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Years 9-10
Earth
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Topics Available
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01.Energy Energy 12.Waves Wave Energy (inc. Light)
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“Mind-Map” Outline of Topic

Modern Science is based on a handful of major theories.
In Biology it is Cell Theory and the Theory of Evolution.
Astronomy has the Big Bang. Chemistry is based on Atomic Theory.
In this topic, you will study the major theory that is the basis of Earth Science.
Seismology
Alfred Wegener &

Continental Drift
Structure of
the Earth New
Technology,
Plate New Evidence
Tectonics
The Moving
Plates
Earth
Science
Evidence for
Moving Plates
Impacts of
Natural Events
Locations of Sea-Floor
Volcanoes & Evidence
Earthquakes
Impacts on Fossil
Impacts on Atmosphere Evidence
Biosphere
Impacts on
Hydrosphere
Impacts on
Lithosphere
Years 9-10 Topic 21 Earth Science Usage & copying is permitted according to the
copyright © 2009 keep it simple science 3
www.keepitsimplescience.com.au Site Licence Conditions only
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Make your own “Mind-Map” TITLE PAGE.

Cut out the boxes. Sort them into an appropriate lay-out on a page of your
workbook, then glue them down. Add connecting arrows and colour in.
Fossil
Earth Evidence for
Seismology
Evidence
Moving Plates
Science Impacts on
Biosphere
Alfred Wegener &
Continental Drift
Sea-Floor
Structure of Plate Evidence
Locations of
the Earth Tectonics Volcanoes &
New Earthquakes
Technology,
Impacts of Impacts on New Evidence
Atmosphere The Moving
Natural Events Plates
Impacts on
Impacts on Hydrosphere
Lithosphere
Make your own “Mind-Map” TITLE PAGE.

Cut out the boxes. Sort them into an appropriate lay-out on a page of your
workbook, then glue them down. Add connecting arrows and colour in.
Fossil
Earth Evidence for
Seismology
Evidence
Moving Plates
Science Impacts on
Biosphere
Alfred Wegener &
Continental Drift
Sea-Floor
Structure of Plate Evidence
Locations of
the Earth Tectonics Volcanoes &
New Earthquakes
Technology,
Impacts of Impacts on New Evidence
Atmosphere The Moving
Natural Events Plates
Impacts on
Impacts on Hydrosphere
Lithosphere
Years 9-10 Topic 21 Earth Science 4 Usage & copying is permitted according to the
copyright © 2009 keep it simple science
®
The Structure of the Earth (Revision)

You already know that the Earth has a layered structure.
Crust
The crust
Inside the Solid Earth is a very
thin layer Mantle
of low- The mantle is a
Scientists have always been interested very thick layer
density
in earthquakes. By learning about rock. of dense rock.
earthquakes it was hoped that we might
learn to predict them, and so avoid
some of the deaths and destruction that
they cause.
About 100 years ago, the study of

earthquakes (called “Seismology”)
became advanced enough that scientists
began studying the way that earthquake
shockwaves travel through the Earth.
Outer Core
From this, it became clear that the solid The outer core
Inner Core is hot liquid.
Earth is not totally solid, and has a layer In the centre is a large ball
It is largely a
structure, as shown. of solid iron & nickel. It is
very hot, but huge pressures mixture of the
cause it to be solid. metals iron &
nickel.
The Lithosphere
Although the Crust and Mantle are separate layers in terms of their density and
composition, the boundary between them is not so simple and clear-cut.
Attached to the bottom of the crust is a Below the lithosphere is a “slippery

layer of mantle rock which has “welded” layer” of the mantle.
itself to the crust rocks above.
Crust & lithosphere under a We now know that the
continent is much thicker
This 2-part layer is called the than under the oceans.
lithosphere “floats” on the
lithosphere. main body of the
Lithosphere
Crust rocks Ocean
Mantle rock
mantle, and is broken
The thickness of the stuck to the base of the crust ay r
er” up into large chunks
“Slipperry L
lithosphere varies. Main body of the mantle
of lithosphere, called
Under the oceans, it tectonic plates.
can be about 5 km thick and is mostly
crust rocks with very little mantle rock The plates slowly move around, sliding
attached. Under the continents the across the “slippery layer” of mantle rock.
lithosphere is over 100km thick.
In this topic you will learn more about the
Compared to the 6,400 km radius of the tectonic plates and how they slowly move
Earth the lithosphere layer is an around and change the continents, oceans
extremely thin shell on the outside. and mountain ranges of the Earth.
®
Seismology
Seismology is the study of earthquakes and their shock waves.
(Greek, “seismo”= shaking)
Earthquakes Earthquake
Focus
Seismic Waves
Earthquakes are caused by sudden The shock waves
movements in the Earth’s crust. The are refracted by
sudden release of enormous energies Earthquake different
sends out shock waves which radiate shock waves density rocks,
out from the “focus” of the ‘quake. travel
and some
through
the types of
The shock waves are detected and Earth waves
recorded by a seismometer. The photo cannot pass
shows an old-fashioned seismometer through
recording the waves on paper. Modern the liquid
seismometers use electronic detectors Outer Core.
and record digitally for computer analysis.
Our understanding
of the structure of the
Earth is based on studying the seismic
waves and how they behave as they
pass through the different layers.
There are thousands of seismometers

