⎪ ⎡⎛ P ⎞ λ0 ⎤ ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nl Sξ ) ⎥ − 1⎥⎬ (12)

mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎣⎝ hf ⎠ λ⎦ ⎥⎪ this expression into Eq. (17) gives
⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦⎭

⎧ ⎡ nl6S 4f Sm4φm4ξ 2 Brms


4 ⎤⎫⎪
Substitution of P given by Eq. (8) into Eq. mg(l ) ⎪
χ= = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2 2 4 2 2 −1⎥⎬ (18)
(12) gives 4μ0 mi0(l ) f λmodnr(l ) ⎥⎪
mi0(l ) ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎦⎭
⎧ ⎡ ⎫
⎡⎛ Nf SmD⎞⎛ n Sξ ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎤⎥⎪
2
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎟ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (13) Since λmod = λ nr (l ) then Eq. (18) can be
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟⎜ l

mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢
⎢ ⎢⎝
⎣ f ⎠⎝ i0(l ) ⎟⎠ λ ⎦⎥ ⎥⎥⎪
⎜ m c rewritten in the following form
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
⎧ ⎡ nl6S 4f Sm4φm4ξ 2 Brms
4 ⎤⎫⎪
mg (l ) ⎪
χ= = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + − 1⎥⎬ (19)
Substitution of N f ≅ (nl S f )φm and S = N f Sm mi0(l ) ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 4μ02mi20(l )c2 f 2 ⎥⎦⎪

into Eq. (13) results
In order to calculate the expressions of
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ 2 χ Be for the particular case of a electron of
⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nl3 S 2f Sm2φm2ξD ⎞ 1 ⎤
⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎪⎬ (14)
mg(l )
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎥ the electrophere of a atom, subjected to an
mi0(l ) ⎜
⎢⎣⎝ mi0(l ) cf
2 ⎟ λ⎥
⎪ ⎢ ⎠ ⎦ ⎥⎦⎪⎭ external magnetic field Brms with frequency
⎩ ⎣
4
f , we must substitute in Eq. (19) nl Therefore, we can write that rxp = k xp rp ,
for 1 Ve =1 πr
4 3
3 e
, S f for (SSAe )ρ eVe ( SSAe is where
the specific surface area for electrons in this rxp
k xp = = 25.6
case: SSAe = 12 Ae me = 12 Ae ρe Ve = 2πrxe2 ρeVe ), rp
The electron is similarly deformed by the
S m by S e = π rxe2 , ξ by φm = 2rxe and mi 0(l )
relative movement of the proton in respect to
by me . The result is it. In this case, by analogy, we can write that
e2
rxe = + re = 6.4 × 10 −11 m
⎧⎪ ⎡ 45.56π 2rxe22Brms
4 ⎤⎫⎪ 4πε 0 m e v e
2

χBe = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ − 1⎥⎬ (20)


⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ c2μ02me2re18 f 2 ⎥⎦⎪⎭ and rxe = k xe re , where rxe is the radius of the
sphere whose external area is equivalent to
In order to calculate the value of rxe we the increased area of the electron. The radius
of free electron is re = 6.87×10−14 m (See
start considering a hydrogen atom, where the
electron spins around the proton with a Appendix A). However, for electrons in the
velocity v e = 3 × 10 6 m.s −1 . The electrical atomic eletrosphere of atoms the value of re
force acting on the proton is Fe = e 2 4πε 0 r12 , must be calculated starting from Quantum
Mechanics. The wave packet that describes
which is equal to the centrifuge force the electron satisfies an uncertainty principle
Fc = m pω e2 r0 where ω e is the angular velocity (ΔpΔx ≥ 12 h ) , where Δp = hΔk and Δk is
of the electron and r0 is the distance between the approximate extension of the wave
the inertial center of the proton and the center packet. Thus, we can write that (ΔkΔx ≥ 12 ) .
of the moving proton (See Fig. 5, where we For the ``square'' packet the full width in k is
conclude that 2(r0 + rp ) = rxp + r p , where Δk = 2π λ0 ( λ0 = h me c is the average
rxp is the radius of the sphere whose external wavelength). The width in x is a little harder
area is equivalent to the increased area of the to define, but, lets use the first node in the
proton). Thus, we get r0 = 12 (rxp − rp ) . probability found at (2π λ0 )x 2 = π or
x = λ0 . So, the width of the wave packet is
ve twice this or Δx = 2λ0 . Obviously, 2re
-
Fe cannot be greater than Δx , i.e., re must be
K
smaller and close to λ0 = h mec = 2.43×10−12 m .
rxp ve Then, assuming that re ≅ 2.4 × 10 −12 m , we
Fe get
r0
rxe
rp k xe = = 26 .6
re

Note that k xe ≅ k xp .
Fig. 5 – The deformation of the proton. Substitution of these values into Eq.
(20) gives

Substitution of this value into expression of


Fc = Fe gives
e2
rxp = + rp = 3.2 × 10 −14 m
4πε 0 m p ve
2
5
⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤ ⎫⎪ attracted to the nucleus and leaves the atom.
k xe22 re4 Brms
4
χ Be = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 3.8 × 1057 − 1⎥⎬ = The final result is that the atom loses a
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f2 ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭ proton and an electron and is transformed in
a new atom. But the transmutation is not
⎧⎪ ⎡ 42 Brms
4 ⎤ ⎫⎪ completed until the magnetic field is turned
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + 2.8 × 10 − 1 ⎥⎬ (21) off. When this occurs the Cooper pairs are
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f2 ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
broken, and the new atom leaves the
Similarly, in the case of proton and neutron transitory state, and passes to the normal
we can write that state.
⎧ ⎡ 45.56π 2kxp22rp4Brms4 ⎤⎫⎪ In order to satisfy the condition

χBp = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ − 1 ⎥⎬ (22) expressed by Eq. (26), we must have
⎪⎩ ⎣ ⎢ c μ
2 2 2 2
m f ⎥
0 p
⎦⎪⎭
FN r12
χ Bp χ Be > ≈ 3 × 10 48 (27)
⎧⎪ ⎡ 45.56π 2 rn4 Brms
4 ⎤⎫⎪ Gm p me
χBn = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2 2 2 2 −1⎥⎬ (23)
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ μ0 mn c f ⎥⎦⎪⎭
By substitution of Eq. (21) and (22) into Eq.
In the case of the neutron, k xn = 1 due to its (27), we obtain
2
electric charge be null. The radius of protons Brms
> 6 × 10 7
inside the atoms (nuclei) is rp = 1.2 ×10−15 m f
[8,9], rn ≅ r p , then we obtain from Eqs. (22) Thus, for f = 0.1Hz we conclude that the
and (23) the following expressions: required value of Brms is
⎧⎪ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫⎪
22 Brms
χ Bp = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2.2×10 −1⎥⎬ (24) Brms > 2,500T
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f2 ⎥⎦⎪⎭
⎧⎪ ⎡ 4 ⎤⎫⎪ This means that, if we subject, for
−9 Brms
χBn = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ 2.35×10 2 −1⎥⎬ (25) example, an amount of 198Hg (80 electrons,
⎪⎩ ⎣⎢ f ⎦⎥⎪⎭ 80 protons, 118 neutrons) to a magnetic field
When a strong magnetic field Brms is applied with Brms>2,500 T and frequency 0.1Hz the
B

198
Hg loses 1 proton and 1 electron and
on the atom, the enormous value of χ Be (See
consequently will be transmuted to 197Au (79
Eq. 21) makes the gravitational force electrons, 79 protons, 118 neutrons) when the
between the electrons greater than the magnetic field is turned off. Besides the
electric force due to its charges, and transformation of mercury into gold, we can
consequently, the electrons are joined in pairs make several transmutations. For example, if
(Cooper pairs)[10]. However, due to the the 197Au is after subjected to the same
vales of χ Be and χ Bp , the gravitational magnetic field it will be transmuted to 196Pt
attraction between the electrons of the K (78 electrons, 78 protons, 118 neutrons).
shell and the protons of the nucleus becomes Similarly, if 110Cd (48 electrons, 48 protons,
greater than the nuclear force, i.e., 62 neutrons) is subjected to the mentioned
m gp mge m p me field it will be transmuted to 109Ag (47
G 2
= χ Bp χ Be G 2 > FN (26) electrons, 47 protons, 62 neutrons). Also 235U
r1 r1 can be easily obtained by this process, i.e., if
Then, the proton more weakly bound to the we subject an amount of 236Np (93 electrons,
nucleus is ejected towards the nearest 93 protons, 143 neutrons) to the magnetic
electron. When they collide, there occurs the field with >2,500 T and frequency 0.1Hz,
formation of one neutron and one neutrino, the 236Np loses 1 proton and 1 electron and
according the well-known reaction consequently will be transmuted to 235U (92
p + e → n + ν e . Since the neutron is beyond electrons, 92 protons, 143 neutrons).
the reach of the nuclear force, it is not
6

Appendix A: The “Geometrical Radii” of Electron and Proton

It is known that the frequency of


oscillation of a simple spring oscillator is 1 Gmgeχe
f= ( A6)
2π Re3
1
f =
K
( A1) The value of χ e varies with the density of
2π m
energy [5]. When the electron and the
positron are distant from each other and the
where m is the inertial mass attached to the
local density of energy is small, the value of
spring and K is the spring constant (in
N·m−1). In this case, the restoring force χ e becomes very close to 1. However, when
exerted by the spring is linear and given by the electron and the positron are penetrating
one another, the energy densities in each
F = − Kx ( A2) particle become very strong due to the
proximity of their electrical charges e and,
where x is the displacement from the consequently, the value of χ e strongly
equilibrium position. increases. In order to calculate the value of
Now, consider the gravitational force: χ e under these conditions ( x = r = Re ), we
For example, above the surface of the Earth, start from the expression of correlation
the force follows the familiar Newtonian between electric charge q and gravitational
function, i.e., F = − GM g⊕ m g r 2 , where mass, obtained in a previous work [5]:
M g ⊕ is the mass of Earth, m g is the
gravitational mass of a particle and r is the q = 4πε 0 G m g (imaginary ) i ( A7 )
distance between the centers. Below Earth’s
surface the force is linear and given by where m g (imaginary ) is the imaginary
GMg⊕mg
F =− r ( A3) gravitational mass, and i = − 1 .
R⊕3
where R⊕ is the radius of Earth. In the case of electron, Eq. (A7) gives
By comparing (A3) with (A2) we
obtain qe = 4πε0G mge(imaginary) i =
K
=
K GMg⊕ ⎛ r ⎞
= 3 ⎜ ⎟ ( A4) (
= 4πε0G χ e mi0e(imaginary)i = )
( )
mg χ m R⊕ ⎝ x ⎠
= 4πε0G − χe 2
mi0e(real)i 2 =
Making x = r = R⊕ , and substituting (A4) 3

into (A1) gives = 4πε G (


0
2
3
)
χe mi0e(real) = −1.6 ×10−19 C ( A8)

1 GMg⊕ χ where we obtain


f= ( A5)
2π R⊕3
χ e = −1.8 × 10 21 ( A9)
In the case of an electron and a positron, we
substitute M g ⊕ by m ge , χ by χ e and R⊕ by This is therefore, the value of χ e increased
Re , where Re is the radius of electron (or by the strong density of energy produced by
the electrical charges e of the two particles,
positron). Thus, Eq. (A5) becomes under previously mentioned conditions.
7
Given that m ge = χ e mi 0 e , Eq. (A6) Thus, the result is
yields
1 2
1 Gχ e2 mi0e ⎛ G ⎞3 ⎛ χ ph ⎞3
f= ( A10) Rp = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = 3.72 × 10−17 m ( A17)
⎜ mi0 p ⎟ ⎜ 2π c 2 ⎟
2π Re3 ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

From Quantum Mechanics, we know that Note that these radii, given by
Equations ( A14) and ( A17) , are the radii of
hf = mi 0 c 2 ( A11) free electrons and free protons (when the
particle and antiparticle (in isolation)
where h is the Planck’s constant. Thus, in penetrate themselves mutually).
the case of mi 0 = mi 0e we get Inside the atoms (nuclei) the radius of
protons is well-known. For example, protons,
as the hydrogen nuclei, have a radius given
mi 0e c 2
f= ( A12) by R p ≅ 1.2 × 10−15 m [8,9]. The strong
h
increase in respect to the value given by Eq.
By comparing (A10) and (A12) we (A17) is due to the interaction with the
conclude that electron of the atom.

mi 0e c 2 1 Gχ e2 mi 0e
= ( A13)
h 2π Re3

Isolating the radius Re , we get:

1 2
⎛ G ⎞ 3 ⎛ χeh ⎞ 3
Re = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = 6.87×10−14 m ( A14)
⎝ i 0e ⎠ ⎝ 2π c ⎠
2
m

Compare this value with the Compton sized


electron, which predicts Re = 3.86 × 10 −13 m
and also with standardized result recently
obtained of Re = 4 − 7 × 10 −13 m [11].
In the case of proton, we have

q p = 4πε0G mgp(imaginary) i =

(
= 4πε0G χ p mi0 p(imaginary)i = )
(
= 4πε0G − χ p 2
3
mi0 p(real)i 2 =)
= 4πε G(
0
2
)
χ p mi0 p(real) = −1.6×10−19 C ( A15)
3

where we obtain

χ p = −9.7 × 1017 ( A16)


8

References
[1] Rutherford, E. (1933) The Artificial Transmutation of
the Elements; Rutherford, E. (1937)The Newer Alchemy.

[2] "World's Most Powerful Magnet Tested Ushers in New


Era for Steady High Field Research". National High
Magnetic Field Laboratory.
http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/mediacenter/news/
pressreleases/1999december17.html

[3] http://gizmodo.com/5896092/the-worlds-most-
powerful-non+destructive-magnet-screams-like-a-
banshee.

[4] Bykov, A.I et al., Pulsed Power Conference, 1999.


Digest of Technical Papers. 12th IEEE International, 2,
pp. 746 – 749.

[5] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of


the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific
Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-
232.

[6] Quevedo, C. P. (1977) Eletromagnetismo, McGraw-


Hill, p. 270.

[7] Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. (1968) Physics, J. Willey &


Sons, Portuguese Version, Ed. USP, p.1124.

[8] N.D. Cook (2010). Models of the Atomic Nucleus (2nd


ed.). Springer. p. 57 ff.. ISBN 978-3-642-14736-4.

[9] K.S. Krane (1987). Introductory Nuclear Physics.


Wiley-VCH. ISBN 0-471-80553-X.

