Internet

Internet
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Contents
Articles
Overview 1
Internet 1
History of the Internet 21
World Wide Web 45
History of the World Wide Web 56
Precursors and early development 62

Intergalactic Computer Network 62
ARPANET 64
CSNET 73
ENQUIRE 75
IPPS 77
MILNET 77
NFSNET 78
TELENET 89
UUCP 91
USENET 95
X.25 108
Today's Internet 116

"Internet" or "internet"? 116
Internet Protocol Suite 118
Internet access 130
Broadband Internet access 149
Languages used on the Internet 169
List of countries by number of Internet subscriptions 173
List of countries by number of broadband Internet subscriptions 180
Internet governance 188
Common uses 194

Timeline of popular Internet services 194
Email 200
Web content 217
File sharing 219
Search 225
Blogging 232
Microblogging 244
Social networking 247
Remote access 265
Collaborative software 266
Internet phone 275
Internet radio 289
Internet television 293
Social impact 299

Sociology of the Internet 299
Internet censorship 305
Internet censorship circumvention 321
Internet censorship by country 329
Organizations 369
Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers 369
Internet Society 377
Internet Architecture Board 383
Internet Engineering Task Force 385
Internet Governance Forum 388
People 402
Internet pioneers 402
References
Article Sources and Contributors 416
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 428
Article Licenses
License 435
1
Overview
Internet
Internet
A visualization of routing paths through a portion of the Internet.
Internet portal
Computer network types by

spatial scope
• Near field (NFC)
• Body (BAN)
• Personal (PAN)
• Near-me (NAN)
• Local (LAN)
• Home (HAN)
• Storage (SAN)
• Campus (CAN)
• Backbone
• Metropolitan (MAN)
• Wide (WAN)
• Cloud (IAN)
• Internet
• Interplanetary Internet
• Intergalactic Computer Network
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet protocol suite
(TCP/IP) to serve several billion users worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of millions of private,
public, academic, business, and government networks, of local to global scope, that are linked by a broad array of
electronic, wireless and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries an extensive range of information
resources and services, such as the inter-linked hypertext documents of the World Wide Web (WWW), the
infrastructure to support email, and peer-to-peer networks.
Most traditional communications media including telephone, music, film, and television are being reshaped or
redefined by the Internet, giving birth to new services such as voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) and Internet
Protocol television (IPTV). Newspaper, book and other print publishing are adapting to website technology, or are
reshaped into blogging and web feeds. The Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of human interactions
Internet 2
through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking. Online shopping has boomed both for major
retail outlets and small artisans and traders. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply
chains across entire industries.
The origins of the Internet reach back to research commissioned by the United States government in the 1960s to
build robust, fault-tolerant communication via computer networks. While this work together with work in the United
Kingdom and France lead to important precursor networks, they were not the Internet. There is no consensus on the
exact date when the modern Internet came into being, but sometime in the early to mid-1980s is considered
reasonable.
The funding of a new U.S. backbone by the National Science Foundation in the 1980s, as well as private funding for
other commercial backbones, led to worldwide participation in the development of new networking technologies,
and the merger of many networks. Though the Internet has been widely used by academia since the 1980s, the
commercialization of what was by the 1990s an international network resulted in its popularization and incorporation
into virtually every aspect of modern human life. As of June 2012[1], more than 2.4 billion people—over a third of
the world's human population—have used the services of the Internet; approximately 100 times more people than
were using it in 1995.[2][]
The Internet has no centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for access and usage;
each constituent network sets its own policies. Only the overreaching definitions of the two principal name spaces in
the Internet, the Internet Protocol address space and the Domain Name System, are directed by a maintainer
organization, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN). The technical underpinning and
standardization of the core protocols (IPv4 and IPv6) is an activity of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), a
non-profit organization of loosely affiliated international participants that anyone may associate with by contributing
technical expertise.
Terminology
The Internet, referring to the specific global system of
interconnected IP networks, is a proper noun and
written with an initial capital letter. In the media and
common use it is often not capitalized, viz. the internet.
Some guides specify that the word should be
capitalized when used as a noun, but not capitalized
when used as a verb or an adjective.[3] The Internet is
also often referred to as the Net.
Historically the word internet was used, uncapitalized,

as early as 1883 as a verb and adjective to refer to
interconnected motions. Starting in the early 1970s the
term internet was used as a shorthand form of the
The Internet Messenger by Buky Schwartz in Holon
technical term internetwork, the result of
interconnecting computer networks with special
gateways or routers. It was also used as a verb meaning to connect together, especially for networks.[4][5]
The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used interchangeably in everyday speech; it is common to speak
of "going on the Internet" when invoking a web browser to view web pages. However, the Internet is a particular
global computer network connecting millions of computing devices; the World Wide Web is just one of many
services running on the Internet. The Web is a collection of interconnected documents (web pages) and other web
resources, linked by hyperlinks and URLs.[6] In addition to the Web, a multitude of other services are implemented
over the Internet, including e-mail, file transfer, remote computer control, newsgroups, and online games. Web (and
Internet 3
other) services can be implemented on any intranet, accessible to network users.

Interweb is a mixture of Internet and World Wide Web typically used sarcastically to parody a technically unsavvy
user.[7]
History
Research into packet switching started in the early 1960s and packet switched
networks such as Mark I at NPL in the UK,[] ARPANET, CYCLADES,[8][9]
[10]
Merit Network, Tymnet, and Telenet, were developed in the late 1960s and
early 1970s using a variety of protocols. The ARPANET in particular led to the
development of protocols for internetworking, where multiple separate networks
[citation needed]
could be joined together into a network of networks.
The first two nodes of what would become the ARPANET were interconnected
between Leonard Kleinrock's Network Measurement Center at the UCLA's
School of Engineering and Applied Science and Douglas Engelbart's NLS
system at SRI International (SRI) in Menlo Park, California, on 29 October
1969.[11] The third site on the ARPANET was the Culler-Fried Interactive
Professor Leonard Kleinrock with
Mathematics center at the University of California at Santa Barbara, and the the first ARPANET Interface
fourth was the University of Utah Graphics Department. In an early sign of Message Processors at UCLA
future growth, there were already fifteen sites connected to the young ARPANET
by the end of 1971.[12][13] These early years were documented in the 1972 film Computer Networks: The Heralds of
Resource Sharing.
Early international collaborations on ARPANET were sparse. For various political reasons, European developers
were concerned with developing the X.25 networks.[14] Notable exceptions were the Norwegian Seismic Array
(NORSAR) in June 1973,[15] followed in 1973 by Sweden with satellite links to the Tanum Earth Station and Peter
T. Kirstein's research group in the UK, initially at the Institute of Computer Science, University of London and later
at University College London.[citation needed]
In December 1974, RFC 675 – Specification of Internet Transmission Control Program, by Vinton Cerf, Yogen
Dalal, and Carl Sunshine, used the term internet as a shorthand for internetworking and later RFCs repeat this
use.[16] Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation (NSF) developed the
Computer Science Network (CSNET). In 1982, the Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) was standardized and the
concept of a world-wide network of fully interconnected TCP/IP networks called the Internet was introduced.
TCP/IP network access expanded again in
1986 when the National Science Foundation
Network (NSFNET) provided access to
supercomputer sites in the United States
from research and education organizations,
first at 56 kbit/s and later at 1.5 Mbit/s and
45 Mbit/s.[17] Commercial Internet service
providers (ISPs) began to emerge in the late
1980s and early 1990s. The ARPANET was
decommissioned in 1990. The Internet was
commercialized in 1995 when NSFNET was
decommissioned, removing the last
T3 NSFNET Backbone, c. 1992
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[]
restrictions on the use of the Internet to carry commercial traffic. The Internet started a rapid expansion to Europe
and Australia in the mid to late 1980s[18][19] and to Asia in the late 1980s and early 1990s.[20]
Since the mid-1990s the Internet has had a tremendous impact on culture and commerce, including the rise of near
instant communication by email, instant messaging, Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) "phone calls", two-way
interactive video calls, and the World Wide Web[21] with its discussion forums, blogs, social networking, and online
shopping sites. Increasing amounts of data are transmitted at higher and higher speeds over fiber optic networks
operating at 1-Gbit/s, 10-Gbit/s, or more.
Worldwide Internet users
2005 2010 2013

a
[22] 6.5 billion 6.9 billion 7.1 billion

World population
Not using the Internet 84% 70% 61%
Using the Internet 16% 30% 39%
Users in the developing world 8% 21% 31%

Users in the developed world 51% 67% 77%
a
Estimate.
[23]
Source: International Telecommunications Union.
The Internet continues to grow, driven by ever greater amounts of online information and knowledge, commerce,
entertainment and social networking.[24] During the late 1990s, it was estimated that traffic on the public Internet
grew by 100 percent per year, while the mean annual growth in the number of Internet users was thought to be
between 20% and 50%.[25] This growth is often attributed to the lack of central administration, which allows organic
growth of the network, as well as the non-proprietary open nature of the Internet protocols, which encourages vendor
interoperability and prevents any one company from exerting too much control over the network.[26] As of 31 March
2011, the estimated total number of Internet users was 2.095 billion (30.2% of world population).[] It is estimated
that in 1993 the Internet carried only 1% of the information flowing through two-way telecommunication, by 2000
this figure had grown to 51%, and by 2007 more than 97% of all telecommunicated information was carried over the
Internet.[27]
Internet 5
Technology
Protocols
As the user data is processed down through the protocol stack, each layer adds an
encapsulation at the sending host. Data is transmitted "over the wire" at the link
level, left to right. The encapsulation stack procedure is reversed by the receiving
host. Intermediate relays remove and add a new link encapsulation for
retransmission, and inspect the IP layer for routing purposes.
Internet
protocol suite
Application layer
• DHCP
• DHCPv6
• DNS
• FTP
• HTTP
• IMAP
• IRC
• LDAP
• MGCP
• NNTP
• BGP
• NTP
• POP
• RPC
• RTP
• RTSP
• RIP
• SIP
• SMTP
• SNMP
• SOCKS
• SSH
• Telnet
• TLS/SSL
• XMPP
Internet 6
• more...
Transport layer
• TCP
• UDP
• DCCP
• SCTP
• RSVP
• more...
Internet layer
• IP
• IPv4
• IPv6
• ICMP
• ICMPv6
• ECN
• IGMP
• IPsec
• (more)
Link layer
• ARP/InARP
• NDP
• OSPF
• Tunnels
• L2TP
• PPP
• Media access control
• Ethernet
• DSL
• ISDN
• FDDI
• more...
The communications infrastructure of the Internet consists of its hardware components and a system of software
layers that control various aspects of the architecture. While the hardware can often be used to support other software
systems, it is the design and the rigorous standardization process of the software architecture that characterizes the
Internet and provides the foundation for its scalability and success. The responsibility for the architectural design of
the Internet software systems has been delegated to the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).[28] The IETF
conducts standard-setting work groups, open to any individual, about the various aspects of Internet architecture.
Resulting discussions and final standards are published in a series of publications, each called a Request for
Comments (RFC), freely available on the IETF web site.
The principal methods of networking that enable the Internet are contained in specially designated RFCs that
constitute the Internet Standards. Other less rigorous documents are simply informative, experimental, or historical,
or document the best current practices (BCP) when implementing Internet technologies.
The Internet standards describe a framework known as the Internet protocol suite. This is a model architecture that
divides methods into a layered system of protocols (RFC 1122, RFC 1123). The layers correspond to the
environment or scope in which their services operate. At the top is the application layer, the space for the
application-specific networking methods used in software applications, e.g., a web browser program uses the
client-server application model and many file-sharing systems use a peer-to-peer paradigm. Below this top layer, the
transport layer connects applications on different hosts via the network with appropriate data exchange methods.
Internet 7
Underlying these layers are the core networking technologies, consisting of two layers.
The internet layer enables computers to identify and locate each other via Internet Protocol (IP) addresses, and
allows them to connect to one another via intermediate (transit) networks. Last, at the bottom of the architecture, is a
software layer, the link layer, that provides connectivity between hosts on the same local network link, such as a
local area network (LAN) or a dial-up connection. The model, also known as TCP/IP, is designed to be independent
of the underlying hardware, which the model therefore does not concern itself with in any detail. Other models have
been developed, such as the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, but they are not compatible in the details of
description or implementation; many similarities exist and the TCP/IP protocols are usually included in the
discussion of OSI networking.
The most prominent component of the Internet model is the Internet Protocol (IP), which provides addressing
systems (IP addresses) for computers on the Internet. IP enables internetworking and in essence establishes the
Internet itself. IP Version 4 (IPv4) is the initial version used on the first generation of today's Internet and is still in
dominant use. It was designed to address up to ~4.3 billion (109) Internet hosts. However, the explosive growth of
the Internet has led to IPv4 address exhaustion, which entered its final stage in 2011,[29] when the global address
allocation pool was exhausted. A new protocol version, IPv6, was developed in the mid-1990s, which provides
vastly larger addressing capabilities and more efficient routing of Internet traffic. IPv6 is currently in growing
deployment around the world, since Internet address registries (RIRs) began to urge all resource managers to plan
rapid adoption and conversion.[30]
IPv6 is not interoperable with IPv4. In essence, it establishes a parallel version of the Internet not directly accessible
with IPv4 software. This means software upgrades or translator facilities are necessary for networking devices that
need to communicate on both networks. Most modern computer operating systems already support both versions of
the Internet Protocol. Network infrastructures, however, are still lagging in this development. Aside from the
complex array of physical connections that make up its infrastructure, the Internet is facilitated by bi- or multi-lateral
commercial contracts (e.g., peering agreements), and by technical specifications or protocols that describe how to
exchange data over the network. Indeed, the Internet is defined by its interconnections and routing policies.
Routing
Internet service providers connect
customers, which represent the bottom
of the routing hierarchy, to customers
of other ISPs via other higher or
same-tier networks. At the top of the
routing hierarchy are the Tier 1
networks, large telecommunication
companies which exchange traffic
directly with all other Tier 1 networks
via peering agreements. Tier 2
networks buy Internet transit from
other providers to reach at least some
parties on the global Internet, though Internet packet routing is accomplished among various tiers of Internet service providers.
they may also engage in peering. An

ISP may use a single upstream provider for connectivity, or implement multihoming to achieve redundancy. Internet
exchange points are major traffic exchanges with physical connections to multiple ISPs.
Computers and routers use routing tables to direct IP packets to the next-hop router or destination. Routing tables are
maintained by manual configuration or by routing protocols. End-nodes typically use a default route that points
toward an ISP providing transit, while ISP routers use the Border Gateway Protocol to establish the most efficient
Internet 8
routing across the complex connections of the global Internet.

Large organizations, such as academic institutions, large enterprises, and governments, may perform the same
function as ISPs, engaging in peering and purchasing transit on behalf of their internal networks. Research networks
tend to interconnect into large subnetworks such as GEANT, GLORIAD, Internet2, and the UK's national research
and education network, JANET.
General structure
The Internet structure and its usage characteristics have been studied extensively. It has been determined that both
the Internet IP routing structure and hypertext links of the World Wide Web are examples of scale-free networks.[31]
Many computer scientists describe the Internet as a "prime example of a large-scale, highly engineered, yet highly
complex system".[32] The Internet is heterogeneous; for instance, data transfer rates and physical characteristics of
connections vary widely. The Internet exhibits "emergent phenomena" that depend on its large-scale organization.
For example, data transfer rates exhibit temporal self-similarity. The principles of the routing and addressing
methods for traffic in the Internet reach back to their origins in the 1960s when the eventual scale and popularity of
the network could not be anticipated.[33] Thus, the possibility of developing alternative structures is investigated.[34]
The Internet structure was found to be highly robust[35] to random failures and very vulnerable to high degree
attacks.[36]
Governance
The Internet is a globally distributed network comprising many
voluntarily interconnected autonomous networks. It operates without a
central governing body. However, to maintain interoperability, the
principal name spaces of the Internet are administered by the Internet
Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN),
headquartered in Marina del Rey, California. ICANN is the authority
that coordinates the assignment of unique identifiers for use on the
Internet, including domain names, Internet Protocol (IP) addresses,
application port numbers in the transport protocols, and many other
parameters. Globally unified name spaces, in which names and ICANN headquarters in Marina Del Rey,
California, United States
numbers are uniquely assigned, are essential for maintaining the global
reach of the Internet. ICANN is governed by an international board of
directors drawn from across the Internet technical, business, academic, and other non-commercial communities.
ICANN's role in coordinating the assignment of unique identifiers distinguishes it as perhaps the only central
coordinating body for the global Internet. The government of the United States continues to have a primary role in
approving changes to the DNS root zone that lies at the heart of the domain name system.[37] On 16 November 2005,
the United Nations-sponsored World Summit on the Information Society, held in Tunis, established the Internet
Governance Forum (IGF) to discuss Internet-related issues.
The technical underpinning and standardization of the Internet's core protocols (IPv4 and IPv6) is an activity of the
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), a non-profit organization of loosely affiliated international participants that
anyone may associate with by contributing technical expertise.
Internet 9
Modern uses
The Internet allows greater flexibility in working hours and location, especially with the spread of unmetered
high-speed connections. The Internet can be accessed almost anywhere by numerous means, including through
mobile Internet devices. Mobile phones, datacards, handheld game consoles and cellular routers allow users to
connect to the Internet wirelessly. Within the limitations imposed by small screens and other limited facilities of
such pocket-sized devices, the services of the Internet, including email and the web, may be available. Service
providers may restrict the services offered and mobile data charges may be significantly higher than other access
methods.
Educational material at all levels from pre-school to post-doctoral is available from websites. Examples range from
CBeebies, through school and high-school revision guides and virtual universities, to access to top-end scholarly
literature through the likes of Google Scholar. For distance education, help with homework and other assignments,
self-guided learning, whiling away spare time, or just looking up more detail on an interesting fact, it has never been
easier for people to access educational information at any level from anywhere. The Internet in general and the
World Wide Web in particular are important enablers of both formal and informal education.
The low cost and nearly instantaneous sharing of ideas, knowledge, and skills has made collaborative work
dramatically easier, with the help of collaborative software. Not only can a group cheaply communicate and share
ideas but the wide reach of the Internet allows such groups more easily to form. An example of this is the free
software movement, which has produced, among other things, Linux, Mozilla Firefox, and OpenOffice.org. Internet
chat, whether using an IRC chat room, an instant messaging system, or a social networking website, allows
colleagues to stay in touch in a very convenient way while working at their computers during the day. Messages can
be exchanged even more quickly and conveniently than via email. These systems may allow files to be exchanged,
drawings and images to be shared, or voice and video contact between team members.
Content management systems allow collaborating teams to work on shared sets of documents simultaneously
without accidentally destroying each other's work. Business and project teams can share calendars as well as
documents and other information. Such collaboration occurs in a wide variety of areas including scientific research,
software development, conference planning, political activism and creative writing. Social and political collaboration
is also becoming more widespread as both Internet access and computer literacy spread.
The Internet allows computer users to remotely access other computers and information stores easily, wherever they
may be. They may do this with or without computer security, i.e. authentication and encryption technologies,
depending on the requirements. This is encouraging new ways of working from home, collaboration and information
sharing in many industries. An accountant sitting at home can audit the books of a company based in another
country, on a server situated in a third country that is remotely maintained by IT specialists in a fourth. These
accounts could have been created by home-working bookkeepers, in other remote locations, based on information
emailed to them from offices all over the world. Some of these things were possible before the widespread use of the
Internet, but the cost of private leased lines would have made many of them infeasible in practice. An office worker
away from their desk, perhaps on the other side of the world on a business trip or a holiday, can access their emails,
access their data using cloud computing, or open a remote desktop session into their office PC using a secure Virtual
Private Network (VPN) connection on the Internet. This can give the worker complete access to all of their normal
files and data, including email and other applications, while away from the office. It has been referred to among
system administrators as the Virtual Private Nightmare,[38] because it extends the secure perimeter of a corporate
network into remote locations and its employees' homes.
Internet 10
Services
World Wide Web

Many people use the terms Internet and World Wide Web, or just the
Web, interchangeably, but the two terms are not synonymous. The
World Wide Web is a global set of documents, images and other
resources, logically interrelated by hyperlinks and referenced with
Uniform Resource Identifiers (URIs). URIs symbolically identify
services, servers, and other databases, and the documents and resources
that they can provide. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is the main
access protocol of the World Wide Web, but it is only one of the
hundreds of communication protocols used on the Internet. Web
This NeXT Computer was used by Tim
services also use HTTP to allow software systems to communicate in
Berners-Lee at CERN and became the world's
order to share and exchange business logic and data. first Web server.
World Wide Web browser software, such as Microsoft's Internet

Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Opera, Apple's Safari, and Google Chrome, lets users navigate from one web page to
another via hyperlinks embedded in the documents. These documents may also contain any combination of computer
data, including graphics, sounds, text, video, multimedia and interactive content that runs while the user is
interacting with the page. Client-side software can include animations, games, office applications and scientific
demonstrations. Through keyword-driven Internet research using search engines like Yahoo! and Google, users
worldwide have easy, instant access to a vast and diverse amount of online information. Compared to printed media,
books, encyclopedias and traditional libraries, the World Wide Web has enabled the decentralization of information
on a large scale.
The Web has also enabled individuals and organizations to publish ideas and information to a potentially large
audience online at greatly reduced expense and time delay. Publishing a web page, a blog, or building a website
involves little initial cost and many cost-free services are available. Publishing and maintaining large, professional
web sites with attractive, diverse and up-to-date information is still a difficult and expensive proposition, however.
Many individuals and some companies and groups use web logs or blogs, which are largely used as easily updatable
online diaries. Some commercial organizations encourage staff to communicate advice in their areas of specialization
in the hope that visitors will be impressed by the expert knowledge and free information, and be attracted to the
corporation as a result.
One example of this practice is Microsoft, whose product developers publish their personal blogs in order to pique
the public's interest in their work. Collections of personal web pages published by large service providers remain
popular, and have become increasingly sophisticated. Whereas operations such as Angelfire and GeoCities have
existed since the early days of the Web, newer offerings from, for example, Facebook and Twitter currently have
large followings. These operations often brand themselves as social network services rather than simply as web page
hosts.
Advertising on popular web pages can be lucrative, and e-commerce or the sale of products and services directly via
the Web continues to grow.
When the Web began in the 1990s, a typical web page was stored in completed form on a web server, formatted in
HTML, ready to be sent to a user's browser in response to a request. Over time, the process of creating and serving
web pages has become more automated and more dynamic. Websites are often created using content management or
wiki software with, initially, very little content. Contributors to these systems, who may be paid staff, members of a
club or other organization or members of the public, fill underlying databases with content using editing pages
designed for that purpose, while casual visitors view and read this content in its final HTML form. There may or
Internet 11
may not be editorial, approval and security systems built into the process of taking newly entered content and
making it available to the target visitors.
Communication
Email is an important communications service available on the Internet. The concept of sending electronic text
messages between parties in a way analogous to mailing letters or memos predates the creation of the Internet.
Pictures, documents and other files are sent as email attachments. Emails can be cc-ed to multiple email addresses.
Internet telephony is another common communications service made possible by the creation of the Internet. VoIP
stands for Voice-over-Internet Protocol, referring to the protocol that underlies all Internet communication. The idea
began in the early 1990s with walkie-talkie-like voice applications for personal computers. In recent years many
VoIP systems have become as easy to use and as convenient as a normal telephone. The benefit is that, as the
Internet carries the voice traffic, VoIP can be free or cost much less than a traditional telephone call, especially over
long distances and especially for those with always-on Internet connections such as cable or ADSL. VoIP is
maturing into a competitive alternative to traditional telephone service. Interoperability between different providers
has improved and the ability to call or receive a call from a traditional telephone is available. Simple, inexpensive
VoIP network adapters are available that eliminate the need for a personal computer.
Voice quality can still vary from call to call, but is often equal to and can even exceed that of traditional calls.
Remaining problems for VoIP include emergency telephone number dialing and reliability. Currently, a few VoIP
providers provide an emergency service, but it is not universally available. Older traditional phones with no "extra
features" may be line-powered only and operate during a power failure; VoIP can never do so without a backup
power source for the phone equipment and the Internet access devices. VoIP has also become increasingly popular
for gaming applications, as a form of communication between players. Popular VoIP clients for gaming include
Ventrilo and Teamspeak. Modern video game consoles also offer VoIP chat features.
Data transfer
File sharing is an example of transferring large amounts of data across the Internet. A computer file can be emailed
to customers, colleagues and friends as an attachment. It can be uploaded to a website or FTP server for easy
download by others. It can be put into a "shared location" or onto a file server for instant use by colleagues. The load
of bulk downloads to many users can be eased by the use of "mirror" servers or peer-to-peer networks. In any of
these cases, access to the file may be controlled by user authentication, the transit of the file over the Internet may be
obscured by encryption, and money may change hands for access to the file. The price can be paid by the remote
charging of funds from, for example, a credit card whose details are also passed – usually fully encrypted – across
the Internet. The origin and authenticity of the file received may be checked by digital signatures or by MD5 or other
message digests. These simple features of the Internet, over a worldwide basis, are changing the production, sale,
and distribution of anything that can be reduced to a computer file for transmission. This includes all manner of print
publications, software products, news, music, film, video, photography, graphics and the other arts. This in turn has
caused seismic shifts in each of the existing industries that previously controlled the production and distribution of
these products.
Streaming media is the real-time delivery of digital media for the immediate consumption or enjoyment by end
users. Many radio and television broadcasters provide Internet feeds of their live audio and video productions. They
may also allow time-shift viewing or listening such as Preview, Classic Clips and Listen Again features. These
providers have been joined by a range of pure Internet "broadcasters" who never had on-air licenses. This means that
an Internet-connected device, such as a computer or something more specific, can be used to access on-line media in
much the same way as was previously possible only with a television or radio receiver. The range of available types
of content is much wider, from specialized technical webcasts to on-demand popular multimedia services.
Podcasting is a variation on this theme, where – usually audio – material is downloaded and played back on a
Internet 12
computer or shifted to a portable media player to be listened to on the move. These techniques using simple
equipment allow anybody, with little censorship or licensing control, to broadcast audio-visual material worldwide.
Digital media streaming increases the demand for network bandwidth. For example, standard image quality needs 1
Mbit/s link speed for SD 480p, HD 720p quality requires 2.5 Mbit/s, and the top-of-the-line HDX quality needs 4.5
Mbit/s for 1080p.[39]
Webcams are a low-cost extension of this phenomenon. While some webcams can give full-frame-rate video, the
picture either is usually small or updates slowly. Internet users can watch animals around an African waterhole, ships
in the Panama Canal, traffic at a local roundabout or monitor their own premises, live and in real time. Video chat
rooms and video conferencing are also popular with many uses being found for personal webcams, with and without
two-way sound. YouTube was founded on 15 February 2005 and is now the leading website for free streaming video
with a vast number of users. It uses a flash-based web player to stream and show video files. Registered users may
upload an unlimited amount of video and build their own personal profile. YouTube claims that its users watch
hundreds of millions, and upload hundreds of thousands of videos daily.[40]
Access
Common methods of Internet access in homes include dial-up, landline broadband (over coaxial cable, fiber optic or
copper wires), Wi-Fi, satellite and 3G/4G technology cell phones. Public places to use the Internet include libraries
and Internet cafes, where computers with Internet connections are available. There are also Internet access points in
many public places such as airport halls and coffee shops, in some cases just for brief use while standing. Various
terms are used, such as "public Internet kiosk", "public access terminal", and "Web payphone". Many hotels now
also have public terminals, though these are usually fee-based. These terminals are widely accessed for various usage
like ticket booking, bank deposit, online payment etc. Wi-Fi provides wireless access to computer networks, and
therefore can do so to the Internet itself. Hotspots providing such access include Wi-Fi cafes, where would-be users
need to bring their own wireless-enabled devices such as a laptop or PDA. These services may be free to all, free to
customers only, or fee-based. A hotspot need not be limited to a confined location. A whole campus or park, or even
an entire city can be enabled.
Grassroots efforts have led to wireless community networks. Commercial Wi-Fi services covering large city areas
are in place in London, Vienna, Toronto, San Francisco, Philadelphia, Chicago and Pittsburgh. The Internet can then
be accessed from such places as a park bench.[41] Apart from Wi-Fi, there have been experiments with proprietary
mobile wireless networks like Ricochet, various high-speed data services over cellular phone networks, and fixed
wireless services. High-end mobile phones such as smartphones in general come with Internet access through the
phone network. Web browsers such as Opera are available on these advanced handsets, which can also run a wide
variety of other Internet software. More mobile phones have Internet access than PCs, though this is not as widely
used.[42] An Internet access provider and protocol matrix differentiates the methods used to get online.
An Internet blackout or outage can be caused by local signaling interruptions. Disruptions of submarine
communications cables may cause blackouts or slowdowns to large areas, such as in the 2008 submarine cable
disruption. Less-developed countries are more vulnerable due to a small number of high-capacity links. Land cables
are also vulnerable, as in 2011 when a woman digging for scrap metal severed most connectivity for the nation of
Armenia.[43] Internet blackouts affecting almost entire countries can be achieved by governments as a form of
Internet censorship, as in the blockage of the Internet in Egypt, whereby approximately 93%[] of networks were
without access in 2011 in an attempt to stop mobilization for anti-government protests.[44]
Internet 13
Users
Overall Internet usage has seen
tremendous growth. From 2000 to
2009, the number of Internet users
globally rose from 394 million to 1.858
billion.[48] By 2010, 22 percent of the
world's population had access to
computers with 1 billion Google
searches every day, 300 million
Internet users reading blogs, and 2
billion videos viewed daily on
YouTube.[49]
Internet users per 100 inhabitantsSource: International Telecommunications Union.
The prevalent language for
"Internet users per 100 inhabitants 2001-2011", International Telecommunications Union,
communication on the Internet has Geneva, accessed 4 April 2012 "Internet users per 100 inhabitants 2006-2013",
been English. This may be a result of International Telecommunications Union, Geneva, accessed 3 June 2013
the origin of the Internet, as well as the
language's role as a lingua franca.
Early computer systems were limited
to the characters in the American
Standard Code for Information
Interchange (ASCII), a subset of the
Latin alphabet.
After English (27%), the most

requested languages on the World
Wide Web are Chinese (23%), Spanish
(8%), Japanese (5%), Portuguese and
German (4% each), Arabic, French and
Russian (3% each), and Korean
(2%).[50] By region, 42% of the
world's Internet users are based in
Asia, 24% in Europe, 14% in North
America, 10% in Latin America and
the Caribbean taken together, 6% in Languages used on the InternetInternet users by language "Number of Internet Users by
Africa, 3% in the Middle East and 1% Language", Internet World Stats, Miniwatts Marketing Group, 31 May 2011. Retrieved
in Australia/Oceania.[51] The Internet's 22 April 2012
technologies have developed enough in

recent years, especially in the use of Unicode, that good facilities are available for development and communication
in the world's widely used languages. However, some glitches such as mojibake (incorrect display of some
languages' characters) still remain.
Internet 14
In an American study in 2005, the

percentage of men using the Internet
was very slightly ahead of the
percentage of women, although this
difference reversed in those under 30.
Men logged on more often, spent more
time online, and were more likely to be
broadband users, whereas women
tended to make more use of
opportunities to communicate (such as
email). Men were more likely to use
the Internet to pay bills, participate in
auctions, and for recreation such as
downloading music and videos. Men
and women were equally likely to use
the Internet for shopping and
banking.[52] More recent studies Languages used on the InternetWebsite content languages
indicate that in 2008, women
significantly outnumbered men on most social networking sites, such as Facebook and Myspace, although the ratios
varied with age.[53] In addition, women watched more streaming content, whereas men downloaded more.[54] In
terms of blogs, men were more likely to blog in the first place; among those who blog, men were more likely to have
a professional blog, whereas women were more likely to have a personal blog.[55]
According to Euromonitor, by 2020 43.7% of the world's population will be users of the Internet. Splitting by
country, in 2011 Iceland, Norway and the Netherlands had the highest Internet penetration by the number of users,
with more than 90% of the population with access.
Social impact
The Internet has enabled entirely new forms of social interaction, activities, and organizing, thanks to its basic
features such as widespread usability and access. In the first decade of the 21st century, the first generation is raised
with widespread availability of Internet connectivity, bringing consequences and concerns in areas such as personal
privacy and identity, and distribution of copyrighted materials. These "digital natives" face a variety of challenges
that were not present for prior generations.
Social networking and entertainment

Many people use the World Wide Web to access news, weather and sports reports, to plan and book vacations and to
find out more about their interests. People use chat, messaging and email to make and stay in touch with friends
worldwide, sometimes in the same way as some previously had pen pals. The Internet has seen a growing number of
Web desktops, where users can access their files and settings via the Internet.
Social networking websites such as Facebook, Twitter, and MySpace have created new ways to socialize and
interact. Users of these sites are able to add a wide variety of information to pages, to pursue common interests, and
to connect with others. It is also possible to find existing acquaintances, to allow communication among existing
groups of people. Sites like LinkedIn foster commercial and business connections. YouTube and Flickr specialize in
users' videos and photographs.
The Internet has been a major outlet for leisure activity since its inception, with entertaining social experiments such
as MUDs and MOOs being conducted on university servers, and humor-related Usenet groups receiving much
Internet 15
traffic. Today, many Internet forums have sections devoted to games and funny videos; short cartoons in the form of
Flash movies are also popular. Over 6 million people use blogs or message boards as a means of communication and
for the sharing of ideas. The Internet pornography and online gambling industries have taken advantage of the World
Wide Web, and often provide a significant source of advertising revenue for other websites.[56] Although many
governments have attempted to restrict both industries' use of the Internet, in general this has failed to stop their
widespread popularity.[57]
Another area of leisure activity on the Internet is multiplayer gaming.[58] This form of recreation creates
communities, where people of all ages and origins enjoy the fast-paced world of multiplayer games. These range
from MMORPG to first-person shooters, from role-playing video games to online gambling. While online gaming
has been around since the 1970s, modern modes of online gaming began with subscription services such as
GameSpy and MPlayer.[59] Non-subscribers were limited to certain types of game play or certain games. Many
people use the Internet to access and download music, movies and other works for their enjoyment and relaxation.
Free and fee-based services exist for all of these activities, using centralized servers and distributed peer-to-peer
technologies. Some of these sources exercise more care with respect to the original artists' copyrights than others.
Internet usage has been correlated to users' loneliness.[60] Lonely people tend to use the Internet as an outlet for their
feelings and to share their stories with others, such as in the "I am lonely will anyone speak to me" thread.
Cybersectarianism is a new organizational form which involves: "highly dispersed small groups of practitioners that
may remain largely anonymous within the larger social context and operate in relative secrecy, while still linked
remotely to a larger network of believers who share a set of practices and texts, and often a common devotion to a
particular leader. Overseas supporters provide funding and support; domestic practitioners distribute tracts,
participate in acts of resistance, and share information on the internal situation with outsiders. Collectively, members
and practitioners of such sects construct viable virtual communities of faith, exchanging personal testimonies and
engaging in collective study via email, on-line chat rooms and web-based message boards."[61]
Cyberslacking can become a drain on corporate resources; the average UK employee spent 57 minutes a day surfing
the Web while at work, according to a 2003 study by Peninsula Business Services.[62] Internet addiction disorder is
excessive computer use that interferes with daily life. Psychologist Nicolas Carr believe that Internet use has other
effects on individuals, for instance improving skills of scan-reading and interfering with the deep thinking that leads
to true creativity.[63]
Electronic business
Electronic business (E-business) involves business processes spanning the entire value chain: electronic purchasing
and supply chain management, processing orders electronically, handling customer service, and cooperating with
business partners. E-commerce seeks to add revenue streams using the Internet to build and enhance relationships
with clients and partners.
According to research firm IDC, the size of total worldwide e-commerce, when global business-to-business and
-consumer transactions are added together, will equate to $16 trillion in 2013. IDate, another research firm, estimates
the global market for digital products and services at $4.4 trillion in 2013. A report by Oxford Economics adds those
two together to estimate the total size of the digital economy at $20.4 trillion, equivalent to roughly 13.8% of global
sales.[64]
While much has been written of the economic advantages of Internet-enabled commerce, there is also evidence that
some aspects of the Internet such as maps and location-aware services may serve to reinforce economic inequality
and the digital divide.[65] Electronic commerce may be responsible for consolidation and the decline of
mom-and-pop, brick and mortar businesses resulting in increases in income inequality.[66][67][68]
Internet 16
Telecommuting
Remote work is facilitated by tools such as groupware, virtual private networks, conference calling,
videoconferencing, and Voice over IP (VOIP). It can be efficient and useful for companies as it allows workers to
communicate over long distances, saving significant amounts of travel time and cost. As broadband Internet
connections become more commonplace, more and more workers have adequate bandwidth at home to use these
tools to link their home to their corporate intranet and internal phone networks.
Crowdsourcing
Internet provides a particularly good venue for crowdsourcing (outsourcing tasks to a distributed group of people)
since individuals tend to be more open in web-based projects where they are not being physically judged or
scrutinized and thus can feel more comfortable sharing.
Crowdsourcing systems are used to accomplish a variety of tasks. For example, the crowd may be invited to develop
a new technology, carry out a design task, refine or carry out the steps of an algorithm (see human-based
computation), or help capture, systematize, or analyze large amounts of data (see also citizen science).
Wikis have also been used in the academic community for sharing and dissemination of information across
institutional and international boundaries.[69] In those settings, they have been found useful for collaboration on grant
writing, strategic planning, departmental documentation, and committee work.[70] The United States Patent and
Trademark Office uses a wiki to allow the public to collaborate on finding prior art relevant to examination of
pending patent applications. Queens, New York has used a wiki to allow citizens to collaborate on the design and
planning of a local park.[]
The English Wikipedia has the largest user base among wikis on the World Wide Web[71] and ranks in the top 10
among all Web sites in terms of traffic.[72]
Politics and political revolutions

The Internet has achieved new relevance as a political tool. The presidential campaign of Howard Dean in 2004 in
the United States was notable for its success in soliciting donation via the Internet. Many political groups use the
Internet to achieve a new method of organizing in order to carry out their mission, having given rise to Internet
activism, most notably practiced by rebels in the Arab Spring.[][73]
The New York Times suggested that social media websites, such as Facebook and Twitter, helped people organize the
political revolutions in Egypt where it helped certain classes of protesters organize protests, communicate
grievances, and disseminate information.[74]
The potential of the Internet as a civic tool of communicative power was thoroughly explored by Simon R. B. Berdal
in his thesis of 2004:
As the globally evolving Internet provides ever new access points to virtual discourse forums, it also promotes
new civic relations and associations within which communicative power may flow and accumulate. Thus,
traditionally ... national-embedded peripheries get entangled into greater, international peripheries, with
stronger combined powers... The Internet, as a consequence, changes the topology of the "centre-periphery"
model, by stimulating conventional peripheries to interlink into "super-periphery" structures, which enclose
and "besiege" several centres at once.[]
Berdal, therefore, extends the Habermasian notion of the Public sphere to the Internet, and underlines the inherent
global and civic nature that intervowen Internet technologies provide. To limit the growing civic potential of the
Internet, Berdal also notes how "self-protective measures" are put in place by those threatened by it:
If we consider China’s attempts to filter "unsuitable material" from the Internet, most of us would agree that
this resembles a self-protective measure by the system against the growing civic potentials of the Internet.
Nevertheless, both types represent limitations to "peripheral capacities". Thus, the Chinese government tries to
Internet 17
prevent communicative power to build up and unleash (as the 1989 Tiananmen Square uprising suggests, the
government may find it wise to install "upstream measures"). Even though limited, the Internet is proving to
be an empowering tool also to the Chinese periphery: Analysts believe that Internet petitions have influenced
policy implementation in favour of the public’s online-articulated will ...[]
Philanthropy
The spread of low-cost Internet access in developing countries has opened up new possibilities for peer-to-peer
charities, which allow individuals to contribute small amounts to charitable projects for other individuals. Websites,
such as DonorsChoose and GlobalGiving, allow small-scale donors to direct funds to individual projects of their
choice.
A popular twist on Internet-based philanthropy is the use of peer-to-peer lending for charitable purposes. Kiva
pioneered this concept in 2005, offering the first web-based service to publish individual loan profiles for funding.
Kiva raises funds for local intermediary microfinance organizations which post stories and updates on behalf of the
borrowers. Lenders can contribute as little as $25 to loans of their choice, and receive their money back as borrowers
repay. Kiva falls short of being a pure peer-to-peer charity, in that loans are disbursed before being funded by lenders
and borrowers do not communicate with lenders themselves.[75][76]
However, the recent spread of low cost Internet access in developing countries has made genuine international
person-to-person philanthropy increasingly feasible. In 2009 the US-based nonprofit Zidisha tapped into this trend to
offer the first person-to-person microfinance platform to link lenders and borrowers across international borders
without intermediaries. Members can fund loans for as little as a dollar, which the borrowers then use to develop
business activities that improve their families' incomes while repaying loans to the members with interest. Borrowers
access the Internet via public cybercafes, donated laptops in village schools, and even smart phones, then create their
own profile pages through which they share photos and information about themselves and their businesses. As they
repay their loans, borrowers continue to share updates and dialogue with lenders via their profile pages. This direct
web-based connection allows members themselves to take on many of the communication and recording tasks
traditionally performed by local organizations, bypassing geographic barriers and dramatically reducing the cost of
microfinance services to the entrepreneurs.[77]
Internet 18
Censorship
Some governments, such as those of
Burma, Iran, North Korea, the
Mainland China, Saudi Arabia, and the
United Arab Emirates restrict what
people in their countries can access on
the Internet, especially political and
religious content. This is accomplished
through software that filters domains
and content so that they may not be
easily accessed or obtained without
elaborate circumvention.[81]
In Norway, Denmark, Finland, and Internet censorship by countryOpenNet Initiative "Summarized global Internet filtering
Sweden, major Internet service data spreadsheet", 8 November 2011 and "Country Profiles", the OpenNet Initiative is a
collaborative partnership of the Citizen Lab at the Munk School of Global Affairs,
providers have voluntarily, possibly to
University of Toronto; the Berkman Center for Internet & Society at Harvard University;
avoid such an arrangement being and the SecDev Group, OttawaDue to legal concerns the OpenNet Initiative does not
turned into law, agreed to restrict check for filtering of child pornography and because their classifications focus on
access to sites listed by authorities. technical filtering, they do not include other types of censorship. Internet Enemies,
Reporters Without Borders (Paris), 12 March 2012
While this list of forbidden URLs is
supposed to contain addresses of only
known child pornography sites, the content of the list is secret.[] Many countries, including the United States, have
enacted laws against the possession or distribution of certain material, such as child pornography, via the Internet,
but do not mandate filtering software. There are many free and commercially available software programs, called
content-control software, with which a user can choose to block offensive websites on individual computers or
networks, in order to limit a child's access to pornographic materials or depiction of violence.
References
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[3] "7.76 Terms like 'web' and 'Internet'" (http:/ / www. chicagomanualofstyle. org/ 16/ ch07/ ch07_sec076. html?para=), Chicago Manual of
Style, University of Chicago, 16th edition
[5] Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed., gives nineteenth-century use and pre-Internet verb use
[7] Interweb (http:/ / www. urbandictionary. com/ define. php?term=interweb), Urban Dictionary
[10] A Chronicle of Merit's Early History (http:/ / www. merit. edu/ about/ history/ article. php), John Mulcahy, 1989, Merit Network, Ann
Arbor, Michigan
[11] "Roads and Crossroads of Internet History" (http:/ / www. netvalley. com/ intval. html) by Gregory Gromov. 1995
[17] NSFNET: A Partnership for High-Speed Networking, Final Report 1987-1995 (http:/ / www. merit. edu/ about/ history/ pdf/ NSFNET_final.
pdf), Karen D. Frazer, Merit Network, Inc., 1995
[19] Réseaux IP Européens (RIPE)
[21] How the web went world wide (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 5242252. stm), Mark Ward, Technology Correspondent,
BBC News. Retrieved 24 January 2011
[22] "Total Midyear Population for the World: 1950-2050" (http:/ / www. census. gov/ population/ international/ data/ idb/ worldpoptotal. php),
International Programs Center for Demographic and Economic Studies, U.S. Census Bureau, Retrieved 25 May 2013
[23] "Key ICT indicators for developed and developing countries and the world (totals and penetration rates)" (http:/ / www. itu. int/ en/ ITU-D/
Statistics/ Documents/ statistics/ 2012/ ITU_Key_2006-2013_ICT_data. xls), International Telecommunications Unions (ITU), Geneva, 27
February 2013
[33] Maxymuk, John. "Internet". The Bottom Line, 1987, p.67
[37] "Bush administration annexes internet" (http:/ / www. theregister. co. uk/ 2005/ 07/ 01/ bush_net_policy/ ), Kieren McCarthy, The Register,
1 July 2005
[42] "By 2013, mobile phones will overtake PCs as the most common Web access device worldwide", according a forecast in "Gartner
Highlights Key Predictions for IT Organizations and Users in 2010 and Beyond" (http:/ / www. gartner. com/ it/ page. jsp?id=1278413),
Internet 19
Gartner, Inc., 13 January 2010

[45] "Internet users per 100 inhabitants 2001-2011" (http:/ / www. itu. int/ ITU-D/ ict/ statistics/ material/ excel/ 2011/ Internet_users_01-11.
xls), International Telecommunications Union, Geneva, accessed 4 April 2012
[46] "Internet users per 100 inhabitants 2006-2013" (http:/ / www. itu. int/ en/ ITU-D/ Statistics/ Documents/ statistics/ 2012/
ITU_Key_2006-2013_ICT_data. xls), International Telecommunications Union, Geneva, accessed 3 June 2013
[47] "Number of Internet Users by Language" (http:/ / www. internetworldstats. com/ stats7. htm), Internet World Stats, Miniwatts Marketing
Group, 31 May 2011. Retrieved 22 April 2012
[48] Internet users graphs (http:/ / www. itu. int/ ITU-D/ ict/ statistics/ ), Market Information and Statistics, International Telecommunications
Union
[50] Internet World Stats (http:/ / www. internetworldstats. com/ stats7. htm), updated for 30 June 2010. Retrieved 20 February 2011.
[51] World Internet Usage Statistics News and Population Stats (http:/ / www. internetworldstats. com/ stats. htm) updated for 30 June 2010.
Retrieved 20 February 2011.
[52] How men and women use the Internet Pew Research Center 28 December 2005
[56] "Internet Pornography Statistics" (http:/ / internet-filter-review. toptenreviews. com/ internet-pornography-statistics. html), Jerry Ropelato,
Top Ten Reviews, 2006
[57] "Do It Yourself! Amateur Porn Stars Make Bank" (http:/ / abcnews. go. com/ Business/ SmallBiz/ story?id=4151592), Russell Goldman,
ABC News, 22 January 2008
[58] "Top Online Game Trends of the Decade" (http:/ / internetgames. about. com/ od/ gamingnews/ a/ trendsdecade. htm), Dave Spohn,
About.com, 15 December 2009
[59] "Internet Game Timeline: 1963 – 2004" (http:/ / internetgames. about. com/ od/ gamingnews/ a/ timeline. htm), Dave Spohn, About.com, 2
June 2011
[61] Patricia M. Thornton, "The New Cybersects: Resistance and Repression in the Reform era. “ In Elizabeth Perry and Mark Selden, eds.,
Chinese Society: Change, Conflict and Resistance (second edition) (London and New York: Routledge, 2003), pp. 149–50.
[63] The Shallows: What the Internet Is Doing to Our Brains (http:/ / www. theshallowsbook. com/ nicholascarr/ Nicholas_Carrs_The_Shallows.
html), Nicholas Carr, W. W. Norton, 7 June 2010, 276 pp., ISBN 0-393-07222-3, ISBN 978-0-393-07222-8
[64] "The New Digital Economy: How it will transform business" (http:/ / www. myclouddoor. com/ web/ documents/ The New Digital
Economy. pdf), Oxford Economics, 2 July 2011
[66] "E-commerce will make the shopping mall a retail wasteland" (http:/ / www. zdnet. com/
e-commerce-will-make-the-shopping-mall-a-retail-wasteland-7000009960/ ) ZDNet, January 17, 2013
[67] "‘Free Shipping Day’ Promotion Spurs Late-Season Online Spending Surge, Improving Season-to-Date Growth Rate to 16 Percent vs. Year
Ago" (http:/ / www. comscore. com/ Insights/ Press_Releases/ 2012/ 12/
Free_Shipping_Day_Promotion_Spurs_Late-Season_Online_Spending_Surge) Comscore, December 23, 2012
[68] "The Death of the American Shopping Mall" (http:/ / www. theatlanticcities. com/ jobs-and-economy/ 2012/ 12/
death-american-shopping-mall/ 4252/ ) The Atlantic — Cities, December 26, 2012
[73] The Role of the Internet in Democratic Transition: Case Study of the Arab Spring (http:/ / www. etd. ceu. hu/ 2011/ chokoshvili_davit. pdf),
Davit Chokoshvili, Master's Thesis, June 2011
[75] Kiva Is Not Quite What It Seems (http:/ / blogs. cgdev. org/ open_book/ 2009/ 10/ kiva-is-not-quite-what-it-seems. php), by David Roodman,
Center for Global Development, 2 October 2009, as accessed 2 & 16 January 2010
[77] "Zidisha Set to "Expand" in Peer-to-Peer Microfinance", Microfinance Focus, Feb 2010 (http:/ / www. microfinancefocus. com/ news/ 2010/
02/ 07/ zidisha-set-to-expand-in-peer-to-peer-microfinance-julia-kurnia/ )
[78] OpenNet Initiative "Summarized global Internet filtering data spreadsheet" (http:/ / opennet. net/ research/ data), 8 November 2011 and
"Country Profiles" (http:/ / opennet. net/ research/ profiles), the OpenNet Initiative is a collaborative partnership of the Citizen Lab at the
Munk School of Global Affairs, University of Toronto; the Berkman Center for Internet & Society at Harvard University; and the SecDev
Group, Ottawa
[79] Due to legal concerns the OpenNet Initiative does not check for filtering of child pornography and because their classifications focus on
technical filtering, they do not include other types of censorship.
[80] Internet Enemies (http:/ / march12. rsf. org/ i/ Report_EnemiesoftheInternet_2012. pdf), Reporters Without Borders (Paris), 12 March 2012
[81] Access Controlled: The Shaping of Power, Rights, and Rule in Cyberspace (http:/ / mitpress. mit. edu/ catalog/ item/ default. asp?ttype=2&
tid=12187), Ronald J. Deibert, John G. Palfrey, Rafal Rohozinski, and Jonathan Zittrain (eds), MIT Press, April 2010, ISBN 0-262-51435-4,
ISBN 978-0-262-51435-4
Internet 20
External links
Organizations
• The Internet Society (http://www.isoc.org/)
• Berkman Center for Internet and Society (http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/)
• European Commission Information Society (http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/index_en.htm)
• Living Internet (http://www.livinginternet.com/), Internet history and related information, including
information from many creators of the Internet
Articles, books, and journals