all over the world, including the ocean
floor. Most are automatic stations
sending data to central computers by
radio or phone links. Many are deployed
as part of warning systems to alert
people to possible volcanic eruptions or
tsunami waves in the oceans.
Locating an Earthquake S-w

waves
Within minutes of an earthquake occurring, modern
seismometers can tell you exactly where it occurred.
Here is a simplified explanation of how.
P-w
waves
P and S Waves
Earthquakes give off several types of
shock wave which have different
2400 k
properties and travel at different speeds. Seismic Station A

P-S
S time gap = 150 s
Distance = 1050 km
m
The fastest waves, called “Primary” (P) m Earthquake

0k occurred where
105
waves always arrive at a seismometer circles overlap.
first, followed by “Secondary” (S) waves.
The time-gap between them gives the Seismic Station C

distance from seismometer to P-S
S time gap = 343 s
Distance = 2400 km
earthquake. Each 1.0 second P-S gap 1350 km
equates to a distance = 7 km.
Seismic Station B
If 3 or more seismometers record the P-S
S time gap = 193 s
earthquake, it can be located by Distance = 1350 km
triangulation. Study the diagram.

®
Worksheet 1
Earth & Lithosphere Student Name.............................................
1. Label this diagram to identify the layers of the 3. Give an outline of how we know about
Earth. the layer structure of the Earth.
a)....................................
b)................................
c).................................... 4.
a) What does a “seismometer” measure?
d)....................................
e) What is the
“lithosphere” made of? b) What are “P” & “S” waves, and how can
they be used to find the distance to an
earthquake?
2. What is the major difference between

lithosphere under a continent
compared to under the ocean floor? c) Apart from learning about the Earth
itself, what is a practical reason for
seismology?
Worksheet 2 Student Name.............................................

Locating an Earthquake
Earthquake shock waves were detected by
seismometers in all the cities shown on the map.
Darwin
Here are data from 3 stations.
City P-S Distance
time gap (km)
Adelaide 271s ...............
Brisbane 238s ...............
Darwin 137s ...............
Sydney .......... ..............

Brisbane
Perth .......... ...........
1. Each 1 sec gap between

the P and S waves = 7km.
Calculate the distance from Sydney
the 3 stations to the
earthquake.
2. Use compasses to locate the
Perth
earthquake epicentre.
3. Complete the missing data for Adelaide
Sydney & Perth.
Scale (km)
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000
®
A Little History: “Continental Drift”

As soon as accurate maps of the World appeared, some people noticed that the
shapes of some of the continents fit together like jig-saw pieces.
One man took this idea further.
Alfred Wegener (German, 1880-1930) In 1915, he published a theory of
“Continental Drift” which proposed that
(pron: “vague-ner”)
the continents had once been joined
Wegener was trained in together and had moved to their current
astronomy, but became locations. He put forward a lot of
interested in Earth geological evidence, but could not
Science. suggest how the continents could
move, or what force might be pushing
Intrigued by the shapes them.
of the continents, he
His theory was not Africa
studied the rocks and
accepted by Identical
ain
Range n
XXnXcient
fossils on either side of
MounXta
many other mineral
the Atlantic Ocean. deposits
A
scientists. X
South XX
X
He found many examples of identical, America
XX
same-age minerals, fossils and Wegener died in a
geological features which are on snow blizzard while
separate continents, but in exactly the doing climate research Identical
locations which fit the “jig-saw” idea. in Greenland. fossils
New Technologies, New Evidence, New Theory

During World War II, sonar was developed for submarine warfare. In the 1950’s it
was used to accurately map the deep ocean floor for the first time.
The demand for petroleum led to new techniques for deep-sea drilling from ships
into the rocks under the sea. Sensitive “magnetometers” could be towed
by a ship to map the magnetism in the rocks under the deep oceans.
Plate Tectonics According to

