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The main reasons for studying sample instead of the whole population:
1. Cost constraint: Working with a sample does not incur much expenses
compared to working with the whole population.
2. Time constraint: Working with sample does not require longer time
compared to working with the whole population.
Elements
Elements are the selected respondents or objects from the defined target
population from which the researcher will study by collecting the required data
and information.
Sampling Units
Sampling Frame
Sampling frame is the list of all eligible sampling units and elements in the
population from where the sample can be selected. Examples of sampling
frame are a phone directory, a list of companies selling health products, a list of
diabetic patients, a list of voters in the area, a list of houses in the district, a list
of credit card holders who apply for additional credit limit, etc. Using the
appropriate sampling technique the researcher can select the sample from this
sampling frame for the study.
The choice of sampling design to be employed in the study depends very much
on certain factors deemed to be crucial. Among the factors that should be
considered are:
Accuracy is the degree to which bias is absent from the sample. There is no
variation in measures due to any influences that causes skewness in the
distribution with an accurate sample. The degree of accuracy required or the
researcher’s tolerance for error may vary from one project to another. This is
true especially when cost constraint or other considerations may be traded
off for a reduction in accuracy.
3. Availability of Resources
If the researcher’s financial and human resources are restricted, these
limitations will most certainly eliminate the more sophisticated time-
consuming and complex probability sampling methods to be employed.
Marketing practitioners who are concerned by the cost versus the precision
of the information often choose the non-probability sampling method for their
study rather than do not conduct any study at all. This is because most of
marketing research projects is concerning the customers’ opinion, customers’
preference, and customers’ perception about certain product or service in the
market; and these types of researches do not require the measurement
which is too precise like the scientific research.
4. Time Constraint
Researchers who need to complete a project in a short time will be more
likely to select a simple, less time-consuming sampling method rather than a
more complex and accurate method. For instance, a telecommunication
company would like to introduce a new plan, which requires them to do a
research on that matter. If the study is too time-consuming, several
prospective customers might move away from the company to their
competitors. So, doing the research within the time frame, the company will
not only keep current customers coming back but also encourage
prospective customers to buy the new plan.
2. Sampling error can be determined only after the sample is drawn and data
collection has been completed.
From the principles of the Central Limit Theorem (CLT), the degree of
sampling error and its impact can be reduced by increasing the size of sample to
be taken from its population. CLT is the theorem which states that for any target
population, the sampling distribution of the mean and proportion derived from a
random sample will be approximately normally distributed provided that the
sample size is sufficiently large. The CLT plays an important role in
understanding the concepts of sampling error, the statistical significance, and the
determination of sample size.
1. By using the appropriate sampling technique when drawing the sample from
its population.
2. By increasing the size of sample or respondents to be obtained from its
population.
2. The level of confidence desired in the estimate (CL). The higher the level of
confidence desired in the findings, the larger the sample size needed.
Confidence interval represents a statistical range of values within which the
true value of the target population parameter is expected to lie.
The non-sampling errors are biases that may occur in any research study
regardless of whether a sample or a census is used. These errors may occur at
any stage of the research process.
Sampling Design
Probability Non-probability
Probability sampling methods are the most commonly used method because the
selection of participants is determined at random. In the probability sampling, any
element of the population has an equal chance or equal probability of being
selected as a sample. Thus the representativeness of a sample cannot be
questioned.
Probability
Proportionate Disproportionate
The process of simple random sampling consists of the following four steps:
b. The list of all elements in the population. This list is sometimes called a
sampling frame form which the sample will be selected. For example, a
complete list of marketing students in UiTM is a sampling frame.
d) The respondents selected this way are totally random; hence the
problem of biasness does not arise.
b. The sampling fails to use all the information of a population that might
result a waste of the design.
Like simple random sampling technique, the systematic sampling technique is also
applicable for the homogenous population. In this sampling technique, the element
which falls on the kth number on the list is chosen as a respondent. This sampling
procedure fixed the increment in order to determine the following respondent, for
example, every 5th person on the list is selected as respondents.
a. Selection process
iii Determine the interval (k) when k is the ratio between the size of
population and size of sample (k = N/n). For example if N = 500 and
n = 25. In this case, K = 500/25 = 20.