[10] De Aquino, F. (2012) Superconducting State generated


by Cooper Pairs bound by Intensified Gravitational
Interaction, http://vixra.org/abs/1207.0008.

[11] Mac Gregor. M. H., (1992) The Enigmatic Electron.


Boston: Klurer Academic, 1992, pp. 4-5.
Ultrafast Conversion of Graphite to Diamond in
Gravitational Pressure Apparatus
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2012 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

Currently the artificial production of diamond is very expensive because it consumes large amounts of energy in order
to produce a single diamond. Here, we propose a new type of press based on the intensification of the gravitational
acceleration. This Gravitational Press can generate pressures several times more intense than the 80GPa required for
ultrafast transformation of graphite into diamond. In addition, due to the enormous pressure that the Gravitational
Press can produce, the "synthesis capsule" may be very large (up to about 1000 cm3 in size). This is sufficient to
produce diamonds with up to 100 carats (20g) or more. On the other hand, besides the ultrafast conversion, the energy
required for the Gravitational Presses is very low, in such a way that the production cost of the diamonds becomes
very low, what means that they could be produced on a large scale.

Key words: Modified theories of gravity, High-pressure apparatus, Graphite, Diamond.


PACS: 04.50.Kd, 07.35.+k, 81.05.uf , 81.05.ug

1. Introduction

After the discovery that diamond was the Cubic press and the split-sphere (BARS)
pure carbon, many attempts were made to press. Typical pressures and temperatures
convert various carbon forms into diamond. achievable are of the order of 10 GPa and
Converting graphite into diamond has been a 2500°C [5].
long held dream of alchemists. The artificial Diamonds may be formed in the
production of diamond was first achieved by Earth’s mantle mainly by direct transition,
H.T Hall in 1955. He used a press capable of graphite to diamond or by systems involving
producing pressures above 10 GPa and carbon dissolved in molten metals. The
temperatures above 2,000 °C [1]. classic high-pressure, high-temperature
Today, there are several methods to synthesis of diamond utilizes molten
produce synthetic diamond. The more widely transition metals as solvent/catalysts.
utilized method uses high pressure and high Converting diamond from graphite in the
temperature (HPHT) of the order of 10 GPa absence of a catalyst requires pressures that
and 2500°C during many hours in order to are significantly higher than those at
produce a single diamond. The fact that this equilibrium coexistence [6-12]. At lower
process requires high pressure and high temperatures, the formation of the metastable
temperatures during a long time means that it hexagonal polymorph of diamond is favored
consumes large amounts of energy, and this instead of the more stable cubic diamond [7,
is the reason why the production cost of 10-12]. These phenomena cannot be
artificial diamond is so expensive. The explained by the concerted mechanism
second method, using chemical vapor suggested in previous theoretical studies [13-
deposition (CVD), creates a carbon plasma 17]. However, recently Michele Parrinello,
over a substrate onto which the carbon atoms Professor of Computational Science at ETH
deposit to form diamond. Other methods Zurich, and his team have developed a
include explosive formation and sonication method by which they have successfully
of graphite solutions [2,3,4]. simulated this phase transition accurately and
In the HPHT method, there are three adequately using computer models [18].
main press designs used to supply the Instead of happening concerted, all at once,
pressure and temperature necessary to the conversion evidently takes place in a step
produce synthetic diamond: the Belt press, by step process involving the formation of a
2
diamond seed in the graphite, which is then where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the
transformed completely at high pressure. In particle and Δp is the variation in the
quantitative agreement with the ab initio
particle’s kinetic momentum; c is the speed
calculations of Tateyama at al. [19], the
of light.
stability of diamond relative to graphite
When Δp is produced by the
increases with pressure whereas the barrier
separating two phases decreases. Parrinello’s absorption of a photon with wavelength λ , it
work shows that at a pressure of 80 GPa and is expressed by Δp = h λ . In this case, Eq.
temperature between 0 and 1,000K graphite (1) becomes
m g ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤⎫
reaches a lattice instability point and 2
⎢ ⎛ h mi 0 c ⎞ ⎪
undergoes an ultrafast transformation to = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
diamond as was previously observed in ab mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
initio simulations by Scandolo et al [20].
Here, we propose a new type of press ⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
⎛ λ0 ⎞
2
⎪ ⎪
based on the intensification of the gravitational = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
⎢ (2)
acceleration * . This press can generate pressures ⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝λ ⎠ ⎥⎪
several times more intense † than the 80GPa ⎣ ⎦⎭
required for the ultrafast transformation of where λ0 = h mi0 c is the De Broglie
graphite to diamond. In addition, due to the wavelength for the particle with rest inertial
enormous pressure that the Gravitational Press mass mi 0 .
can produce (>>80GPa), the ceramic cube
("synthesis capsule") can be very large (up to It has been shown that there is an
about 1000 cm3 in size). This is sufficient to additional effect - Gravitational Shielding
produce diamonds up to 100 carats (20g) or effect - produced by a substance whose
more. On the other hand, besides the ultrafast gravitational mass was reduced or made
conversion, the energy required for the negative [22]. The effect extends beyond
Gravitational Presses is very low, in such a way substance (gravitational shielding) , up to a
that the production cost of the diamonds becomes certain distance from it (along the central
very low, what means that they could be axis of gravitational shielding). This effect
produced on a large scale.
shows that in this region the gravity
acceleration, g 1 , is reduced at the same
2. Theory
proportion, i.e., g1 = χ 1 g where
From the quantization of gravity it χ 1 = m g mi 0 and g is the gravity
follows that the gravitational mass mg and acceleration before the gravitational
the inertial mass mi are correlated by means shielding). Consequently, after a second
of the following factor gravitational shielding, the gravity will be
[21]: given by g 2 = χ 2 g 1 = χ 1 χ 2 g , where χ 2 is
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎪ the value of the ratio m g mi 0 for the second
χ= ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (1)
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪ gravitational shielding. In a generalized way,
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ we can write that after the nth gravitational
shielding the gravity, g n , will be given by
*
De Aquino, F. (2008) Process and Device for Controlling
the Locally the Gravitational Mass and the Gravity
g n = χ 1 χ 2 χ 3 ...χ n g (3)
Acceleration, BR Patent Number: PI0805046-5, July 31,
2008.
This possibility shows that, by means

The limit is basically determined by the compression of a battery of gravitational shieldings, we
resistance of the material of the piston and anvils of the can make particles acquire enormous
Gravitational Press since it can produce pressures far beyond accelerations. In practice, this is the basis to
1000 GPa.
the conception of the Gravitational Press.
3
From Electrodynamics we know that where N 0 = 6.02 × 10 atoms / kmole is the
26
when an electromagnetic wave with
Avogadro’s number; ρ is the matter density
frequency f and velocity c incides on a
of the lamina (in kg/m3) and A is the molar
material with relative permittivity ε r , mass(kg/kmole).
relative magnetic permeability μ r and When an electromagnetic wave incides
electrical conductivity σ , its velocity is on the lamina, it strikes N f front atoms,
reduced to v = c nr where nr is the index of ( )
where Nf ≅ n Sf φm , φ m is the “diameter” of
refraction of the material, given by [23] the atom. Thus, the electromagnetic wave
ε μ
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ (4) incides effectively on an area S = Nf Sm , where
c 2
v 2 ⎝ ⎠
Sm = 14 πφm2 is the cross section area of one atom.
If σ >> ωε , ω = 2πf , Eq. (4) reduces to
After these collisions, it carries out ncollisions
μrσ
nr = (5) with the other atoms (See Fig.2).
4πε0 f
Thus, the wavelength of the incident
radiation (See Fig. 1) becomes
λ 4π
λmod =
v c f
= = = (6)
f nr nr μfσ
atom
Sm
Wave
v=c v = c/nr Fig. 2 – Collisions inside the lamina.

Thus, the total number of collisions in the


nr volume Sξ is
λ = c/f λmod = v/f = c/nr f
Ncollisions= Nf +ncollisions=nl Sφm +(nl Sξ −nmSφm) =
Fig. 1 – Modified Electromagnetic Wave. The =nmSξ (8)
wavelength of the electromagnetic wave can be
strongly reduced, but its frequency remains the same.
If a lamina with thickness equal to ξ The power density, D , of the radiation on the
lamina can be expressed by
contains n atoms/m3, then the number of
atoms per area unit is nξ . Thus, if the
electromagnetic radiation with frequency D=
P
=
P
(9 )
S N f Sm
f incides on an area S of the lamina it
reaches nSξ atoms. If it incides on the total
We can express the total mean number
area of the lamina, S f , then the total number of collisions in each atom, n1 , by means of
of atoms reached by the radiation is the following equation
N = nS f ξ . The number of atoms per unit of
volume, n , is given by ntotal photons N collisions
n1 = (10 )
N
N0 ρ
n= (7)
A Since in each collision a momentum h λ is
transferred to the atom, then the total
momentum transferred to the lamina will be
4
Δp = (n1 N ) h λ . Therefore, in accordance ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nr(l )nl3S2f Sm2φm2ξE2 ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
with Eq. (1), we can write that = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (17)
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎜
⎢⎣⎝ 2 μ m
0 i0(l )c2 2 ⎟
f ⎥
⎠ λ ⎥⎦ ⎥⎪

⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
λ0 ⎤
2
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡ ⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢(n1 N) ⎥ −1⎥⎬ =
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎣ λ⎦ ⎥⎪ In the case in which the area S f is just the
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
area of the cross-section of the lamina (Sα ) ,
⎧ ⎡
λ0 ⎤
2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎡ ⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢ntotal photonsNcollisions ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (11) we obtain from Eq. (17), considering that
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎣ λ⎦ ⎥⎪ mi0(l) = ρ(l)Sαξ , the following expression
⎦⎭

Since Eq. (8) gives N collisions = nl Sξ , we get ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫


mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nr(l )nl3Sα Sm2φm2 E2 ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (18)
⎛ P ⎞
ntotal photons N collisions = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nl Sξ ) (12) mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎜ 2 2 ⎟
⎢⎣⎝ 2μ0ρ(l )c f ⎠ λ ⎥⎦ ⎥⎪


⎝ hf ⎠ ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭

Substitution of Eq. (12) into Eq. (11) yields If the electrical conductivity of the lamina,
σ (l ) , is such that σ (l ) >> ωε , then the value of
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ λ is given by Eq. (6), i.e.,
mg (l ) ⎪ ⎡⎛ P ⎞ λ0 ⎤ ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nl Sξ ) ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (13)

mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎣⎝ hf ⎠ λ ⎦⎥ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦⎪⎭ 4π
⎩ λ = λmod = (19)
μfσ
Substitution of P given by Eq. (9) into Eq.
(13) gives Substitution of Eq. (19) into Eq. (18) gives

⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ ⎧ ⎡ nr2(l )nl6Sα2Sm4φm4σ(l ) E4 ⎤⎫⎪


2
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ N f SmD⎞⎛ n Sξ ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪ mg(l ) ⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎜ l ⎟ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (14) = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ −1⎥⎬ (20)
2 ⎟⎜
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎣⎝ f ⎟ ⎥
⎠⎝ mi0(l )c ⎠ λ ⎥⎦ ⎥⎪ mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ 16πμ0ρ(2l )c4 f 3 ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎢ ⎦⎭ ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭

Substitution of N f ≅ (nl S f )φm and S = N f Sm Note that E = E m sin ωt .The average value
into Eq. (14) results for E 2 is equal to 1 2 E m2 because E varies
sinusoidaly ( E m is the maximum value
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ for E ). On the other hand, E rms = E m 2.
⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nl3S 2f Sm2φm2ξD ⎞ 1 ⎤
⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎪⎬ (15)
mg(l )
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎥
4 4
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎢⎣⎝ mi0(l )cf ⎠ λ ⎥⎦
Consequently we can change E by E ,
⎥⎦⎪
rms
⎢⎣
⎩ ⎭ and the equation above can be rewritten as
where mi 0(l ) = ρ (l )V(l ) . follows
Now, considering that the lamina is mg (l )
inside an ELF electromagnetic field with χ= =
E and B , then we can write that [24] mi0(l )
⎧ ⎡ nr2(l )nl6 Sα2 Sm4φm4σ (l )Erms
4 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎪
n r (l ) E 2 = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + − 1⎥⎬ (21)
D= (16 ) ⎪⎩ ⎢ 16πμ0 ρ(l )c f
2 4 3
⎥⎪
2μ 0 c ⎣ ⎦⎭

Substitution of Eq. (16) into Eq. (15) gives Now consider the system
(Gravitational Press) shown in Fig.3.
5
Inside the system there is a dielectric the tube (D). They work as gravitational
tube ( ε r ≅ 1) with the following characteristics: decelerator while the other set with 7 GCC
(A) works as a gravitational accelerator,
α = 60mm , Sα = πα 2 4 = 2 .83 × 10 − 3 m 2 .
intensifying the gravity acceleration
Inside the tube there is an Aluminum sphere produced by the mass M gs of the Aluminum
with 30mm radius and mass
M gs = 0.30536kg . The tube is filled with air sphere. According to Eq. (3), this gravity,
after the 7th GCC becomes
at ambient temperature and 1atm. Thus,
inside the tube, the air density is g 7 = χ GM gs r0 , where χ = mg (l ) mi (l )
7 2

given by Eq. (21) and r0 = 35mm is the


ρ air = 1 . 2 kg .m −3
(22 ) distance between the center of the Aluminum
sphere and the surface of the first GCC of the
set (A).
The number of atoms of air (Nitrogen) per
The objective of the sets (D), with 18
unit of volume, n air , according to Eq.(7), is
GCC each, is to reduce strongly the value of
given by the external gravity along the axis of the
tube. In this case, the value of the external
N 0 ρ air
nair = = 5.16×1025 atoms/ m3 (23) gravity, g ext , is reduced by the factor χ d18 gext ,
AN
where χ d = 10−2 . For example, if the base
The parallel metallic plates (p), shown BS of the system is positioned on the Earth
in Fig.3 are subjected to different drop surface, then gext = 9.81m / s 2 is reduced
voltages. The two sets of plates (D), placed to χ d18 gext and, after the set A, it is increased
on the extremes of the tube, are subjected to
V( D )rms = 1.64kV at f = 1Hz , while the central by χ 7 . Since the system is designed for
set of plates (A)
is subjected to χ = −308 .5 , then the gravity acceleration on
−18
= 19.7kV at f =1Hz. Since d = 98mm , the sphere becomes χ χd gext = 2.6 ×10 m / s ,
7 18 2
V( A )rms
then the intensity of the electric field, which this value is much smaller than
passes through the 36 cylindrical air laminas g sphere = GM gs rs2 = 2.26 × 10−8 m / s 2 .
(each one with 5mm thickness) of the two The electrical conductivity of air, inside
sets (D), is the dielectric tube, is equal to the electrical
conductivity of Earth’s atmosphere near the
E( D )rms = V( D )rms d = 1.67 × 104 V / m land, whose average value is
σ air ≅ 1 × 10 S / m [25]. This value is of
−14

and the intensity of the electric field, which fundamental importance in order to obtain
passes through the 7 cylindrical air laminas the convenient values of χ and χ d , which
of the central set (A), is given by
are given by Eq. (21), i.e.,
E( A)rms = V( A)rms d = 2.012 × 105 V / m
⎧ ⎡ nr2(air) nair
6
Sα2 S m4 φm4σ air E(4A)rms ⎤⎫⎪