During the 1950’s through this theory, the
1970’s a huge amount was lithosphere is
learnt about the crust of not a simple
the Earth, especially under “skin” like an
the deep oceans. egg shell, but is
broken up into
The ocean-floor maps, about a dozen
magnetic data and rock samples from pieces, or “plates”.
deep-sea drilling built up a body of
evidence which showed that Wegener The plates slowly move around, sliding on
was right... continents move!
the mantle layer below. Adjoining plates
Additional evidence came from must either move apart, or crash together,
seismology and studies of volcanoes. or slide sideways past each other.
Details of the evidence will be presented
later in this topic. These movements cause earthquakes
and volcanoes, create mountain ranges
This led to a new theory called and volcanic islands and enlarge or
“Plate Tectonics”. destroy the oceans themselves.
®
The Structure of a Tectonic Plate

Most of the major Tectonic Plates carry a thick “block” of a
continent plus a thin layer of lithosphere under the ocean.
Ocean Ridge where 2
Mid-O
Basin of sedimentary rock plates are moving apart.
on top of the main
contintental block Plate movements
ocean
Crust
Lithosphere
Continental Oceanic
Crust Lithosphere
tle
Man st
per
e U p e ru
c
ck of th ase of th ntle
ro b ma .
Solid d to the r of e
attac
he aye slid
ery” l tes to
pp la
“Sli ows p
Upper part
of Mantle
all
Convection Currents in
the Mantle carry heat
from the Core, and cause
The main body of the Mantle is solid rock, but under the plates to move.
tremendous pressure so it can flow like putty. This
allows slow but powerful convection currents
to flow and push the plates around.
Each plate can slide sideways on a “slippery” layer of the Mantle. The movement is
caused mainly by huge, slow convection currents which carry heat out from the
Earth’s core. The average rate of movement is about 5 cm per year, but
movements are not slow and steady. Instead, the plate might not move at all for
many years, then suddenly lurch forward by several metres.
It is these sudden movements which cause earthquakes.
When Plates Move Apart

When plates move away from each other, molten rock immediately billows up from
underneath to fill the gap and create a new, thin layer of crust.
This is occurring mainly on the floor of the oceans. Hidden deep underwater
there are about 70,000 km of plate boundaries which frequently move
(creating many small earthquakes) and erupt new oceanic crust.
About 250 million years ago, the

American continents were joined to
Europe and Africa. As they have moved
apart, the Atlantic Ocean has grown wider
and wider by “sea-floor spreading”.
SEA-F
FLOOR SPREADING As plates move apart, new
rock fills the gap, creating a
Ocean “mid-o ocean ridge”
The “Mid-Ocean Ridges” are chains of
underwater mountains with a central Con
tine
“rift valley” where the plate edges are. In Contin
ent nt
some places, such as Iceland, the
eruption of new crust has built up high
enough to reach the ocean surface, Convection Currents in
Mantle
forming islands. push lithospheric plates apart
®
When Plates Collide

The tectonic plates cover the surface of a sphere. If they are moving
apart in some places, then they have to be colliding somewhere else.
Exactly what happens in a collision zone depends on
what type of lithosphere is involved.
Subduction Oceanic-C
Continental Collision
If one of the colliding plates is made of Mountain Chain
Deep ocean trench
oceanic lithosphere it will be pushed down
under the other plate and destroyed by Ocean Continental Plate
being re-melted into the Mantle. This is
called “Subduction”. Oceanic plate
Colliding Oceanic Plates subducted
Melting occurs, and bodies
of magma rise through the
Deep ocean trench “Island Arc” of volcanic islands erupt Upper Mantle upper plate and erupt
from the seafloor as volcanoes
Ocean The South American plate is colliding

with the plate under the eastern Pacific
Ocean. There are deep ocean trenches
This plate is being As the plate is subducted
forced down under into the mantle, melting just off the coast and a massive
the other occurs and bodies of magma mountain range (the Andes) along the
rise through the upper plate
Upper Mantle
and erupt as volcanoes western edge of the continent.
This type of collision is occurring north of The mountains are formed by the
Australia where the plate under the Pacific “crumpling” of the continent’s crust in
Ocean is being destroyed. The many the collision. There are also many
volcanic islands of the western Pacific volcanoes and earthquakes.
have formed in chains along the
subduction zones. Deep ocean trenches Mountain Building
occur where the plate is bent sharply If both colliding plates carry the thick
downwards. lithosphere of a continent, neither plate
is subducted. Instead, the continents
Each time a plate lurches forward, an are crumpled by the collision.
earthquake occurs. Large under-sea Continent - Continent Collision... NO SUBDUCTION
‘quakes can set off a tsunami, or seismic Mountain Range formed by folding and faulting
water wave, in the ocean. The Boxing-Day

tsunami of 2004, which killed over 200,000
people, was caused by a ‘quake in the
subduction zone north-west of Australia.
Upper Mantle
The crumpling effect folds and fractures

the crust rocks and pushes them up to
form a chain of mountains.
The Himalaya mountains formed this

way as the plate carrying India has
collided with Asia. Rocks which were
Composite photo of a ficticious (and exaggerated) once under the sea are now almost 9 km
tsunami about to destroy a coastal city. Real
tsunamis are more like a “wall of water” rather high.
than a giant surf wave.
®
The Changing Map of the World

