The Earth in Context Course Web page

 http://www.earlham.edu/~parkero/211.htm

 Visit the web page frequently for

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January 20, 2004  Field trip photos
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Geology 211, Physical Geology ©Copyright, 2003, Ron Parker

Geology 211, Physical Geology © 2004, Ron Parker

The Evolving Image of Earth Planetary Knowledge

 Ancients considered the universe to be geocentric (earth-  Ancients made many observations of the heavens
centered).  They could distinguish planets from stars.
 The stars, sun and other planets revolved in circular orbits around a
flat, stationary Earth.  They observed retrograde motion
 This became codified in religious dogma, for it heralded the Earth as  They knew stars rotated about Polaris
the center of the universe.  They knew Earth was spherical
 A heliocentric (sun-centered)  They knew Earth’s circumference
universe was proposed by the
Greeks in 250 B.C.E.

Geology 211, Physical Geology © 2004, Ron Parker Geology 211, Physical Geology © 2004, Ron Parker
Lunar Eclipse pictures from Owe Dahlen’s web page http://w1.195.telia.com/~u19503497/Owe/index.html

Eratosthenes The Renaissance

 Eratosthenes calculated the
circumference of the Earth at
24,421 miles in ~ 200 B.C.
 He noted the sun angle in
Alexandria on the same day that
there was no shadow in a deep
well in Syene.
 He calculated that the distance
between the two locations was
th of Earth’s circumference.
1/50th
 He was correct !!
Geology 211, Physical Geology
 Revived heliocentric (sun-centered) universe
 Copernicus – Championed heliocentricity
 Kepler – Calculated elliptical planetary orbits
 Galileo – Used a telescope to observe the moons of
Jupiter, contradicting geocentricity.
 Newton – Deduced the…
 Law of universal gravitation
 Three Laws of Motion
 Devised the calculus
© 2004, Ron Parker Geology 211, Physical Geology © 2004, Ron Parker

1
 The Modern Universe
The Modern Universe
 Immense expanses of space and time  Galaxies consist of hundreds of billions of stars.
 Alpha Centauri is 4.3 light years away.
 The speed of light (c) is 187,000 miles / second
 187,000 miles x (86400 sec / day x 365 days / year)
= 5.897 trillion miles / light year
 Edge of the visible universe = ~15 billion light years or
88,458,480,000,000,000,000,000 miles
 It is estimated that there are more than a billion
galaxies in the universe.
 The dimensions of the Universe are staggering

Geology 211, Physical Geology © 2004, Ron Parker R.

R. Williams
Williams (ST
(ST Scl)-NASA
Scl)-NASA

Doppler Effect Red Shift

 This everyday phenomenon is an essential principle in the
modern Expanding Universe Theory
 Sheds light (pun?) on fundamental questions about changes
to the size of the Universe over time.
 The Doppler effect alters light from a moving star.
 The light from a star approaching Earth is compressed
yielding a shift to higher frequencies (blue shift).
 The light from a star moving away from Earth is
expanded yielding a shift to lower frequencies (red shift).
 A larger spectral shift attends a faster star.

 Play Animation >> Animation by Declan DePaor

Play Animation >> Animation

Geology 211, Physical GeologybyRon
© 2004, Declan
Parker DePaor Geology 211, Physical Geology © 2004, Ron Parker

The Expanding Universe Big Bang

 Hubble (1929) observed a red shift on a distant galaxy.
 All galaxies were found to exhibit red shift.
 Conclusion: the entire universe is expanding away from a
center at an incredible speed.
 Which led to the question…where did it start?
 The answer: All of the mass and energy in the universe was
packed into a single microscopic point
 It exploded 15 to 20 bya.

 For the subtleties of the Big Bang,

take Astronomy!

NASA
Geology 211, Physical Geology © 2004, Ron Parker Geology 211, Physical Geology © 2004, Ron Parker

2
 Big Bang Big Bang
The Big Bang resulted in a cascading series of events  The Big Bang resulted in a cascading series of
Formation of protons and neutrons events
Formation of hydrogen and helium as coalescing clouds  Nebular collapse led to the formation of stars.
Fig. 1.13
Nebulae (clouds of gas and dust) began to undergo
Fig. 1.13
 Stars operate by nuclear fusion (hydrogen fusing to form
Nebulae (clouds of gas and dust) began to undergo
gravitational collapse. helium) liberating enormous amounts of energy.
 Stars generate heavier elements (up to Iron) by a process
known as nucleosynthesis.
J. Hester and P. Scowen/NASA J. Hester and P. Scowen/NASA
 After billions of years (or less, for larger stars) they
cataclysmically explode in Supernovae forming the
heavier elements (up to # 92).

Solar System Formation

Earth in the Universe p.26-27a

The nebula condenses into a swirling disc,
with a central ball surrounded by rings.