5 25 45 65 85
105 125 145 165 185
205 225 245 265 285
305 325 345 365 385
405 425 445 465 485
When the characteristic of the population under study is not homogenous, then the
researcher has to stratify them into homogenous groups. When the characteristic in
each group is homogenous, then the researcher can employ either the simple
random sampling or systematic sampling technique to randomly select the
respondents. The stratified sampling is the process of selecting a sample that
represents each stratum in a population. The researcher can stratify the
heterogeneous population into homogeneous population within a stratum in terms of
socio-economic status, ethnicity, religion, gender, marital status, type of houses, etc.
a. Specify the strata (elements within the same strata is homogenous, and
elements between strata is heterogeneous).
c. Now we can select the sample within each strata using simple random
sampling since the population is already uniform.
Sample from
Whole Population in each stratum
Population each stratum
Single (10)
Total Single (100)
investors
who bought Married (400) Married (40)
the ASB unit
trust in Jan Divorced (300)
2008 is 1000 Divorced (30)
Widowed (200)
Total = 1000
Widowed (20)
Total = 1000
Total = 100
The advantage of stratified sampling is the estimate obtained from the sample
is more accurate since it ensures all strata are represented in the sample.
The researcher also can compare whether different strata perform differently
regarding certain variable of interest.
Cluster sampling is the probability sampling technique applicable when the study
covers a large geographical area, the population is not homogeneous, and the
sampling frame is not available. The clusters can be the area in a residential district
(section 1, section 2, etc), the growth corridor in the country (WPI, NCER, ECER,
Prof Dr Zainudin Awang 92
Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin (UniSZA)
Chapter 4: Sampling Design
etc), or the developmental region such as eastern region, northern region, central
region, and southern region.
The process of cluster sampling is:
a. First of all, the researcher needs to specify the clusters of interest within
the population. The researcher can classify certain groups into a cluster in
one geographical area.
b. For example, UiTM has campuses scattered across the country. The spread of
UiTM campuses can be classified based on the respective region namely eastern
region (Kelantan, Terengganu, Pahang), northern region (Perlis, Kedah, Penang,
Perak), central region (Shah Alam, Petaling Jaya, Meru), southern region (Johor,
Melaka, Negeri Sembilan), and east Malaysia (Sabah, Sarawak). In this case,
each region is a cluster and under each cluster there are a few campuses
available.
c. In the study, firstly the researcher needs to select randomly a few clusters
from the available clusters (regions). Secondly, the researcher needs to
select randomly a few campuses among the campuses available in the
selected clusters.
d. All students in the selected campuses are taken as respondents in the
study. In this case the sampling technique is applied in the selection of
clusters and in the selection of campuses within the selected clusters.
Thus, no sampling technique is applied on the respondents in the selected
campuses since all of them will be covered in the study.
In the non-probability sampling, the element in the population does not have equal
chance of being selected as a sample. This technique is used in research where no
inference concerning the population needs to be made. This means the result of the
study is only applicable to the particular sample and does not necessarily reflect the
whole population. However, this type of sampling is very economical and easily
performed.
Non-probability
Convenience sampling offers the least expensive and least time consuming
compared to all sampling techniques. In addition, the sampling units are accessible,
easy to measure, and cooperative. Often, it is used in exploratory research for
generating ideas on certain phenomena, insights into certain problem, to develop
hypotheses, to pre-test questionnaires, and to conduct pilot studies.
c. The sampling process is not appropriate for population inferences, and the
technique is not recommended for descriptive and causal research.
Prof Dr Zainudin Awang 94
Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin (UniSZA)
Chapter 4: Sampling Design
Example 4.1:
Suppose a firm wishes to investigate consumers who own digital versatile disc
(DVD) players in their home. Since different brands of DVD pose different
characteristics, the researcher may wish to ensure that each brand of DVD is
included in the sample. In a quota sampling, the researcher determines the number
of respondents (quota) to obtain for each DVD brands. For example, a researcher
may choose 100 respondents to interview. The respondents must consist of
customers using the following DVD brand, 40 Sony, 30 Samsung, 20 Toshiba, and
10 of other brands.
a) The defined target population is very small and the characteristic of the
population is unique.