χ = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + − 1⎥⎬ =
Note that the metallic rings (5mm ⎪⎩ ⎢ 16 πμ ρ 2 4 3
c f ⎥⎪
⎣ 0 air
⎦⎭
{ [ ]}
thickness) are positioned in such way to
block the electric field out of the cylindrical = 1 − 2 1 + 1.480× 10−17 E(4A)rms − 1 (24)
air laminas. The objective is to turn each one
of these laminas into a Gravity Control Cell
(GCC) [22]. Thus, the system shown in Fig.
3 has 3 sets of GCC. Two with 18 GCC each
and one with 7 GCC. The two sets with 18
GCC each are positioned at the extremes of
6
⎧⎪ ⎡ nr2(air)nairSα SmφmσairE(4D)rms
6 2 4 4 ⎤⎫⎪
χd = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ −1⎥⎬ =
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 16πμ0ρair
2 4 3
cf ⎥⎦⎪

{ [
= 1− 2 1+1.48×10−17E(4D)rms −1 ]} (25)

where n r ( air ) = ε r μ r ≅ 1 , since (σ << ωε ) ;


nair = 5.16 ×1025 atoms/ m3 , φm = 1.55×10−10 m ,
Sm = πφm2 4 = 1.88 × 10−20 m2 and f =1Hz.
Since E ( A )rms = 2 . 012 × 10 V / m 5
and
E ( D )rms = 1.67 × 10 V / m , we get
4

χ = −308.5 (26)
and

χ d ≅ 10−2 (27)
Then, the gravitational acceleration
upon the piston of the Gravitational Press
shown in Fig. 3 is equal to the value of the
gravitational acceleration after the 7th
gravitational shielding, i.e.,

GM gs
g 7 = χ 7 g = −χ 7 ≅ 4.4 × 109 m / s 2 (28)
r02

If the mass of the piston is m piston = 15kg


with 20cm diameter then the pressure upon
the cubic-anvil apparatus (Fig. 4) is

F m piston g 7
p= = = 2 × 1012 N / m 2 = 2000GPa
S π (0.1) 2

It is important to note that the pressure can be


easily increased by increasing the value of χ .
However, the pressure limit is basically
determined by the compression resistance of
the material of the piston and anvils of the
Gravitational Press since it can produce
pressures far beyond 2000 GPa.
7

d = 98 mm
α=60mm Dielectric tube
εr ≅ 1
Air
1 ξ = 5 mm

Air Air 2 Air Metallic ring


1 atm 300K (5 mm thickness)
D
Parallel plate
17 capacitor (p)
ED(rms) E
Electric field of
18
capacitor
Aluminum sphere
Air
Mg (60 mm diameter)
r0=35mm
1
Air
Air 2

A
6

GM gs
g7 g7 = χ 7 g = −χ 7
r02
1
Air
2

D
Air 17
18

Piston
of
Gravitational Press
(Tungsten Carbide)

To Cubic-Anvil Apparatus (Fig.4)

Fig. 3 – Gravitational Press (Developed from a process patented in July, 31 2008, PI0805046-5)
8

Gravitational Press Piston


(Tungsten Carbide)

Anvils
(Tungsten Carbide or
VK10 hard alloy)

Fig.4 - Diagram of Cubic-Anvil Apparatus for the Gravitational


Press. – In the center of the apparatus, is placed a ceramic cube
("synthesis capsule") of pyrophyllite ceramics, which contains
graphite and is pressed by the anvils made from cemented carbide
(e.g., tungsten carbide or VK10 hard alloy). Note that, due to the
enormous pressure that the Gravitational Press can produce
(>>80GPa), the "synthesis capsule" can be very large (up to about
1000 cm3 in size). This is sufficient to produce diamonds with up to
100 carats (20g) or more.
9

References
[1] Hall, H. T. (1960). "Ultra-high pressure apparatus". Rev.
Sci. Instr. 31 (2): 125.
[2] Werner, M; Locher, R (1998). "Growth and application
of undoped and doped diamond films". Rep. Prog. Phys.
61 (12): 1665.
[3] Osawa, E (2007). "Recent progress and perspectives in
single-digit nanodiamond". Diamond and Related
Materials 16 (12): 2018.
[4] Galimov, É. M.; Kudin, A. M.; Skorobogatskii, V. N.;
Plotnichenko, V. G.; Bondarev, O. L.; Zarubin, B. G.;
Strazdovskii, V. V.; Aronin, A. S. et al. (2004).
"Experimental Corroboration of the Synthesis of Diamond
in the Cavitation Process". Doklady Physics 49 (3): 150.
[5] N. Pal'yanov et al. (2002). "Fluid-bearing alkaline
carbonate melts as the medium for the formation of
diamonds in the Earth's mantle: an experimental study".
Lithos 60: 145.
[6] F. P. Bundy(1963) J. Chem. Phys. 38, 631.
[7] F. P. Bundy and J. S. Kasper(1967) J. Chem. Phys. 46, 3437.
[8] F. P. Bundy,W. A. Bassett, M. S.Weathers, R. J. Hemley,
H. K. Mao, and A. F. Goncharov (1996) Carbon, 34, 141.
[9] T. Irifune, A. Kurio, S. Sakamoto, T. Inoue, and
H. Sumiya(2003) Nature 421, 806.
[10] V. F. Britun, A. V. Kurdyumov, and I. A. Petrusha
(2004) Powder Metall. Met. Ceram. 43, 87.
[11] H. Sumiya, H. Yusa, T. Inoue, H. Ofuji, and T. Irifune
(2006) High Pressure Res. 26, 63.
[12] H. Ohfuji and K. Kuroki(2009) J. Mineral. Petrol. Sci.
104, 307.
[13] S. Fahy, S. G. Louie, and M. L. Cohen (1986) Phys.
Rev. B 34, 1191.
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Rev. B 35, 7623.
[15]Y. Tateyama, T. Ogitsu, K. Kusakabe, and S. Tsuneyuki
(1996) Phys. Rev. B 54, 14994.
[16] S. Scandolo, M. Bernasconi, G. L. Chiarotti, P. Focher,
and E. Tosatti (1995) Phys. Rev. Lett. 74, 4015.
[17] F. Zipoli, M. Bernasconi, and R. Martonak (2004) Eur.
Phys. J. B 39, 41.
[18] Khaliullin, RZ, Eshet, H, Kühne, TD, Jörg Behler, J &
Parrinello, M. (2011) Nucleation mechanism for the
direct graphite-to-diamond phase transition, Nature
Materials, 10, 693–697.
[19] Y. Tateyama, T. Ogitsu, K. Kusakabe, and S.
Tsuneyuki (1996) Phys. Rev. B 54, 14994.
[20] S. Scandolo, M. Bernasconi, G. L. Chiarotti, P. Focher
and E. Tosatti (1995) Phys. Rev. Lett. 74, 4015.
[21] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of
the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific
Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-232.
[22] De Aquino, F. (2010) Gravity Control by means of
Electromagnetic Field through Gas at Ultra-Low
Pressure, Pacific Journal of Science and Technology,
11(2) November 2010, pp.178-247, Physics/0701091.
[23] Quevedo, C. P. (1977) Eletromagnetismo, McGraw-
Hill, p. 270.
[24] Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. (1968) Physics, J. Willey
& Sons, Portuguese Version, Ed. USP, p.1124.
[25] Chalmers, J.A., (1967) Atmospheric Electricity,
Pergamon press, Oxford, London; Kamsali, N. et al.,
(2011) Advanced Air Pollution, chapter 20, DOI:
10.5772/17163, edited by Farhad Nejadkoorki, Publisher:
InTech, ISBN 978-953-307-511-2, under CC BY-NC-
SA 3.0 license.
Artificial Gravitational Lenses
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2012 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

We show that it is possible to produce gravitational lenses at laboratory scale by means of a toroidal
device which strongly intensifies the radial gravitational acceleration at its nucleus, and can make the
acceleration repulsive besides attractive. This means that a light flux through the toroid can become
convergent or divergent from its central axis. These lenses are similar to optical lenses and can be very
useful for telescopes, microscopes, and for the concentration of solar light in order to convert solar
energy into thermal energy.

Key words: Modified theories of gravity, Gravitational lenses, Solar instruments.


PACS: 04.50.Kd, 98.62.Sb, 95.55.Ev.

1. Introduction 2. Theory

It is known that Gravitational fields From the quantization of gravity it


can bend light. This effect was confirmed in follows that the gravitational mass mg and
1919 during a solar eclipse, when Arthur the inertial mass mi are correlated by means
Eddington observed the light from stars of the following factor [5]:
passing close to the sun was slightly bent, so
that stars appeared slightly out of position ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎪
[1]. Einstein realized that a massive χ= ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (1)
astronomical object can bend light making mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪
what is called a gravitational lens. The ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
gravitational lensing is one of the predictions
of Einstein's general theory of relativity. where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the
Although this phenomenon was first particle and Δp is the variation in the
mentioned in 1924 by Orest Chwolson [2], particle’s kinetic momentum; c is the speed
the effect is more commonly associated with of light.
Einstein, who published a more famous When Δp is produced by the
article on the subject in 1936 [3, 4].
absorption of a photon with wavelength λ , it
Here we show that it is possible to
produce gravitational lenses at laboratory is expressed by Δp = h λ . In this case, Eq.
scale, by means of a toroidal device which (1) becomes
strongly intensifies the radial gravitational m g ⎧⎪ ⎡
⎛ h mi 0 c ⎞
2 ⎤⎫

acceleration at its nucleus, and can make the = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
acceleration repulsive besides attractive * [5]. mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
This means that a light flux through the
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
⎛λ ⎞
2
toroid can becomes convergent or divergent ⎪ ⎪
from its central axis. These lenses are similar = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ 0 ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬ (2)
⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎥
to optical lenses and can be very useful for ⎣ ⎦ ⎪⎭
telescopes, microscopes, and for the where λ0 = h mi0 c is the De Broglie
concentration of solar light in order to
wavelength for the particle with rest inertial
convert solar energy into thermal energy.
mass mi 0 .
It has been shown that there is an
additional effect - Gravitational Shielding
* effect - produced by a substance whose
De Aquino, F. (2008) Process and Device for Controlling
the Locally the Gravitational Mass and the Gravity gravitational mass was reduced or made
Acceleration, BR Patent Number: PI0805046-5, July 31, negative [6]. The effect extends beyond
2008.
2
substance (gravitational shielding) , up to a
certain distance from it (along the central v=c v = c/nr
axis of gravitational shielding). This effect
shows that in this region the gravity
acceleration, g 1 , is reduced at the same nr
proportion, i.e., g1 = χ 1 g where λ = c/f λmod = v/f = c/nr f
χ 1 = m g mi 0 and g is the gravity
acceleration before the gravitational Fig. 1 – Modified Electromagnetic Wave. The
shielding). Consequently, after a second wavelength of the electromagnetic wave can be
strongly reduced, but its frequency remains the same.
gravitational shielding, the gravity will be
given by g 2 = χ 2 g 1 = χ 1 χ 2 g , where χ 2 is
the value of the ratio m g mi 0 for the second
gravitational shielding. In a generalized way,
we can write that after the nth gravitational If a lamina with thickness equal to ξ
shielding the gravity, g n , will be given by contains n atoms/m3, then the number of
atoms per area unit is nξ . Thus, if the
g n = χ 1 χ 2 χ 3 ...χ n g (3) electromagnetic radiation with frequency
f incides on an area S of the lamina it
This possibility shows that, by means reaches nSξ atoms. If it incides on the total
of a battery of gravitational shieldings, we area of the lamina, S f , then the total number
can strongly intensify the gravitational
acceleration. of atoms reached by the radiation is
From Electrodynamics we know that N = nS f ξ . The number of atoms per unit of
when an electromagnetic wave with volume, n , is given by
frequency f and velocity c incides on a
material with relative permittivity ε r , N0 ρ
n= (7)
relative magnetic permeability μ r and A
electrical conductivity σ , its velocity is
reduced to v = c nr where nr is the index of where N 0 = 6.02 × 10 26 atoms / kmole is the
refraction of the material, given by [7] Avogadro’s number; ρ is the matter density
of the lamina (in kg/m3) and A is the molar
ε μ
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ (4)
c 2 mass(kg/kmole).
v 2 ⎝ ⎠ When an electromagnetic wave incides
on the lamina, it strikes N f front atoms,
If σ >> ωε , ω = 2πf , Eq. (4) reduces to ( )
where Nf ≅ n Sf φm , φ m is the “diameter” of
the atom. Thus, the electromagnetic wave
μrσ incides effectively on an area S = Nf Sm ,
nr = (5)
4πε0 f
where Sm = 14 πφm2 is the cross section area of
one atom. After these collisions, it carries out
Thus, the wavelength of the incident
ncollisions with the other atoms (See Fig.2).
radiation (See Fig. 1) becomes

λ 4π
λmod =
v c f
= = = (6)
f nr nr μfσ
3
Substitution of Eq. (12) into Eq. (11) yields

⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg (l ) ⎪ ⎡⎛ P ⎞ λ0 ⎤ ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nl Sξ ) ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (13)

⎢ λ ⎦⎥ ⎥
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎣⎢⎝ hf ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
atom ⎩ ⎣⎢
Sm
Wave Substitution of P given by Eq. (9) into Eq.
Fig. 2 – Collisions inside the lamina. (13) gives