• First Monday (http://www.firstmonday.org/), a peer-reviewed journal on the Internet established in 1996 as a
Great Cities Initiative of the University Library of the University of Illinois at Chicago, ISSN: 1396-0466
• Rise of the Network Society (http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-1405196866.html),
Manual Castells, Wiley-Blackwell, 1996 (1st ed) and 2009 (2nd ed), ISBN 978-1-4051-9686-4
• "The Internet: Changing the Way We Communicate" (http://www.nsf.gov/about/history/nsf0050/internet/
internet.htm) in America's Investment in the Future (http://www.nsf.gov/about/history/nsf0050/index.jsp),
National Science Foundation, Arlington, Va. USA, 2000
• “Lessons from the History of the Internet” (http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/Sociology/
EnvironmentTechnology/?view=usa&ci=9780199255771), Manuel Castells, in The Internet Galaxy, Ch. 1, pp
9–35, Oxford University Press, 2001, ISBN 978-0-19-925577-1 ISBN10: 0-19-925577-6
• "Media Freedom Internet Cookbook" (http://www.osce.org/fom/13836) by the OSCE Representative on
Freedom of the Media Vienna, 2004
• The Internet Explained (http://www.southbourne.com/articles/internet-explained), Vincent Zegna & Mike
Pepper, Sonet Digital, November 2005, Pages 1 – 7.
• "How Much Does The Internet Weigh? (http://discovermagazine.com/2007/jun/
how-much-does-the-internet-weigh)", by Stephen Cass, Discover, 2007
• "The Internet spreads its tentacles" (http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/8651/description/
Mapping_a_Medusa_The_Internet_spreads_its_tentacles), Julie Rehmeyer, Science News, Vol. 171, No. 25,
pp. 387–388, 23 June 2007
• Internet (http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415352277/), Lorenzo Cantoni & Stefano Tardini,
Routledge, 2006, ISBN 978-0-203-69888-4
History of the Internet

History of computing
Hardware
• Hardware before 1960

• Hardware 1960s to present
• Hardware in Soviet Bloc countries
Computer science
• Artificial intelligence
• Compiler construction
• Computer science
• Operating systems
• Programming languages
• Software engineering
Modern concepts
• Graphical user interface
• Internet
• Personal computers
• Laptops
• Video games
• World Wide Web
Timeline of computing
• 2400 BC–1949
• 1950–1979
• 1980–1989
• 1990–1999
• 2000–2009
• 2010–2019
• more timelines ...
• Category
Internet
Internet portal
The history of the Internet began with the development of electronic computers in the 1950s. The public was first
introduced to the concepts that would lead to the Internet when a message was sent over the ARPANet from
computer science Professor Leonard Kleinrock's laboratory at University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), after
the second piece of network equipment was installed at Stanford Research Institute (SRI). Packet switched networks
such as ARPANET, Mark I at NPL in the UK, CYCLADES, Merit Network, Tymnet, and Telenet, were developed
in the late 1960s and early 1970s using a variety of protocols. The ARPANET in particular led to the development of
protocols for internetworking, in which multiple separate networks could be joined together into a network of
networks.
In 1982, the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) was standardized, and consequently, the concept of a world-wide
network of interconnected TCP/IP networks, called the Internet, was introduced. Access to the ARPANET was
expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation (NSF) developed the Computer Science Network (CSNET)
and again in 1986 when NSFNET provided access to supercomputer sites in the United States from research and
education organizations. Commercial Internet service providers (ISPs) began to emerge in the late 1980s and early
1990s. The ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990. The Internet was commercialized in 1995 when NSFNET was
decommissioned, removing the last restrictions on the use of the Internet to carry commercial traffic.
Since the mid-1990s, the Internet has had a revolutionary impact on culture and commerce, including the rise of
near-instant communication by electronic mail, instant messaging, Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) "phone
calls", two-way interactive video calls, and the World Wide Web with its discussion forums, blogs, social
networking, and online shopping sites. The research and education community continues to develop and use
advanced networks such as NSF's very high speed Backbone Network Service (vBNS), Internet2, and National
LambdaRail. Increasing amounts of data are transmitted at higher and higher speeds over fiber optic networks
operating at 1-Gbit/s, 10-Gbit/s, or more. The Internet's takeover over the global communication landscape was
almost instant in historical terms: it only communicated 1% of the information flowing through two-way
telecommunications networks in the year 1993, already 51% by 2000, and more than 97% of the telecommunicated
information by 2007.[1] Today the Internet continues to grow, driven by ever greater amounts of online information,
commerce, entertainment, and social networking.
Internet history timeline
Early research and development:
• 1961 – First packet-switching papers
• 1966 – Merit Network founded
• 1966 – ARPANET planning starts
• 1969 – ARPANET carries its first packets
• 1970 – Mark I network at NPL (UK)
• 1970 – Network Information Center (NIC)
• 1971 – Merit Network's packet-switched network operational
• 1971 – Tymnet packet-switched network
• 1972 – Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) established
• 1973 – CYCLADES network demonstrated
• 1974 – Telenet packet-switched network
• 1976 – X.25 protocol approved
• 1978 – Minitel introduced
• 1979 – Internet Activities Board (IAB)
• 1980 – USENET news using UUCP
• 1980 – Ethernet standard introduced
• 1981 – BITNET established
Merging the networks and creating the Internet:
• 1981 – Computer Science Network (CSNET)
• 1982 – TCP/IP protocol suite formalized
• 1982 – Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)

• 1983 – Domain Name System (DNS)
• 1983 – MILNET split off from ARPANET
• 1985 – First .COM domain name registered
• 1986 – NSFNET with 56 kbit/s links
• 1986 – Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
• 1987 – UUNET founded
• 1988 – NSFNET upgraded to 1.5 Mbit/s (T1)
• 1988 – OSI Reference Model released
• 1988 – Morris worm
• 1989 – Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
• 1989 – PSINet founded, allows commercial traffic
• 1989 – Federal Internet Exchanges (FIXes)
• 1990 – GOSIP (without TCP/IP)
• 1990 – ARPANET decommissioned
• 1990 – Advanced Network and Services (ANS)
• 1990 – UUNET/Alternet allows commercial traffic
• 1990 – Archie search engine
• 1991 – Wide area information server (WAIS)
• 1991 – Gopher
• 1991 – Commercial Internet eXchange (CIX)
• 1991 – ANS CO+RE allows commercial traffic
• 1991 – World Wide Web (WWW)
• 1992 – NSFNET upgraded to 45 Mbit/s (T3)
• 1992 – Internet Society (ISOC) established
• 1993 – Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR)
• 1993 – InterNIC established
• 1993 – Mosaic web browser released
• 1994 – Full text web search engines
• 1994 – North American Network Operators' Group (NANOG) established
Commercialization, privatization, broader access leads to the modern Internet:
• 1995 – New Internet architecture with commercial ISPs connected at NAPs
• 1995 – NSFNET decommissioned
• 1995 – GOSIP updated to allow TCP/IP
• 1995 – very high-speed Backbone Network Service (vBNS)
• 1995 – IPv6 proposed
• 1998 – Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN)
• 1999 – IEEE 802.11b wireless networking
• 1999 – Internet2/Abilene Network
• 1999 – vBNS+ allows broader access
• 2000 – Dot-com bubble bursts
• 2001 – New top-level domain names activated
• 2001 – Code Red I, Code Red II, and Nimda worms
• 2003 – UN World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) phase I
• 2003 – National LambdaRail founded
• 2004 – UN Working Group on Internet Governance (WGIG)
• 2005 – UN WSIS phase II
• 2006 – First meeting of the Internet Governance Forum

• 2010 – First internationalized country code top-level domains registered
• 2012 – ICANN begins accepting applications for new generic top-level domain names
Examples of popular Internet services:
• 1990 – IMDb Internet movie database
• 1995 – Amazon.com online retailer
• 1995 – eBay online auction and shopping
• 1995 – Craigslist classified advertisements
• 1996 – Hotmail free web-based e-mail
• 1997 – Babel Fish automatic translation
• 1998 – Google Search
• 1998 – Yahoo! Clubs (now Yahoo! Groups)
• 1998 – PayPal Internet payment system
• 1999 – Napster peer-to-peer file sharing
• 2001 – BitTorrent peer-to-peer file sharing
• 2001 – Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
• 2003 – LinkedIn business networking
• 2003 – Myspace social networking site
• 2003 – Skype Internet voice calls
• 2003 – iTunes Store
• 2003 – 4Chan Anonymous image-based bulletin board
• 2003 – The Pirate Bay, torrent file host
• 2004 – Facebook social networking site
• 2004 – Podcast media file series
• 2004 – Flickr image hosting
• 2005 – YouTube video sharing
• 2005 – Google Earth virtual globe
• 2006 – Twitter microblogging
• 2007 – WikiLeaks anonymous news and information leaks
• 2007 – Google Street View
• 2007 – Kindle, e-book reader and virtual bookshop
• 2008 – Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud (EC2)
• 2008 – Dropbox cloud-based file hosting
• 2008 – Encyclopedia of Life, a collaborative encyclopedia intended to document all living species
• 2008 – Spotify, a DRM-based music streaming service
• 2009 – Bing search engine
• 2009 – Google Docs, Web-based word processor, spreadsheet, presentation, form, and data storage service
• 2009 – Kickstarter, a threshold pledge system
• 2011 – Google+ social networking
Precursors
The telegraph system is the first fully digital communication system. Thus the Internet has precursors, such as the
telegraph system, that date back to the 19th century, more than a century before the digital Internet became widely
used in the second half of the 1990s. The concept of data communication – transmitting data between two different
places, connected via some kind of electromagnetic medium, such as radio or an electrical wire – predates the
introduction of the first computers. Such communication systems were typically limited to point to point
communication between two end devices. Telegraph systems and telex machines can be considered early precursors
of this kind of communication.
Fundamental theoretical work in data transmission and information theory was developed by Claude Shannon, Harry
Nyquist, and Ralph Hartley, during the early 20th century.
Early computers used the technology available at the time to allow communication between the central processing
unit and remote terminals. As the technology evolved, new systems were devised to allow communication over
longer distances (for terminals) or with higher speed (for interconnection of local devices) that were necessary for
the mainframe computer model. Using these technologies made it possible to exchange data (such as files) between
remote computers. However, the point to point communication model was limited, as it did not allow for direct
communication between any two arbitrary systems; a physical link was necessary. The technology was also deemed
as inherently unsafe for strategic and military use, because there were no alternative paths for the communication in
case of an enemy attack.
Three terminals and an ARPA

A fundamental pioneer in the call for a global network, J. C. R. Licklider, articulated the ideas in his January 1960
paper, Man-Computer Symbiosis.
"A network of such [computers], connected to one another by wide-band communication lines [which
provided] the functions of present-day libraries together with anticipated advances in information storage and
retrieval and [other] symbiotic functions."
—J.C.R. Licklider, [2]
In August 1962, Licklider and Welden Clark published the paper "On-Line Man Computer Communication", which
was one of the first descriptions of a networked future.
In October 1962, Licklider was hired by Jack Ruina as Director of the newly established Information Processing
Techniques Office (IPTO) within DARPA, with a mandate to interconnect the United States Department of
Defense's main computers at Cheyenne Mountain, the Pentagon, and SAC HQ. There he formed an informal group
within DARPA to further computer research. He began by writing memos describing a distributed network to the
IPTO staff, whom he called "Members and Affiliates of the Intergalactic Computer Network". As part of the
information processing office's role, three network terminals had been installed: one for System Development
Corporation in Santa Monica, one for Project Genie at the University of California, Berkeley and one for the
Compatible Time-Sharing System project at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Licklider's identified
need for inter-networking would be made obvious by the apparent waste of resources this caused.
"For each of these three terminals, I had three different sets of user commands. So if I was talking online with
someone at S.D.C. and I wanted to talk to someone I knew at Berkeley or M.I.T. about this, I had to get up
from the S.D.C. terminal, go over and log into the other terminal and get in touch with them. [...] I said, it's
obvious what to do (But I don't want to do it): If you have these three terminals, there ought to be one terminal
that goes anywhere you want to go where you have interactive computing. That idea is the ARPAnet."
—Robert W. Taylor, co-writer with Licklider of "The Computer as a Communications Device", in an
interview with The New York Times, [3]
Although he left the IPTO in 1964, five years before the ARPANET went live, it was his vision of universal
networking that provided the impetus that led his successors such as Lawrence Roberts and Robert Taylor to further
the ARPANET development. Licklider later returned to lead the IPTO in 1973 for two years.[4]
Packet switching
At the tip of the problem lay the issue of connecting separate physical
networks to form one logical network. During the 1960s, Paul Baran
(RAND Corporation) produced a study of survivable networks for the
US military. Information transmitted across Baran's network would be
divided into what he called 'message-blocks'. Independently, Donald
Davies (National Physical Laboratory, UK), proposed and developed a
similar network based on what he called packet-switching, the term
that would ultimately be adopted. Leonard Kleinrock (MIT) developed
a mathematical theory behind this technology. Packet-switching
provides better bandwidth utilization and response times than the
traditional circuit-switching technology used for telephony, particularly
on resource-limited interconnection links.[6]
Packet switching is a rapid store and forward networking design that

divides messages up into arbitrary packets, with routing decisions
Len Kleinrock and the first Interface Message made per-packet. Early networks used message switched systems that
[5]
Processor.
required rigid routing structures prone to single point of failure. This
led Tommy Krash and Paul Baran's U.S. military funded research to
focus on using message-blocks to include network redundancy.[7] The widespread urban legend that the Internet was
designed to resist a nuclear attack likely arose as a result of Baran's earlier work on packet switching, which did
focus on redundancy in the face of a nuclear "holocaust."[8][9]
Networks that led to the Internet
ARPANET
Promoted to the head of the information processing office at DARPA, Robert Taylor intended to realize Licklider's
ideas of an interconnected networking system. Bringing in Larry Roberts from MIT, he initiated a project to build
such a network. The first ARPANET link was established between the University of California, Los Angeles
(UCLA) and the Stanford Research Institute at 22:30 hours on October 29, 1969.
"We set up a telephone connection between us and the guys at SRI ...", Kleinrock ... said in an interview: "We
typed the L and we asked on the phone,
"Do you see the L?"
"Yes, we see the L," came the response.
We typed the O, and we asked, "Do you see the O."
"Yes, we see the O."
Then we typed the G, and the system crashed ...
Yet a revolution had begun" ....[11]
By December 5, 1969, a 4-node network was connected by adding the

University of Utah and the University of California, Santa Barbara.
Building on ideas developed in ALOHAnet, the ARPANET grew
rapidly. By 1981, the number of hosts had grown to 213, with a new
host being added approximately every twenty days.[10][11]
ARPANET development was centered around the Request for
Comments (RFC) process, still used today for proposing and
distributing Internet Protocols and Systems. RFC 1, entitled "Host
35 Years of the Internet, 1969-2004. Stamp of
Software", was written by Steve Crocker from the University of
Azerbaijan, 2004.
California, Los Angeles, and published on April 7, 1969. These early
years were documented in the 1972 film Computer Networks: The
Heralds of Resource Sharing.
ARPANET became the technical core of what would become the Internet, and a primary tool in developing the
technologies used. The early ARPANET used the Network Control Program (NCP, sometimes Network Control
Protocol) rather than TCP/IP. On January 1, 1983, known as flag day, NCP on the ARPANET was replaced by the
more flexible and powerful family of TCP/IP protocols, marking the start of the modern Internet.[12]
International collaborations on ARPANET were sparse. For various political reasons, European developers were
concerned with developing the X.25 networks. Notable exceptions were the Norwegian Seismic Array (NORSAR) in
1972, followed in 1973 by Sweden with satellite links to the Tanum Earth Station and Peter Kirstein's research group
in the UK, initially at the Institute of Computer Science, London University and later at University College
London.[13]
NPL
In 1965, Donald Davies of the National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom) proposed a national data network
based on packet-switching. The proposal was not taken up nationally, but by 1970 he had designed and built the
Mark I packet-switched network to meet the needs of the multidisciplinary laboratory and prove the technology
under operational conditions.[] By 1976 12 computers and 75 terminal devices were attached and more were added
until the network was replaced in 1986.
Merit Network
[14]
The Merit Network was formed in 1966 as the Michigan Educational Research Information Triad to explore
computer networking between three of Michigan's public universities as a means to help the state's educational and
economic development.[15] With initial support from the State of Michigan and the National Science Foundation
(NSF), the packet-switched network was first demonstrated in December 1971 when an interactive host to host
connection was made between the IBM mainframe computer systems at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor
and Wayne State University in Detroit.[16] In October 1972 connections to the CDC mainframe at Michigan State
University in East Lansing completed the triad. Over the next several years in addition to host to host interactive
connections the network was enhanced to support terminal to host connections, host to host batch connections
(remote job submission, remote printing, batch file transfer), interactive file transfer, gateways to the Tymnet and
Telenet public data networks, X.25 host attachments, gateways to X.25 data networks, Ethernet attached hosts, and
eventually TCP/IP and additional public universities in Michigan join the network.[][17] All of this set the stage for
Merit's role in the NSFNET project starting in the mid-1980s.
CYCLADES
The CYCLADES packet switching network was a French research network designed and directed by Louis Pouzin.
First demonstrated in 1973, it was developed to explore alternatives to the initial ARPANET design and to support
network research generally. It was the first network to make the hosts responsible for the reliable delivery of data,
rather than the network itself, using unreliable datagrams and associated end-to-end protocol mechanisms.[18][19]
X.25 and public data networks

Based on ARPA's research, packet switching network standards were
developed by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) in the
form of X.25 and related standards. While using packet switching,
X.25 is built on the concept of virtual circuits emulating traditional
telephone connections. In 1974, X.25 formed the basis for the
SERCnet network between British academic and research sites, which
later became JANET. The initial ITU Standard on X.25 was approved
1974 ABC interview with Arthur C. Clarke, in
in March 1976.[20]
which he describes a future of ubiquitous
networked personal computers. The British Post Office, Western Union International and Tymnet
collaborated to create the first international packet switched network,
referred to as the International Packet Switched Service (IPSS), in 1978. This network grew from Europe and the US
to cover Canada, Hong Kong and Australia by 1981. By the 1990s it provided a worldwide networking
infrastructure.[21]
Unlike ARPANET, X.25 was commonly available for business use. Telenet offered its Telemail electronic mail
service, which was also targeted to enterprise use rather than the general email system of the ARPANET.
The first public dial-in networks used asynchronous TTY terminal protocols to reach a concentrator operated in the
public network. Some networks, such as CompuServe, used X.25 to multiplex the terminal sessions into their
packet-switched backbones, while others, such as Tymnet, used proprietary protocols. In 1979, CompuServe became
the first service to offer electronic mail capabilities and technical support to personal computer users. The company
broke new ground again in 1980 as the first to offer real-time chat with its CB Simulator. Other major dial-in
networks were America Online (AOL) and Prodigy that also provided communications, content, and entertainment
features. Many bulletin board system (BBS) networks also provided on-line access, such as FidoNet which was
popular amongst hobbyist computer users, many of them hackers and amateur radio operators.[citation needed]
UUCP and Usenet

In 1979, two students at Duke University, Tom Truscott and Jim Ellis, came up with the idea of using simple Bourne
shell scripts to transfer news and messages on a serial line UUCP connection with nearby University of North
Carolina at Chapel Hill. Following public release of the software, the mesh of UUCP hosts forwarding on the Usenet
news rapidly expanded. UUCPnet, as it would later be named, also created gateways and links between FidoNet and
dial-up BBS hosts. UUCP networks spread quickly due to the lower costs involved, ability to use existing leased
lines, X.25 links or even ARPANET connections, and the lack of strict use policies (commercial organizations who
might provide bug fixes) compared to later networks like CSNET and Bitnet. All connects were local. By 1981 the
number of UUCP hosts had grown to 550, nearly doubling to 940 in 1984. – Sublink Network, operating since 1987
and officially founded in Italy in 1989, based its interconnectivity upon UUCP to redistribute mail and news groups
messages throughout its Italian nodes (about 100 at the time) owned both by private individuals and small
companies. Sublink Network represented possibly one of the first examples of the internet technology becoming
progress through popular diffusion.[22]
Merging the networks and creating the Internet (1973–90)
TCP/IP
With so many different network methods, something was needed to
unify them. Robert E. Kahn of DARPA and ARPANET recruited
Vinton Cerf of Stanford University to work with him on the problem.
By 1973, they had worked out a fundamental reformulation, where the
differences between network protocols were hidden by using a
common internetwork protocol, and instead of the network being
responsible for reliability, as in the ARPANET, the hosts became
responsible. Cerf credits Hubert Zimmermann, Gerard LeLann and
Louis Pouzin (designer of the CYCLADES network) with important
work on this design.[23]
The specification of the resulting protocol, RFC 675 – Specification of

Internet Transmission Control Program, by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal
and Carl Sunshine, Network Working Group, December 1974, contains
the first attested use of the term internet, as a shorthand for
internetworking; later RFCs repeat this use, so the word started out as Map of the TCP/IP test network in February 1982
an adjective rather than the noun it is today.
With the role of the network reduced to the bare minimum, it became
possible to join almost any networks together, no matter what their
characteristics were, thereby solving Kahn's initial problem. DARPA
agreed to fund development of prototype software, and after several
years of work, the first demonstration of a gateway between the Packet
Radio network in the SF Bay area and the ARPANET was conducted
by the Stanford Research Institute. On November 22, 1977 a three
network demonstration was conducted including the ARPANET, the
A Stanford Research Institute's Packet Radio
Van, site of the first three-way internetworked
SRI's Packet Radio Van on the Packet Radio Network and the Atlantic
transmission. Packet Satellite network.[24][25]
Stemming from the first specifications of TCP in 1974, TCP/IP

emerged in mid-late 1978 in nearly final form. By 1981, the associated standards were published as RFCs 791, 792
and 793 and adopted for use. DARPA sponsored or encouraged the development of TCP/IP implementations for
many operating systems and then scheduled a migration of all hosts on all of its packet networks to TCP/IP. On
January 1, 1983, known as flag day, TCP/IP protocols became the only approved protocol on the ARPANET,
replacing the earlier NCP protocol.[26]
From ARPANET to NSFNET

After the ARPANET had been up and
running for several years, ARPA looked
for another agency to hand off the
network to; ARPA's primary mission
was funding cutting edge research and
development, not running a
communications utility. Eventually, in
July 1975, the network had been turned
over to the Defense Communications
Agency, also part of the Department of
Defense. In 1983, the U.S. military
portion of the ARPANET was broken
off as a separate network, the MILNET.
MILNET subsequently became the
unclassified but military-only
NIPRNET, in parallel with the
BBN Technologies TCP/IP internet map early 1986
SECRET-level SIPRNET and JWICS
for TOP SECRET and above.
NIPRNET does have controlled security gateways to the public Internet.
The networks based on the ARPANET were government funded and therefore restricted to noncommercial uses such
as research; unrelated commercial use was strictly forbidden. This initially restricted connections to military sites
and universities. During the 1980s, the connections expanded to more educational institutions, and even to a growing
number of companies such as Digital Equipment Corporation and Hewlett-Packard, which were participating in
research projects or providing services to those who were.
Several other branches of the U.S. government, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the
National Science Foundation (NSF), and the Department of Energy (DOE) became heavily involved in Internet
research and started development of a successor to ARPANET. In the mid-1980s, all three of these branches
developed the first Wide Area Networks based on TCP/IP. NASA developed the NASA Science Network, NSF
developed CSNET and DOE evolved the Energy Sciences Network or ESNet.
NASA developed the TCP/IP based
NASA Science Network (NSN) in the
mid-1980s, connecting space scientists
to data and information stored
anywhere in the world. In 1989, the
DECnet-based Space Physics Analysis
Network (SPAN) and the TCP/IP-based
NASA Science Network (NSN) were
brought together at NASA Ames
Research Center creating the first
multiprotocol wide area network called
the NASA Science Internet, or NSI.
NSI was established to provide a totally T3 NSFNET Backbone, c. 1992
integrated communications
infrastructure to the NASA scientific community for the advancement of earth, space and life sciences. As a
high-speed, multiprotocol, international network, NSI provided connectivity to over 20,000 scientists across all
seven continents.
In 1981 NSF supported the development of the Computer Science Network (CSNET). CSNET connected with
ARPANET using TCP/IP, and ran TCP/IP over X.25, but it also supported departments without sophisticated
network connections, using automated dial-up mail exchange.
Its experience with CSNET lead NSF to use TCP/IP when it created NSFNET, a 56 kbit/s backbone established in
1986, to supported the NSF sponsored supercomputing centers. The NSFNET Project also provided support for the
creation of regional research and education networks in the United States and for the connection of university and
college campus networks to the regional networks.[27] The use of NSFNET and the regional networks was not
limited to supercomputer users and the 56 kbit/s network quickly became overloaded. NSFNET was upgraded to
1.5 Mbit/s in 1988 under a cooperative agreement with the Merit Network in partnership with IBM, MCI, and the
State of Michigan. The existence of NSFNET and the creation of Federal Internet Exchanges (FIXes) allowed the
ARPANET to be decommissioned in 1990. NSFNET was expanded and upgraded to 45 Mbit/s in 1991, and was
decommissioned in 1995 when it was replaced by backbones operated by several commercial Internet Service
Providers.
Transition towards the Internet