For example, the research project is to study the success story of single
mother in the direct-selling business. First of all, the researcher needs to find
the first respondent, the single mother doing direct-selling business. After
obtaining the required data (through personal interview or structured
questionnaire) from this respondent, the researcher would ask that
respondent to locate her friends who possess the same characteristics. The
researcher would stop once he has obtained enough number of respondents
required for the study.
Exercises
True-False Questions
STATEMENT TRUE FALSE
A list containing elements in a target population is known as a
1.
sampling frame.
A sample is any subgroup of a population selected for
2.
participation in a study.
A stratified sampling is usually the most efficient sampling
3.
technique in a statistical sense.
A sampling unit is the object in the population from which
4.
information is desired.
Resource constraints should not be used in determining sample
5.
sizes for research project.
6. Systematic sampling does not require a sampling frame.
7. Quota sampling does not guarantee representativeness.
A census involve the complete enumeration of all of the
8.
elements of a population.
The sampling system consists of a list of directions for
9.
identifying the target population.
A census can increase non-sampling error to the point that
10.
these errors exceed the sampling errors in a sample.
a. Population
b. Census
c. Sample
d. Sampling unit
a. Quota
b. Sample
c. Census
d. Panel
a. Sample
b. Quota
c. Population
d. Census
7. Among the factors that the researcher should consider when determining the
sample size for his research is:
8. A good sample is the one in which there is no bias from the sampling process.
This is defined as _____________.
a. Precision
b. Consistency
c. Accuracy
d. Random
a. Group
b. Bi-variant population
c. Sample
d. Market
a. Sampling frame
b. Population
c. Sample size
d. Sampling unit
11. When the sampling error cannot be calculated due to the method used to
select the sample, the researcher has just used a (n) _______________.
12. A researcher begins by selecting one customer from the list of 1300
customers, and then continues the process by selecting every 30th customer
on the list is using a ______________.
a. Judgement sampling
b. Quota sampling
c. Proportional stratified sampling
d. Snowball sampling
a. Quota sample
b. Convenience sample
c. Judgement sample
d. Snowball sample
15. What type of sampling is suitable when there are great variations among the
sub-groups in the population?
a. Stratified sampling
b. Cluster sampling
c. Systematic sampling
d. Simple random sampling
16. Which of the following techniques is typically the least expensive and least
time consuming?
a. Simple random
b. Convenience
c. Stratified
d. Cluster
a. Systematic sampling
b. Proportional stratified sampling
c. Disproportionate stratified sampling
d. Quota sampling
Essay Question
b. What is the probability sampling method that is appropriate for the above
opinion poll? State your reason(s).
c. Assuming that the list of 2800 third year students is obtained from the
registrar office, the numerical list of names is between 1 and 2800. Using
the table of random numbers below, explain the procedure you would
follow to select six samples from the list.
2. a. Give two main reasons for using cluster sampling over simple random
sampling.
b. What are the main reasons for using a sample rather than a census?
c. The 5 year old Shah Alam housing directory lists the residents’ names
alphabetically together with their addresses. TNB wishes to conduct a
research on the perception of Shah Alam’s residents towards the
campaign on using Solar Panel for house use. For the above situation:
a. Convenience sampling
b. Judgmental sampling
c. Snowball sampling
c) What are the classifications of non-sampling errors that could arise from
the study?
10. A prominent bank located in Kuala Lumpur has some 400,000 users of its
credit cards scattered throughout Malaysia. The application forms for the
credit card asked for the usual information about name, address, income,
level of education and so on that is typical of such applications. The bank is
currently interested in determining if there is any directional relationship
between the frequency of card usage and the amount of credit charged on the
card for various purchases made within a month, i.e. the more frequent the
card is used, the higher is the credit amount charged on the card.
a) Identify the sampling frame that would be used by the bank to conduct the
investigation. How is the sampling frame acquired?
b) Choose a suitable sampling technique and indicate how you would draw a
sample from the target population using the sampling technique chosen.
c) Determine and describe the appropriate data collecting method for the
study. State TWO (2) advantages and disadvantages for choosing the
method.