Thus, the total number of collisions in the ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫


mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ N f SmD⎞⎛ n Sξ ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
volume Sξ is = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎜ l ⎟ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (14)
2 ⎟⎜
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎣⎝ f ⎟ ⎥
⎠⎝ mi0(l )c ⎠ λ ⎥⎦ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎢ ⎦⎭
Ncollisions= Nf +ncollisions=nl Sφm +(nl Sξ −nmSφm) =
=nmSξ (8) Substitution of N f ≅ (nl S f )φm and S = N f Sm
into Eq. (14) results
The power density, D , of the radiation on the
lamina can be expressed by
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nl3S 2f Sm2φm2ξD ⎞ 1 ⎤
⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎪⎬ (15)
mg(l )
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎥
D=
P
=
P
(9 ) mi0(l ) ⎪
⎢⎣ ⎢⎣⎜⎝ mi0(l )cf ⎟⎠ λ ⎥⎦
2
⎥⎦⎪
S N f Sm ⎩ ⎭
where mi 0(l ) = ρ (l )V(l ) .
We can express the total mean number
Now, considering that the lamina is
of collisions in each atom, n1 , by means of inside an ELF electromagnetic field with
the following equation E and B , then we can write that [8]

ntotal photons N collisions


n1 = (10 ) D=
n r (l ) E 2
(16 )
N
2μ 0 c
Since in each collision a momentum h λ is
Substitution of Eq. (16) into Eq. (15) gives
transferred to the atom, then the total
momentum transferred to the lamina will be
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
Δp = (n1 N ) h λ . Therefore, in accordance
2
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nr(l )nl3S2f Sm2φm2ξE2 ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1 (17)
with Eq. (1), we can write that mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎜ 2μ0mi0(l )c2 f 2 ⎟ λ ⎥ ⎥⎬
⎢ ⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎦ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
⎧ ⎡
λ ⎤
2 ⎤⎫
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎡ ⎪
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢(n1 N) 0 ⎥ −1⎥⎬ = In the case in which the area S f is just the
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎣ λ⎦ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ area of the cross-section of the lamina (Sα ) ,
⎧ ⎡
λ0 ⎤
2 ⎤⎫ we obtain from Eq. (17), considering that
⎪ ⎢ ⎡ ⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢ntotal photonsNcollisions ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (11) mi0(l) = ρ(l)Sαξ , the following expression
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎣ λ⎦ ⎥⎪
⎦⎭
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
Since Eq. (8) gives N collisions = nl Sξ , we get mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nr(l )nl3Sα Sm2φm2 E2 ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1 (18)
⎛ P ⎞ mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎜ 2μ0ρ(l )c2 f 2 ⎟ λ ⎥ ⎥⎬
= ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nl Sξ ) (12) ⎢ ⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎦ ⎥⎪
ntotal photons N collisions ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
⎝ hf ⎠
4
If the electrical conductivity of the lamina, Here, the area Sα refers to the area of the
σ (l ) , is such that σ (l ) >> ωε , then the value of ring inside the air toroid, with average radius
λ is given by Eq. (6), i.e., r = re + ri 2 and height α , i.e.,

λ = λmod = (19) S α = 2πα (ri + re ) 2 = πα (ri + re )
μfσ
Substitution of Eq. (19) into Eq. (18) gives
where ri is the inner radius and re the outer
⎧ ⎡ nr2(l )nl6Sα2Sm4φm4σ(l ) E4 ⎤⎫⎪
radius of the rectangular toroid. For
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢
= ⎨1− 2 1+ −1⎥⎬ (20) ri = 400mm , re = 650mm and α = 60mm ,
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ 16πμ0ρ(2l )c4 f 3 ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ we get

Note that E = E m sin ωt .The average value S α = πα (ri + re ) = 0 .198 m 2 (24 )


for E 2 is equal to 1 2 E m2 because E varies
The parallel metallic plates (p), shown
sinusoidaly ( E m is the maximum value in Fig.3 are subjected to different drop
for E ). On the other hand, E rms = E m 2. voltages. The two sets of plates (D), placed
on the extremes of the toroid, are subjected to
Consequently we can change E 4 by E rms4
,
V( D )rms = 576.2V at f = 2.5Hz, while the central
and the equation above can be rewritten as
follows set of plates (A) is to
subjected
V( A)rms = 19.7kV at f = 2.5Hz. Since d = 98mm ,
mg (l ) then the intensity of the electric field, which
χ= = passes through the 36 cylindrical air laminas
mi0(l )
(each one with 5mm thickness) of the two
⎧ ⎡ nr2(l )nl6Sα2 Sm4φm4σ (l ) Erms
4 ⎤⎫ sets (D), is .

= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + − 1⎥⎪⎬ (21)
⎪⎩ ⎢ 16πμ0 ρ(l )c f
2 4 3
⎥⎪ E( D )rms = V( D )rms d = 5.88 × 103 V / m
⎣ ⎦⎭

Now consider the Artificial and the intensity of the electric field, which
Gravitational Lenses shown in Fig.3. passes through the 9 cylindrical air laminas
Basically they are rectangular toroids. of the two sets (A), is given by
Inside them there are two dielectric rings
with ε r ≅ 1 and an Aluminum ring with mass E( A)rms = V( A)rms d = 1.97 × 105 V / m
density ρ = 2700kg .m −3 (See Fig.3). The
rectangular toroid is filled with air at ambient Note that the metallic rings (5mm thickness)
temperature and 1atm. Thus, inside the tube, are positioned in such way to block the
the air density is electric field out of the cylindrical air
laminas (also 5mm thickness). The objective
ρ air ≅ 1 . 2 kg .m − 3 (22 ) is to turn each one of these laminas into a
Gravity Control Cell (GCC) [6]. Thus, the
system shown in Fig. 3 has 4 sets of GCC.
The number of atoms of air (Nitrogen) per
Two with 18 GCC each and two with 9 GCC
unit of volume, n air , according to Eq.(7), is
each. The two sets with 18 GCC each are
given by positioned at the extremes of the tube (D).
They work as gravitational decelerator while
N 0 ρ air
nair = = 5.16×1025 atoms/ m3 (23) the other two set with 9 GCC (A) each works
as a gravitational accelerator, intensifying
AN
the gravity acceleration produced by the
Aluminum ring. According to Eq. (3), this
5
gravity after the 9 GCC becomes g 9 = χ g 0 ,
th 9
⎛r −r ⎞
g 0 ≅ −Gπρα⎜⎜ e 2 i ⎟⎟ri −
where χ = mg (l ) mi (l ) given by Eq. (21), and ⎝ r0 ⎠
g 0 can be calculated starting from the ⎧ ⎫
expression of the gravitational mass of the ⎪ ⎪
⎪ (re − ri )ri ⎪
half-toroid of Aluminum, M g (1 toroid ) , which is − Gπρα⎨ 2⎬
=
⎪⎡ ⎛ re − ri ⎞ ⎛ re − ri ⎞⎤ ⎪
2

given by ⎪ ⎢2re − ⎜ 2 + r0 ⎟ − ⎜ 2 ⎟⎥ ⎪
⎩⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎦ ⎭
πri
dM g (1 toroid) = ρα(re − ri )∫ dz ⎡ (r − r )r ⎤
Mg
∫0 0 − Gπρα⎢ e i 2i ⎥
⎣⎢ (ri + r0 ) ⎦⎥
2

whence
M g ( 1 toroid) = πρα(re − ri )ri (25)
2
In the case of ri >> r0 , the equation above
reduces to
On the other hand, we have that
⎛r −r ⎞
g 0 ≅ −Gπρα ⎜⎜ e 2 i ⎟⎟ri (27)
g G Mg Gαρ (re − ri ) πri ⎝ r0 ⎠
∫0
dg = −
r 2 ∫0
dM g = −
r2 ∫0 dz where ri is the inner radius of the toroid; r0
is the distance between the center of the
whence we get cross-section of the Aluminum ring and the
surface of the first GCC of the set (A); α is
Gπαρ (re − ri )ri
g=− (26) the thickness of the Aluminum ring. Here,
r2 r0 = 35mm and α = 60mm (See Fig. 3 (a)).
The objective of the sets (D), with 18
which gives the value of g produced by the GCC each, is to reduce strongly the value of
half-toroid at a point inside the nucleus of the the external gravity along the rectangular
toroid, distant r from the center of the cross- toroid of air in D region. In this case, the
section of the rectangular toroid. Thus, the value of the external gravity, gext , is reduced
value of g 0′ (r = r0 ) , due to the first half-
by the factor χ d18 gext , where χ d = 10−2 . For
toroid is
example, if gext = 9.81m / s 2 then this value is
⎛r −r ⎞ reduced to χ d18 gext and, after the set A, it is
g 0′ ≅ −Gπρα ⎜⎜ e 2 i ⎟⎟ri
⎝ r0 ⎠ increased by χ 9 . Since the system is
designed for χ = −627 .1 , then the gravity
The value of g 0′′ , due to the opposite half- acceleration on the Aluminum ring
toroid is becomes χ 9 χ d18 g ext = 1 .47 × 10 −10 m / s 2 ,
this value is smaller than
⎧ ⎫ g 0 ≅ −Gπρα [(re − ri )ri r0 ] = 9.9 × 10 m.s .
2 −8 −2
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ( re − ri )ri ⎪ The electrical conductivity of air, inside
g 0′′ ≅ −Gπρα⎨ 2⎬ the dielectric tube, is equal to the electrical
⎪⎡ ⎛ re − ri ⎞ ⎛ re − ri ⎞⎤ ⎪
⎪ ⎢2re − ⎜ 2 + r0 ⎟ − ⎜ 2 ⎟⎥ ⎪
conductivity of Earth’s atmosphere near the
⎩⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎦ ⎭ land, whose average value is
σ air ≅ 1 × 10 −14 S / m [9]. This value is of
Consequently, the resultant is fundamental importance in order to obtain
the convenient values of χ and χ d , which
are given by Eq. (21), i.e.,
6
⎧ ⎡ Sα2 S m4 φm4σ air E(4A)rms ⎤⎫⎪
2
4 gr
nr2(air) nair (34 )
6
⎪ ⎢ δ =
χ = ⎨1 − 2 1 + − 1⎥⎬ = c2d
⎪⎩ ⎢ 16 πμ ρ 2 4 3
c f ⎥⎪
⎣ 0 air
⎦⎭
{ [
= 1 − 2 1 + 6.59 × 10−17 E(4A)rms − 1 ]} (28) For r = r0 we have g = g 0 and equation above
can be rewritten as follows

⎧⎪ ⎡ nr2(air)nairSα SmφmσairE(4D)rms
6 2 4 4 ⎤⎫⎪ 4 g 0 r02
χd = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ −1⎥⎬ = δ = (35 )
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 16πμ0ρair
2 4 3
cf ⎥⎦⎪ c2d

{ [
= 1− 2 1+ 6.59×10−17E(4D)rms −1 ]} (29) However, considering the symmetry of the
gravitational lenses shown in Fig.3, it is easy
to see that Eq. (35) must be rewritten as
where n r (air ) = ε r μ r ≅ 1 , since (σ << ωε ) ; follows
nair = 5.16 ×1025 atoms/ m3 , φm = 1.55×10−10 m ,
4 g 0 r02 4 g 0 r02
Sm = πφm2 4 = 1.88×10−20m2 and f = 2.5Hz. δ= − 2 (36 )
c2d ′ c d ′′
Since E( A)rms =1.97×10 V / m, E( D)rms = 5.88×10 V / m
5 3

, we get where d ′ and d ′′ are respectively, the


distances of closest approach of the light ray
χ = −627.1 (30) with respect to the two sides of the
Aluminum ring (See Fig 3 (b)).
and When the gravitational lenses are
activated the value of g 0 is amplified to
χ d ≅ 10−2 (31) χ 9 g 0 , then Eq. (36) becomes

Then the gravitational acceleration 4 χ 9 g 0 r02 4χ 9 g 0 r02


after the 9th gravitational shielding is δ= − (37)
c2d ′ c 2 d ′′

⎡ (r − r )r ⎤ Note that, for d ′ = d ′′ (light ray at the center


g 9 = χ 9 g 0 = − χ 9 Gπρα ⎢ e 2 i i ⎥ (32) of the Gravitational lens) Eq. (37) gives
⎣ r0 ⎦
δ = 0 ( null deflection). On the other hand, if
It is known that gravitational fields can d ′ < d ′′ we have δ > 0 (the light ray is
bend light, and that due to this effect, a light gravitationally attracted to the inner edge of
ray that passes very close to a body with rectangular toroid). Under these conditions,
gravitational mass M g is deviated of an when a light flux crosses the gravitational
lens (nucleus of the rectangular toroid), it
angle δ (deflection angle) given by [3] becomes divergent in respect to the central
axis of the toroid (See Fig. 3(c)). If
4GM g d ′ > d ′′ then Eq. (37) shows that δ < 0 (the
δ =− (33)
c2d light ray is gravitationally repelled from the
inner edge of rectangular toroid). In this case,
where d is the distance of closest approach. when a light flux crosses the gravitational
Here, we can obtain the expression of lens, it becomes convergent in respect to the
δ as follows: by comparing Eq. (26) with Eq. central axis of the toroid (See Fig. 3(b)).
(25) we obtain GM g = gr 2 . Substitution of Substitution of the known values into
Eq. (37) yields
this expression into Eq. (33) leads to the
following equation
7

⎛1 1⎞
δ ≅ 0.1⎜ − ⎟ (38)
⎝ d ′ d ′′ ⎠

Note that the values of δ can be easily


controlled simply by controlling of the value
of χ . Also note that the curvatures of the
light rays are proportional to the distances
d ′ and d ′′ , similarly to the curvature of the
light rays in the optical lenses. Then it is easy
to see that these gravitational lenses can be
very useful in building of telescopes,
microscopes, and in concentrating solar light
in order to convert solar energy into thermal
energy.

I would like to thank Physicist André


Luis Martins (RJ, Brazil) who came up with
the original idea to build Artificial
Gravitational Lens using sets of Gravitational
Shieldings, as shown in my previous papers.
8

Metallic ring Air Dielectric rings


(5 mm thickness) 1 atm 300K εr ≅ 1 EA(rms) Rectangular Toroid
D A
d = 98 mm
1 2 Air17 18 Mg 1 2 Air 6 9 Gravitational Lens
α=60mm
88

Aluminum ring Parallel plate capacitor (p)


ED(rms) ξ = 5 mm (Metallic ring)
r0=35mm
ri
re
(a)

Light

d′ d ′′

D Mg A g’ Gravitational Lens g’ A Mg D

D and A Sets
of
Gravitational Shieldings Rectangular Toroid

(b)

Rectangular Toroid
Light

D Mg A g’ Gravitational Lens g’ A Mg D

(c)

Fig. 3 – Artificial Gravitational Lens. (a) Cross-section of the Artificial Gravitational Lens. (b)
Cross-section of a Convergent Gravitational Lens. The light rays are gravitationally repelled from
the inner edge of toroid (c) Cross-section of a Divergent Gravitational Lens. The light rays are
gravitationally attracted to the inner edge of toroid.
9

References
[1] Dyson, F.W., Eddington, A.S., and Davidson, C.R.
(1920). A Determination of the Deflection of Light
by the Sun's Gravitational Field, from Observations
Made at the Solar eclipse of May 29, 1919. Phil.
Trans. Roy. Soc. A 220 (571-581): 291–333.