The term "internet" was adopted in the first RFC published on the TCP protocol (RFC 675:[28] Internet Transmission
Control Program, December 1974) as an abbreviation of the term internetworking and the two terms were used
interchangeably. In general, an internet was any network using TCP/IP. It was around the time when ARPANET was
interlinked with NSFNET in the late 1980s, that the term was used as the name of the network, Internet,[29] being the
large and global TCP/IP network.
As interest in widespread networking grew and new applications for it were developed, the Internet's technologies
spread throughout the rest of the world. The network-agnostic approach in TCP/IP meant that it was easy to use any
existing network infrastructure, such as the IPSS X.25 network, to carry Internet traffic. In 1984, University College
London replaced its transatlantic satellite links with TCP/IP over IPSS.[30]
Many sites unable to link directly to the Internet started to create simple gateways to allow transfer of email, at that
time the most important application. Sites which only had intermittent connections used UUCP or FidoNet and relied
on the gateways between these networks and the Internet. Some gateway services went beyond simple email peering,
such as allowing access to FTP sites via UUCP or email.[31]
Finally, the Internet's remaining centralized routing aspects were removed. The EGP routing protocol was replaced
by a new protocol, the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP). This turned the Internet into a meshed topology and moved
away from the centric architecture which ARPANET had emphasized. In 1994, Classless Inter-Domain Routing was
introduced to support better conservation of address space which allowed use of route aggregation to decrease the
size of routing tables.[32]
TCP/IP goes global (1989–2010)
CERN, the European Internet, the link to the Pacific and beyond
Between 1984 and 1988 CERN began installation and operation of TCP/IP to interconnect its major internal
computer systems, workstations, PCs and an accelerator control system. CERN continued to operate a limited
self-developed system (CERNET) internally and several incompatible (typically proprietary) network protocols
externally. There was considerable resistance in Europe towards more widespread use of TCP/IP, and the CERN
TCP/IP intranets remained isolated from the Internet until 1989.
In 1988, Daniel Karrenberg, from Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica (CWI) in Amsterdam, visited Ben Segal,
CERN's TCP/IP Coordinator, looking for advice about the transition of the European side of the UUCP Usenet
network (much of which ran over X.25 links) over to TCP/IP. In 1987, Ben Segal had met with Len Bosack from the
then still small company Cisco about purchasing some TCP/IP routers for CERN, and was able to give Karrenberg
advice and forward him on to Cisco for the appropriate hardware. This expanded the European portion of the Internet
across the existing UUCP networks, and in 1989 CERN opened its first external TCP/IP connections.[33] This
coincided with the creation of Réseaux IP Européens (RIPE), initially a group of IP network administrators who met
regularly to carry out co-ordination work together. Later, in 1992, RIPE was formally registered as a cooperative in
Amsterdam.
At the same time as the rise of internetworking in Europe, ad hoc networking to ARPA and in-between Australian
universities formed, based on various technologies such as X.25 and UUCPNet. These were limited in their
connection to the global networks, due to the cost of making individual international UUCP dial-up or X.25
connections. In 1989, Australian universities joined the push towards using IP protocols to unify their networking
infrastructures. AARNet was formed in 1989 by the Australian Vice-Chancellors' Committee and provided a
dedicated IP based network for Australia.
The Internet began to penetrate Asia in the late 1980s. Japan, which had built the UUCP-based network JUNET in
1984, connected to NSFNET in 1989. It hosted the annual meeting of the Internet Society, INET'92, in Kobe.
Singapore developed TECHNET in 1990, and Thailand gained a global Internet connection between Chulalongkorn
University and UUNET in 1992.[34]
Global digital divide

While developed countries with
technological infrastructures were
joining the Internet, developing
countries began to experience a digital
divide separating them from the
Internet. On an essentially continental
basis, they are building organizations
for Internet resource administration
and sharing operational experience, as
more and more transmission facilities
go into place.
List of countries by number of Internet usersInternet users in 2012 as a percentage of a
country's populationSource: International Telecommunications Union. "Percentage of
Africa Individuals using the Internet 2000-2012", International Telecommunications Union
(Geneva), June 2013, retrieved 22 June 2013
At the beginning of the 1990s, African
countries relied upon X.25 IPSS and
2400 baud modem UUCP links for international and internetwork computer communications.
In August 1995, InfoMail Uganda, Ltd., a privately held firm in Kampala now known as InfoCom, and NSN
Network Services of Avon, Colorado, sold in 1997 and now known as Clear
Channel Satellite, established Africa's

first native TCP/IP high-speed satellite
Internet services. The data connection
was originally carried by a C-Band
RSCC Russian satellite which
connected InfoMail's Kampala offices
directly to NSN's MAE-West point of
presence using a private network from
NSN's leased ground station in New
Jersey. InfoCom's first satellite
connection was just 64 kbit/s, serving a
List of countries by number of broadband Internet subscriptionsFixed broadband Internet
Sun host computer and twelve US subscriptions in 2012as a percentage of a country's populationSource: International
Robotics dial-up modems. Telecommunications Union. "Fixed (wired)-broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants
2012", Dynamic Report, ITU ITC EYE, International Telecommunication Union.
In 1996, a USAID funded project, the
Retrieved on 29 June 2013.
Leland Initiative, started work on
developing full Internet connectivity
for the continent. Guinea,
Mozambique, Madagascar and
Rwanda gained satellite earth stations
in 1997, followed by Côte d'Ivoire and
Benin in 1998.
Africa is building an Internet

infrastructure. AfriNIC, headquartered
in Mauritius, manages IP address
allocation for the continent. As do the
other Internet regions, there is an
operational forum, the Internet List of countries by number of broadband Internet subscriptionsMobile broadband
Community of Operational Internet subscriptions in 2012as a percentage of a country's populationSource:
[38] International Telecommunications Union. "Active mobile-broadband subscriptions per
Networking Specialists.
100 inhabitants 2012", Dynamic Report, ITU ITC EYE, International Telecommunication
There are many programs to provide Union. Retrieved on 29 June 2013.
high-performance transmission plant,

and the western and southern coasts have undersea optical cable. High-speed cables join North Africa and the Horn
of Africa to intercontinental cable systems. Undersea cable development is slower for East Africa; the original joint
effort between New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) and the East Africa Submarine System (Eassy)
has broken off and may become two efforts.[39]
Asia and Oceania

The Asia Pacific Network Information Centre (APNIC), headquartered in Australia, manages IP address allocation
for the continent. APNIC sponsors an operational forum, the Asia-Pacific Regional Internet Conference on
Operational Technologies (APRICOT).[40]
In 1991, the People's Republic of China saw its first TCP/IP college network, Tsinghua University's TUNET. The
PRC went on to make its first global Internet connection in 1994, between the Beijing Electro-Spectrometer
Collaboration and Stanford University's Linear Accelerator Center. However, China went on to implement its own
digital divide by implementing a country-wide content filter.[41]
Latin America
As with the other regions, the Latin American and Caribbean Internet Addresses Registry (LACNIC) manages the IP
address space and other resources for its area. LACNIC, headquartered in Uruguay, operates DNS root, reverse
DNS, and other key services.
Opening the network to commerce

The interest in commercial use of the Internet became a hotly debated topic. Although commercial use was
forbidden, the exact definition of commercial use could be unclear and subjective. UUCPNet and the X.25 IPSS had
no such restrictions, which would eventually see the official barring of UUCPNet use of ARPANET and NSFNET
connections. Some UUCP links still remained connecting to these networks however, as administrators cast a blind
eye to their operation.
During the late 1980s, the first Internet
service provider (ISP) companies were
formed. Companies like PSINet,
UUNET, Netcom, and Portal Software
were formed to provide service to the
regional research networks and provide
alternate network access, UUCP-based
email and Usenet News to the public.
The first commercial dialup ISP in the
United States was The World, which
opened in 1989.[43]
In 1992, the U.S. Congress passed the Number of Internet hosts worldwide: 1981–2012Source: Internet Systems Consortium.
Scientific and Advanced-Technology
Act, 42 U.S.C. § 1862(g) [44], which allowed NSF to support access by the research and education communities to
computer networks which were not used exclusively for research and education purposes, thus permitting NSFNET
to interconnect with commercial networks.[][45] This caused controversy within the research and education
community, who were concerned commercial use of the network might lead to an Internet that was less responsive to
their needs, and within the community of commercial network providers, who felt that government subsidies were
giving an unfair advantage to some organizations.[46]
By 1990, ARPANET had been overtaken and replaced by newer networking technologies and the project came to a
close. New network service providers including PSINet, Alternet, CERFNet, ANS CO+RE, and many others were
offering network access to commercial customers. NSFNET was no longer the de facto backbone and exchange
point for Internet. The Commercial Internet eXchange (CIX), Metropolitan Area Exchanges (MAEs), and later
Network Access Points (NAPs) were becoming the primary interconnections between many networks. The final
restrictions on carrying commercial traffic ended on April 30, 1995 when the National Science Foundation ended its
sponsorship of the NSFNET Backbone Service and the service ended.[47][48] NSF provided initial support for the
NAPs and interim support to help the regional research and education networks transition to commercial ISPs. NSF
also sponsored the very high speed Backbone Network Service (vBNS) which continued to provide support for the
supercomputing centers and research and education in the United States.[49]
Networking in outer space

The first live Internet link into low earth orbit was established on January 22, 2010 when astronaut T. J. Creamer
posted the first unassisted update to his Twitter account from the International Space Station, marking the extension
[50]
of the Internet into space. (Astronauts at the ISS had used email and Twitter before, but these messages had been
relayed to the ground through a NASA data link before being posted by a human proxy.) This personal Web access,
which NASA calls the Crew Support LAN, uses the space station's high-speed Ku band microwave link. To surf the
Web, astronauts can use a station laptop computer to control a desktop computer on Earth, and they can talk to their
families and friends on Earth using Voice over IP equipment.[51]
Communication with spacecraft beyond earth orbit has traditionally been over point-to-point links through the Deep
Space Network. Each such data link must be manually scheduled and configured. In the late 1990s NASA and
Google began working on a new network protocol, Delay-tolerant networking (DTN) which automates this process,
allows networking of spaceborne transmission nodes, and takes the fact into account that spacecraft can temporarily
lose contact because they move behind the Moon or planets, or because space "weather" disrupts the connection.
Under such conditions, DTN retransmits data packages instead of dropping them, as the standard TCP/IP internet
protocol does. NASA conducted the first field test of what it calls the "deep space internet" in November 2008.[52]
Testing of DTN-based communications between the International Space Station and Earth (now termed
Disruption-Tolerant Networking) has been ongoing since March 2009, and is scheduled to continue until March
2014.[53]
This network technology is supposed to ultimately enable missions that involve multiple spacecraft where reliable
inter-vessel communication might take precedence over vessel-to-earth downlinks. According to a February 2011
statement by Google's Vint Cerf, the so-called "Bundle protocols" have been uploaded to NASA's EPOXI mission
spacecraft (which is in orbit around the Sun) and communication with Earth has been tested at a distance of
approximately 80 light seconds.[54]
Internet governance
As a globally distributed network of voluntarily interconnected autonomous networks, the Internet operates without a
central governing body. It has no centralized governance for either technology or policies, and each constituent
network chooses what technologies and protocols it will deploy from the voluntary technical standards that are
developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).[55] However, throughout its entire history, the Internet
system has had an "Internet Assigned Numbers Authority" (IANA) for the allocation and assignment of various
technical identifiers needed for the operation of the Internet.[] The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and
Numbers (ICANN) provides oversight and coordination for two principal name spaces in the Internet, the Internet
Protocol address space and the Domain Name System.
NIC, InterNIC, IANA and ICANN

The IANA function was originally performed by USC Information Sciences Institute, and it delegated portions of
this responsibility with respect to numeric network and autonomous system identifiers to the Network Information
Center (NIC) at Stanford Research Institute (SRI International) in Menlo Park, California. In addition to his role as
the RFC Editor, Jon Postel worked as the manager of IANA until his death in 1998.
As the early ARPANET grew, hosts were referred to by names, and a HOSTS.TXT file would be distributed from
SRI International to each host on the network. As the network grew, this became cumbersome. A technical solution
came in the form of the Domain Name System, created by Paul Mockapetris. The Defense Data Network—Network
Information Center (DDN-NIC) at SRI handled all registration services, including the top-level domains (TLDs) of
.mil, .gov, .edu, .org, .net, .com and .us, root nameserver administration and Internet number assignments under a
United States Department of Defense contract.[] In 1991, the Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA) awarded
the administration and maintenance of DDN-NIC (managed by SRI up until this point) to Government Systems, Inc.,
who subcontracted it to the small private-sector Network Solutions, Inc.[56][57]
The increasing cultural diversity of the Internet also posed administrative challenges for centralized management of
the IP addresses. In October 1992, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) published RFC 1366,[58] which
described the "growth of the Internet and its increasing globalization" and set out the basis for an evolution of the IP
registry process, based on a regionally distributed registry model. This document stressed the need for a single
Internet number registry to exist in each geographical region of the world (which would be of "continental
dimensions"). Registries would be "unbiased and widely recognized by network providers and subscribers" within
their region. The RIPE Network Coordination Centre (RIPE NCC) was established as the first RIR in May 1992. The
second RIR, the Asia Pacific Network Information Centre (APNIC), was established in Tokyo in 1993, as a pilot
project of the Asia Pacific Networking Group.[]
Since at this point in history most of the growth on the Internet was coming from non-military sources, it was
decided that the Department of Defense would no longer fund registration services outside of the .mil TLD. In 1993
the U.S. National Science Foundation, after a competitive bidding process in 1992, created the InterNIC to manage
the allocations of addresses and management of the address databases, and awarded the contract to three
organizations. Registration Services would be provided by Network Solutions; Directory and Database Services
would be provided by AT&T; and Information Services would be provided by General Atomics.[59]
Over time, after consultation with the IANA, the IETF, RIPE NCC, APNIC, and the Federal Networking Council
(FNC), the decision was made to separate the management of domain names from the management of IP numbers.[]
Following the examples of RIPE NCC and APNIC, it was recommended that management of IP address space then
administered by the InterNIC should be under the control of those that use it, specifically the ISPs, end-user
organizations, corporate entities, universities, and individuals. As a result, the American Registry for Internet
Numbers (ARIN) was established as in December 1997, as an independent, not-for-profit corporation by direction of
the National Science Foundation and became the third Regional Internet Registry.[60]
In 1998, both the IANA and remaining DNS-related InterNIC functions were reorganized under the control of
ICANN, a California non-profit corporation contracted by the United States Department of Commerce to manage a
number of Internet-related tasks. As these tasks involved technical coordination for two principal Internet name
spaces (DNS names and IP addresses) created by the IETF, ICANN also signed a memorandum of understanding
with the IAB to define the technical work to be carried out by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority.[61] The
management of Internet address space remained with the regional Internet registries, which collectively were defined
as a supporting organization within the ICANN structure.[62] ICANN provides central coordination for the DNS
system, including policy coordination for the split registry / registrar system, with competition among registry
service providers to serve each top-level-domain and multiple competing registrars offering DNS services to
end-users.
Internet Engineering Task Force

The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) is the largest and most visible of several loosely related ad-hoc groups
that provide technical direction for the Internet, including the Internet Architecture Board (IAB), the Internet
Engineering Steering Group (IESG), and the Internet Research Task Force (IRTF).
The IETF is a loosely self-organized group of international volunteers who contribute to the engineering and
evolution of Internet technologies. It is the principal body engaged in the development of new Internet standard
specifications. Much of the IETF's work is done in Working Groups. It does not "run the Internet", despite what
some people might mistakenly say. The IETF does make voluntary standards that are often adopted by Internet users,
but it does not control, or even patrol, the Internet.[63][64]
The IETF started in January 1986 as a quarterly meeting of U.S. government funded researchers. Non-government
representatives were invited starting with the fourth IETF meeting in October 1986. The concept of Working Groups
was introduced at the fifth IETF meeting in February 1987. The seventh IETF meeting in July 1987 was the first
meeting with more than 100 attendees. In 1992, the Internet Society, a professional membership society, was formed
and IETF began to operate under it as an independent international standards body. The first IETF meeting outside of
the United States was held in Amsterdam, The Netherlands, in July 1993. Today the IETF meets three times a year
and attendnce is often about 1,300 people, but has been as high as 2,000 upon occasion. Typically one in three IETF
meetings are held in Europe or Asia. The number of non-US attendees is roughly 50%, even at meetings held in the
United States.[63]
The IETF is unusual in that it exists as a collection of happenings, but is not a corporation and has no board of
directors, no members, and no dues. The closest thing there is to being an IETF member is being on the IETF or a
Working Group mailing list. IETF volunteers come from all over the world and from many different parts of the
Internet community. The IETF works closely with and under the supervision of the Internet Engineering Steering
Group (IESG)[65] and the Internet Architecture Board (IAB).[66] The Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) and the
Internet Research Steering Group (IRSG), peer activities to the IETF and IESG under the general supervision of the
IAB, focus on longer term research issues.[63][67]
Request for Comments

Request for Comments (RFCs) are the main documentation for the work of the IAB, IESG, IETF, and IRTF. RFC 1,
"Host Software", was written by Steve Crocker at UCLA in April 1969, well before the IETF was created. Originally
they were technical memos documenting aspects of ARPANET development and were edited by the late Jon Postel,
the first RFC Editor.[63][68]
RFCs cover a wide range of information from proposed standards, draft standards, full standards, best practices,
experimental protocols, history, and other informational topics.[69] RFCs can be written by individuals or informal
groups of individuals, but many are the product of a more formal Working Group. Drafts are submitted to the IESG
either by individuals or by the Working Group Chair. An RFC Editor, appointed by the IAB, separate from IANA,
and working in conjunction with the IESG, receives drafts from the IESG and edits, formats, and publishes them.
Once an RFC is published, it is never revised. If the standard it describes changes or its information becomes
obsolete, the revised standard or updated information will be re-published as a new RFC that "obsoletes" the
original.[63][68]
The Internet Society

The Internet Society or ISOC is an international, nonprofit organization founded during 1992 to "to assure the open
development, evolution and use of the Internet for the benefit of all people throughout the world". With offices near
Washington, DC, USA, and in Geneva, Switzerland, ISOC has a membership base comprising more than 80
organizational and more than 50,000 individual members. Members also form "chapters" based on either common
geographical location or special interests. There are currently more than 90 chapters around the world.[70]
ISOC provides financial and organizational support to and promotes the work of the standards settings bodies for
which it is the organizational home: the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), the Internet Architecture Board
(IAB), the Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG), and the Internet Research Task Force (IRTF). ISOC also
promotes understanding and appreciation of the Internet model of open, transparent processes and consensus-based
decision making.[71]
Globalization and Internet governance in the 21st century

Since the 1990s, the Internet's governance and organization has been of global importance to governments,
commerce, civil society, and individuals. The organizations which held control of certain technical aspects of the
Internet were the successors of the old ARPANET oversight and the current decision-makers in the day-to-day
technical aspects of the network. While recognized as the administrators of certain aspects of the Internet, their roles
and their decision making authority are limited and subject to increasing international scrutiny and increasing
objections. These objections have led to the ICANN removing themselves from relationships with first the
University of Southern California in 2000,[72] and finally in September 2009, gaining autonomy from the US
government by the ending of its longstanding agreements, although some contractual obligations with the U.S.
Department of Commerce continued.[73][74][75]
The IETF, with financial and organizational support from the Internet Society, continues to serve as the Internet's
ad-hoc standards body and issues Request for Comments.
In November 2005, the World Summit on the Information Society, held in Tunis, called for an Internet Governance
Forum (IGF) to be convened by United Nations Secretary General. The IGF opened an ongoing, non-binding
conversation among stakeholders representing governments, the private sector, civil society, and the technical and
academic communities about the future of Internet governance. The first IGF meeting was held in
October/November 2006 with follow up meetings annually thereafter.[76] Since WSIS, the term "Internet
governance" has been broadened beyond narrow technical concerns to include a wider range of Internet-related
policy issues.[77][78]
Use and culture
Email and Usenet

Email is often called the killer application of the Internet. However, it actually predates the Internet and was a crucial
tool in creating it. Email started in 1965 as a way for multiple users of a time-sharing mainframe computer to
communicate. Although the history is unclear, among the first systems to have such a facility were SDC's Q32 and
MIT's CTSS.[79]
The ARPANET computer network made a large contribution to the evolution of email. There is one report[80]
indicating experimental inter-system email transfers on it shortly after ARPANET's creation. In 1971 Ray Tomlinson
created what was to become the standard Internet email address format, using the @ sign to separate user names
from host names.[81]
A number of protocols were developed to deliver messages among groups of time-sharing computers over alternative
transmission systems, such as UUCP and IBM's VNET email system. Email could be passed this way between a
number of networks, including ARPANET, BITNET and NSFNET, as well as to hosts connected directly to other
sites via UUCP. See the history of SMTP protocol.
In addition, UUCP allowed the publication of text files that could be read by many others. The News software
developed by Steve Daniel and Tom Truscott in 1979 was used to distribute news and bulletin board-like messages.
This quickly grew into discussion groups, known as newsgroups, on a wide range of topics. On ARPANET and
NSFNET similar discussion groups would form via mailing lists, discussing both technical issues and more
culturally focused topics (such as science fiction, discussed on the sflovers [82] mailing list).
During the early years of the Internet, email and similar mechanisms were also fundamental to allow people to
access resources that were not available due to the absence of online connectivity. UUCP was often used to distribute
files using the 'alt.binary' groups. Also, FTP e-mail gateways allowed people that lived outside the US and Europe to
download files using ftp commands written inside email messages. The file was encoded, broken in pieces and sent
by email; the receiver had to reassemble and decode it later, and it was the only way for people living overseas to
download items such as the earlier Linux versions using the slow dial-up connections available at the time. After the
popularization of the Web and the HTTP protocol such tools were slowly abandoned.
From Gopher to the WWW