 Earth resides in the Solar System with 8 other planets Forming the solar system, according to the
nebula hypothesis: A second- or third-
generation nebula forms from hydrogen
and helium left over from the big bang, as
 The Solar System is positioned in the middle of one of well as from heavier elements that were
the spiral arms of the Milky Way Galaxy. produced by fusion reactions in stars or
during explosion of stars.

original artwork by Gary Hincks, from Marshak, 2004

W. W. Norton

Solar System Formation Solar System Formation

The ball at the center
grows dense and hot
enough for fusion
reactions to begin. It
becomes the Sun. Dust
(solid particles) Gravity reshapes the
condenses in the rings. proto-Earth into a

p.26-27b sphere. The interior of

the Earth separates into p.26-27c
a core and mantle.

Forming the planets from planetesimals:

Planetesimals grow by continuous
collisions. Gradually, an irregularly
Dust particles
original artwork by Gary Hincks
collide and stick original artwork by Gary Hincks
shaped proto-Earth develops. The interior
heats up and becomes soft.
together, forming
planetesimals.

original artwork by Gary Hincks, from Marshak, 2004

original artwork by Gary Hincks, from Marshak, 2004

3
 Solar System Formation Solar System Formation
Soon after Earth forms, a small planet
collides with it, blasting debris that
forms a ring around the Earth.

The Moon forms from the ring of debris.

p.26-27d p.26-27e

Eventually, the atmosphere

original artwork by Gary Hincks
develops from volcanic gases.
When the Earth becomes cool
enough, moisture condenses and
rains to create the oceans.

original artwork by Gary Hincks, from Marshak, 2004 original artwork by Gary Hincks, from Marshak, 2004

Solar System Formation The orbital planes of most planets lie within 3
degrees of the Sun's equator

Fig. 1.17

Pluto orbits at an oblique angle to the plane of the

ecliptic, suggesting its origin as a “captured” planet.
original artwork by Gary Hincks, from Marshak, 2004
Marshak, 2004, pp. 16-17 W. W. Norton

Orbits of the Planets The Planets: An Overview

 Planets are composed of…
 Gases
 Hydrogen
 Helium
 Rocks
 Silicate minerals
 Metallic iron
 Ices
 Ammonia
 Methane
 Carbon dioxide
 Water

Geology 211, Physical Geology © 2004, Ron Parker Geology 211, Physical Geology © 2004, Ron Parker

4
 The Planets: An Overview Earth from Space
 Two groups of planets occur in the solar system  The Earth has a prominent magnetic field
 Terrestrial (Earthlike) - Small, dense, rocky planets of Mercury, Venus,
Earth, and Mars N
 Jovian (Jupiter-like) - Large, low density, gaseous planets of Jupiter,  It is a dipole, like a
Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune
bar magnet (N & S)

 The magnetic field lines,

http://www.solarviews.com/ss.html
which extend into space,
weaken with distance
S
Geology 211, Physical Geology Pluto
© 2004, is not included in either group
Ron Parker Geology 211, Physical Geology © 2004, Ron Parker W. W. Norton

Solar Wind
 A stream of magnetically charged particles
emanating from the sun.

 Sweeps outward from

the sun in all directions.  The solar wind is deflected by the Earth’s magnetic
field (the magnetosphere).
 Near the Earth, the stronger magnetic field forms
the Van Allen belts, which arrest cosmic rays.
W.
W. W.
W. Norton
Norton  Cosmic rays are extremely dangerous.
Geology 211, Physical Geology © 2004, Ron Parker W.
W. W.
W. Norton.
Norton. Modified
Modified from
from Laing
Laing

The Atmosphere
The Atmosphere
 The atmosphere is mostly
nitrogen

 Oxygen (~21%) was not

present in the atmosphere
until about 2.5 bya
 The Earth, unlike the other terrestrial planets, has a well
developed atmosphere.
 Other gases include Ar,
 Most dense near the ground; thins upward.
CO2, Ne, CH4, O3, CO
 Makes life possible by moderating Temp to allow liquid water. and SO2

Johnson Space Center/NASA Geology 211, Physical Geology © 2004, Ron Parker
W. W. Norton

5
 The Atmosphere Surface Features
 Unlike other terrestrial
 99% of atmospheric gases occur planets, Earth has…
below 50 km.  Dry Land
 Ocean Basins
 The remaining 1% occur  Polar Ice Caps
between 50 and 500 km
elevation.

Geology 211, Physical Geology © 2004, Ron Parker W. W. Norton Geology 211, Physical Geology © 2004, Ron Parker W.
W. W.
W. Norton
Norton

Hypsometric Curve

Elemental Composition
Most land lies within 1 km of SL  Entire Earth  Earth’s Crust
The ocean floor averages 5 km depth

Extremes of depth or height are rare.

The two major elevations reflect the different

buoyancy of continental vs. oceanic crust.

W. W. Norton Geology 211, Physical Geology © 2004, Ron Parker

DIGIT, 2002

 4 Major Layers
 Crust Next Lecture
 Mantle
 Outer Core (Liquid) The Way the Earth Works:
 Inner Core (Solid)

Plate Tectonics
Reading: Marshak, 2004, Chapter 2 , pp. 36-54

Homework: Time Scale Metaphor (webpage)

p. 35, # 9 and 17, and p. 78, # 1 and 7