[2] Chwolson, O (1924). Über eine mögliche Form


fiktiver Doppelsterne. Astronomische Nachrichten
221 (20): 329.

[3] Einstein, A. (1936). Lens-like Action of a Star


by the Deviation of Light in the Gravitational
Field. Science 84 (2188): 506–7.

[4] Renn, J., Tilman S., and Stachel, J., (1997). The
Origin of Gravitational Lensing: A Postscript to
Einstein's 1936 Science paper. Science 275
(5297): 184–6.

[5] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of


the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific
Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-
232.

[6] De Aquino, F. (2010) Gravity Control by means of


Electromagnetic Field through Gas at Ultra-Low
Pressure, Pacific Journal of Science and Technology,
11(2) November 2010, pp.178-247, Physics/0701091.

[7] Quevedo, C. P. (1977) Eletromagnetismo, McGraw-


Hill, p. 270.

[8] Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. (1968) Physics, J. Willey


& Sons, Portuguese Version, Ed. USP, p.1124.

[9] Chalmers, J.A., (1967) Atmospheric Electricity,


Pergamon press, Oxford, London; Kamsali, N. et al.,
(2011) Advanced Air Pollution, chapter 20, DOI:
10.5772/17163, edited by Farhad Nejadkoorki, Publisher:
InTech, ISBN 978-953-307-511-2, under CC BY-NC-
SA 3.0 license.
Gravitational Blueshift and Redshift
generated at Laboratory Scale
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2012 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

In this paper we show that it is possible to produce gravitational blueshift and redshift at laboratory scale
by means of a device that can strongly intensify the local gravitational potential. Thus, by using this
device, it is possible to generate electromagnetic radiation of any frequency, from ELF radiation (f <
10Hz) up to high energy gamma-rays. In this case, several uses, such as medical imaging, radiotherapy
and radioisotope production for PET (positron emission tomography) scanning, could be realized. The
device is smaller and less costly than conventional sources of gamma rays.

Key words: Modified theories of gravity, Relativity and Gravitation, Gravitational Redshift and Blueshift.
PACS: 04.50.Kd, 95.30.Sf, 98.62.Py.

1. Introduction 2. Theory

It is known that electromagnetic From the quantization of gravity it


radiation is blueshifted when propagating follows that the gravitational mass mg and
from a region of weaker gravitational field to the inertial mass mi are correlated by means
a region of stronger gravitational field. In this of the following factor [5]:
case the radiation is blueshifted because it
gains energy during propagation. In the ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg ⎪ ⎛ Δp ⎞ ⎪
contrary case, the radiation is redshifted. This χ= ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (1)
effect was predicted by Einstein’s Relativity mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪
Theory [1, 2] and was widely confirmed by ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
several experiments [3, 4]. It was first
confirmed in 1959 in the Pound and Rebka where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the
experiment [3]. particle and Δp is the variation in the
Here we show that it is possible to particle’s kinetic momentum; c is the speed
produce gravitational blueshift and redshift at of light.
laboratory scale by means of a device that When Δp is produced by the
can strongly intensify the local gravitational
absorption of a photon with wavelength λ , it
potential * [5]. Thus, by using this device, it is
possible to generate electromagnetic is expressed by Δp = h λ . In this case, Eq.
radiation of any frequency, from ELF (1) becomes
radiation (f < 10Hz) up to high energy m g ⎧⎪ ⎡
⎛ h m c ⎞
2 ⎤⎫

gamma-rays. In this case, several uses, such = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ i 0
⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
as in medical imaging, radiotherapy and mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
radioisotope production for PET (positron
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
λ
2
emission tomography) scanning and others, ⎪ ⎛ ⎞ ⎪
could be devised. The device is smaller and = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬
0
(2)
⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝ λ ⎠ ⎥
less costly than conventional sources of ⎣ ⎦ ⎪⎭
gamma rays. where λ0 = h mi0 c is the De Broglie
wavelength for the particle with rest inertial
* mass mi 0 .
De Aquino, F. (2008) Process and Device for Controlling
the Locally the Gravitational Mass and the Gravity It has been shown that there is an
Acceleration, BR Patent Number: PI0805046-5, July 31, additional effect - Gravitational Shielding
2008.
2
effect - produced by a substance whose If σ >> ωε , ω = 2πf , Eq. (4) reduces to
gravitational mass was reduced or made μrσ
negative [6]. The effect extends beyond nr = (5)
substance (gravitational shielding) , up to a 4πε0 f
certain distance from it (along the central Thus, the wavelength of the incident
axis of gravitational shielding). This effect radiation (See Fig. 1) becomes
shows that in this region the gravity
acceleration, g 1 , is reduced at the same λ 4π
i.e., g1 = χ 1 g λmod =
v c f
= = = (6)
proportion, where f nr nr μfσ
χ 1 = m g mi 0 and g is the gravity
acceleration before the gravitational
shielding). Consequently, after a second
gravitational shielding, the gravity will be v=c v = c/nr
given by g 2 = χ 2 g 1 = χ 1 χ 2 g , where χ 2 is
the value of the ratio m g mi 0 for the second
nr
gravitational shielding. In a generalized way,
λ = c/f λmod = v/f = c/nr f
we can write that after the nth gravitational
shielding the gravity, g n , will be given by
Fig. 1 – Modified Electromagnetic Wave. The
g n = χ 1 χ 2 χ 3 ...χ n g (3) wavelength of the electromagnetic wave can be
strongly reduced, but its frequency remains the same.
If a lamina with thickness equal to ξ
This possibility shows that, by means
contains n atoms/m3, then the number of
of a battery of gravitational shieldings, we
can strongly intensify the gravitational atoms per area unit is nξ . Thus, if the
acceleration. electromagnetic radiation with frequency
In order to measure the extension of f incides on an area S of the lamina it
the shielding effect, samples were placed reaches nSξ atoms. If it incides on the total
above a superconducting disk with radius area of the lamina, S f , then the total number
rD = 0.1375 m , which was producing a
of atoms reached by the radiation is
gravitational shielding. The effect has been N = nS f ξ . The number of atoms per unit of
detected up to a distance of about 3m from
the disk (along the central axis of disk) [7]. volume, n , is given by
This means that the gravitational shielding
N0 ρ
effect extends, beyond the disk by n= (7)
approximately 20 times the disk radius. A
From Electrodynamics we know that
when an electromagnetic wave with
frequency f and velocity c incides on a where N 0 = 6.02 × 10 26 atoms / kmole is the
material with relative permittivity ε r , Avogadro’s number; ρ is the matter density
of the lamina (in kg/m3) and A is the molar
relative magnetic permeability μ r and
mass(kg/kmole).
electrical conductivity σ , its velocity is When an electromagnetic wave incides
reduced to v = c nr where nr is the index of on the lamina, it strikes N f front atoms,
refraction of the material, given by [8]
( )
where Nf ≅ n Sf φm , φ m is the “diameter” of
ε μ the atom. Thus, the electromagnetic wave
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ (4)
c 2
incides effectively on an area S = Nf Sm ,
v 2 ⎝ ⎠
where Sm = 14 πφm2 is the cross section area of
3
one atom. After these collisions, it carries out ⎛ P ⎞
ncollisions with the other atoms (See Fig.2). ntotal photons N collisions = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nl Sξ ) (12)
⎝ hf ⎠

Substitution of Eq. (12) into Eq. (11) yields

⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg (l ) ⎪ ⎡⎛ P ⎞ λ0 ⎤ ⎪
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nl Sξ ) ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (13)

mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎣⎝ hf ⎠ λ ⎥⎦ ⎥
⎥⎦⎪⎭
atom
Sm ⎩ ⎣⎢
Wave
Fig. 2 – Collisions inside the lamina.
Substitution of P given by Eq. (9) into Eq.
(13) gives

Thus, the total number of collisions in the ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫


volume Sξ is mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ N f SmD⎞⎛ n Sξ ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎜ l ⎟ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (14)
2 ⎟⎜
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎣⎝ f ⎟ ⎥
⎠⎝ mi0(l )c ⎠ λ ⎥⎦ ⎥⎪
Ncollisions= Nf +ncollisions=nl Sφm +(nl Sξ −nmSφm) = ⎩ ⎣ ⎢ ⎦⎭
=nmSξ (8)
Substitution of N f ≅ (nl S f )φm and S = N f Sm
The power density, D , of the radiation on the into Eq. (14) results
lamina can be expressed by
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nl3S 2f Sm2φm2ξD ⎞ 1 ⎤
⎟ ⎥ −1⎥⎪⎬ (15)
mg(l )
D=
P
=
P
(9 ) = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎥
⎢⎣⎜⎝ mi0(l )cf ⎟⎠ λ ⎥⎦
2
mi0(l ) ⎪
S N f Sm ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦⎪
⎩ ⎭
We can express the total mean number where mi 0(l ) = ρ (l )V(l ) .
of collisions in each atom, n1 , by means of Now, considering that the lamina is
the following equation inside an ELF electromagnetic field with
E and B , then we can write that [9]
ntotal photons N collisions
n1 = (10 ) n r (l ) E 2
N D= (16 )
2μ 0 c
Since in each collision a momentum h λ is
transferred to the atom, then the total Substitution of Eq. (16) into Eq. (15) gives
momentum transferred to the lamina will be
Δp = (n1 N ) h λ . Therefore, in accordance ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡⎛ nr(l )nl3S2f Sm2φm2ξE2 ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
with Eq. (1), we can write that = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1 (17)
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎢⎜ 2μ0mi0(l )c2 f 2 ⎟ λ ⎥ ⎥⎬
⎢ ⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎦ ⎥⎪
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
λ0 ⎤
2
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎡ ⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢(n1 N) ⎥ −1⎥⎬ =
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎣ λ⎦ ⎥⎪ In the case in which the area S f is just the
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
area of the cross-section of the lamina (Sα ) ,
⎧ ⎡
λ0 ⎤
2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎡ ⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢ntotal photonsNcollisions ⎥ −1⎥⎬ (11) we obtain from Eq. (17), considering that
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎣ λ⎦ ⎥⎪ mi0(l) = ρ(l)Sαξ , the following expression
⎦⎭

Since Eq. (8) gives N collisions = nl Sξ , we get


4
⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫ N 0 ρ air
mg(l ) ⎪ ⎢
2
⎡⎛ nr(l )nl3Sα Sm2φm2 E2 ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪ nair = = 5.16×1025 atoms/ m3 (23)
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (18) AN
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ ⎜
⎢⎣⎝ 2 μ ρ
0 (l )c2 2 ⎟
f ⎥
⎠ λ ⎥⎦ ⎥⎪

⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ The parallel metallic plates (p), shown
in Fig.3 are subjected to different drop
If the electrical conductivity of the lamina, voltages. The two sets of plates (D), placed
σ (l ) , is such that σ (l ) >> ωε , then the value of on the extremes of the tube, are subjected to
λ is given by Eq. (6), i.e., V( D )rms = 1.64kV at f = 1Hz , while the central
4π set of plates (A)
is subjected to
λ = λmod = (19) = 19.7kV at f =1Hz. Since d = 98mm ,
μfσ V( A )rms
Substitution of Eq. (19) into Eq. (18) gives then the intensity of the electric field, which
passes through the 36 cylindrical air laminas
(each one with 5mm thickness) of the two
mg(l ) ⎧ ⎡
⎪ nr2(l )nl6Sα2Sm4φm4σ(l ) E4 ⎤⎫⎪
−1⎥⎬ (20)
sets (D), is
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+
mi0(l ) ⎪ ⎢ 16πμ0ρ(2l )c4 f 3 ⎥⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ E( D )rms = V( D )rms d = 1.67 × 104 V / m

Note that E = E m sin ωt .The average value


and the intensity of the electric field, which
for E 2 is equal to 1 2 E m2 because E varies passes through the 7 cylindrical air laminas
sinusoidaly ( E m is the maximum value of the central set (A), is given by
for E ). On the other hand, E rms = E m 2.
E( A)rms = V( A)rms d = 2.012 × 105 V / m
4 4
Consequently we can change E by E , rms

and the equation above can be rewritten as Note that the metallic rings (5mm
follows thickness) are positioned in such way to
m
χ = g (l ) =
block the electric field out of the cylindrical
mi0(l ) air laminas. The objective is to turn each one
of these laminas into a Gravity Control Cells
⎧ ⎡ nr2(l )nl6Sα2 Sm4φm4σ (l ) Erms
4 ⎤⎫ (GCC) [10]. Thus, the system shown in Fig.

= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + − 1⎥⎪⎬ (21) 3 has 3 sets of GCC. Two with 18 GCC each,
⎪⎩ ⎢ 16πμ0 ρ(l )c f
2 4 3
⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭ and one with 19 GCC. The two sets with 18
Now consider the Gravitational Shift GCC each are positioned at the extremes of
Device shown in Fig.3. the tube (D). They work as gravitational
Inside the device there is a dielectric decelerator while the other set with 19 GCC
tube ( ε r ≅ 1) with the following characteristics: (A) works as a gravitational accelerator,
intensifying the gravity acceleration and the
α = 60mm , Sα = πα 2 4 = 2.83 × 10 −3 m 2 . gravitational potential produced by the mass
Inside the tube there is an Aluminum sphere M gs of the Aluminum sphere. According to
with 30mm radius and mass
Eq. (3) the gravity, after the 19 th GCC
M gs = 0.30536kg . The tube is filled with air
becomes g19 = χ 19 GM gs r12 , and the
at ambient temperature and 1atm. Thus,
inside the tube, the air density is gravitational potential ϕ = χ 19 GM gs r1
ρ air = 1 . 2 kg .m − 3 (22 ) where χ = mg (l ) mi (l ) is given by Eq. (21)
The number of atoms of air (Nitrogen) per and r1 = 35mm is the distance between the
unit of volume, n air , according to Eq.(7), is center of the Aluminum sphere and the
given by surface of the first GCC of the set (A).
The objective of the sets (D), with 18
GCC each, is to reduce strongly the value of
5
the external gravity along the axis of the
tube. In this case, the value of the external χ d ≅ 10−2 (27)
gravity, gext , is reduced by the factor χ d18 gext ,
where χ d = 10 −2 . For example, if the base Then the gravitational acceleration
after the 19th gravitational shielding of the
BS of the system is positioned on the Earth
set A (See Fig.3) † is
surface, then gext = 9.81m / s 2 is reduced
to χ d18 gext and, after the set A, it is increased g19 = χ 19 g1 = χ 19GM gs r12 (28)
by χ . Since the system is designed for
19

χ = −308 .5 , then the gravity acceleration on and the gravitational potential is


the sphere
becomes χ χ d g ext = 2.4 ×10 m / s ,
19 18 −12 2
this ϕ = χ 19ϕ1 = χ 19 GM gs r1 (29)
value is much smaller than
−8
gsphere = GMgs rs = 2.26×10 m / s2 .
2 Thus, if photons with frequency f 0 are
emitted from a point 0 near the Earth’s
The electrical conductivity of air,
surface, where the gravitational potential is
inside the dielectric tube, is equal to the
electrical conductivity of Earth’s atmosphere ϕ 0 ≅ − GM ⊕ r⊕ (See photons source in
near the land, whose average value is Fig.3), and these photons pass through the
σ air ≅ 1 × 10 −14 S / m [11]. This value is of region in front of the 19th gravitational
shielding, where the gravitational potential is
fundamental importance in order to obtain
increased to the value expressed by Eq. (29)
the convenient values of the electrical current
then the frequency of the photons in this
i and the value of χ and χ d , which are region, according to Einstein’s relativity
given by Eq. (21), i.e., theory, becomes f = f 0 + Δf , where Δf is
given by
⎧ ⎡ nr2(air) nair
6
Sα2 S m4 φm4σ air E(4A)rms ⎤⎫⎪

χ = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + − 1⎥⎬ =
⎢ πμ ρ 2 4 3
⎥⎪ ϕ −ϕ0 − χ19GMgs r1 + GM⊕ r⊕
⎪⎩ ⎣
16 0 air c f
⎦⎭ Δf = f0 = (30)
{ [
= 1 − 2 1 + 6.81× 10−11 E(4A)rms − 1 ]} (24)
c2 c2

If χ < 0, then χ 19 < 0 and


⎧⎪ ⎡ nr2(air)nairSα SmφmσairE(4D)rms ⎤⎫⎪
6 2 4 4 Δf > 0 (blueshift). Note that, if the number
χd = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ −1⎥⎬ = n of Gravitational Shieldings in the set A is
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 16πμ0ρair2 4 3
cf ⎥⎦⎪
⎭ odd ( n = 1,3,5,7,... ) then the result is
{ [
= 1− 2 1+ 6.81×10−11E(4D)rms −1 ]} (25) Δf > 0 (blueshift). But, if n is even
( n = 2,4,6,8,... ) and χn Mgs r1 > M⊕ r⊕ then
where n r ( air ) = ε r μ r ≅ 1 , since (σ << ωε ) ; the result is Δf < 0 (redshift). Note that to
nair = 5.16 ×1025 atoms/ m3 , φm = 1.55×10−10 m , reduce f 0 = 1014 Hz down to f ≅ 1011 Hz it is
Sm = πφm2 4 = 1.88 × 10−20 m2 and f = 60Hz. †
The gravitational shielding effect extends beyond the
Since E ( A )rms = 2 . 012 × 10 V / m5
and gravitational shielding by approximately 20 times its
E ( D )rms = 1.67 × 10 4 V / m , we get radius (along the central axis of the gravitational
shielding). [7] Here, this means that, in absence of the
set D (bottom of the device), the gravitational
χ = −308.5 (26) shielding effect extends, beyond the 19thgravitational
shielding, by approximately 20 (α/2) ≈ 600mm.

and
6
necessary that Δf = −0.999×10 Hz . This 14

precision is not easy to be obtained in


practice. On the other hand, if for example,
f 0 = 1014 Hz and Δf = −1010 Hz then
f = f 0 + Δf ≅ 1014 Hz i.e., the redshift is
negligible. However, the device can be
useful to generate ELF radiation by redshift.
For example, if f 0 = 1GHz , n = 18 and
χ = 95.15278521 , then we obtain ELF
radiation with frequency f ≅ 1Hz . Radiation
of any frequency can be generated by
gravitational blueshift. For example, if
f 0 = 1014 Hz and Δf = +1018 Hz then
f = f 0 + Δf ≅ 1018 Hz . What means that a
light beam with frequency 10 14 Hz was
converted into a gamma-ray beam with
frequency 1018 Hz . Similarly, if f 0 = 1MHz
and Δf = +9MHz, then f = f 0 + Δf ≅ 10MHz ,
and so on.
Now, consider the device shown in
Fig. 3, where χ = −308 .5 , M gs = 0.30536 kg ,
r1 = 35mm . According to Eq. (30), it can
produce a Δf given by

− χ 19 GM gs r1
Δf ≅ 2
≅ 3.6 × 10 22 Hz (31)
c

Thus, we get

f = f 0 + Δf ≅ 3.6 ×1022 Hz (32)


What means that the device is able to convert
any type of electromagnetic radiation
(frequency f 0 ) into a gamma-ray beam with
frequency 3.6 × 10 22 Hz . Thus, by controlling
the value of χ and f 0 , it is possible to
generate radiation of any frequency.
7
d = 98 mm
α=60mm Dielectric tube
εr ≅ 1
Air
1 ξ = 5 mm

Air Air 2 Air Metallic ring


1 atm 300K (5 mm thickness)
D Parallel plate capacitor (p)

17 Electric field of capacitor

ED(rms) E
Aluminum sphere
18
(60 mm diameter)
rs
Mg g s ,ϕ s
r1=35mm
1 g1 , ϕ1
Air
Air 2

A EA(rms)
18
χ 19 < 0 ϕ 0 = − GM ⊕ r⊕
19
ϕ = χ 19ϕ1 ϕ0 Photons Source
Photons Beam
(frequency f ) f f0 (frequency f0 )

Region with potential ϕ


1
Air
2
ϕ −ϕ0 −χ19GMgs r1 +GM⊕ r⊕
D Δf = f0 =
c2 c2
Air 17
18

Fig. 3 – Schematic diagram of the Gravitational Shift Device (Blueshift and Redshift) – The device
can generate electromagnetic radiation of any frequency, since ELF radiation (f < 10Hz) up to high energy gamma-rays.
8

References
[1] Misner, Charles W.; Thorne, Kip S.; Wheeler, John
Archibald (1973-09-15 1973). Gravitation. San
Francisco: W. H. Freeman.

[2] Bonometto, Silvio; Gorini, Vittorio; Moschella, Ugo


(2002). Modern Cosmology. CRC Press.

[3] R.V. Pound and G.A. Rebka, Jr. (1959) Gravitational


Red-Shift in Nuclear Resonance, Phys. Rev. Lett. 3 439–
441.

[4] Vessot, R. F. C., et al., (1980) Test of Relativistic


Gravitation with a Space-Borne Hydrogen Maser.
Physical Review Letters 45 (26): 2081–2084.

[5] De Aquino, F. (2010) Mathematical Foundations of


the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity, Pacific
Journal of Science and Technology, 11 (1), pp. 173-
232.
[6] De Aquino, F. (2010) Gravity Control by means of
Electromagnetic Field through Gas at Ultra-Low
Pressure, Pacific Journal of Science and Technology,
11(2) November 2010, pp.178-247, Physics/0701091.

[7] Modanese, G., (1996), Updating the Theoretical


Analysis of the Weak Gravitational Shielding
Experiment, supr-con/9601001v2.

[8] Quevedo, C. P. (1977) Eletromagnetismo, McGraw-


Hill, p. 270.

[9] Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. (1968) Physics, J. Willey


& Sons, Portuguese Version, Ed. USP, p.1124.
[10] De Aquino, F. (2010) Gravity Control by means of
Electromagnetic Field through Gas at Ultra-Low
Pressure, Pacific Journal of Science and Technology,
11(2) November 2010, pp.178-247, Physics/0701091.

[11] Chalmers, J.A., (1967) Atmospheric Electricity,


Pergamon press, Oxford, London; Kamsali, N. et al.,
(2011) Advanced Air Pollution, chapter 20, DOI:
10.5772/17163, edited by Farhad Nejadkoorki, Publisher:
InTech, ISBN 978-953-307-511-2, under CC BY-NC-
SA 3.0 license.
Quantum Reversal of Soul Energy
Fran De Aquino
Maranhao State University, Physics Department, S.Luis/MA, Brazil.
Copyright © 2012 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

In the last decades, the existence of the Soul has been seriously considered by Quantum Physics. It has
been frequently described as a body of unknown energy coupled to human body by means of a mutual
interaction. The Quantum Physics shows that energy is quantized, i.e., it has discrete values that are
defined as energy levels. Thus, along the life of a person, the energy of its soul is characterized by
several quantum levels of energy. Here, we show by means of application of specific electromagnetic
radiations on the human body, that it is possible to revert the energy of the soul to previous energy levels.
This process can have several therapeutic applications.

Key words: Modified theories of gravity, Microwave fields effects, Therapeutic applications, Quantum information.
PACS: 04.50.Kd, 87.50.S-,87.50.st, 03.67.-a.

1. Introduction

Since long the Soul has remained an the quantum number n , (n = 1,2,3,...) [4].
element of strongly consideration by Thus, along the life of a person, the energy of
Religion. Some authors claim that Religion is its Soul is characterized by several quantum
the science of the Soul [1]. Others claim that levels of energy. Here, we show that, by
Soul and Religion are related to evolution. means of application of specific
Sir Julian Huxley, a leading evolutionary electromagnetic radiations on the human
biologist, the first Director-General of body (its Soul), it is possible to revert the
UNESCO and signatory to the Humanist energy of the Soul to previous energy levels.
Manifesto II, wrote: “Human Soul and This process can have several therapeutic
Religion are just the product of evolution” applications.
[2]. This show how important the Soul is for
the Religion. Philosophy also realizes the 2. Theory
importance of the Soul. Plato, drawing on the
words of his teacher Socrates, considered the From the quantization of gravity it
Soul the essence of a person, being that follows that the imaginary gravitational mass
which decides how we behave. As bodies mg (im) and the imaginary inertial mass mi0 (im)
die, the Soul is continually reborn in are correlated by means of the following
subsequent bodies. factor [5]:
Nowadays, Quantum Physics and other
branches of Science are seriously considering
⎧ ⎡
⎛ Δp(im) ⎞
2 ⎤⎫
the existence of the Soul. ⎪ ⎢ ⎟ −1⎥⎪⎬
mg (im)
It has been frequently described as a χ= = ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎜

(1)
mi0(im) ⎢ mi0(im)c ⎟⎠ ⎥
body of unknown energy coupled to human ⎪ ⎢
⎩ ⎣
⎝ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
body by means of a mutual interaction. This
type of energy from the viewpoint of Physics where mi 0(im ) = − 2
mi 0i is the imaginary
has been considered as Imaginary Energy. 3

The term imaginary are borrowed from inertial mass at rest of the particle and
Mathematics (real and imaginary numbers) [3]. Δp(im ) = U (im )nr c = (Ui )nr c is the variation
Quantum Physics shows that energy is in the particle’s imaginary kinetic
quantized, i.e., that it has discrete values that momentum; c is the speed of light. Thus, Eq.
are defined as discrete energy levels that (1) can be rewritten as follows
correspond to all positive integer values of
2
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ If an imaginary lamina with thickness
mg (im) ⎪ 3 ⎛ Unr ⎞ ⎪ to ξ
χ= ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟ −1⎥⎬
2⎟
(2) equal contains n imaginary
mi0(im) ⎪ ⎢ 4 ⎝ mi0c ⎠ ⎥⎪ 3
molecules/m , then the number of molecules
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
per unit area is nξ . Thus, if the
When Δp is produced by the
electromagnetic radiation with frequency
absorption of a photon with wavelength λ , f incides on an area S of the lamina it
i.e., U = hf , Eq. (2) becomes
reaches nSξ molecules. If it incides on the
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ total area of the lamina, S f , then the total
mg (im ) ⎪ 3 ⎛ λ0 ⎞ ⎪
χ= ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬ (3)
mi 0(im ) ⎪ ⎢ 4 ⎝ λmod ⎠ ⎥⎪ number of molecules reached by the
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ radiation is N = nS f ξ . The number of
where λ0 = h mi0 c is the De Broglie molecules per unit volume, n , is given by
wavelength for the particle with rest inertial
mass (real) mi 0 and λ mod = λ nr . N0 ρ
From Electrodynamics we know that n= (7)
A
when an electromagnetic wave with
frequency f and velocity c incides on a where N 0 = 6.02 × 10 26 moleculess / kmole is
material with relative permittivity ε r , the Avogadro’s number; ρ is the matter
relative magnetic permeability μ r and density of the lamina (in kg/m3) and A is the
molar mass(kg/kmole).
electrical conductivity σ , its velocity is
When an electromagnetic wave incides
reduced to v = c nr where nr is the index of on the lamina, it strikes N f front molecules,
refraction of the material, given by [6]
( )
where Nf ≅ n Sf φm , φ m is the “diameter” of
εμ the molecule. Thus, the electromagnetic
nr = = r r ⎛⎜ 1 + (σ ωε ) + 1⎞⎟ (4)
c 2
wave incides effectively on an area S = Nf Sm ,
v 2 ⎝ ⎠
where Sm = 14 πφm2 is the cross section area of
If σ >> ωε , ω = 2πf , Eq. (4) reduces to one molecule. After these collisions, it
μrσ carries out ncollisions with the other molecules
nr = (5) (See Fig.2).
4πε0 f
Thus, the wavelength of the incident
radiation (See Fig. 1) becomes

λ 4π
λmod =
v c f
= = = (6)
f nr nr μfσ
Imaginary molecule
Sm
Wave
v=c v = c/nr
Fig. 2 – Collisions inside the imaginary lamina.