Supercontinent Pangaea Later, North America separated from
Europe, creating the Atlantic Ocean as it
The moved away.
Greenland
Asia
evidence Nth
indicates America
Europe
In the south, the ancient continent we
that 200 call Gondwana also began breaking up.
million Super-CContinent
India
years ago, Africa India Pangaea
all the Oz Africa
continents Sth Antarctica
America
were
joined
together in one “supercontinent” called
Australia
Pangaea, which means “whole Earth”. South America
Asia About
pe
Nth The breakup of

ro
America 180
Eu
GONDWANA
sia
Laura million
years
Antarctica
ago,
Sea of Tethys Pangaea Until 45 million
Pangaea
breaks up years ago Australia was still joined to
Africa India
split into
2 parts Antarctica. Today Australia is connected
Gondwana to India by the plate under the Indian
as
Sth Oz Ocean and we are slowly moving north.
America shown.
The Future?
Future Map of If all the tectonic plates keep moving the
East Asia? North
way they are now (no guarantees!) we
Japan America can predict what the world might look
joined joined to
to Asian Asia like in 100 million years time:
mainland
• Africa will join completely onto Europe,

destroying the Mediterranean Sea.
Indonesian islands Equator
become mountainous
land bridge connecting • The eastern one-third of Africa will
Australia to Asia split-off to form a separate continent.
• North America will connect to Asia and

NZ islands further
apart and larger the north Pacific Ocean will shrink.
Eventually, all the continents may collide and join together to form a new
“supercontinent” like Pangaea, but with all the pieces in different places.
The new supercontinent might then crack up into new fragments.
This cycle has occurred over and over in the past. Western Australia was once
joined to Canada in a previous supercontinent long before Pangaea was formed.
®
Worksheet 3
Plate Tectonics Student Name.............................................
Fill in the blank spaces. Deep-sea drilling allowed g)...............
................. to be collected, and the
The theory of “a).................................. h).............................. in the rocks could
Drift” was proposed by Alfred be measured by magnetometers.
b)......................... in 1915. He thought
that the continents had once been From the accumulation of evidence we
joined together and had moved apart. now believe that the lithosphere is made
His evidence included identical up of a number of separate i)....................
c)..................... and rock formations which slide across the j)..........................
which are now separated by oceans. being pushed by slow-moving
His theory was not well accepted, k).............................................. which
mainly because he could not explain carry heat from the earth’s l)...................
d).................................................................
Two adjoining plates must either
During 1950-1970’s new technologies m).......... ....................., or n).....................,
produced new evidence. e)...................... or slide sideways past each other.
allowed mapping of the f)........................
......................... It is the sudden movement of a plate
which causes most o)...............................
Worksheet 4
Student Name.............................................
When Plates Move
Fill in the blank spaces.
The plate movements may be irregular
If 2 plates move apart, a)........................... and sometimes produce huge
immediately erupts to fill the gap and i)........................ Since these occur under
create new b)....................... water, they may set off a j)........................
This occurs mainly along the “c)...........- Subduction also occurs if the collision
.................... ridges on the ocean floors. is between an oceanic plate and one
Many small d)................................ occur carrying a k).............................. The
as the plates move apart. In a few places continent edge is l)...........................
the erupting material builds up enough forming a m)...................................
to form an e).................................
If 2 continents collide neither one can
Where plates collide, different things be n)............................. Both are
can occur depending on the plate types. o).................. and ......................., creating
When “oceanic plates” collide, one of a mountain range such as the
them will be pushed down into the p)........................... range.
mantle, or “f)...................................”.
When the plate bends down sharply We believe that 200 mya, all the
there is a g)............................. trench. As continents were joined together in a
rock melts and moves upwards, a chain “supercontinent” called “q)....................”
of volcanic h)............................ may form.
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®
The Evidence for Moving Plates

The Tectonic Plate Theory explains many things such as earthquakes & volcanoes,
mountain ranges, island chains & deep ocean trenches. But is it really true?
We believe it is true because there is a huge body of evidence to say so.