As the Internet grew through the 1980s and early 1990s, many people realized the increasing need to be able to find
and organize files and information. Projects such as Archie, Gopher, WAIS, and the FTP Archive list attempted to
create ways to organize distributed data. In the early 1990s, Gopher, invented by Mark P. McCahill offered a viable
alternative to the World Wide Web. However, by the mid-1990s it became clear that Gopher and the other projects
fell short in being able to accommodate all the existing data types and in being able to grow without bottlenecks.
[citation needed]
One of the most promising user interface paradigms during this period was hypertext. The technology had been
inspired by Vannevar Bush's "Memex"[83] and developed through Ted Nelson's research on Project Xanadu and
Douglas Engelbart's research on NLS.[84] Many small self-contained hypertext systems had been created before,
such as Apple Computer's HyperCard (1987). Gopher became the first commonly used hypertext interface to the
Internet. While Gopher menu items were examples of hypertext, they were not commonly perceived in that way.
In 1989, while working at CERN, Tim Berners-Lee invented a
network-based implementation of the hypertext concept. By releasing
his invention to public use, he ensured the technology would become
widespread.[85] For his work in developing the World Wide Web,
Berners-Lee received the Millennium technology prize in 2004.[86]
One early popular web browser, modeled after HyperCard, was
ViolaWWW.
A turning point for the World Wide Web began with the
introduction[87] of the Mosaic web browser[88] in 1993, a graphical This NeXT Computer was used by Sir Tim
browser developed by a team at the National Center for Berners-Lee at CERN and became the world's
Supercomputing Applications at the University of Illinois at first Web server.
Urbana-Champaign (NCSA-UIUC), led by Marc Andreessen. Funding

for Mosaic came from the High-Performance Computing and Communications Initiative, a funding program
initiated by the High Performance Computing and Communication Act of 1991 also known as the Gore Bill.[89]
Mosaic's graphical interface soon became more popular than Gopher, which at the time was primarily text-based,
and the WWW became the preferred interface for accessing the Internet. (Gore's reference to his role in "creating the
Internet", however, was ridiculed in his presidential election campaign. See the full article Al Gore and information
technology).
Mosaic was eventually superseded in 1994 by Andreessen's Netscape Navigator, which replaced Mosaic as the
world's most popular browser. While it held this title for some time, eventually competition from Internet Explorer
and a variety of other browsers almost completely displaced it. Another important event held on January 11, 1994,
was The Superhighway Summit at UCLA's Royce Hall. This was the "first public conference bringing together all of
the major industry, government and academic leaders in the field [and] also began the national dialogue about the
Information Superhighway and its implications."[90]
24 Hours in Cyberspace, "the largest one-day online event" (February 8, 1996) up to that date, took place on the
then-active website, cyber24.com.[91][92] It was headed by photographer Rick Smolan.[93] A photographic exhibition
was unveiled at the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of American History on January 23, 1997, featuring
70 photos from the project.[94]
Search engines
Even before the World Wide Web, there were search engines that
attempted to organize the Internet. The first of these was the Archie
search engine from McGill University in 1990, followed in 1991 by
WAIS and Gopher. All three of those systems predated the invention
of the World Wide Web but all continued to index the Web and the rest
of the Internet for several years after the Web appeared. There are still
Gopher servers as of 2006, although there are a great many more web
servers.
As the Web grew, search engines and Web directories were created to A list of important Internet projects on the web
track pages on the Web and allow people to find things. The first indicating how the web has evolved over the past
full-text Web search engine was WebCrawler in 1994. Before several years
WebCrawler, only Web page titles were searched. Another early search
engine, Lycos, was created in 1993 as a university project, and was the first to achieve commercial success. During
the late 1990s, both Web directories and Web search engines were popular—Yahoo! (founded 1994) and Altavista
(founded 1995) were the respective industry leaders. By August 2001, the directory model had begun to give way to
search engines, tracking the rise of Google (founded 1998), which had developed new approaches to relevancy
ranking. Directory features, while still commonly available, became after-thoughts to search engines.
Database size, which had been a significant marketing feature through the early 2000s, was similarly displaced by
emphasis on relevancy ranking, the methods by which search engines attempt to sort the best results first. Relevancy
ranking first became a major issue circa 1996, when it became apparent that it was impractical to review full lists of
results. Consequently, algorithms for relevancy ranking have continuously improved. Google's PageRank method for
ordering the results has received the most press, but all major search engines continually refine their ranking
methodologies with a view toward improving the ordering of results. As of 2006, search engine rankings are more
important than ever, so much so that an industry has developed ("search engine optimizers", or "SEO") to help
web-developers improve their search ranking, and an entire body of case law has developed around matters that
affect search engine rankings, such as use of trademarks in metatags. The sale of search rankings by some search
engines has also created controversy among librarians and consumer advocates.[95]
On June 3, 2009, Microsoft launched its new search engine, Bing.[96] The following month Microsoft and Yahoo!
announced a deal in which Bing would power Yahoo! Search.[97]
File sharing
Resource or file sharing has been an important activity on computer networks from well before the Internet was
established and was supported in a variety of ways including bulletin board systems (1978), Usenet (1980), Kermit
(1981), and many others. The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) for use on the Internet was standardized in 1985 and is
still in use today.[98] A variety of tools were developed to aid the use of FTP by helping users discover files they
might want to transfer, including the Wide Area Information Server (WAIS) in 1991, Gopher in 1991, Archie in
1991, Veronica in 1992, Jughead in 1993, Internet Relay Chat (IRC) in 1988, and eventually the World Wide Web
(WWW) in 1991 with Web directories and Web search engines.
In 1999, Napster became the first peer-to-peer file sharing system.[99] Napster used a central server for indexing and
peer discovery, but the storage and transfer of files was decentralized. A variety of peer-to-peer file sharing programs
and services with different levels of decentralization and anonymity followed, including: Gnutella, eDonkey2000,
and Freenet in 2000, FastTrack, Kazaa, Limewire, and BitTorrent in 2001, and Poisoned in 2003.[100]
All of these tools are general purpose and can be used to share a wide variety of content, but sharing of music files,
software, and later movies and videos are major uses.[101] And while some of this sharing is legal, large portions are
not. Lawsuits and other legal actions caused Napster in 2001, eDonkey2000 in 2005, Kazza in 2006, and Limewire
in 2010 to shutdown or refocus their efforts.[102][103] The Pirate Bay, founded in Sweden in 2003, continues despite a
trial and appeal in 2009 and 2010 that resulted in jail terms and large fines for several of its founders.[104] File
sharing remains contentious and controversial with charges of theft of intellectual property on the one hand and
charges of censorship on the other.[105][106]
Dot-com bubble
Suddenly the low price of reaching millions worldwide, and the possibility of selling to or hearing from those people
at the same moment when they were reached, promised to overturn established business dogma in advertising,
mail-order sales, customer relationship management, and many more areas. The web was a new killer app—it could
bring together unrelated buyers and sellers in seamless and low-cost ways. Entrepreneurs around the world
developed new business models, and ran to their nearest venture capitalist. While some of the new entrepreneurs had
experience in business and economics, the majority were simply people with ideas, and did not manage the capital
influx prudently. Additionally, many dot-com business plans were predicated on the assumption that by using the
Internet, they would bypass the distribution channels of existing businesses and therefore not have to compete with
them; when the established businesses with strong existing brands developed their own Internet presence, these
hopes were shattered, and the newcomers were left attempting to break into markets dominated by larger, more
established businesses. Many did not have the ability to do so.
The dot-com bubble burst in March 2000, with the technology heavy NASDAQ Composite index peaking at
5,048.62 on March 10[107] (5,132.52 intraday), more than double its value just a year before. By 2001, the bubble's
deflation was running full speed. A majority of the dot-coms had ceased trading, after having burnt through their
venture capital and IPO capital, often without ever making a profit. But despite this, the Internet continues to grow,
driven by commerce, ever greater amounts of online information and knowledge and social networking.
Mobile phones and the Internet

The first mobile phone with Internet connectivity was the Nokia 9000 Communicator, launched in Finland in 1996.
The viability of Internet services access on mobile phones was limited until prices came down from that model and
network providers started to develop systems and services conveniently accessible on phones. NTT DoCoMo in
Japan launched the first mobile Internet service, i-mode, in 1999 and this is considered the birth of the mobile phone
Internet services. In 2001, the mobile phone email system by Research in Motion for their BlackBerry product was
launched in America. To make efficient use of the small screen and tiny keypad and one-handed operation typical of
mobile phones, a specific document and networking model was created for mobile devices, the Wireless Application
Protocol (WAP). Most mobile device Internet services operate using WAP. The growth of mobile phone services
was initially a primarily Asian phenomenon with Japan, South Korea and Taiwan all soon finding the majority of
their Internet users accessing resources by phone rather than by PC.[citation needed] Developing countries followed,
with India, South Africa, Kenya, Philippines, and Pakistan all reporting that the majority of their domestic users
accessed the Internet from a mobile phone rather than a PC. The European and North American use of the Internet
was influenced by a large installed base of personal computers, and the growth of mobile phone Internet access was
more gradual, but had reached national penetration levels of 20–30% in most Western countries.[] The cross-over
occurred in 2008, when more Internet access devices were mobile phones than personal computers. In many parts of
the developing world, the ratio is as much as 10 mobile phone users to one PC user.[108]
Online population forecast

A study conducted by JupiterResearch
anticipates that a 38 percent increase in
the number of people with online
access will mean that, by 2011, 22
percent of the Earth's population will
surf the Internet regularly. The report
says 1.1 billion people have regular
Web access. For the study,
JupiterResearch defined online users as
people who regularly access the
Internet from dedicated Internet-access
devices, which exclude cellular Internet users per 100 inhabitantsSource: International Telecommunications Union.
telephones.[111] "Internet users per 100 inhabitants 2001-2011", International Telecommunications Union,
Geneva, accessed 4 April 2012 "Internet users per 100 inhabitants 2006-2013",
International Telecommunications Union, Geneva, accessed 3 June 2013
Historiography
Some concerns have been raised over the historiography of the Internet's development. The process of digitization
represents a twofold challenge both for historiography in general and, in particular, for historical communication
research.[112] Specifically that it is hard to find documentation of much of the Internet's development, for several
reasons, including a lack of centralized documentation for much of the early developments that led to the Internet.
"The Arpanet period is somewhat well documented because the corporation in charge – BBN – left a physical
record. Moving into the NSFNET era, it became an extraordinarily decentralized process. The record exists in
people's basements, in closets. [...] So much of what happened was done verbally and on the basis of
individual trust."
—Doug Gale (2007)[113]
Notes
[1] "The World's Technological Capacity to Store, Communicate, and Compute Information" (http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ content/ 332/ 6025/
60), Martin Hilbert and Priscila López (2011), Science (journal), 332(6025), 60–65; free access to the article through here:
martinhilbert.net/WorldInfoCapacity.html
[4] Licklider and the Universal Network (http:/ / www. livinginternet. com/ i/ ii_licklider. htm)
[14] The Merit Network, Inc. is an independent non-profit 501(c)(3) corporation governed by Michigan's public universities. Merit receives
administrative services under an agreement with the University of Michigan.
[15] A Chronicle of Merit's Early History (http:/ / www. merit. edu/ about/ history/ article. php), John Mulcahy, 1989, Merit Network, Ann
Arbor, Michigan
[16] Merit Network Timeline: 1970–1979 (http:/ / www. merit. edu/ about/ history/ timeline_1970. php), Merit Network, Ann Arbor, Michigan
[17] Merit Network Timeline: 1980–1989 (http:/ / www. merit. edu/ about/ history/ timeline_1980. php), Merit Network, Ann Arbor, Michigan
[19] "The Cyclades Experience: Results and Impacts" (http:/ / www. informatik. uni-trier. de/ ~ley/ db/ conf/ ifip/ ifip1977.
html#Zimmermann77), Zimmermann, H., Proc. IFIP'77 Congress, Toronto, August 1977, pp. 465–469
[22] UUCP Internals Frequently Asked Questions (http:/ / www. faqs. org/ faqs/ uucp-internals/ )
[26] Jon Postel, NCP/TCP Transition Plan, RFC 801
[35] "Percentage of Individuals using the Internet 2000-2012" (http:/ / www. itu. int/ en/ ITU-D/ Statistics/ Documents/ statistics/ 2013/
Individuals_Internet_2000-2012. xls), International Telecommunications Union (Geneva), June 2013, retrieved 22 June 2013
[36] "Fixed (wired)-broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants 2012" (http:/ / www. itu. int/ ITU-D/ ICTEYE/ Reporting/
DynamicReportWizard. aspx), Dynamic Report, ITU ITC EYE, International Telecommunication Union. Retrieved on 29 June 2013.
[37] "Active mobile-broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants 2012" (http:/ / www. itu. int/ ITU-D/ ICTEYE/ Reporting/
[39] Nepad, Eassy partnership ends in divorce (http:/ / www. fmtech. co. za/ ?p=209),(South African) Financial Times FMTech, 2007
[44] http:/ / www. law. cornell. edu/ uscode/ 42/ 1862(g). html
[45] Even after the appropriations act was amended in 1992 to give NSF more flexibility with regard to commercial traffic, NSF never felt that it
could entirely do away with the AUP and its restrictions on commercial traffic, see the response to Recommendation 5 in NSF's response to
the Inspector General's review (a April 19, 1993 memo from Frederick Bernthal, Acting Director, to Linda Sundro, Inspector General, that is
included at the end of Review of NSFNET (http:/ / www. nsf. gov/ pubs/ stis1993/ oig9301/ oig9301. txt), Office of the Inspector General,
National Science Foundation, March 23, 1993)
[46] Management of NSFNET (http:/ / www. eric. ed. gov/ ERICWebPortal/ search/ recordDetails.
jsp?ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED350986& searchtype=keyword& ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no& _pageLabel=RecordDetails&
accno=ED350986& _nfls=false), a transcript of the March 12, 1992 hearing before the Subcommittee on Science of the Committee on
Science, Space, and Technology, U.S. House of Representatives, One Hundred Second Congress, Second Session, Hon. Rick Boucher,
subcommittee chairman, presiding
[47] "Retiring the NSFNET Backbone Service: Chronicling the End of an Era" (http:/ / merit. edu/ research/ nsfnet_article. php), Susan R. Harris,
Ph.D., and Elise Gerich, ConneXions, Vol. 10, No. 4, April 1996
[49] NSF Solicitation 93-52 (http:/ / w2. eff. org/ Infrastructure/ Govt_docs/ nsf_nren. rfp) – Network Access Point Manager, Routing Arbiter,
Regional Network Providers, and Very High Speed Backbone Network Services Provider for NSFNET and the NREN(SM) Program, May 6,
1993
[51] NASA Extends the World Wide Web Out Into Space (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ home/ hqnews/ 2010/ jan/ HQ_M10-011_Hawaii221169.
html). NASA media advisory M10-012, January 22, 2010. Archived (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5uaKVooin)
[52] NASA Successfully Tests First Deep Space Internet (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ home/ hqnews/ 2008/ nov/ HQ_08-298_Deep_space_internet.
html). NASA media release 08-298, November 18, 2008 Archived (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5uaKpKCGz)
[53] Disruption Tolerant Networking for Space Operations (DTN). July 31, 2012 (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ mission_pages/ station/ research/
experiments/ DTN. html)
[63] "The Tao of IETF: A Novice's Guide to the Internet Engineering Task Force", FYI 17 and RFC 4677, P. Hoffman and S. Harris, Internet
Society, September 2006
[64] "A Mission Statement for the IETF", H. Alvestrand, Internet Society, BCP 95 and RFC 3935, October 2004
[65] "An IESG charter", H. Alvestrand, RFC 3710, Internet Society, February 2004
[66] "Charter of the Internet Architecture Board (IAB)", B. Carpenter, BCP 39 and RFC 2850, Internet Society, May 2000
[67] "IAB Thoughts on the Role of the Internet Research Task Force (IRTF)", S. Floyd, V. Paxson, A. Falk (eds), RFC 4440, Internet Society,
March 2006
[68] "The RFC Series and RFC Editor", L. Daigle, RFC 4844, Internet Society, July 2007
[69] "Not All RFCs are Standards", C. Huitema, J. Postel, S. Crocker, RFC 1796, Internet Society, April 1995
[70] Internet Society (ISOC) – Introduction to ISOC (http:/ / www. isoc. org/ isoc/ )
[71] Internet Society (ISOC) – ISOC's Standards Activities (http:/ / www. isoc. org/ standards/ )
[72] USC/ICANN Transition Agreement (http:/ / www. icann. org/ en/ general/ usc-icann-transition-agreement. htm)
[73] ICANN cuts cord to US government, gets broader oversight: ICANN, which oversees the Internet's domain name system, is a private
nonprofit that reports to the US Department of Commerce. Under a new agreement, that relationship will change, and ICANN's accountability
goes global (http:/ / arstechnica. com/ tech-policy/ news/ 2009/ 09/ icann-cuts-cord-to-us-government-gets-broader-oversight. ars) Nate
Anderson, September 30, 2009
[78] DeNardis, Laura, The Emerging Field of Internet Governance (http:/ / ssrn. com/ abstract=1678343) (September 17, 2010). Yale Information
Society Project Working Paper Series.
[82] http:/ / www. sflovers. org/
[91] Mirror of Official site map (http:/ / undertow. arch. gatech. edu/ homepages/ virtualopera/ cyber24/ SITE/ htm3/ site. htm)
[92] Mirror of Official Site (http:/ / undertow. arch. gatech. edu/ homepages/ virtualopera/ cyber24/ SITE/ htm3/ toc. htm?new)
[97] "Microsoft and Yahoo seal web deal" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ business/ 8174763. stm), BBC Mobile News, July 29, 2009.
[98] RFC 765: File Transfer Protocol (FTP) (http:/ / www. ietf. org/ rfc/ rfc0959. txt), J. Postel and J. Reynolds, ISI, October 1985
[101] Movie File-Sharing Booming: Study (http:/ / www. srgnet. com/ pdf/ Movie File-Sharing Booming Release Jan 24 07 Final. pdf), Solutions
Research Group, Toronto, 24 January 2006
[105] "Poll: Young Say File Sharing OK" (http:/ / www. cbsnews. com/ stories/ 2003/ 09/ 18/ opinion/ polls/ main573990. shtml), Bootie
Cosgrove-Mather, CBS News, 11 February 2009
[107] Nasdaq peak of 5,048.62 (http:/ / bigcharts. marketwatch. com/ historical/ default. asp?detect=1& symbol=NASDAQ& close_date=3/ 10/
00& x=34& y=12)
xls), International Telecommunications Union, Geneva, accessed 4 April 2012
ITU_Key_2006-2013_ICT_data. xls), International Telecommunications Union, Geneva, accessed 3 June 2013
[112] Christoph Classen, Susanne Kinnebrock & Maria Löblich (Eds.): Towards Web History: Sources, Methods, and Challenges in the Digital
Age (http:/ / www. gesis. org/ en/ hsr/ current-issues/ current-issues-2011-2013/ 374-the-economie-des-conventions/ ). In Historical Social
Research 37 (4): 97–188. 2012.
References
• Abbate, Janet. Inventing the Internet (http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/default.asp?ttype=2&tid=4633),
Cambridge: MIT Press, 1999.
• Bemer, Bob, "A History of Source Concepts for the Internet/Web" (http://web.archive.org/web/
20041216124504/www.bobbemer.com/CONCEPTS.HTM)
• Campbell-Kelly, Martin; Aspray, William. Computer: A History of the Information Machine. New York:
BasicBooks, 1996.
• Clark, D. (1988). "The Design Philosophy of the DARPA Internet Protocols" (http://www.cs.princeton.edu/
~jrex/teaching/spring2005/reading/clark88.pdf). SIGCOMM '88 Symposium proceedings on Communications
architectures and protocols (ACM): 106–114. doi: 10.1145/52324.52336 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/52324.
52336). ISBN 0897912799. Retrieved 2011-10-16.
• Graham, Ian S. The HTML Sourcebook: The Complete Guide to HTML. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1995.
• Krol, Ed. Hitchhiker's Guide to the Internet, 1987.
• Krol, Ed. Whole Internet User's Guide and Catalog. O'Reilly & Associates, 1992.
• Scientific American Special Issue on Communications, Computers, and Networks, September 1991.
External links
• Thomas Greene, Larry James Landweber, George Strawn (2003). A Brief History of NSF and the Internet (http://
www.nsf.gov/od/lpa/news/03/fsnsf_internet.htm). National Science Foundation. Retrieved May 28, 2009.
• Robert H Zakon. "Hobbes' Internet Timeline v10.1" (http://www.zakon.org/robert/internet/timeline/).
Retrieved July 23, 2010.
• "Principal Figures in the Development of the Internet and the World Wide Web" (http://www.unc.edu/depts/
jomc/academics/dri/pioneers2d.html). University of North Carolina. Retrieved July 3, 2006.
• "Internet History Timeline" (http://www.computerhistory.org/exhibits/internet_history/). Computer History
Museum. Retrieved November 25, 2005.
• Marcus Kazmierczak (September 24, 1997). "Internet History" (http://web.archive.org/web/20051031200142/
http://www.mkaz.com/ebeab/history/). Archived from the original (http://www.mkaz.com/ebeab/history/)
on October 31, 2005. Retrieved November 25, 2005.
• Harri K. Salminen. "History of the Internet" (http://www.nic.funet.fi/index/FUNET/history/internet/en/
etusivu-en.html). Heureka Science Center, Finland. Retrieved June 11, 2008.
• "Histories of the Internet" (http://www.isoc.org/internet/history/). Internet Society. Retrieved December 1,
2007.
• "Living Internet" (http://www.livinginternet.com/i/ii.htm). Retrieved January 1, 2009. Internet History with
input from many of the people who helped invent the Internet (http://www.livinginternet.com/tcomments.htm)
• "Voice of America: Overhearing the Internet" (http://www.eff.org/Net_culture/overhearing_the_internet.
article.txt), Robert Wright, The New Republic, September 13, 1993
• "How the Internet Came to Be" (http://www.netvalley.com/archives/mirrors/cerf-how-inet.html), by Vinton
Cerf, 1993
• "Cybertelecom :: Internet History" (http://www.cybertelecom.org/notes/internet_history.htm), focusing on the
governmental, legal, and policy history of the Internet
• "History of the Internet" (http://vimeo.com/2696386?pg=embed&sec=2696386), an animated documentary
from 2009 explaining the inventions from time-sharing to filesharing, from Arpanet to Internet
• "The Roads and Crossroads of Internet History" (http://www.netvalley.com/intval1.html), by Gregory R.
Gromov
• The History of the Internet According to Itself: A Synthesis of Online Internet Histories Available at the Turn of
the Century (http://members.cox.net/opfer/Internet.htm), Steven E. Opfer, 1999
• "Fool Us Once Shame on You—Fool Us Twice Shame on Us: What We Can Learn from the Privatizations of the
Internet Backbone Network and the Domain Name System" (http://digitalcommons.law.wustl.edu/lawreview/
vol79/iss1/2), Jay P. Kesan and Rajiv C. Shah, Washington University Law Review, Volume 79, Issue 1 (2001)
• "How It All Started" (http://www.w3.org/2004/Talks/w3c10-HowItAllStarted/) (slides), Tim Berners-Lee,
W3C, December 2004
• "A Little History of the World Wide Web: from 1945 to 1995" (http://www.w3.org/History.html), Dan
Connolly, W3C, 2000
• "The World Wide Web: Past, Present and Future" (http://www.w3.org/People/Berners-Lee/1996/ppf.html),
Tim Berners-Lee, August 1996
• "The History of the Internet" (http://www.avg.com/history-of-internet). Retrieved January 4, 2013. Infographic
The History of the Internet (1969–2012) (http://www.avg.com/history-of-internet)
World Wide Web

Internet
Internet portal
World Wide Web
The web's logo designed by Robert Cailliau
Invented by [][1]
Tim Berners-Lee
Company CERN
Availability Worldwide
World Wide Web 46
The World Wide Web (abbreviated as WWW or W3,[2] commonly known as the web) is a system of interlinked
hypertext documents accessed via the Internet. With a web browser, one can view web pages that may contain text,
images, videos, and other multimedia and navigate between them via hyperlinks.
[3][4]
The web was developed between March 1989 and December 1990. Using concepts from his earlier hypertext
systems such as ENQUIRE, British engineer Tim Berners-Lee, a computer scientist and at that time employee of the
CERN, now Director of the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), wrote a proposal in March 1989 for what would
eventually become the World Wide Web.[] The 1989 proposal was meant for a more effective CERN communication
[5]
system but Berners-Lee eventually realised the concept could be implemented throughout the world. At CERN, a
European research organisation near Geneva straddling the border between France and Switzerland,[6] Berners-Lee
and Belgian computer scientist Robert Cailliau proposed in 1990 to use hypertext "to link and access information of
various kinds as a web of nodes in which the user can browse at will",[7] and Berners-Lee finished the first website in
December that year.[8] Berners-Lee posted the project on the alt.hypertext newsgroup on 7 August 1991.[9]
History
In the May 1970 issue of Popular Science magazine, Arthur C. Clarke
predicted that satellites would someday "bring the accumulated
knowledge of the world to your fingertips" using a console that would
combine the functionality of the photocopier, telephone, television and
a small computer, allowing data transfer and video conferencing
around the globe.[10]
In March 1989, Tim Berners-Lee wrote a proposal that referenced