nr Thus, the total number of collisions in the


λ = c/f volume Sξ is
λmod = v/f = c/nr f

Ncollisions= Nf +ncollisions=nl Sφm +(nl Sξ −nmSφm) =


Fig. 1 – Modified Electromagnetic Wave. The
wavelength of the electromagnetic wave can be =nmSξ (8)
strongly reduced, but its frequency remains the same.
3
The power density, D , of the radiation on the considering that mi0(l) = ρ(l)Sαξ , the following
lamina can be expressed by expression
D=
P
=
P
(9 ) ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
S N f Sm mg(l )im ⎪ ⎢ 3 ⎡⎛⎜ nl3Sα Sm2φm2 D⎞⎟ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (16)
We can express the total mean number mi0(l )im ⎪ ⎢ 4 ⎣⎢⎜⎝ ρ(l )cf 2 ⎟⎠ λmod⎦⎥ ⎥⎪
of collisions in each molecule, n1 , by means ⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦⎭
of the following equation If the electrical conductivity of the lamina,
ntotal photons N collisions σ (l ) , is such that σ (l ) >> ωε , then the value of
n1 = (10 ) λ is given by Eq. (6), i.e.,
N
Since in each collision a momentum h λ is 4π
λ = λmod = (17)
transferred to the molecule, then the total μfσ
momentum transferred to the lamina will be Substitution of Eq. (17) into Eq. (16) gives
Δp=(n1N) h λ, i.e., Unr c = (n1N) nr h λ = (n1N) h λmod ⎧⎪ ⎡
m 3n6S2S4φ4μσ D2 ⎤⎫⎪
Therefore, in accordance with Eq. (2), we χ = g(l )im = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ l α m 2m2 3 −1⎥⎬ (18)
mi0(l )im ⎪ ⎢⎣ 16πρ c f ⎥⎦⎪⎭
can write that ⎩

mg(l )im ⎪ ⎡
2 ⎤⎫ The Soul has been frequently described
3 ⎡ λ ⎤ ⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢(n1N)
⎢ 0
⎥ −1⎥⎬ = as a body of unknown energy coupled to
mi0(l )im ⎪ ⎢ 4⎣ λmod ⎦ ⎥⎪ human body by means of a mutual
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
interaction. This type of energy from the
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ viewpoint of Physics, has been considered as
⎪ ⎢ 3⎡ λ0 ⎤ ⎥⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢ntotal photonsNcollisions ⎥ −1 ⎬ (11) Imaginary Energy. The term imaginary is
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 4⎣ λmod⎦ ⎥⎪ borrowed from Mathematics (real and
⎦⎭
imaginary numbers) [3]. As imaginary
Since Eq. (8) gives N collisions = nl Sξ , we get
energy, the Soul can be now defined as an
⎛ P ⎞ imaginary body, made of imaginary particles
ntotal = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nl Sξ )
photons N collisions (12) each one them described by imaginaries
⎝ hf ⎠
wavefunctionsψ im , by similarity to the real
Substitution of Eq. (12) into Eq. (11) yields
⎧ bodies, which are made of real particles
mg(l )im ⎪ ⎡⎢
2 ⎤⎫
3 ⎡⎛ P ⎞ λ0 ⎤ ⎥⎪ described in Quantum Mechanics by its real
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎢⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟(nl Sξ ) ⎥ −1 ⎬ (13)
mi0(l )im ⎪ ⎢ 4 ⎣⎝ hf ⎠ λmod⎦ ⎥⎪ wavefunctionψ . The extension of the
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ imaginary wavefunction to the relativistic
Substitution of P given by Eq. (9) into Eq. form can be then made in a consistent way
(13) gives with the Lorentz transformations equations of
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ the special theory of relativity [7, 8],
mg(l )im ⎪ ⎢ 3 ⎡⎛ Nf SmD⎞⎛ nl Sξ ⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪
= ⎨1−2 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (14) similarly to the real wavefunction [4]. In
mi0(l )im ⎪ ⎢ 4 ⎣⎢⎜⎝ f 2 ⎟⎠⎜⎝ mi0(l )c ⎟⎠ λmod⎦⎥ ⎥⎪ addition, the Soul’s energy can be now
⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦⎭ expressed by the well-known Einstein’s
Substitution of N f ≅ (nl S f )φm and S = N f Sm energy expression (E = mc 2 ) extended to the
into Eq. (14) results imaginary form, i.e., E g ( S )im = m g ( S )im c 2 .
Therefore, we can say that the Soul has an
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg(l )im ⎪ ⎢ 3 ⎡⎛ nl3S2f Sm2φm2ξD⎞ 1 ⎤ ⎥⎪ imaginary energy E g ( S )im = m g ( S )im c 2 where
= ⎨1−2 1+ ⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1 ⎬ (15)
mi0(l )im ⎪ ⎢ 4 ⎢⎣⎜⎝ mi0(l )cf 2 ⎟⎠ λmod⎥⎦ ⎥⎪ m g ( S )im is the imaginary gravitational mass of
⎩ ⎣⎢ ⎦⎥⎭ Soul, which according to Eq. (18), is
where mi 0(l ) = ρ(l )V(l ) . correlated to imaginary inertial mass of Soul
The case in which the area S f is just at rest, mi 0 ( S )im , by means of the following
the area of the cross-section of the expression: χ S = m g ( S )im mi 0 (S )im . This
lamina (Sα ) , we obtain from Eq. (15),
4
means that the value of E g ( S )im can be The gravitational mass of the
decreased and also made negative by means Soul, m g ( S )im , is given by the sum of the
of absorption of energy of radiation incident spirit’s gravitational mass with the
upon the Soul (See Eq.18). perispirit’s gravitational mass, i.e.,
As widely mentioned in the literature mg( S )im = mg(s)im + mg( pe)im
of Spiritualistic Philosophy, the Soul has 2 As the perispirit is the unique part of
parts: Perispirit and Spirit (See Fig.1). The the Soul with sufficient density to absorb
Spirit is inside the human body (HB); the measurable amounts of electromagnetic
Perispirit is an involucre of the spirit, its energy, we can neglect the contribution of
boundaries coincide with the boundaries of the energy absorbed by the spirit in the
the human body. The perispirit density calculation of the total energy absorbed by
(ρpe = mi0( pe)im V( pe)im = real) is equal to the the Soul making m g ( s )im = 0 . Under these
density of the mean where the Soul is [9]. conditions, we can write that the
This occurs by the imaginary mass decrease gravitational mass of the Soul, mg ( S )im , is
or by the imaginary mass increase, resultant,
respectively, from the emission or absorption given by
of imaginary energy from the Universe. mg(S)im = mg(s)im + mg( pe)im = mg( pe)im (19)
123
Thus, in the human body the perispirit density is 0

ρ pe = ρ HB ≅ 1000 kg .m −3 By analogy, the expression of the inertial


Therefore, according to Eq. (7), we can write mass of the Soul, mi 0 ( s )im can be written as
that the density of molecules in the perispirit follows
is given by mi0(S)im = mi0(s)im + mi0( pe)im ≅ mi0( pe)im (20)
123
0
n pe = (N 0 ρ pe A) ≅ 3.3 × 10 28 molecules.m −3 Based on Eq. (19) we can write that
ρ S V( S )im = ρ peV( pe )im , where V( pe)im = S(α )imΔx pe ;
where A = AH 2O = 18kg/kmole . Out of the Δx pe is the thickness of perispirit. Since
Earth’s atmosphere (outer space) the density ρ S ≅ ρ s and V(S )im ≅ V( s)im , we can write that
of the perispirit is equal to the density of the
ρSV(S )im ≅ ρsV( s)im = ρpeV( pe)im . In addition, we have
spirit (ρ s = mi 0( s )im V(s )im = real) . In the outer
space, the Earth's atmospheric pressure drops V(S)im S(α)im ≅V(s)im S(α)im =VHB SHB ≅0.4m3 1.1m2 ≅0.4m.
to about 3.2 × 10−7 atm [10]. Thus using the Thus, we can conclude that
well-known Equation of State ⎛ ρ ⎞⎛ V( s )im ⎞
(ρ = PM 0 ZT ) , we can write the following Δx pe = ⎜ s ⎟⎜
⎜ ρ ⎟⎜ S
⎟ ≅ 2 ×10−10 m

(21)
⎝ pe ⎠⎝ (α )im ⎠
correlation expression:
ρ air (1atm ) 1atm
=
ρ air (outer space ) 3.2 × 10 −7 atm Perispirit ~2x10-10m

This means that the density of spirit is given by


ρ s = ρ pe (outer space ) = ρ air (outer space ) = Spirit

= 3.8 × 10 −7 kg.m −3 Human body


Thus, inside the human body the perispirit
density is ρ pe = ρ HB ≅ 1000 kg .m −3 and the
spirit density is ρ s = 3.8 × 10 −7 kg .m −3 . Since
the Perispirit is just an involucre of the spirit, Fig. 3 – Perispirit and Spirit. The Spirit is inside the
we can assume that ρ S ≅ ρ s . human body; the Perispirit is an involucre of the spirit, its
boundaries coincide with the boundaries of the human body.
5
The power density of radiation, D pe , stationary and homogenous plasma [13].
absorbed by the perispirit can be expressed The largest gap for hydrogen is indeed
by D pe = (Δx pe δ pe )D where δ pe is length between the ground state and the first excited
energy state and corresponds to 4 eV. This is
scale for total absorption of the radiation not always the case for other elements. The
with frequency ω = 2πf . As we know, if the largest energy gap for oxygen does not
electrical conductivity of the mean, σ , is include the ground state and is 10 eV. In
such that σ >> ωε , where ε is the order to calculate the value of ne for the
permittivity of the mean, then δ is given by perispirit at the human body, we must take
[11]: these values: ΔE = 10eV , T ≅ 300K . The
δ = 2.5 × 10 3 fσ (22 ) result is
Therefore, we can write that
N e ≥ 3 × 10 22 electrons .m −3 (26 )
D pe = (Δx pe δ pe )D ≅ 8 × 10 −14 fσ pe D (23)
where D is the total power density of the As we have already shown
incident radiation on the perispirit. −3
n pe ≅ 3.3 × 10 molecules.m . Thus, we can
28
By dividing Eq. (19) by Eq. (20) we
obtain assume that
m m
χS = g(S)im = g( pe)im = χpe N pe ≈ 1028 ions.m−3
mi0(S)im mi0( pe)im
It is known that the electrical
Thus, based on Eq. (18), we can write that
conductivity is proportional to both the
mg( pe)im concentration and the mobility of the ions
χ S = χ pe = =
mi0( pe)im and the free electrons, and is expressed by
σ = n e μ e + ni μ i
⎧ ⎡ 3n6pe Sα2 Sm4φm4 μ0σ pe Dpe
2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎪
= ⎨1− 2 1+ −1⎥⎬ (24) where ne and ni express respectively the
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 16πρpec f
2 2 3
⎥⎪
⎦⎭ ( )
concentrations C m 3 of electrons and
Further on, we will show that the electrical atom-ions; μ e and μ i are respectively the
conductivity of perispirit is enormous (10 mobilities of the electrons and the ions.
trillion times greater than that of the metals), In order to calculate the electrical
what shows that it contains a plasma. For the conductivity of the perispirit, we first need to
population of excited states for the elements calculate the concentrations ne and ni . We
in the plasma to be predominately caused by start by calculating the value of ni , which is
collisions with electrons and not by
radioactive processes, it requires a minimal given by
electron density to ensure these collisions.
This minimal electron density is known as ni = ne = N pee ≈ 109 C / m3
the McWhirter criterion and is defined as [12]:
This corresponds to the concentration level in
N e ≥ 1.6 × 10 T (ΔE ) (25)
1
18 2 3 the case of conducting materials. For these
materials, at temperature of 300K, the
where ΔE (in eV) is the largest gap between mobilities μ e and μ i are of the order of
2 adjacent energy levels; T (in K) is the 10 −1 m 2V −1 s −1 [14]. Very high mobility has
plasma temperature, and N e is in been found in several low-dimensional
electrons/m3. systems, such as two-dimensional electron
This condition is deduced for hydrogen gases (2DEG) ( 300 m 2V −1 s −1 ), [15] carbon
and hydrogen-like atoms in an optically thin, nanotubes ( 10m 2V −1 s −1 ) [16] and more
6
2 − 1 −1
recently, graphene ( 20 m V s )[17]. It is ⎧ ⎡ ~ 10 39 D 2 ⎤ ⎫⎪

known that the mobility μ d is related to the χS ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + 2
− 1⎥ ⎬ (31 )
⎪⎩ ⎢

f ⎥⎦ ⎪
drift velocity v d by means of the following ⎭
equation:
In this expression, the minimum value of D
vd = μ d E is limited by the uncertainty principle, i.e.,
by the amount of energy ΔE that can be
detectable by our instruments. According to
where E is the electric field. Thus, based on
the uncertainty principle, ΔEΔt ≥ h . Thus,
this equation, we can relate the mobility of
ΔE≥h Δt → ΔEmin =h Δtmax. Since we can write that
free electrons of the Soul, μ e , with the
typical mobility of conductors, D = ΔE Sα Δt ≥ h Sα Δt 2 → Dmin = h S α Δt max
2
,
μ cond ≈ 10 m V s , by means of the
−1 2 −1 −1
we obtain Dmin = ΔE min
2
hS α . Here,
following expression: ΔEmin = kT , because if < kT , then the action
of the incident radiation will be hidden by the
v d ( pe ) action of the thermal radiation (kT ) .
μe = μ cond (27 )
v d (cond ) Consequently, we can write that
Dmin = k T hS α . Therefore, for T = 300K
2 2

where the typical drift velocity in conductors and Sα ≅ 1.1m2 , we get


is vd (cond) ≈ 10−4 m / s [18], and the drift
velocity in perispirit is v d ( pe ) ≈ c (since there Dmin ≅ 1.5 × 10 −7 W / m 2
are no collisions among the imaginary .
electrons). Thus, we get Based on Eq.(31), we can write that the
μ e ≈ 1012 m 2V −1 s −1 Soul imaginary energy E g ( S )im = m g ( S )im c 2 can
Consequently, we can write that the electrical be expressed by
conductivity of perispirit is given by
Eg ( S )im = mg ( S )imc 2 = χ S mi 0( S )imc 2 ≅
σ pe = ne μ e + ni μ i ≈ 10 21 S .m −1 (28) ⎧
⎪ ⎡ 1039 D 2 ⎤⎫⎪