Some evidence was noted by Alfred Wegener almost 100 years ago, but a lot was
only discovered after the 1950’s when new technologies allowed us to study the
ocean floor, accurately measure the age of rocks and so on.
The Shape of the Continents

The continents of the Earth are like jig- THE ANCIENT SOUTHERN CONTINENT
saw puzzle pieces... they fit together GONDWANA
quite well, especially along the lines of Edge of
continental
the “continental shelf” rather than the shelf
actual coastline.
Africa Modern
The continental shelf is the true edge of India coastlines
each continent. In most cases it is under

water today, but has been mapped
using sonar.
Antarctica
lia
South America
ra
When the continents are fitted together
st
Au
along their continental shelf margins,
the fit is almost perfect.
The Fossil & Mineral Evidence

Alfred Wegener discovered some of this Geological Evidence
evidence and used it to support his
“Continental Drift” idea. Since his time, There are many examples of rock layers
many more discoveries have been and mineral deposits on different
made of this same type of evidence. continents which are very similar
Africa
and are in locations which fit the
Fossils Identical
ain
Range n
XXnXcient
“jig-saw” pattern.
MounXta
There are many examples mineral

of fossil plants and animals deposits
A
X
South XX Wegener noted evidence of the
that are found on separate
X
America eroded “stump” of an ancient

XX
continents. These were land mountain range which is present

plants, or freshwater animals in South America and Africa.
which could not have crossed an Identical
ocean. fossils
Scientists have even found
scratch marks on rocks caused by
The fossils are the same age, and identical ancient glaciers which gouged the
specimens are found across (for example) rocks. The pattern of the scratches line
Africa, South America, India, Australia and up perfectly across what are now
Antarctica. They must have evolved and different continents. Of course, when
lived right across an ancient continent. the glaciers were doing the scratching,
The moving plates later separated the the continents were joined together.
fossil deposits.
®
Evidence From the Ocean Floor

When scientists began mapping the ocean floor with sonar, they quickly
discovered that there is a “Mid-Ocean Ridge” of underwater mountains
running for 70,000 km through the world’s oceans.
New deep-water drilling equipment allowed rock samples to be collected,
and new methods involving radio-activity allowed the age of rocks
and sediments to be measured. New magnetic equipment allowed
the magnetism in the rocks to be measured accurately.
Mid-Ocean Ridges Parallel undersea
ridges
Symmetrical patterns of
magnetism on either
The rocks of the parallel ridges are side of central rift
Central Rift
youngest in the middle and get
progressively older as you move Older
outward. The sediments which settle on Youngest rocks
rocks
top of the rock are thinnest at the mid- Older
rocks
ocean ridge and get thicker as you move
away from it.
Mantle
The “residual magnetism” in the rocks Convection
New molten Currents
(which was aligned as the rock rock fills the push plates apart
rift
hardened from molten lava) shows a
symmetry on either side of the central
ridge. Each matching band of While some rocks on the continents are
magnetism represents a line of new rock billions of years old, the rocks of the
formed as the crust plates moved apart. oceanic crust are all relatively young.
This is because oceanic crust is created
Later, these bands were split and where plates move apart, and then
separated by even newer rock injected destroyed again by subduction within a
in the middle as the crust plates few hundred million years. There is no
really ancient rock under the oceans.
continued to be pushed apart.
Evidence From Seismology

Even several hundred years ago, it was realised that earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions occur most often in certain “active zones”, such as the edge
of the Pacific Ocean which is called the “Ring of Fire”.
When data from modern seismology is
Each dot on the map is the focus of one of the
analysed a clear pattern emerges. 350,000 earthquakes that occurred 1963-1 1998.
The vast majority of earthquakes

(and volcanoes) are located
along the boundaries of the
tectonic plates.
On this map you can

clearly see the line of the
mid-ocean ridges and the
heavy concentration of
earthquakes where the plates
are colliding.
®
Worksheet 5
Evidence of Moving Plates Student Name.............................................
Fill in the blank spaces. There are a series of parallel ridges, with
a central f)........................... The rocks in
The most obvious evidence is the the centre are the g)..........................
a).................. of some continents which (age) and they get progressively
seem to fit together like a jig-saw. This is h)......................... as you move further
especially true along the from the ridge.
“b)........................... ...........”, rather than
the coastlines. The ocean sediments are very i)..............
at the ridge and get j)....................... as
There are many examples of identical you move outwards.
c)................ of plants and animals found
on different continents. Similarly, there There are a series of matching “bands”
are identical d)............ and mineral of k)............................. in the rocks on
deposits now on separate continents. either side of the rift. All these facts
point to the oceanic crust being created
Many pieces of evidence have come and spreading from the central rift.
from studies of the deep ocean floor,
especially along the “e)........................... Seismology patterns give more
Ridges”. evidence. The vast majority of
l)............................ and .........................
occur along the plate m)...........................
Worksheet 6
Student Name.............................................
Questions: Plate Tectonics
1. This data was collected from rocks on either 2. Fossils of a plant called Glossopteris have
side of a mid-ocean ridge. The arrows show the been discovered in Sth America, Africa, India,
magnetic field direction of each sample and the Australia and Antarctica. This plant lived about
numbers are the approximate age of the rock 180 million years ago. It had soft seeds without
sample in millions of years. a seed case, so it is unlikely that seeds could
survive drifting across an ocean. Explain the
distribution of the fossils.
60 25 10 2 2 10 25 60
a) How would you explain the patterns in this

data?
3. Most of the active volcanoes in the world
occur in the “Ring of Fire” around the perimeter
of the Pacific Ocean. Why?
b) Where, in this sequence of samples, would

you expect to find the thickest layers of
sediments on top of the rock? Explain. 4. Australia has no active volcanoes and
experiences few earthquakes. Why is that?
®
Impacts of Natural Events