ENQUIRE, a database and software project he had built in 1980, and
described a more elaborate information management system.[11] The NeXT Computer used by Berners-Lee. The
With help from Robert Cailliau, he published a more formal proposal handwritten label declares, "This machine is a
server. DO NOT POWER IT DOWN!!"
(on 12 November 1990) to build a "Hypertext project" called
"WorldWideWeb" (one word, also "W3") as a "web" of "hypertext
documents" to be viewed by "browsers" using a client–server architecture.[7] This proposal estimated that a
read-only web would be developed within three months and that it would take six months to achieve "the creation of
new links and new material by readers, [so that] authorship becomes universal" as well as "the automatic notification
of a reader when new material of interest to him/her has become available." While the read-only goal was met,
accessible authorship of web content took longer to mature, with the wiki concept, blogs, Web 2.0 and
RSS/Atom.[12]
The proposal was modeled after the SGML reader Dynatext by Electronic Book Technology, a spin-off from the
Institute for Research in Information and Scholarship at Brown University. The Dynatext system, licensed by CERN,
was a key player in the extension of SGML ISO 8879:1986 to Hypermedia within HyTime, but it was considered too
expensive and had an inappropriate licensing policy for use in the general high energy physics community, namely a
fee for each document and each document alteration.
World Wide Web 47
A NeXT Computer was used by Berners-Lee as the world's first web

server and also to write the first web browser, WorldWideWeb, in
1990. By Christmas 1990, Berners-Lee had built all the tools necessary
for a working Web:[13] the first web browser (which was a web editor
as well); the first web server; and the first web pages,[14] which
described the project itself.
The first web page may be lost, but Paul Jones of UNC-Chapel Hill in
North Carolina revealed in May 2013 that he has a copy of a page sent
The CERN datacenter in 2010 housing some
to him by Berners-Lee which is the oldest known web page. Jones WWW servers
stored it on a floppy disk and on his NeXT computer.[15]
On 6 August 1991, Berners-Lee posted a short summary of the World Wide Web project on the alt.hypertext
newsgroup.[16] This date also marked the debut of the Web as a publicly available service on the Internet, although
new users only access it after August 23. For this reason this is considered the internaut's day. Many newsmedia have
reported that the first photo on the web was uploaded by Berners-Lee in 1992, an image of the CERN house band
Les Horribles Cernettes taken by Silvano de Gennaro; Gennaro has disclaimed this story, writing that media were
"totally distorting our words for the sake of cheap sensationalism."[17]
The first server outside Europe was set up at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC) in Palo Alto,
California, to host the SPIRES-HEP database. Accounts differ substantially as to the date of this event. The World
Wide Web Consortium says December 1992,[18] whereas SLAC itself claims 1991.[19][20] This is supported by a
W3C document titled A Little History of the World Wide Web.[21]
The crucial underlying concept of hypertext originated with older projects from the 1960s, such as the Hypertext
Editing System (HES) at Brown University, Ted Nelson's Project Xanadu, and Douglas Engelbart's oN-Line System
(NLS). Both Nelson and Engelbart were in turn inspired by Vannevar Bush's microfilm-based "memex", which was
described in the 1945 essay "As We May Think".[]
Berners-Lee's breakthrough was to marry hypertext to the Internet. In his book Weaving The Web, he explains that he
had repeatedly suggested that a marriage between the two technologies was possible to members of both technical
communities, but when no one took up his invitation, he finally assumed the project himself. In the process, he
developed three essential technologies:
1. a system of globally unique identifiers for resources on the Web and elsewhere, the universal document identifier
(UDI), later known as uniform resource locator (URL) and uniform resource identifier (URI);
2. the publishing language HyperText Markup Language (HTML);
3. the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).[22]
The World Wide Web had a number of differences from other hypertext systems available at the time. The web
required only unidirectional links rather than bidirectional ones, making it possible for someone to link to another
resource without action by the owner of that resource. It also significantly reduced the difficulty of implementing
web servers and browsers (in comparison to earlier systems), but in turn presented the chronic problem of link rot.
Unlike predecessors such as HyperCard, the World Wide Web was non-proprietary, making it possible to develop
servers and clients independently and to add extensions without licensing restrictions. On 30 April 1993, CERN
announced that the World Wide Web would be free to anyone, with no fees due.[23] Coming two months after the
announcement that the server implementation of the Gopher protocol was no longer free to use, this produced a rapid
shift away from Gopher and towards the Web. An early popular web browser was ViolaWWW for Unix and the X
Windowing System.
World Wide Web 48
Scholars generally agree that a turning point for the World Wide Web
began with the introduction[24] of the Mosaic web browser[25] in 1993,
a graphical browser developed by a team at the National Center for
Supercomputing Applications at the University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign (NCSA-UIUC), led by Marc Andreessen. Funding
for Mosaic came from the U.S. High-Performance Computing and
Communications Initiative and the High Performance Computing and
Communication Act of 1991, one of several computing developments
initiated by U.S. Senator Al Gore.[26] Prior to the release of Mosaic,
Robert Cailliau, Jean-François Abramatic of
graphics were not commonly mixed with text in web pages and the
IBM, and Tim Berners-Lee at the 10th
web's popularity was less than older protocols in use over the Internet, anniversary of the World Wide Web Consortium.
such as Gopher and Wide Area Information Servers (WAIS). Mosaic's
graphical user interface allowed the Web to become, by far, the most popular Internet protocol.
The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) was founded by Tim Berners-Lee after he left the European Organization
for Nuclear Research (CERN) in October 1994. It was founded at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Laboratory for Computer Science (MIT/LCS) with support from the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
(DARPA), which had pioneered the Internet; a year later, a second site was founded at INRIA (a French national
computer research lab) with support from the European Commission DG InfSo; and in 1996, a third continental site
was created in Japan at Keio University. By the end of 1994, while the total number of websites was still minute
compared to present standards, quite a number of notable websites were already active, many of which are the
precursors or inspiration for today's most popular services.
Connected by the existing Internet, other websites were created around the world, adding international standards for
domain names and HTML. Since then, Berners-Lee has played an active role in guiding the development of web
standards (such as the markup languages in which web pages are composed), and has advocated his vision of a
Semantic Web. The World Wide Web enabled the spread of information over the Internet through an easy-to-use and
flexible format. It thus played an important role in popularizing use of the Internet.[27] Although the two terms are
sometimes conflated in popular use, World Wide Web is not synonymous with Internet.[28] The web is a collection of
documents and both client and server software using Internet protocols such as TCP/IP and HTTP.
Tim Berners-Lee was knighted in 2004 by Queen Elizabeth II for his contribution to the World Wide Web.
Function
The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used in everyday speech without much distinction. However, the
Internet and the World Wide Web are not the same. The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer
networks. In contrast, the web is one of the services that runs on the Internet. It is a collection of text documents and
other resources, linked by hyperlinks and URLs, usually accessed by web browsers from web servers. In short, the
web can be thought of as an application "running" on the Internet.[29]
Viewing a web page on the World Wide Web normally begins either by typing the URL of the page into a web
browser or by following a hyperlink to that page or resource. The web browser then initiates a series of
communication messages, behind the scenes, in order to fetch and display it. In the 1990s, using a browser to view
web pages—and to move from one web page to another through hyperlinks—came to be known as 'browsing,' 'web
surfing,' or 'navigating the web'. Early studies of this new behavior investigated user patterns in using web browsers.
One study, for example, found five user patterns: exploratory surfing, window surfing, evolved surfing, bounded
navigation and targeted navigation.[30]
The following example demonstrates how a web browser works. Consider accessing a page with the URL
http://example.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web.
World Wide Web 49
First, the browser resolves the server-name portion of the URL (example.org) into an Internet Protocol address using
the globally distributed database known as the Domain Name System (DNS); this lookup returns an IP address such
as 208.80.152.2. The browser then requests the resource by sending an HTTP request across the Internet to the
computer at that particular address. It makes the request to a particular application port in the underlying Internet
Protocol Suite so that the computer receiving the request can distinguish an HTTP request from other network
protocols it may be servicing such as e-mail delivery; the HTTP protocol normally uses port 80. The content of the
HTTP request can be as simple as the two lines of text GET /wiki/World_Wide_Web HTTP/1.1 Host: example.org
The computer receiving the HTTP request delivers it to web server software listening for requests on port 80. If the
web server can fulfill the request it sends an HTTP response back to the browser indicating success, which can be as
simple as HTTP/1.0 200 OK Content-Type: text/html; charset=UTF-8 followed by the content of the requested page.
The Hypertext Markup Language for a basic web page looks like <html> <head> <title>Example.org – The World
Wide Web</title> </head> <body> <p>The World Wide Web, abbreviated as WWW and commonly known ...</p>
</body> </html>
The web browser parses the HTML, interpreting the markup (<title>, <p> for paragraph, and such) that
surrounds the words in order to draw the text on the screen.
Many web pages use HTML to reference the URLs of other resources such as images, other embedded media, scripts
that affect page behavior, and Cascading Style Sheets that affect page layout. The browser will make additional
HTTP requests to the web server for these other Internet media types. As it receives their content from the web
server, the browser progressively renders the page onto the screen as specified by its HTML and these additional
resources.
Linking
Most web pages contain hyperlinks to other related pages and perhaps to downloadable files, source documents,
definitions and other web resources. In the underlying HTML, a hyperlink looks like <a
href="http://example.org/wiki/Main_Page">Example.org, a free encyclopedia</a>
Such a collection of useful, related resources, interconnected via
hypertext links is dubbed a web of information. Publication on the
Internet created what Tim Berners-Lee first called the WorldWideWeb
(in its original CamelCase, which was subsequently discarded) in
November 1990.[7]
The hyperlink structure of the WWW is described by the webgraph:
the nodes of the webgraph correspond to the web pages (or URLs) the
directed edges between them to the hyperlinks.
Graphic representation of a minute fraction of the
Over time, many web resources pointed to by hyperlinks disappear,
WWW, demonstrating hyperlinks
relocate, or are replaced with different content. This makes hyperlinks
obsolete, a phenomenon referred to in some circles as link rot and the
hyperlinks affected by it are often called dead links. The ephemeral nature of the Web has prompted many efforts to
archive web sites. The Internet Archive, active since 1996, is the best known of such efforts.
Dynamic updates of web pages

JavaScript is a scripting language that was initially developed in 1995 by Brendan Eich, then of Netscape, for use
within web pages.[] The standardised version is ECMAScript.[] To make web pages more interactive, some web
applications also use JavaScript techniques such as Ajax (asynchronous JavaScript and XML). Client-side script is
delivered with the page that can make additional HTTP requests to the server, either in response to user actions such
as mouse movements or clicks, or based on lapsed time. The server's responses are used to modify the current page
World Wide Web 50
rather than creating a new page with each response, so the server needs only to provide limited, incremental
information. Multiple Ajax requests can be handled at the same time, and users can interact with the page while data
is being retrieved. Web pages may also regularly poll the server to check whether new information is available.[31]
WWW prefix
Many domain names used for the World Wide Web begin with www because of the long-standing practice of naming
Internet hosts (servers) according to the services they provide. The hostname for a web server is often www, in the
same way that it may be ftp for an FTP server, and news or nntp for a USENET news server. These host names
appear as Domain Name System or (DNS) subdomain names, as in www.example.com. The use of 'www' as a
subdomain name is not required by any technical or policy standard and many web sites do not use it; indeed, the
first ever web server was called nxoc01.cern.ch.[32] According to Paolo Palazzi,[33] who worked at CERN
along with Tim Berners-Lee, the popular use of 'www' subdomain was accidental; the World Wide Web project page
was intended to be published at www.cern.ch while info.cern.ch was intended to be the CERN home page, however
the dns records were never switched, and the practice of prepending 'www' to an institution's website domain name
was subsequently copied. Many established websites still use 'www', or they invent other subdomain names such as
'www2', 'secure', etc. Many such web servers are set up so that both the domain root (e.g., example.com) and the
www subdomain (e.g., www.example.com) refer to the same site; others require one form or the other, or they may
map to different web sites.
The use of a subdomain name is useful for load balancing incoming web traffic by creating a CNAME record that
points to a cluster of web servers. Since, currently, only a subdomain can be used in a CNAME, the same result
cannot be achieved by using the bare domain root.
When a user submits an incomplete domain name to a web browser in its address bar input field, some web browsers
automatically try adding the prefix "www" to the beginning of it and possibly ".com", ".org" and ".net" at the end,
depending on what might be missing. For example, entering 'microsoft' may be transformed to
http://www.microsoft.com/ and 'openoffice' to http://www.openoffice.org. This feature started appearing in early
versions of Mozilla Firefox, when it still had the working title 'Firebird' in early 2003, from an earlier practice in
browsers such as Lynx.[34] It is reported that Microsoft was granted a US patent for the same idea in 2008, but only
for mobile devices.[35]
In English, www is usually read as double-u double-u double-u. Some users pronounce it dub-dub-dub, particularly
in New Zealand. Stephen Fry, in his "Podgrammes" series of podcasts, pronounces it wuh wuh wuh. The English
writer Douglas Adams once quipped in The Independent on Sunday (1999): "The World Wide Web is the only thing
I know of whose shortened form takes three times longer to say than what it's short for". In Mandarin Chinese, World
Wide Web is commonly translated via a phono-semantic matching to wàn wéi wǎng (万维网 ), which satisfies
www and literally means "myriad dimensional net",[36] a translation that very appropriately reflects the design
concept and proliferation of the World Wide Web. Tim Berners-Lee's web-space states that World Wide Web is
officially spelled as three separate words, each capitalised, with no intervening hyphens.[37]
Use of the www prefix is declining as Web 2.0 web applications seek to brand their domain names and make them
easily pronounceable.[38] As the mobile web grows in popularity, services like Gmail.com, MySpace.com,
Facebook.com and Twitter.com are most often discussed without adding www to the domain (or, indeed, the .com).
Scheme specifiers: http and https

The scheme specifier http:// or https:// at the start of a web URI refers to Hypertext Transfer Protocol or HTTP
Secure respectively. Unlike www, which has no specific purpose, these specify the communication protocol to be
used for the request and response. The HTTP protocol is fundamental to the operation of the World Wide Web and
the added encryption layer in HTTPS is essential when confidential information such as passwords or banking
information are to be exchanged over the public Internet. Web browsers usually prepend http:// to addresses too, if
World Wide Web 51
omitted.
Web servers
The primary function of a web server is to deliver web pages on the request to clients. This means delivery of HTML
documents and any additional content that may be included by a document, such as images, style sheets and scripts.
Privacy
Every time a web page is requested from a web server the server can identify, and usually it logs, the IP address from
which the request arrived. Equally, unless set not to do so, most web browsers record the web pages that have been
requested and viewed in a history feature, and usually cache much of the content locally. Unless HTTPS encryption
is used, web requests and responses travel in plain text across the internet and they can be viewed, recorded and
cached by intermediate systems.
When a web page asks for, and the user supplies, personally identifiable information such as their real name,
address, e-mail address, etc., then a connection can be made between the current web traffic and that individual. If
the website uses HTTP cookies, username and password authentication, or other tracking techniques, then it will be
able to relate other web visits, before and after, to the identifiable information provided. In this way it is possible for
a web-based organisation to develop and build a profile of the individual people who use its site or sites. It may be
able to build a record for an individual that includes information about their leisure activities, their shopping
interests, their profession, and other aspects of their demographic profile. These profiles are obviously of potential
interest to marketeers, advertisers and others. Depending on the website's terms and conditions and the local laws
that apply information from these profiles may be sold, shared, or passed to other organisations without the user
being informed. For many ordinary people, this means little more than some unexpected e-mails in their in-box, or
some uncannily relevant advertising on a future web page. For others, it can mean that time spent indulging an
unusual interest can result in a deluge of further targeted marketing that may be unwelcome. Law enforcement,
counter terrorism and espionage agencies can also identify, target and track individuals based on what appear to be
their interests or proclivities on the web.
Social networking sites make a point of trying to get the user to truthfully expose their real names, interests and
locations. This makes the social networking experience more realistic and therefore engaging for all their users. On
the other hand, photographs uploaded and unguarded statements made will be identified to the individual, who may
regret some decisions to publish these data. Employers, schools, parents and other relatives may be influenced by
aspects of social networking profiles that the posting individual did not intend for these audiences. On-line bullies
may make use of personal information to harass or stalk users. Modern social networking websites allow fine
grained control of the privacy settings for each individual posting, but these can be complex and not easy to find or
use, especially for beginners.[39]
Photographs and videos posted onto websites have caused particular problems, as they can add a person's face to an
on-line profile. With modern and potential facial recognition technology, it may then be possible to relate that face
with other, previously anonymous, images, events and scenarios that have been imaged elsewhere. Because of image
caching, mirroring and copying, it is difficult to remove an image from the World Wide Web.
Intellectual property
The intellectual property rights for any creative work initially rests with its creator. Web users who want to publish
their work onto the World Wide Web, however, need to be aware of the details of the way they do it. If artwork,
photographs, writings, poems, or technical innovations are published by their creator onto a privately owned web
server, then they may choose the copyright and other conditions freely themselves. This is unusual though; more
commonly work is uploaded to websites and servers that are owned by other organizations. It depends upon the
World Wide Web 52
terms and conditions of the site or service provider to what extent the original owner automatically signs over rights
to their work by the choice of destination and by the act of uploading.[citation needed]
Some users of the web erroneously assume that everything they may find online is freely available to them as if it
was in the public domain, which is not always the case. Content owners that are aware of this widespread belief, may
expect that their published content will probably be used in some capacity somewhere without their permission.
Some content publishers therefore embed digital watermarks in their media files, sometimes charging users to
receive unmarked copies for legitimate use. Digital rights management includes forms of access control technology
that further limit the use of digital content even after it has been bought or downloaded.[citation needed]
Security
The web has become criminals' preferred pathway for spreading malware. Cybercrime carried out on the web can
[]
include identity theft, fraud, espionage and intelligence gathering. Web-based vulnerabilities now outnumber
[40][41]
traditional computer security concerns, and as measured by Google, about one in ten web pages may contain
malicious code.[42] Most web-based attacks take place on legitimate websites, and most, as measured by Sophos, are
hosted in the United States, China and Russia.[] The most common of all malware threats is SQL injection attacks
against websites.[43] Through HTML and URIs the web was vulnerable to attacks like cross-site scripting (XSS) that
came with the introduction of JavaScript[] and were exacerbated to some degree by Web 2.0 and Ajax web design
that favors the use of scripts.[44] Today by one estimate, 70% of all websites are open to XSS attacks on their
users.[45]
Proposed solutions vary to extremes. Large security vendors like McAfee already design governance and compliance
suites to meet post-9/11 regulations,[46] and some, like Finjan have recommended active real-time inspection of code
and all content regardless of its source.[] Some have argued that for enterprise to see security as a business
opportunity rather than a cost center,[47] "ubiquitous, always-on digital rights management" enforced in the
infrastructure by a handful of organizations must replace the hundreds of companies that today secure data and
networks.[48] Jonathan Zittrain has said users sharing responsibility for computing safety is far preferable to locking
down the Internet.[49]
Standards
Many formal standards and other technical specifications and software define the operation of different aspects of the
World Wide Web, the Internet, and computer information exchange. Many of the documents are the work of the
World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), headed by Berners-Lee, but some are produced by the Internet Engineering
Task Force (IETF) and other organizations.
Usually, when web standards are discussed, the following publications are seen as foundational:
• Recommendations for markup languages, especially HTML and XHTML, from the W3C. These define the
structure and interpretation of hypertext documents.
• Recommendations for stylesheets, especially CSS, from the W3C.
• Standards for ECMAScript (usually in the form of JavaScript), from Ecma International.
• Recommendations for the Document Object Model, from W3C.
Additional publications provide definitions of other essential technologies for the World Wide Web, including, but
not limited to, the following:
• Uniform Resource Identifier (URI), which is a universal system for referencing resources on the Internet, such as
hypertext documents and images. URIs, often called URLs, are defined by the IETF's RFC 3986 / STD 66:
Uniform Resource Identifier (URI): Generic Syntax, as well as its predecessors and numerous URI
scheme-defining RFCs;
World Wide Web 53
• HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP), especially as defined by RFC 2616: HTTP/1.1 and RFC 2617: HTTP
Authentication, which specify how the browser and server authenticate each other.
Accessibility
There are methods available for accessing the web in alternative mediums and formats, so as to enable use by
individuals with disabilities. These disabilities may be visual, auditory, physical, speech related, cognitive,
neurological, or some combination therin. Accessibility features also help others with temporary disabilities like a
broken arm or the aging population as their abilities change.[] The Web is used for receiving information as well as
providing information and interacting with society. The World Wide Web Consortium claims it essential that the
Web be accessible in order to provide equal access and equal opportunity to people with disabilities.[50] Tim
Berners-Lee once noted, "The power of the Web is in its universality. Access by everyone regardless of disability is
an essential aspect."[] Many countries regulate web accessibility as a requirement for websites.[51] International
cooperation in the W3C Web Accessibility Initiative led to simple guidelines that web content authors as well as
software developers can use to make the Web accessible to persons who may or may not be using assistive
technology.[][52]
Internationalization
The W3C Internationalization Activity assures that web technology will work in all languages, scripts, and
cultures.[53] Beginning in 2004 or 2005, Unicode gained ground and eventually in December 2007 surpassed both
ASCII and Western European as the Web's most frequently used character encoding.[54] Originally RFC 3986
allowed resources to be identified by URI in a subset of US-ASCII. RFC 3987 allows more characters—any
character in the Universal Character Set—and now a resource can be identified by IRI in any language.[55]
Statistics
Between 2005 and 2010, the number of web users doubled, and was expected to surpass two billion in 2010.[56]
Early studies in 1998 and 1999 estimating the size of the web using capture/recapture methods showed that much of
the web was not indexed by search engines and the web was much larger than expected.[57][58] According to a 2001
study, there were a massive number, over 550 billion, of documents on the Web, mostly in the invisible Web, or
Deep Web.[59] A 2002 survey of 2,024 million web pages[60] determined that by far the most web content was in the
English language: 56.4%; next were pages in German (7.7%), French (5.6%), and Japanese (4.9%). A more recent
study, which used web searches in 75 different languages to sample the web, determined that there were over 11.5
billion web pages in the publicly indexable web as of the end of January 2005.[61] As of March 2009[62], the
indexable web contains at least 25.21 billion pages.[63] On 25 July 2008, Google software engineers Jesse Alpert and
Nissan Hajaj announced that Google Search had discovered one trillion unique URLs.[64] As of May 2009[62], over
109.5 million domains operated.[] Wikipedia:Verifiability Of these 74% were commercial or other domains
operating in the .com generic top-level domain.[]
Statistics measuring a website's popularity are usually based either on the number of page views or on associated
server 'hits' (file requests) that it receives.
World Wide Web 54
Speed issues
Frustration over congestion issues in the Internet infrastructure and the high latency that results in slow browsing has
led to a pejorative name for the World Wide Web: the World Wide Wait.[65] Speeding up the Internet is an ongoing
discussion over the use of peering and QoS technologies. Other solutions to reduce the congestion can be found at
W3C.[66] Guidelines for web response times are:[67]
• 0.1 second (one tenth of a second). Ideal response time. The user does not sense any interruption.
• 1 second. Highest acceptable response time. Download times above 1 second interrupt the user experience.
• 10 seconds. Unacceptable response time. The user experience is interrupted and the user is likely to leave the site
or system.
Caching
If a user revisits a web page after only a short interval, the page data may not need to be re-obtained from the source
web server. Almost all web browsers cache recently obtained data, usually on the local hard drive. HTTP requests
sent by a browser will usually ask only for data that has changed since the last download. If the locally cached data
are still current, they will be reused. Caching helps reduce the amount of web traffic on the Internet. The decision
about expiration is made independently for each downloaded file, whether image, stylesheet, JavaScript, HTML, or
other web resource. Thus even on sites with highly dynamic content, many of the basic resources need to be
refreshed only occasionally. Web site designers find it worthwhile to collate resources such as CSS data and
JavaScript into a few site-wide files so that they can be cached efficiently. This helps reduce page download times
and lowers demands on the Web server.
There are other components of the Internet that can cache web content. Corporate and academic firewalls often cache
Web resources requested by one user for the benefit of all. (See also caching proxy server.) Some search engines also
store cached content from websites. Apart from the facilities built into web servers that can determine when files
have been updated and so need to be re-sent, designers of dynamically generated web pages can control the HTTP
headers sent back to requesting users, so that transient or sensitive pages are not cached. Internet banking and news
sites frequently use this facility. Data requested with an HTTP 'GET' is likely to be cached if other conditions are
met; data obtained in response to a 'POST' is assumed to depend on the data that was POSTed and so is not cached.
References
[3] "Frequently asked questions" (http:/ / www. w3. org/ People/ Berners-Lee/ FAQ. html#Influences) W3.org. Retrieved 15 June 2013.
[4] "Inventing the Web: Tim Berners-Lee’s 1990 Christmas Baby" (http:/ / blog. lib. uiowa. edu/ hardinmd/ 2010/ 11/ 24/
inventing-the-web-tim-berners-lees-1990-christmas-baby/ ) Seeing the Picture. Retrieved 15 June 2013.
[5] WorldWideWeb: Proposal for a HyperText Project (http:/ / www. w3. org/ Proposal. html). W3.org (1990-11-12). Retrieved on 2013-07-17.
[7] "
[9] "Aug. 7, 1991: Ladies and Gentlemen, the World Wide Web" (http:/ / www. wired. com/ science/ discoveries/ news/ 2007/ 08/
dayintech_0807) Wired. Retrieved 15 June 2013.
[33] Palazzi, P (2011) 'The Early Days of the WWW at CERN' (http:/ / soft-shake. ch/ 2011/ en/ conference/ sessions. html?key=earlydays)
[44] and AJAX web applications can introduce security vulnerabilities like "client-side security controls, increased attack surfaces, and new
possibilities for Cross-Site Scripting (XSS)", in which cites
[57] S. Lawrence, C.L. Giles, "Searching the World Wide Web," Science, 280(5360), 98–100, 1998.
[58] S. Lawrence, C.L. Giles, "Accessibility of Information on the Web," Nature, 400, 107–109, 1999.
[62] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=World_Wide_Web& action=edit
World Wide Web 55
Further reading
• Niels Brügger, ed. Web History (2010) 362 pages; Historical perspective on the World Wide Web, including
issues of culture, content, and preservation.
• Fielding, R.; Gettys, J.; Mogul, J.; Frystyk, H.; Masinter, L.; Leach, P.; Berners-Lee, T. (June 1999). Hypertext
Transfer Protocol – HTTP/1.1 (ftp://ftp.isi.edu/in-notes/rfc2616.txt). Request For Comments 2616.
Information Sciences Institute.Wikipedia:Link rot
• Berners-Lee, Tim; Bray, Tim; Connolly, Dan; Cotton, Paul; Fielding, Roy; Jeckle, Mario; Lilley, Chris;
Mendelsohn, Noah; Orchard, David; Walsh, Norman; Williams, Stuart (15 December 2004). Architecture of the
World Wide Web, Volume One (http://www.w3.org/TR/webarch/). Version 20041215. W3C.
• Polo, Luciano (2003). "World Wide Web Technology Architecture: A Conceptual Analysis" (http://newdevices.
com/publicaciones/www/). New Devices. Retrieved 31 July 2005.
• Skau, H.O. (March 1990). "The World Wide Web and Health Information" (http://newdevices.com/
publicaciones/www/). New Devices. Retrieved 1989.
External links
• Early archive of the first Web site (http://www.w3.org/History/19921103-hypertext/hypertext/WWW/)
• Internet Statistics: Growth and Usage of the Web and the Internet (http://www.mit.edu/people/mkgray/net/)
• Living Internet (http://www.livinginternet.com/w/w.htm) A comprehensive history of the Internet, including
the World Wide Web.
• Web Design and Development (http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Internet/Web_Design_and_Development/)
at the Open Directory Project
• World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) (http://www.w3.org/)
• W3C Recommendations Reduce "World Wide Wait" (http://www.w3.org/Protocols/NL-PerfNote.html)
• World Wide Web Size (http://www.worldwidewebsize.com/) Daily estimated size of the World Wide Web.
• Antonio A. Casilli, Some Elements for a Sociology of Online Interactions (http://cle.ens-lyon.fr/40528325/0/
fiche___pagelibre/)
• The Erdős Webgraph Server (http://web-graph.org/) offers weekly updated graph representation of a constantly
increasing fraction of the WWW.
Coordinates: 46°13′57″N 6°02′42″E (http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack.
php?pagename=World_Wide_Web&params=46_13_57_N_6_02_42_E_type:landmark_source:kolossus-frwiki)
History of the World Wide Web