≅ ⎨1 − 2 1 + − 1⎥⎬mi0(S )imc 2 (32)
By substitution of this value into Eq. (22), we ⎪⎩ ⎢ f 2
⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭
get
This energy varies along the time, having a
δ pe ≅ 10 −7 f (29) minimum value at the beginning of life and a
maximum value, m gmax 2
( S )im c , in a specific
By substitution of σ HB ≈ 0.1S / m instant of the life of the person. After this
(conductivity of human body) into Eq. (22), maximum value, the energy decreases
we obtain progressively down to the instant of the death
of the person. This means that the average
δ HB ≅ 10 4 f (30) variation of this energy along the time can be
expressed by the well-known bell curve
(probability curve [19]), in the following form
Substitution of the values of n pe , σ pe ,
ρ pe , D pe , φm = 1.55×10−10m,(average “diameter” m g ( S )im c 2 = m gmax 2 −4π 2
b 2t 2
(33 )
( S )im c e
−20 2
of the molecules), Sm = πφm2 4 = 1.88×10 m
and Sα ≅ 1.1m2 into Eq. (24), gives
7
where b is a time-constant to be defined. this occurs, the energy of the Soul
( S ) = χmi 0 ( S )im
Since mg ( S )im = χmi0(S )im and m gmax max
( mga( S )imc 2 = χ S mia0( S )imc 2 ) becomes positive
Eq. (33) can be rewritten as follows and returns to the corresponding value
( miR0( S )imc2 = χS mia0(S )imc2 ). Thus, we can write
(34 )
2
−4π b 2t 2
m i 0 ( S ) = m imax
0 ( S )e that miR0(S ) = χS mia0(S ) . Substitution of this
expression into Eq. (37) gives
mg ( S ) ( ) (38 )
2 2
b t a2 − t R2
mia0 ( S ) = χ S mia0 ( S )e −4π
or
χS = e4π b (t −t ) (39)
2 2 2 2
mgmax
(S )
a R

R
m g (S ) Note that the time-constant b −2 must be a very
big number, because the values of e a R are
(t 2
−t 2 )
9
mga( S ) enormous in the case of 0<< ta < 3.1 x 10 s
(100years). Thus, if the value of b −2 is not
0
m g (S ) very big then the values of χ S lose their
meaning. A very big number related to the
time is, certainly, the age of the Universe.
tR ta t Thus, we will define the time-constant b −2 as
follows
Fig.4 - The variation of the gravitational mass of
the Soul (Soul energy mg(S)c2) along the life of a
person, and Quantum Reversal from the current b −2 = 4.26 × 1017 s = current age of Universe
energy level to a previous energy level.
For example, if a person is exactly 62 years
Making t = t a (current time in the life of the old ( t a = 1.928 × 10 9 s ), and wants to revert
person), and after t = t R (reversal time * , see its Soul energy to the energy that it had at 5
Fig.4) into Eq. (34), we obtain the following years ago (57 years old, t R = 1.774 × 10 9 s ),
expressions then the value of χ S , according Eq.(39),
must be given by
(35) χ S = e4π b (t −t ) ≅ e51.32 ≅ 1.9 ×1022 (40)
2 2 2
−4π
mia0( S ) = mimax
0 ( S )e
b ta 2 2 2
a
2
R

and
Equation (31) shows that, in order to
(36)
2 2 2
−4π
miR0( S ) = mimax
0 ( S )e
b tR
obtain χ S = −1.9 × 10 22 , is necessary to apply
on the Soul (body) an electromagnetic
By dividing Eq.(35) by Eq. (36), we get radiation with frequency f and power density
D, given by
mia0 ( S ) = miR0 ( S )e −4π b (ta −t R ) (37 ) D ≅ 300 f (41 )
2 2 2 2

Maximum Permissible Exposure (MPE)


levels have been established by ANSI Z136.1
Positive values of the Soul energy express
[20] for various laser wavelengths and
the progress of the energy levels and
exposure durations. The MPE is the level of
obviously, a given positive value cannot to
laser radiation to which a person may be
cause reversion. Thus, in order to occur the
exposed without hazardous effect or adverse
reversion it is necessary that χ S < 0 , When
biological changes in the eye or skin. This
limit is ~1000 W/m2. Here, considering this
*
This is not a return in time. It is only return to energy limit, we can conclude that, according to Eq.
level that the Soul had at a specific time of its life.
8
(41), the maximum value for the frequency is that a person break a leg when it is 50 years
about 3.3Hz. old. If he is subjected to an electromagnetic
Now, we can verify the effect of the radiation flux with D ≈ 300W / m 2 at 1Hz ,
ELF radiation upon the gravitational mass of then its Soul carries out a quantum reversal
the human body. By substitution of to the energy level that he had 5 years ago.
n HB = n pe , ρ HB = ρ pe , σ HB ~ 0.1S / m , At this energy level the leg was not broken in
the human body. Consequently, we can
φm = 1.55×10−10m, Sm = πφm2 4 = 1.88×10−20m2
expect that the broken part disappears, and
and Sα ≅ 1.1m2 into Eq. (18) we obtain the leg returns to the form that it had in this
⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤ ⎫⎪ energy level. By means of this process it
~ 10 23 σ HB DHB
2
χ HB = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + − 1⎥ ⎬ (42) seems possible the immediate cure of any
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ f3 ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭ wound, any kind of disease, and also the
The expression of DHB can be obtained from resuscitation of persons who have died some
seconds ago (before the spirit leaves the
the following relation human body).
D HB δ pe
= (43) It is known that the brain is able to
D pe δ HB generate electromagnetic waves with
frequencies smaller than 100HZ. The
where D pe ≅ 8 × 10 −14 fσ pe D (Eq. 23).
brainwaves of lowest frequencies are the
Thus, Eq. (43) can be rewritten as follows Delta waves. Delta waves are defined as
D HB ≅ 10 − 14 f D (44 ) having a frequency between 0.5 and 2 hertz.
Substitution of this equation into Eq. (42), gives They are the highest amplitude brainwaves.
⎧ In adults they are radiated from their
⎪ ⎡ ~ 10 − 6 D 2 ⎤ ⎫⎪

χ HB = ⎨1 − 2 1 + 2
− 1⎥ ⎬ (45 ) forehead [21]. Also, it is known that the total
⎪⎩ ⎢ f ⎥⎦ ⎪ electromagnetic power (all the frequencies)
⎣ ⎭ generated by the brain can reach up to 25Wor
Substitution of Eq. (41) into (45) yields more [22]. This means that at a distance of
χ HB > 0 . 9 . This corresponds to a weight 1m from the brain a maximum power density
decrease of less than 10%, which shows that, is about 2W/m2. Substitution of this value
here, in the case of D ≅ 300 f , the effect of and f = 1Hz into Eq. (31) gives
the ELF radiation upon the gravitational χ S = − 1 .265 × 10 20 (46 )
mass of the human body is negligible. Comparing with Eq. (40), yields
Quantum Physics shows that the
χS = e4π b (t −t ) ≅ e46.286 ≅ 1.265×1020 (47)
2 2 2 2

energy is quantized, i.e., it has discrete values


a R

that are defined as discrete energy levels that whence we obtain


correspond to all positive integer values of
the quantum number n , (n = 1,2,3,...) . Thus, t R = ta2 − 4.994×1017 (48)
along the life of a person, the energy of its For t a = 1.928 × 10 9 s = 62 years , we obtain
Soul is characterized by several quantum
levels of energy. Then, we can say that, when t R ≅ 1.794×109 s ≅ 58years (49)
occurs a reversal of soul energy, it carries out This means a return of approximately 4 years
a quantum reversal to a previous level of in the Soul energy level. Note that, while it is
energy. necessary 2W/m2 at 1Hz to return 4 years, it
Any action once performed leaves an is necessary 300W/m2 at 1Hz to return 5
impression on the Soul (its energy). Thus, years.
each energy level of a Soul expresses, at the However, only a small part of the 25W is
corresponding moment, the human being in due to the delta waves. This means that the
its totality. This means, for example, that our return is yet smaller. It obvious that the
current human shape results from the current power densities of the delta waves radiated
energy level (spectrum) of our Soul. Imagine from the brains vary of persons for persons.
Possibly, for most the persons the power
9
densities of delta waves radiated from its energy level. For
brains are negligible (smaller than the t a = 9.330× 10 s = 30years, Eq. (50) gives
8

critical value Dmin ≅ 1.5 × 10 −7 W / m 2 ). Since tRmax = 5.282×108 s ≅ 17years. Therefore, a return
we can relate the radiation density, D , with of approximately 13 years, in the soul energy
the intensity of the electric field, E , by level. Note that, the maximum return possible,
means of the following expression ~ 13.8 years , occurs for t a ≅ 29 years .
D = n r E 2 2 μ 0 c [23], then, considering that
the value of electric field in the forehead of a
person (when emitting delta waves) is
E = V r , where V is the local electric
potential (for ordinary persons V ≈ 150 μV
Delta waves
[24]), and r is the radius of the sphere with
the same volume of the brain (r ≈ 0.1m ) ,
then we can write that
E2 V2
D= = ≈ 10 −9 W / m 2 << Dmin
2 μ 0 c 2 μ 0 cr 2

This shows why the ordinary persons cannot


to produce immediate cures. Equation above
Fig. 5 – The immediate Cure or Resuscitation.
shows that to produce D > Dmin is necessary Delta waves are defined as having a frequency
that V > 1mV (approximately 10 times between 0.5 and 2 hertz. They are the highest
greater than that of ordinary persons). amplitude brainwaves. In adults they are radiated
from their forehead.
Note that, if t a = 1.866 × 108 s = 6 years,
and we want to return 1 year, then for 1Hz The building of ELF transmitters is
the necessary value of χ S , according to Eq. very difficult because the length of the
antenna is enormous. In the case of 1Hz the
(39) is χ S = e 0.986 → χ S = −2.68 . Thus, antenna length must be of the order of
according to Eq. (31) the value of D is 100.000km. However, by using the process
8.4 × 10 −20 W / m 2 . However, as we have of gravitational redshift at laboratory scale,
already seen, the value of D is limited to shown in a previous paper [25] it is possible
Dmin ≅ 1.5 × 10 −7 W / m 2 . This means that the for example, to reduce frequencies
return of 1 year, in the case what f ≅ 1GHz down to ~1Hz. In order to
t a = 1.866 × 108 s = 6 years, is impossible. Also, produce a power density D ≅ 10 −6 W / m 2 at
~1Hz, by the mentioned redshift process, it is
note that for D ≥ Dmin the values of t R
necessary an initial flux with D ≅ 10 3 W / m 2
become imaginaries. What means that it is
at ~1GHz, what corresponds to the minimum
impossible to return the soul energy of a
frequency band of MASERS. These devices
child with 6 years old. In general, it is
were invented before the laser, but have
impossible to return the soul energy of any
languished in obscurity because they required
person with t a < ln χ S 4π 2 b 2 . high magnetic fields and difficult cooling
Since Dmax ≅ 103 W / m2 and fmin ≅ 0.1Hz, schemes. Hydrogen masers oscillate at a
frequency at around 1.42GHZ and have a
we obtain from Eqs. (31) and (39) the typical power of ~ 10-13W [26]. They are
following expression:
very complex and expensive devices.
t Rmax = t a2 − 5 . 914 × 10 17 (50 ) Recently, it was discovered a room-
For t a = 1.928×10 s = 62 years,
9
we get temperature solid-state maser, which
oscillates at frequency of 1.45GHZ.
t = 1.768×10 s ≅ 56.8 years. This means a
max
R
9
Basically, it is a simple crystal called p-
maximum return of ~ 5.2 years in the soul terphenyl. This new device is very simple to
10
build and operate, and removes totally the the energy of the Soul to a previous
masers’ complexity. When configured as an energy level, sufficient to carry out the
oscillator, this solid-state maser’s measured immediate cure of any wound, any kind of
output power density of around 1mW/mm2 ≅ disease, or the resuscitation of persons. The
1000W/m2 (approximately 100 million times history shows the existence of several
greater than that of an atomic hydrogen persons who have realized immediate cures,
maser) [27]. and someone that has carried out even
resuscitations. Among them, the most known
106 masers each one with 10-3 W/mm2at 1.45GHz
is Jesus of Nazareth.
10m x 10m
10 W/m2 at 1.45GHz
As we have already shown, the ordinary
persons usually are not able to produce fluxes
Deflection System of delta waves with power densities
sufficient to carry out immediate cures
( D > Dmin ≅ 1.5 × 10 −7 W / m 2 ). Also, we have
Redshift System 1000 W/m2 at 1.45GHz shown that, in order to carry out these cures
is necessary power densities about 100 times
10-6 W/m2 at 1.45Hz more intense then those produced by the
ordinary (
persons D ≈ 10 −9 W / m 2 . ) In
addition, it is very rare to remain conscious
during the emission of delta waves. Thus, the
persons who, at conscious state, are able to
radiate fluxes of delta waves with power
Fig. 6 – Schematic diagram of a system, using solid- densities 100 times more high than those
state masers, to produce an ELF radiation flux with 10-6 produced by the ordinary persons - which
W/m2 at 1.45Hz.
just radiate delta waves at sleep state - are
Considering that each one of these really extraordinary persons.
masers radiates 1mW/mm2, then it is What is necessary for the brain of a
necessary a set of 106 masers placed inside person acquire this capacity? A special diet?
an area of 10mx10m (See Fig.6), and after Specific physical exercises? Or the persons
concentrated into an area of 1m2 (by means only acquire this capacity by means of the
of the process of deflection of evolution? That is, all persons have this
electromagnetic waves at laboratory scale capacity on a latent stage, but it is only
[28]), in order to obtain a flux of 103W/m2 at awakened at a specific evolution level.
1.45 GHz, which is posteriorly redshifted to a Recently, it was proved that the state
flux of 10-6W/m2 at 1.45Hz of mature cells, with a specific disease, can
(Dmin ≅ 1.5×10 W / m ). Substitution of these
−7 2
be reverted to a previous state (pluripotent
values into Eq. (31) gives χ S ≅ −4 × 1013 . By stem cell state), where the cells become
healthy † [29,30]. This is in agreement with
substitution of this value into Eq. (39), we get
the process of quantum reversal of the soul
t R = t a2 − 3 × 1017 (51) energy, proposed in this work, which shows
This equation shows that the system will only that it is possible to revert the current state of
be useful to produce short returns in the soul a human body to a healthy previous state.
energy of persons with t a > 18 years . This matter is unprecedented in the
literature. It is necessary more than one paper
Similar systems with higher power densities
to deepen it. We will return to this matter in a
can provide higher returns, for persons with
future work.
t a >> 18 years .
Probably all human brains are able to
generate delta waves. But, only few brains †
This work, initiated by Gurdon (1962) and concluded by
can generate fluxes of this kind of radiation Yamanaka (2006), has been awarded with the 2012 Nobel
with the necessary power density to return Prize in Medicine.
11

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