What effects do the movements of Tectonic Plates have on the air,
the oceans, the lithosphere itself and on living things?
Impacts on the Atmosphere

Of the tectonic events, it is volcanoes CO2 and Greenhouse
that are likely to have the greatest Although fine dust particles can have a
impact on the atmosphere. short-term cooling effect, the longer-term
effect of volcanoes can be the opposite.
Volcanic Eruptions
release huge quantities Volcanic eruptions release
of gases, ash and dust. huge amounts of CO2.
Most of the solid CO2 is a “greenhouse
particles fall quickly and gas” which traps heat
blanket the surrounding which would otherwise
area, but some fine radiate back into space.
particles can be injected This has the effect of
into the high raising global
atmosphere and remain temperatures.
there for years.
One volcano has little
impact, but there have
These fine particles reflect light & heat been times in the Earth’s history when
from the Sun and can have a cooling widespread activity caused major
effect which lasts several years. climate changes. We believe that, about
250 million years ago, 95% of all life on
Volcanoes release a lot of acidic gases Earth became extinct. The cause seems
such as sulfur dioxide. This can cause to have been climate changes due to
“acid rain” which damages the huge volcanic eruptions which first
biosphere ecosystems. cooled, then heated the Earth.
Impacts on the Hydrosphere

Tsunamis & Sea-Levels Longer term,
the movement
An undersea earthquake can cause a of continents
seismic water wave, or tsunami. These changes the
have little effect on the ocean itself, but ocean basins
are devastating when they hit the coast. completely.
A tourist took this photo as the 2004 Asian
Ocean levels Tsunami hit the coast of Thailand. Moments
later, some of these people died .
rise and fall
as climates change due to volcanic
activity and changing ocean currents.
In an “ice age”, so much water is frozen at

the poles that sea levels fall by hundreds
of metres. When the Earth goes
“greenhouse-hot”, the ice-caps melt and
sea-levels rise over 100m higher than
today. Look up at a 30-storey building at
Aftermath of the 2004 Asian tsunami in Indonesia. the beach to get the idea!
This photo was taken from a rescue helicopter.
®
Impact on the Lithosphere

Plate Tectonics is all about changes to the lithosphere.
Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes are the results of plate movements,
and are the major causes of change to the surface of the Earth.
Sea-Floor Spreading Mountain Building
Where plates move apart, new crust is Mountain These rocks formed under the sea, but are
now 4km above sea level.
created at the mid-ocean ridges. This chains are
widens the ocean basins. formed where
plates collide.
200 million years ago, the Atlantic Ocean
did not exist because North America was The crust is
joined to Europe. As the lithosphere buckled,
fractured into separate plates which folded and
moved apart, the Atlantic Ocean was faulted.
created, and is still growing wider. Earthquakes thrust the crust upwards to
form the great mountain chains of the
Subduction world. Erosion then forms valleys and
destroys oceanic plains. All our landscapes result.
lithosphere and
shrinks oceans. Metamorphism
Near subduction The high temperatures and pressures
zones, volcanic caused by tectonic forces changes the
islands grow from rocks themselves. Shale turns to slate,
the ocean floor. limestone becomes marble.
Impacts on the Biosphere

We tend to think that earthquakes and volcanic eruptions always cause destruction
of ecosystems and death of living things. However, there is a positive side as well.
Mass Extinctions New Habitats
Tectonic events create new places to
At a local level, a tsunami can destroy live. For example, coral reefs thrive
coral reefs or coastal mangrove around volcanic islands created by
ecosystems. A volcano can destroy subduction zones. Many new species
forests, or bury entire ecosystems under evolve on the islands themselves.
hot ash. Locally, the living communities
can be devasted by a tectonic event. Mountain ranges and the rivers, valleys
Valley buried and plains that form from them, all
in ash and
It can also be mud-fflow. Mt St Helens become habitats for living things.
global. It was (Lahar)
already mentioned Recycling Chemicals