The World Wide Web ("WWW" or simply the
"Web") is a global information medium which
users can read and write via computers
connected to the Internet. The term is often
mistakenly used as a synonym for the Internet
itself, but the Web is a service that operates over
the Internet, just as e-mail also does. The history
of the Internet dates back significantly further
than that of the World Wide Web.
The hypertext portion of the Web in particular

has an intricate intellectual history; notable
influences and precursors include Vannevar
Bush's Memex,[] IBM's Generalized Markup
Language,[1] and Ted Nelson's Project Xanadu.[] Today, the Web and the Internet allow connectivity from literally everywhere
on earth—even ships at sea and in outer space.
The concept of a home-based global information
system goes at least as far back as "A Logic
Named Joe", a 1946 short story by Murray Leinster, in which computer terminals, called "logics," were in every
home. Although the computer system in the story is centralized, the story captures some of the feeling of the
ubiquitous information explosion driven by the Web.
1979–1991: Development of the World Wide Web

"In August, 1984 I wrote a proposal to the SW Group Leader, Les Robertson, for the establishment of a pilot
project to install and evaluate TCP/IP protocols on some key non-Unix machines at CERN ... By 1990 CERN
had become the largest Internet site in Europe and this fact... positively influenced the acceptance and spread
of Internet techniques both in Europe and elsewhere... A key result of all these happenings was that by 1989
CERN's Internet facility was ready to become the medium within which Tim Berners-Lee would create the
World Wide Web with a truly visionary idea..."
Ben Segal. Short History of Internet Protocols at CERN, April 1995 [2]
In 1980, Tim Berners-Lee, an independent contractor at the
European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN),
Switzerland, built ENQUIRE, as a personal database of
people and software models, but also as a way to play with
hypertext; each new page of information in ENQUIRE had
to be linked to an existing page.[] In 1984 Berners-Lee
returned to CERN, and considered its problems of
information presentation: physicists from around the world
needed to share data, and with no common machines and no
common presentation software. He wrote a proposal in
The NeXTcube used by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN
became the first Web server.
March 1989 for "a large hypertext database with typed
links", but it generated little interest. His boss, Mike
Sendall, encouraged Berners-Lee to begin implementing his
system on a newly acquired NeXT workstation.[3] He considered several names, including Information
Mesh,[4] The Information Mine (turned down as it abbreviates to TIM, the WWW's creator's name) or Mine of
Information (turned down because it abbreviates to MOI which is "Me" in French), but settled on World Wide
Web.[5]
He found an enthusiastic collaborator in Robert
Cailliau, who rewrote the proposal (published on
November 12, 1990) and sought resources within
CERN. Berners-Lee and Cailliau pitched their
ideas to the European Conference on Hypertext
Technology in September 1990, but found no
vendors who could appreciate their vision of
marrying hypertext with the Internet. By
Christmas 1990, Berners-Lee had built all the
tools necessary for a working Web: the
HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) 0.9 [6], the
HyperText Markup Language (HTML), the first
Robert Cailliau, Jean-François Abramatic and Tim Berners-Lee at
Web browser (named WorldWideWeb, which
the 10th anniversary of the WWW Consortium.
was also a Web editor), the first HTTP server
software (later known as CERN httpd), the first
web server (http:/ / info. cern. ch), and the first Web pages that described the project itself. The browser could
access Usenet newsgroups and FTP files as well. However, it could run only on the NeXT; Nicola Pellow
therefore created a simple text browser that could run on almost any computer called the Line Mode Browser.[]
To encourage use within CERN, Bernd Pollermann put the CERN telephone directory on the web —
previously users had to log onto the mainframe in order to look up phone numbers.[] According to Tim
Berners-Lee, the Web was mainly invented in the Building 31 at CERN ( 46.2325°N 6.0450°E [7] ) but also at
home, in the two houses he lived in during that time (one in France, one in Switzerland).[8] In January 1991 the
first Web servers outside CERN itself were switched on.[9] The first web page may be lost, but Paul Jones of
UNC-Chapel Hill in North Carolina revealed in May 2013 that he has a copy of a page sent to him in 1991 by
Berners-Lee which is the oldest known web page. Jones stored the plain-text page, with hyperlinks, on a
floppy disk and on his NeXT computer.[10] On August 6, 1991,[11] Berners-Lee posted a short summary of the
World Wide Web project on the alt.hypertext newsgroup.[12] This date also marked the debut of the Web as a
publicly available service on the Internet, although new users only access it after August 23. For this reason
this is considered the internaut's day.
"The WorldWideWeb (WWW) project aims to allow all links to be made to any information anywhere.
[...] The WWW project was started to allow high energy physicists to share data, news, and
documentation. We are very interested in spreading the web to other areas, and having gateway servers
for other data. Collaborators welcome!" —from Tim Berners-Lee's first message
Paul Kunz from the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center visited CERN in September 1991, and was captivated
by the Web. He brought the NeXT software back to SLAC, where librarian Louise Addis adapted it for the
VM/CMS operating system on the IBM mainframe as a way to display SLAC’s catalog of online documents;[]
this was the first web server outside of Europe and the first in North America.[13] The www-talk mailing list
was started in the same month.[9] An early CERN-related contribution to the Web was the parody band Les
Horribles Cernettes, whose promotional image is believed to be among the Web's first five pictures.[14]
1992–1995: Growth of the WWW

In keeping with its birth at CERN, early adopters of the World Wide Web were primarily university-based scientific
departments or physics laboratories such as Fermilab and SLAC. By January 1993 there were fifty Web servers
across the world; by October 1993 there were over five hundred.[9]
Early websites intermingled links for both the HTTP web protocol and the then-popular Gopher protocol, which
provided access to content through hypertext menus presented as a file system rather than through HTML files. Early
Web users would navigate either by bookmarking popular directory pages, such as Berners-Lee's first site at
http://info.cern.ch/, or by consulting updated lists such as the NCSA "What's New" page. Some sites were also
indexed by WAIS, enabling users to submit full-text searches similar to the capability later provided by search
engines.
There was still no graphical browser available for computers besides the NeXT. This gap was discussed in January
1992,[9] and filled in April 1992 with the release of Erwise, an application developed at the Helsinki University of
Technology, and in May by ViolaWWW, created by Pei-Yuan Wei, which included advanced features such as
embedded graphics, scripting, and animation.[] ViolaWWW was originally an application for HyperCard. Both
programs ran on the X Window System for Unix.[]
Students at the University of Kansas adapted an existing text-only hypertext browser, Lynx, to access the web. Lynx
was available on Unix and DOS, and some web designers, unimpressed with glossy graphical websites, held that a
website not accessible through Lynx wasn’t worth visiting.
Early browsers
The turning point for the World Wide Web was the introduction[15] of the Mosaic web browser[16] in 1993, a
graphical browser developed by a team at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) at the
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (UIUC), led by Marc Andreessen. Funding for Mosaic came from the
High-Performance Computing and Communications Initiative, a funding program initiated by then-Senator Al
Gore's High Performance Computing and Communication Act of 1991 also known as the Gore Bill.[17]
Remarkably the first Mosaic Browser lacked a "back button", a feature proposed in 1992-3 by the same individual
who invented the concept of clickable text documents. The request was emailed from the University of Texas
computing facility. The browser was intended to be an editor and not simply a viewer, but was to work with
computer generated hypertext lists called "search engines".
The origins of Mosaic date to 1992. In November 1992, the NCSA at the University of Illinois (UIUC) established a
website. In December 1992, Andreessen and Eric Bina, students attending UIUC and working at the NCSA, began
work on Mosaic. They released an X Window browser in February 1993. It gained popularity due to its strong
support of integrated multimedia, and the authors’ rapid response to user bug reports and recommendations for new
features.
The first Microsoft Windows browser was Cello, written by Thomas R. Bruce for the Legal Information Institute at
Cornell Law School to provide legal information, since more lawyers had more access to Windows than to Unix.
Cello was released in June 1993.[] The NCSA released Mac Mosaic and WinMosaic in August 1993.[9]
After graduation from UIUC, Andreessen and James H. Clark, former CEO of Silicon Graphics, met and formed
Mosaic Communications Corporation to develop the Mosaic browser commercially. The company changed its name
to Netscape in April 1994, and the browser was developed further as Netscape Navigator.
Web organization
In May 1994, the first International WWW Conference, organized by Robert Cailliau,[18][19] was held at CERN;[20]
the conference has been held every year since. In April 1993, CERN had agreed that anyone could use the Web
protocol and code royalty-free; this was in part a reaction to the perturbation caused by the University of Minnesota's
announcement that it would begin charging license fees for its implementation of the Gopher protocol.
In September 1994, Berners-Lee founded the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology with support from the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) and the European
Commission. It comprised various companies that were willing to create standards and recommendations to improve
the quality of the Web. Berners-Lee made the Web available freely, with no patent and no royalties due. The W3C
decided that its standards must be based on royalty-free technology, so they can be easily adopted by anyone.
By the end of 1994, while the total number of websites was still minute compared to present standards, quite a
number of notable websites were already active, many of which are the precursors or inspiring examples of today's
most popular services.
1996–1998: Commercialization of the WWW

By 1996 it became obvious to most publicly traded companies that a public Web presence was no longer
optional.[citation needed] Though at first people saw mainly[citation needed] the possibilities of free publishing and instant
worldwide information, increasing familiarity with two-way communication over the "Web" led to the possibility of
direct Web-based commerce (e-commerce) and instantaneous group communications worldwide. More dotcoms,
displaying products on hypertext webpages, were added into the Web.
1999–2001: "Dot-com" boom and bust

Low interest rates in 1998–99 facilitated an increase in start-up companies. Although a number of these new
entrepreneurs had realistic plans and administrative ability, most of them lacked these characteristics but were able to
sell their ideas to investors because of the novelty of the dot-com concept.
Historically, the dot-com boom can be seen as similar to a number of other technology-inspired booms of the past
including railroads in the 1840s, automobiles in the early 20th century, radio in the 1920s, television in the 1940s,
transistor electronics in the 1950s, computer time-sharing in the 1960s, and home computers and biotechnology in
the early 1980s.
In 2001 the bubble burst, and many dot-com startups went out of business after burning through their venture capital
and failing to become profitable. Many others, however, did survive and thrive in the early 21st century. Many
companies which began as online retailers blossomed and became highly profitable. More conventional retailers
found online merchandising to be a profitable additional source of revenue. While some online entertainment and
news outlets failed when their seed capital ran out, others persisted and eventually became economically
self-sufficient. Traditional media outlets (newspaper publishers, broadcasters and cablecasters in particular) also
found the Web to be a useful and profitable additional channel for content distribution, and an additional means to
generate advertising revenue. The sites that survived and eventually prospered after the bubble burst had two things
in common; a sound business plan, and a niche in the marketplace that was, if not unique, particularly well-defined
and well-served.
2002–present: The Web becomes ubiquitous

In the aftermath of the dot-com bubble, telecommunications companies had a great deal of overcapacity as many
Internet business clients went bust. That, plus ongoing investment in local cell infrastructure kept connectivity
charges low, and helping to make high-speed Internet connectivity more affordable. During this time, a handful of
companies found success developing business models that helped make the World Wide Web a more compelling
experience. These include airline booking sites, Google's search engine and its profitable approach to simplified,
keyword-based advertising, as well as ebay's do-it-yourself auction site and Amazon.com's online department store.
This new era also begot social networking websites, such as MySpace and Facebook, which, though unpopular at
first, very rapidly gained acceptance in becoming a major part of youth culture.
Web 2.0
Beginning in 2002, new ideas for sharing and exchanging content ad hoc, such as Weblogs and RSS, rapidly gained
acceptance on the Web. This new model for information exchange, primarily featuring DIY user-edited and
generated websites, was coined Web 2.0.
The Web 2.0 boom saw many new service-oriented startups catering to a new, democratized Web. Some believe it
will be followed by the full realization of a Semantic Web.
Tim Berners-Lee originally expressed the vision of the Semantic Web as follows:[21]
I have a dream for the Web [in which computers] become capable of analyzing all the data on the Web – the
content, links, and transactions between people and computers. A ‘Semantic Web’, which should make this
possible, has yet to emerge, but when it does, the day-to-day mechanisms of trade, bureaucracy and our daily
lives will be handled by machines talking to machines. The ‘intelligent agents’ people have touted for ages will
finally materialize.
— Tim Berners-Lee, 1999
Predictably, as the World Wide Web became easier to query, attained a higher degree of usability, and shed its
esoteric reputation, it gained a sense of organization and unsophistication which opened the floodgates and ushered
in a rapid period of popularization. New sites such as Wikipedia and its sister projects proved revolutionary in
executing the User edited content concept. In 2005, 3 ex-PayPal employees formed a video viewing website called
YouTube. Only a year later, YouTube was proven the most quickly popularized website in history, and even started
a new concept of user-submitted content in major events, as in the CNN-YouTube Presidential Debates.
The popularity of YouTube, Facebook, etc., combined with the increasing availability and affordability of
high-speed connections has made video content far more common on all kinds of websites. Many video-content
hosting and creation sites provide an easy means for their videos to be embedded on third party websites without
payment or permission.
This combination of more user-created or edited content, and easy means of sharing content, such as via RSS
widgets and video embedding, has led to many sites with a typical "Web 2.0" feel. They have articles with embedded
video, user-submitted comments below the article, and RSS boxes to the side, listing some of the latest articles from
other sites.
Continued extension of the World Wide Web has focused on connecting devices to the Internet, coined Intelligent
Device Management. As Internet connectivity becomes ubiquitous, manufacturers have started to leverage the
expanded computing power of their devices to enhance their usability and capability. Through Internet connectivity,
manufacturers are now able to interact with the devices they have sold and shipped to their customers, and customers
are able to interact with the manufacturer (and other providers) to access new content.
Lending credence to the idea of the ubiquity of the web, Web 2.0 has found a place in the global English lexicon. On
June 10, 2009 the Global Language Monitor declared it to be the one-millionth English word.[22]
References
• Berners-Lee, Tim; Fischetti, Mark (1999) Weaving the Web: The Original Design and Ultimate Destiny of the
World Wide Web by Its Inventor, ISBN 978-0-06-251586-5, HarperSanFrancisco (978-0-06-251587-X (pbk.),
HarperSanFrancisco, 2000)
• Cailliau, Robert; Gillies, James (2000) How the Web Was Born: The Story of the World Wide Web, ISBN
978-0-19-286207-5, Oxford University Press
• Graham, Ian S. (1995) The HTML Sourcebook: The Complete Guide to HTML. New York: John Wiley and Sons
• Herman, Andrew (2000) The World Wide Web and Contemporary Cultural Theory : Magic, Metaphor, Power,
ISBN 978-0-415-92502-0, Routledge
• Raggett, Dave; Lam, Jenny; Alexander, Ian (1996) HTML 3. Electronic Publishing on the World Wide Web, ISBN
978-0-201-87693-0, Addison-Wesley
Footnotes
[2] A Short History of Internet Protocols at CERN (http:/ / ben. home. cern. ch/ ben/ TCPHIST. html) by Ben Segal. 1995
[3] The Next Crossroad of Web History (http:/ / www. netvalley. com/ intvalnext. html) by Gregory Gromov
[5] Tim Berners-Lee, Weaving the Web, HarperCollins, 2000, p.23
[6] http:/ / www. w3. org/ Protocols/ HTTP/ AsImplemented. html
[7] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=History_of_the_World_Wide_Web& params=46. 2325_N_6.
0450_E_type:landmark& title=CERN+ Building+ 31%2C+ Birthplace+ of+ the+ %27%27World+ Wide+ Web%27%27
[8] (http:/ / davidgalbraith. org/ uncategorized/ the-exact-location-where-the-web-was-invented/ 2343/ ) Tim Berners-Lee's account of the exact
locations at CERN where the Web was invented
[9] Raggett et al, 1996. p. 21
[11] How the web went world wide (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ technology/ 5242252. stm), Mark Ward, Technology Correspondent, BBC
News. Retrieved 24 January 2011
[13] Tim Berners-Lee, Weaving the Web, HarperCollins, 2000, p.46
[15] Mosaic Web Browser History – NCSA, Marc Andreessen, Eric Bina (http:/ / www. livinginternet. com/ w/ wi_mosaic. htm)
[16] NCSA Mosaic – September 10, 1993 Demo (http:/ / www. totic. org/ nscp/ demodoc/ demo. html)
[17] Vice President Al Gore's ENIAC Anniversary Speech (http:/ / www. cs. washington. edu/ homes/ lazowska/ faculty. lecture/ innovation/
gore. html).
[22] "'Millionth English Word' declared". NEWS.BBC.co.uk (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ world/ americas/ 8092549. stm)
External links
• First World Web site (http://info.cern.ch/)
• Bemer, Bob, "A History of Source Concepts for the Internet/Web" (http://web.archive.org/web/
20041216124504/www.bobbemer.com/CONCEPTS.HTM)
• The World Wide Web History Project (http://www.webhistory.org/home.html)
• Important Events in the History of the World Wide Web (http://internet-browser-review.toptenreviews.com/
important-events-in-the-history-of-the-world-wide-web.html)
• "Principal Figures in the Development of the Internet and the World Wide Web" (http://www.unc.edu/depts/
jomc/academics/dri/pioneers2d.html). University of North Carolina. Retrieved July 3, 2006.
• "How It All Started" (http://www.w3.org/2004/Talks/w3c10-HowItAllStarted/) (slides), Tim Berners-Lee,
W3C, December 2004
• "A Little History of the World Wide Web: from 1945 to 1995" (http://www.w3.org/History.html), Dan
Connolly, W3C, 2000
• "The World Wide Web: Past, Present and Future" (http://www.w3.org/People/Berners-Lee/1996/ppf.html),
Tim Berners-Lee, August 1996
• Internet History (http://www.computerhistory.org/internet_history/), Computer History Museum
62
Precursors and early development
Intergalactic Computer Network

Internet
Internet portal
Computer network types by

spatial scope
• Near field (NFC)
• Body (BAN)
• Personal (PAN)
• Near-me (NAN)
• Local (LAN)
• Home (HAN)
• Storage (SAN)
• Campus (CAN)
• Backbone
• Metropolitan (MAN)
• Wide (WAN)
• Cloud (IAN)
• Internet
• Interplanetary Internet
• Intergalactic Computer Network
Intergalactic Computer Network can be said to be the first conception of what would eventually become the
Internet. The Internet Society has used a short form Galactic Network for the same thing.[1] J.C.R. Licklider used
the term at ARPA in 1963, addressing his colleagues as "Members and Affiliates of the Intergalactic Computer
Network".[2]
Intergalactic Computer Network 63
References
Further reading
• Jones, Steve (2003). Encyclopedia of New Media (http://books.google.com/books?id=26NyHREJwP8C&
pg=PT253). Sage Publications, via Google Books limited preview. p. 287. ISBN 0-7619-2382-9. Retrieved
2007-11-03.
• Page, Dan and Cynthia Lee (1999). "Looking Back at Start of a Revolution" (http://web.archive.org/web/
20071224090235/http://www.today.ucla.edu/1999/990928looking.html). UCLA Today (The Regents of the
University of California (UC Regents)). Archived from the original (http://www.today.ucla.edu/1999/
990928looking.html) on 2007-12-24. Retrieved 2007-11-03.
• Hauben, Ronda (19 March 2001). "Draft for Comment 1.001, "The Information Processing Techniques Office
and the Birth of the Internet"" (http://www.columbia.edu/~rh120/other/misc/lick101.doc) (Microsoft Word).
Retrieved 2007-11-03.
ARPANET 64
ARPANET
ARPANET
ARPANET logical map, March 1977

Commercial? No
Type of network data
Location USA
Protocols NCP, TCP/IP
Established 1969
Funding DARPA
Current status defunct, superseded by NSFNET in 1990
The Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) was one of the world's first operational packet
switching networks, the first network to implement TCP/IP, and the progenitor of what was to become the global
Internet. The network was initially funded by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA, later DARPA) within
the U.S. Department of Defense for use by its projects at universities and research laboratories in the US. The packet
switching of the ARPANET, together with TCP/IP, would form the backbone of how the Internet works. The packet
switching was based on concepts and designs by American engineer Paul Baran, British scientist Donald Davies[1][2]
and Lawrence Roberts of the Lincoln Laboratory.[3] The TCP/IP communication protocols were developed for
ARPANET by computer scientists Robert Kahn and Vinton Cerf.
History
Packet switching, today the dominant basis for data communications worldwide, was a new concept at the time of
the conception of the ARPANET. Prior to the advent of packet switching, both voice and data communications had
been based on the idea of circuit switching, as in the traditional telephone circuit, wherein each telephone call is
allocated a dedicated, end to end, electronic connection between the two communicating stations. Such stations
might be telephones or computers. The (temporarily) dedicated line is typically composed of many intermediary
lines which are assembled into a chain that stretches all the way from the originating station to the destination
station. With packet switching, a data system could use a single communications link to communicate with more
than one machine by collecting data into datagrams and transmitting these as packets onto the attached network link,
as soon as the link becomes idle. Thus, not only can the link be shared, much as a single post box can be used to post
letters to different destinations, but each packet can be routed independently of other packets.[4]
The earliest ideas for a computer network intended to allow general communications among computer users were
formulated by computer scientist J. C. R. Licklider of Bolt, Beranek and Newman (BBN), in April 1963, in
memoranda discussing his concept for an "Intergalactic Computer Network". Those ideas contained almost
everything that composes the contemporary Internet. In October 1963, Licklider was appointed head of the
ARPANET 65
Behavioral Sciences and Command and Control programs at the Defense Department's Advanced Research Projects
Agency — ARPA (the initial ARPANET acronym). He then convinced Ivan Sutherland and Bob Taylor that this
computer network concept was very important and merited development, although Licklider left ARPA before any
contracts were let that worked on this concept.[5]
Ivan Sutherland and Bob Taylor continued their interest in creating such a computer communications network, in
part, to allow ARPA-sponsored researchers at various corporate and academic locales to put to use the computers
ARPA was providing them, and, in part, to make new software and other computer science results quickly and
widely available.[6] In his office, Taylor had three computer terminals, each connected to separate computers, which
ARPA was funding: the first, for the System Development Corporation (SDC) Q-32, in Santa Monica; the second,
for Project Genie, at the University of California, Berkeley; and the third, for Multics, at MIT. Taylor recalls the
circumstance: "For each of these three terminals, I had three different sets of user commands. So, if I was talking
online with someone at S.D.C., and I wanted to talk to someone I knew at Berkeley, or M.I.T., about this, I had to get
up from the S.D.C. terminal, go over and log into the other terminal and get in touch with them. I said, "Oh Man!",
it's obvious what to do: If you have these three terminals, there ought to be one terminal that goes anywhere you
want to go. That idea is the ARPANET".[7] Somewhat contemporaneously, several other people had (mostly
independently) worked out the aspects of "packet switching", with the first public demonstration presented by the
National Physical Laboratory (NPL), on 5 August 1968, in the United Kingdom.[8]
Creation
By mid-1968, Taylor had prepared a complete plan for a computer
network, and, after ARPA's approval, a Request for Quotation
(RFQ) was sent to 140 potential bidders. Most computer science
companies regarded the ARPA–Taylor proposal as outlandish, and
only twelve submitted bids to build the network; of the twelve,
ARPA regarded only four as top-rank contractors. At year's end,
ARPA considered only two contractors, and awarded the contract
to build the network to BBN Technologies on 7 April 1969. The
initial, seven-man BBN team were much aided by the technical
specificity of their response to the ARPA RFQ – and thus quickly
produced the first working computers. This team was led by Frank
Heart. The BBN-proposed network closely followed Taylor's
ARPA plan: a network composed of small computers called
Interface Message Processors (IMPs: today called routers), that
functioned as gateways interconnecting local resources. At each
site, the IMPs performed store-and-forward packet switching
functions, and were interconnected with modems that were Len Kleinrock and the first Interface Message
[9]
Processor.
connected to leased lines, initially running at 50kbit/second. The
host computers were connected to the IMPs via custom serial
communication interfaces. The system, including the hardware and the packet switching software, was designed and
installed in nine months.[10]
The first-generation IMPs were initially built by BBN Technologies using a rugged computer version of the
Honeywell DDP-516 computer configured with 24kB of expandable core memory, and a 16-channel Direct
Multiplex Control (DMC) direct memory access unit.[11] The DMC established custom interfaces with each of the
host computers and modems. In addition to the front-panel lamps, the DDP-516 computer also features a special set
of 24 indicator-lamps showing the status of the IMP communication channels. Each IMP could support up to four
local hosts, and could communicate with up to six remote IMPs via leased lines. The network connected one
ARPANET 66
computer in Utah with three in California. Later, the Department Of Defense allowed the universities to join the
network for sharing hardware and software resources.
Misconceptions of design goals