that volcanic Ancient farmers knew that volcanoes
activity almost create fertile soil. An eruption can
completely wiped destroy, but fresh lava brings minerals
Forest
out life on Earth flattened by which fertilise the soil.
blast
by causing huge
climate changes about 250 mya. Globally, plate tectonics is essential for
cycling vital chemicals, such as carbon,
However, we know from the fossil calcium and phosphorus. Scientists
record that after every mass extinction, now realise that without tectonic
life always “bounces back” with greater activity, the Earth’s biosphere could not
variety and numbers than before. evolve and thrive as it has done.
®
Impacts on Humans
Earthquakes Volcanoes
The biggest threat to Although a lava flow can destroy
humans in an property, it is seldom a danger to people.
earthquake is The big killers are “Pyroclastic Flows”
collapsing buildings, and “Lahars”.
landslides and fires
Pyroclastic Flow is a
started by broken gas cloud of red-hot ash and
mains, fuel tanks etc. poisonous gases which
can pour down a volcano
Underwater earthquakes at 100km/hr. Nothing can
can also set off a survive.
Tsunami. These can be Lahar is a flow of mud,
devastating and cause ash, water and debris from a melted
great loss of life, as glacier or burst lake on a volano. Lahars
happened in 2004. simply bury
However, it often only everything
requires 15-30 minutes in their
warning to get most path.
people to safety.
Casts of people killed
Warning system are now in place, or by pyroclastic flow at
being installed in every ocean basin. Pompeii, 79AD
Worksheet 7
Student Name.............................................
Tectonic Impacts
Volcanoes can have major effects on the There are many impacts on the
atmosphere. Some eruptions can inject lithosphere as the plates move around.
a).................................... into the high k)............-................. spreading widens
the oceans. At a l)............................ zone,
atmosphere. This b)........................ sun-
m)....................... islands grow from the
light and can c)...................... the Earth ocean floor, and n)...........................
for several years. ranges are created along the edge of a
continent.
Gases released also have effects. Sulfur
dioxide can cause d)...................-rain. The biosphere can be affected both
Huge amounts of e)................................. negatively and positively.
gas are released and this can cause
“f)...................................... warming”. Volcanic eruptions can destroy a local
ecosystem, but global climate change
Effects on the hydrosphere include can cause a o)............. ......................,
g)..............................., caused by such as when 95% of living things died
underwater earthquakes. Long-term out about 250 mya.
changes to the ocean basins and
Tectonic events also create new
positions of the continents cause p)..........................., such as q)..............
h)............................ changes. In an “ice- ................ around volcanic islands.
age” the sea-level i)..................... If ice- Many important chemicals are
caps totally melt, the sea-levels rise by r).......................... by the creation and
over j)..................... metres. subduction of the tectonic plates.
®
Topic Test
Student Name .............................................
Earth Science Score = /22
Answer all questions 3. (5 marks)
in the spaces provided. This diagram shows a collision between 2
tectonic plates. Answer the following
1. (6 marks) questions by using the positions P,Q,R,S
Match each description to an item from the & T. (may be used more than once, or not at all)
list. To answer, write the letter (A,B,C, etc) Oceanic-C
Continental Collision
of the list item beside the description. S T
Description matches with List Item Ocean Continental Plate

a) Layer of crust with mantle P
Q
rock attached. .............
b) Study of earthquakes and their R
shock waves. .............
c) Scientist who first proposed Upper Mantle
“Continental Drift”. .............
d) Zone where a tectonic plate
is destroyed. ............. In which position:
e) Result of 2 continental plates a) would there probably be
colliding. ............. a mountain range? ...............
f) Seismic water wave created by b) would there be a deep-
underwater earthquake. ............. ocean trench? ...............
c) might there be
List Items Not all will be used. a volcano? ...............
Some may be used more than once. d) would be the focus of
A. subduction E. Wegener an earthquake? ...............
B. island chain F. mountain range
C. lithosphere G. seismology e) Name a place on Earth where a
D. tsunami H. Einstein collision like this is occurring.
2. (6 marks) ........................................................................
a) Label the layers of the Earth
4. (5 marks)
i)........................ a) Describe a piece of evidence from sea-
floor studies which supports the theory of
ii)........................ Plate Tectonics.
iii)....................................
iv)....................................
b) Describe some fossil evidence which
b) Give a brief outline to supports the theory.
explain how we know
about this layer structure.
c) Describe the pattern of earthquakes

which helps us locate plate boundaries.
®
Answer Section Worksheet 3

a) Continental b) Wegener
Worksheet 1 c) fossils
1. d) what could make the continents move.
a) crust b) mantle e) Sonar f) ocean floor
c) outer core d) inner core g) rock samples h) magnetism
i) plates j) mantle
2. k) convection currents
Thickness. Very thick under a continent, l) core m) move apart
much thinner under the ocean floor. n) collide o) earthquakes
3.
Knowledge has come from seismology,
from studying the way that earthquake Worksheet 4
shock waves behave as they pass a) molten rock b) crust
through the Earth. c) mid-ocean d) earthquakes
e) island f) subducted
4. g) deep ocean h) islands
a) Earthquake shock waves. i) earthquakes j) tsunami
b) They are different types of shock k) continent l) buckled/folded
waves which travel at different speeds. P m) mountain range n) subducted
waves always arrive before S waves. The o) folded & faulted p) Himalaya
time difference allows measurement of q) Pangaea
distance to the ‘quake.
c) To predict possible tsunamis or
volcanic eruptions and allow evacuation
of danger areas. Worksheet 5
a) shape b) continental shelf
c) fossils d) rocks
e) mid-ocean f) rift valley
Worksheet 2 g) youngest h) older
1. Distances (nearest 10km) i) thin j) thicker
Adelaide 1900 km k) magnetism
Brisbane 1670 km l) earthquakes & volcanoes
Darwin 960 km m) boundaries
2. Epicentre is on southern coast of Gulf

of Carpentaria.
3. Missing data (approx)

Sydney 295 s 2060 km
Perth 410 s 2860 km
®
Worksheet 6 Topic Test

1.
a) The crust keeps splitting open in the 1.
middle and new crust rock forms in the a) C b) G c) E d) A e) F f) D
gap. This is why the rock is youngest in
the middle and gets older outwards. This 2.
also explains the symmetrical pattern of
a) i) crust
magnetism on either side of middle.
ii) mantle
b) Furthest away from the centre, iii) outer core
because the oldest rocks have had more iv) inner core
time for sediments to settle.
b) Seismology studies.
2. The plant grew all across the super- Layer structure figured out from the way
continent and fossils formed. Later, the earthquake waves behave as they travel
fossil deposits have been separated by through the Earth.
movements of the plates.
3.
3. a) S b) Q c) S d) Q or R
There are plate boundaries all around the e) Pacific coast of Sth america.
ocean perimeter. Volcanoes occur
(Andes Mtns)
(mostly) near the edges of plates.
4. 4.
Australia is not near the edge of a plate, a) Rocks are youngest at the mid-ocean
so no volcanoes. ridges and get older as you move away in
each direction. This is evidence for “sea-
floor spreading”.
Worksheet 7
a) fine dust particles b) Fossils are found on different
b) reflects c) cool continents which match the “jig-saw”
d) acid e) carbon dioxide idea. The plant/animal lived all over an
f) greenhouse g) tsunamis ancient super-continent, and fossils have
h) climate i) falls. been separated by plate movements.
j) 100 k) sea-floor
l) subduction m) volcanic
n) mountain o) mass extinction c) Most earthquakes occur along the plate
p) habitats q) coral reefs boundaries.
r) recycled

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Year 11-12 Science Courses

All Topics Available as PHOTOCOPY MASTERS and/or KCiC

“Mind-Map” Outline of Topic

Alfred Wegener &

Make your own “Mind-Map” TITLE PAGE.

Make your own “Mind-Map” TITLE PAGE.

The Structure of the Earth (Revision)

About 100 years ago, the study of

Attached to the bottom of the crust is a Below the lithosphere is a “slippery

Crust rocks Ocean

There are thousands of seismometers

Locating an Earthquake S-w

properties and travel at different speeds. Seismic Station A

The fastest waves, called “Primary” (P) m Earthquake

The time-gap between them gives the Seismic Station C

triangulation. Study the diagram.

2. What is the major difference between

Worksheet 2 Student Name.............................................

Brisbane 238s ...............

Darwin 137s ...............

Sydney .......... ..............

1. Each 1 sec gap between

A Little History: “Continental Drift”

New Technologies, New Evidence, New Theory

Plate Tectonics According to

The Structure of a Tectonic Plate

When Plates Move Apart

About 250 million years ago, the

When Plates Collide

Ocean The South American plate is colliding

water wave, in the ocean. The Boxing-Day

The crumpling effect folds and fractures

The Himalaya mountains formed this

The Changing Map of the World

Nth The breakup of

• Africa will join completely onto Europe,

• North America will connect to Asia and

The Evidence for Moving Plates

We believe it is true because there is a huge body of evidence to say so.

The Shape of the Continents

each continent. In most cases it is under

The Fossil & Mineral Evidence

There are many examples mineral

America eroded “stump” of an ancient

continents. These were land mountain range which is present

Evidence From the Ocean Floor

Evidence From Seismology

The vast majority of earthquakes

On this map you can

a) How would you explain the patterns in this

b) Where, in this sequence of samples, would

Impacts of Natural Events

Impacts on the Atmosphere

Impacts on the Hydrosphere

In an “ice age”, so much water is frozen at

Impact on the Lithosphere

Impacts on the Biosphere

already mentioned Recycling Chemicals