Common ARPANET lore posits that the computer network was designed to survive a nuclear attack. In A Brief
History of the Internet, the Internet Society describes the coalescing of the technical ideas that produced the
ARPANET:
It was from the RAND study that the false rumor started, claiming that the ARPANET was somehow related
to building a network resistant to nuclear war. This was never true of the ARPANET, only the unrelated
RAND study on secure voice considered nuclear war. However, the later work on Internetting did emphasize
robustness and survivability, including the capability to withstand losses of large portions of the underlying
networks.[12]
Although the ARPANET was designed to survive subordinate-network losses, the principal reason was that the
switching nodes and network links were unreliable, even without any nuclear attacks. About the resource scarcity
that spurred the creation of the ARPANET, Charles Herzfeld, ARPA Director (1965–1967), said:
The ARPANET was not started to create a Command and Control System that would survive a nuclear attack,
as many now claim. To build such a system was, clearly, a major military need, but it was not ARPA's mission
to do this; in fact, we would have been severely criticized had we tried. Rather, the ARPANET came out of
our frustration that there were only a limited number of large, powerful research computers in the country, and
that many research investigators, who should have access to them, were geographically separated from
them.[13]
Packet switching pioneer Paul Baran affirms this, explaining: "Bob Taylor had a couple of computer terminals
speaking to different machines, and his idea was to have some way of having a terminal speak to any of them and
have a network. That's really the origin of the ARPANET. The method used to connect things together was an open
issue for a time."[14]
ARPANET deployed
The initial ARPANET consisted of four
IMPs:[15]
• University of California, Los Angeles
(UCLA), where Leonard Kleinrock had
established a Network Measurement
Center, with an SDS Sigma 7 being the
first computer attached to it;
• The Stanford Research Institute's
Augmentation Research Center, where
Douglas Engelbart had created the
ground-breaking NLS system, a very Historical document: First ARPANET IMP log: the first message ever sent via
important early hypertext system (with the ARPANET, 10:30 pm, 29 October 1969. This IMP Log excerpt, kept at UCLA,
the SDS 940 that ran NLS, named describes setting up a message transmission from the UCLA SDS Sigma 7 Host
computer to the SRI SDS 940 Host computer
"Genie", being the first host attached);
• University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB), with the Culler-Fried Interactive Mathematics Center's IBM
360/75, running OS/MVT being the machine attached;
• The University of Utah's Computer Science Department, where Ivan Sutherland had moved, running a DEC
PDP-10 operating on TENEX.
ARPANET 67
The first message on the ARPANET was sent by UCLA student programmer Charley Kline, at 10:30 pm on 29
October 1969, from Boelter Hall 3420.[16] Kline transmitted from the university's SDS Sigma 7 Host computer to the
Stanford Research Institute's SDS 940 Host computer. The message text was the word login; the l and the o letters
were transmitted, but the system then crashed. Hence, the literal first message over the ARPANET was lo. About an
hour later, having recovered from the crash, the SDS Sigma 7 computer effected a full login. The first permanent
ARPANET link was established on 21 November 1969, between the IMP at UCLA and the IMP at the Stanford
Research Institute. By 5 December 1969, the entire four-node network was established.[17]
Growth and evolution

In March 1970, the ARPANET reached the East Coast of the United States, when an IMP at BBN in Cambridge,
Massachusetts was connected to the network. Thereafter, the ARPANET grew: 9 IMPs by June 1970 and 13 IMPs
by December 1970, then 18 by September 1971 (when the network included 23 university and government hosts); 29
IMPs by August 1972, and 40 by September 1973. By June 1974, there were 46 IMPs, and in July 1975, the network
numbered 57 IMPs. By 1981, the number was 213 host computers, with another host connecting approximately
every twenty days.[15]
In 1973 a transatlantic satellite link connected the Norwegian Seismic Array (NORSAR) to the ARPANET, making
Norway the first country outside the US to be connected to the network. At about the same time a terrestrial circuit
added a London IMP.[18]
In 1975, the ARPANET was declared "operational". The Defense Communications Agency took control since
ARPA was intended to fund advanced research.[15]
In 1983, the ARPANET was split with U.S. military sites on their own Military Network (MILNET) for unclassified
defense department communications. The combination was called the Defense Data Network (DDN).[19] Separating
the civil and military networks reduced the 113-node ARPANET by 68 nodes. Gateways relayed electronic mail
between the two networks. MILNET later became the NIPRNet.
Rules and etiquette

Because of its government ties, certain forms of traffic were discouraged or prohibited. A 1982 handbook on
computing at MIT's AI Lab stated regarding network etiquette:[]
It is considered illegal to use the ARPANet for anything which is not in direct support of Government business
... personal messages to other ARPANet subscribers (for example, to arrange a get-together or check and say a
friendly hello) are generally not considered harmful ... Sending electronic mail over the ARPANet for
commercial profit or political purposes is both anti-social and illegal. By sending such messages, you can
offend many people, and it is possible to get MIT in serious trouble with the Government agencies which
manage the ARPANet.[]
Technology
Support for inter-IMP circuits of up to 230.4 kbit/s was added in 1970, although considerations of cost and IMP
processing power meant this capability was not actively used.
1971 saw the start of the use of the non-ruggedized (and therefore significantly lighter) Honeywell 316 as an IMP. It
could also be configured as a Terminal Interface Processor (TIP), which provided terminal server support for up to
63 ASCII serial terminals through a multi-line controller in place of one of the hosts.[20] The 316 featured a greater
degree of integration than the 516, which made it less expensive and easier to maintain. The 316 was configured with
40 kB of core memory for a TIP. The size of core memory was later increased, to 32 kB for the IMPs, and 56 kB for
TIPs, in 1973.
ARPANET 68
In 1975, BBN introduced IMP software running on the Pluribus multi-processor. These appeared in a small number
of sites. In 1981, BBN introduced IMP software running on its own C/30 processor product.
In 1983, TCP/IP protocols replaced NCP as the ARPANET's principal protocol, and the ARPANET then became
one subnet of the early Internet.[21][22]
Shutdown and legacy

The original IMPs and TIPs were phased out as the ARPANET was shut down after the introduction of the NSFNet,
but some IMPs remained in service as late as 1989.[23]
The ARPANET Completion Report, jointly published by BBN and ARPA, concludes that:
... it is somewhat fitting to end on the note that the ARPANET program has had a strong and direct feedback
into the support and strength of computer science, from which the network, itself, sprang.[24]
In the wake of ARPANET being formally decommissioned on 28 February 1990, Vinton Cerf wrote the following
lamentation, entitled "Requiem of the ARPANET":[]
It was the first, and being first, was best,
but now we lay it down to ever rest.
Now pause with me a moment, shed some tears.

For auld lang syne, for love, for years and years
of faithful service, duty done, I weep.
Lay down thy packet, now, O friend, and sleep.

-Vinton Cerf
Senator Albert Gore, Jr. began to craft the High Performance Computing and Communication Act of 1991
(commonly referred to as "The Gore Bill") after hearing the 1988 report toward a National Research Network
submitted to Congress by a group chaired by Leonard Kleinrock, professor of computer science at UCLA. The bill
was passed on 9 December 1991 and led to the National Information Infrastructure (NII) which Al Gore called the
"information superhighway". ARPANET was the subject of two IEEE Milestones, both dedicated in 2009.[25][26]
Software and protocols

The starting point for host-to-host communication on the ARPANET in 1969 was the 1822 protocol, which defined
the transmission of messages to an IMP.[27] The message format was designed to work unambiguously with a broad
range of computer architectures. An 1822 message essentially consisted of a message type, a numeric host address,
and a data field. To send a data message to another host, the transmitting host formatted a data message containing
the destination host's address and the data message being sent, and then transmitted the message through the 1822
hardware interface. The IMP then delivered the message to its destination address, either by delivering it to a locally
connected host, or by delivering it to another IMP. When the message was ultimately delivered to the destination
host, the receiving IMP would transmit a Ready for Next Message (RFNM) acknowledgement to the sending, host
IMP.
Unlike modern Internet datagrams, the ARPANET was designed to reliably transmit 1822 messages, and to inform
the host computer when it loses a message; the contemporary IP is unreliable, whereas the TCP is reliable.
Nonetheless, the 1822 protocol proved inadequate for handling multiple connections among different applications
residing in a host computer. This problem was addressed with the Network Control Program (NCP), which provided
a standard method to establish reliable, flow-controlled, bidirectional communications links among different
processes in different host computers. The NCP interface allowed application software to connect across the
ARPANET by implementing higher-level communication protocols, an early example of the protocol layering
ARPANET 69
concept incorporated to the OSI model.[21]

In 1983, TCP/IP protocols replaced NCP as the ARPANET's principal protocol, and the ARPANET then became
one component of the early Internet.[22]
Network applications
NCP provided a standard set of network services that could be shared by several applications running on a single
host computer. This led to the evolution of application protocols that operated, more or less, independently of the
underlying network service. When the ARPANET migrated to the Internet protocols in 1983, the major application
protocols migrated with it.
• E-mail: In 1971, Ray Tomlinson, of BBN sent the first network e-mail (RFC 524, RFC 561).[28] By 1973, e-mail
constituted 75 percent of ARPANET traffic.
• File transfer: By 1973, the File Transfer Protocol (FTP) specification had been defined (RFC 354) and
implemented, enabling file transfers over the ARPANET.
• Voice traffic: The Network Voice Protocol (NVP) specifications were defined in 1977 (RFC 741), then
implemented, but, because of technical shortcomings, conference calls over the ARPANET never worked well;
the contemporary Voice over Internet Protocol (packet voice) was decades away.
ARPANET in film and other media
Contemporary
• Steven King (Producer), Peter Chvany (Director/Editor) (1972). Computer Networks: The Heralds of Resource
Sharing [29]. Retrieved 20 December 2011. A 30 minute documentary film featuring Fernando J. Corbato, J.C.R.
Licklider, Lawrence G. Roberts, Robert Kahn, Frank Heart, William R. Sutherland, Richard W. Watson, John R.
Pasta, Donald W. Davies, and economist, George W. Mitchell.
• Scenario, a February 1985 episode of the U.S. television sitcom Benson (season 6, episode 20), was the first
incidence of a popular TV show directly referencing the Internet or its progenitors. The show includes a scene
where the ARPANET is accessed.[30]
• The long running British Science Fiction show, Doctor Who, can also lay claim to the first TV reference to an
Internet-like network. In the 1966 serial, The War Machines, a computer located in the newly opened Post Office
Tower in London housed WOTAN (an acronym for Will Operated Thought ANalogue), the world's most
intelligent computer. On 16 July 1966 (Computer Day), the major computers in the world were to be linked under
WOTAN's control. These computers were located at facilities such as the White House, Cape Kennedy, ELDO,
TESTAR, RN, Woomera and EFTA.[31][32]
Post-ARPANET
In Let the Great World Spin: A Novel, published in 2009 but set in 1974 and written by Colum McCann, a character
named The Kid and others use ARPANET from a Palo Alto computer to dial phone booths in New York City to hear
descriptions of Philippe Petit's tight rope walk between the World Trade Center Towers.
• In Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater, a character named Sigint takes part in the development of ARPANET after
the events depicted in the game.
• The Doctor Who Past Doctor Adventures novel Blue Box, written in 2003 but set in 1981, includes a character
predicting that by the year 2000 there will be four hundred machines connected to ARPANET.
• There is an electronic music artist known as Arpanet, Gerald Donald, one of the members of Drexciya. The artist's
2002 album Wireless Internet features commentary on the expansion of the internet via wireless communication,
with songs such as NTT DoCoMo, dedicated to the mobile communications giant based in Japan.
ARPANET 70
• In numerous The X-Files episodes ARPANET is referenced and usually hacked into by The Lone Gunmen. This
is most noticeable in the episode "Unusual Suspects".
• Thomas Pynchon's 2009 novel Inherent Vice, set in southern California circa 1970, contains a character who
accesses the "ARPAnet" throughout the course of the book.
• The viral marketing campaign for the video game Resistance 2 features a website similar in design and purpose to
ARPANET, called SRPANET.
• Episode 11 (season 2) of Person of Interest, "2πr," tells a story of an early hacker (heavily implied to be Finch)
who somehow caused ARPANET to transform into the modern internet, using a homemade computer.
References
[1] http:/ / www. thocp. net/ biographies/ davies_donald. htm
[2] http:/ / www. internethalloffame. org/ inductees/ donald-davies
[3] .
[4] "Packet Switching History" (http:/ / www. livinginternet. com/ i/ iw_packet_inv. htm), Living Internet, retrieved 26 August 2012
[5] "J.C.R. Licklider And The Universal Network" (http:/ / www. livinginternet. com/ i/ ii_licklider. htm), Living Internet
[6] "IPTO – Information Processing Techniques Office" (http:/ / www. livinginternet. com/ i/ ii_ipto. htm), Living Internet
[10] "IMP – Interface Message Processor" (http:/ / www. livinginternet. com/ i/ ii_imp. htm), Living Internet
[15] "ARPANET – The First Internet" (http:/ / www. livinginternet. com/ i/ ii_arpanet. htm), Living Internet
[21] "NCP – Network Control Program" (http:/ / www. livinginternet. com/ i/ ii_ncp. htm), Living Internet
[22] "TCP/IP Internet Protocol" (http:/ / www. livinginternet. com/ i/ ii_tcpip. htm), Living Internet
[23] "NSFNET – National Science Foundation Network" (http:/ / www. livinginternet. com/ i/ ii_nsfnet. htm), Living Internet
[24] section 2.3.4
[27] Interface Message Processor: Specifications for the Interconnection of a Host and an IMP (http:/ / www. bitsavers. org/ pdf/ bbn/ imp/
BBN1822_Jan1976. pdf), Report No. 1822, Bolt Beranek and Newman, Inc. (BBN)
[29] http:/ / documentary. operationreality. org/ 2011/ 08/ 27/ computer-networks-the-heralds-of-resource-sharing
[30] "Scenario" (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ title/ tt0789851/ ), Benson, Season 6, Episode 132 of 158, American Broadcasting Company (ABC),
Witt/Thomas/Harris Productions, 22 February 1985
[31] Lance Parkin and Lars Pearson (2012), A history: an unauthorised history of the Doctor Who Universe (http:/ / madnorwegian. com/ 622/
books/ new-books/ ahistory-an-unauthorized-history-of-doctor-who-third-edition/ ), 3rd edition, Des Moines: Mad Norwegian Press. ISBN
978-1935234111.
[32] For an explnation of the acronymns usd and a review of the Doctor Who serial, The War Machines see Vivien Fleming, "The War
Machines", http:/ / doctorwhomindrobber. wordpress. com/ 2013/ 07/ 25/ the-war-machines/ Retrieved 25 July 2013.
Further reading
• Norberg, Arthur L.; O'Neill, Judy E. (1996). Transforming Computer Technology: Information Processing for the
Pentagon, 1962–1982. Johns Hopkins University. pp. 153–196. ISBN 978-0801863691.
• A History of the ARPANET: The First Decade (http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&
doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&AD=ADA115440) (Report). Arlington, VA: Bolt, Beranek & Newman Inc.. 1 April 1981.
• Hafner, Katie; Lyon, Matthew (1996). Where Wizards Stay Up Late: The Origins of the Internet. Simon and
Schuster. ISBN 0-7434-6837-6.
• Abbate, Janet (11 June 1999). Inventing the Internet. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. pp. 36–111. ASIN
B003VPWY6E (http://www.amazon.com/dp/B003VPWY6E). ISBN 0262011727.
• Banks, Michael A. (2008). On the Way to the Web: The Secret History of the Internet and Its Founders.
APress/Springer Verlag. ISBN 1-4302-0869-4.
• Salus, Peter H. (1 May 1995). Casting the Net: from ARPANET to Internet and Beyond. Addison-Wesley.
ISBN 978-0201876741.
• Waldrop, M. Mitchell (23 August 2001). The Dream Machine: J. C. R. Licklider and the Revolution That Made
Computing Personal. New York: Viking. ASIN B00008MNVW (http://www.amazon.com/dp/
B00008MNVW). ISBN 0670899763.
• "The Computer History Museum, SRI International, and BBN Celebrate the 40th Anniversary of First ARPANET
Transmission" (http://www.computerhistory.org/press/museum-celebrates-arpanet-anniversary.html).
ARPANET 71
Computer History Museum. 27 October 2009.
Oral histories
• "Oral history interview with Robert E. Kahn" (http://purl.umn.edu/107387). University of Minnesota,
Minneapolis: Charles Babbage Institute. 24 April 1990. Retrieved 15 May 2008. Focuses on Kahn's role in the
development of computer networking from 1967 through the early 1980s. Beginning with his work at Bolt
Beranek and Newman (BBN), Kahn discusses his involvement as the ARPANET proposal was being written and
then implemented, and his role in the public demonstration of the ARPANET. The interview continues into
Kahn's involvement with networking when he moves to IPTO in 1972, where he was responsible for the
administrative and technical evolution of the ARPANET, including programs in packet radio, the development of
a new network protocol (TCP/IP), and the switch to TCP/IP to connect multiple networks.
• "Oral history interview with Vinton Cerf" (http://purl.umn.edu/107214). University of Minnesota,
Minneapolis: Charles Babbage Institute. 24 April 1990. Retrieved 1 July 2008. Cerf describes his involvement
with the ARPA network, and his relationships with Bolt Beranek and Newman, Robert Kahn, Lawrence Roberts,
and the Network Working Group.
• "Oral history interview with Paul Baran" (http://purl.umn.edu/107101). University of Minnesota, Minneapolis:
Charles Babbage Institute. 5 March 1990. Retrieved 1 July 2008. Baran describes his work at RAND, and
discusses his interaction with the group at ARPA who were responsible for the later development of the
ARPANET.
• "Oral history interview with Leonard Kleinrock" (http://purl.umn.edu/107411). University of Minnesota,
Minneapolis: Charles Babbage Institute. 3 April 1990. Retrieved 1 July 2008. Kleinrock discusses his work on the
ARPANET.
• "Oral history interview with Larry Roberts" (http://purl.umn.edu/107608). University of Minnesota,
Minneapolis: Charles Babbage Institute. 4 April 1989. Retrieved 1 July 2008.
• "Oral history interview with Stephen Lukasik" (http://purl.umn.edu/107446). University of Minnesota,
Minneapolis: Charles Babbage Institute. 17 October 1991. Retrieved 1 July 2008. Lukasik discusses his tenure at
the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), the development of computer networks and the ARPANET.
Detailed technical reference works

• Roberts, Larry; Marrill, Tom (October 1966). "Toward a Cooperative Network of Time-Shared Computers"
(http://www.packet.cc/files/toward-coop-net.html). Fall AFIPS Conference.
• Roberts, Larry (October 1967). "Multiple computer networks and intercomputer communication" (http://www.
packet.cc/files/multi-net-inter-comm.html). ACM Symposium on Operating System Principles.
• Davies, D. W.; Bartlett, K. A.; Scantlebury, R. A.; Wilkinson, P. T. (October 1967). "A digital communications
network for computers giving rapid response at remote terminals". ACM Symposium on Operating Systems
Principles.
• Roberts, Larry; Wessler, Barry (May 1970). "Computer Network Development to Achieve Resource Sharing"
(http://www.packet.cc/files/arpa/comp-net-dev.html). Proceedings of the Spring Joint Computer Conference,
Atlantic City, New Jersey.
• Heart, Frank; Kahn, Robert; Ornstein, Severo; Crowther, William; Walden, David (1970). "The Interface
Message Processor for the ARPA Computer Network" (http://www.walden-family.com/public/
1970-imp-afips.pdf). 1970 Spring Joint Computer ConferenceAFIPS Proc. 36: 551–567.
• Carr, Stephen; Crocker, Stephen; Cerf, Vinton (1970). "Host-Host Communication Protocol in the ARPA
Network" (http://tools.ietf.org/pdf/rfc33). 1970 Spring Joint Computer ConferenceAFIPS Proc. 36: 589–598.
RFC 33.
• Ornstein, Severo; Heart, Frank; Crowther, William; Russell, S. B.; Rising, H. K.; Michel, A. (1972). "The
Terminal IMP for the ARPA Computer Network" (http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/1478873.1478906). 1972
ARPANET 72
Spring Joint Computer ConferenceAFIPS Proc. 40: 243–254.

• McQuillan, John; Crowther, William; Cosell, Bernard; Walden, David; Heart, Frank (1972). "Improvements in
the Design and Performance of the ARPA Network" (http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/1480083.1480096). 1972 Fall
Joint Computer ConferenceAFIPS Proc. 41: 741–754. Unknown parameter |part= ignored (help)
• Feinler, Elizabeth J.; Postel, Jonathan B. (January 1978). ARPANET Protocol Handbook, NIC 7104. Menlo Park:
Network Information Center (NIC), SRI International. ASIN B000EN742K (http://www.amazon.com/dp/
B000EN742K).
• Roberts, Larry (November 1978). "The Evolution of Packet Switching" (http://www.packet.cc/files/
ev-packet-sw.html). Proceedings of the IEEE 66 (11): 1307. doi: 10.1109/PROC.1978.11141 (http://dx.doi.
org/10.1109/PROC.1978.11141).
• Roberts, Larry (Sept 1986). The ARPANET & Computer Networks (http://www.packet.cc/files/
arpanet-computernet.html). ACM.
External links
• "ARPANET Maps 1969 to 1977" (http://som.csudh.edu/cis/lpress/history/arpamaps/). California State
University, Dominguez Hills (CSUDH). 4 January 1978. Retrieved 17 May 2012.
• Walden, David C. (February 2003). "Looking back at the ARPANET effort, 34 years later" (http://www.
livinginternet.com/i/ii_imp_walden.htm). Living Internet. East Sandwich, Massachusetts: livinginternet.com.
Retrieved 17 August 2005.
• "Images of ARPANET from 1964 onwards" (http://www.computerhistory.org/exhibits/internet_history/). The
Computer History Museum. Retrieved 29 August 2004. Timeline.
• "Paul Baran and the Origins of the Internet" (http://www.rand.org/about/history/baran.html). RAND
Corporation. Retrieved 3 September 2005.
• Kleinrock, Leonard. "The Day the Infant Internet Uttered its First Words" (http://www.lk.cs.ucla.edu/
internet_first_words.html). UCLA. Retrieved 11 November 2004. Personal anecdote of the first message ever
sent over the ARPANET
• "Doug Engelbart's Role in ARPANET History" (http://www.dougengelbart.org/firsts/internet.html). 2008.
Retrieved 3 September 2009.
• "Internet Milestones: Timeline of Notable Internet Pioneers and Contributions" (http://www.juliantrubin.com/
schooldirectory/internet_milestones_pioneers.html). Retrieved 6 January 2012. Timeline.
• Waldrop, Mitch (April 2008). "DARPA and the Internet Revolution" (http://www.darpa.mil/WorkArea/
DownloadAsset.aspx?id=2554). 50 years of Bridging the Gap. DARPA. pp. 78–85. Retrieved 26 August 2012.
CSNET 73
CSNET
The Computer Science Network (CSNET) was a computer network that began operation in 1981 in the United
[]
States. Its purpose was to extend networking benefits, for computer science departments at academic and research
institutions that could not be directly connected to ARPANET, due to funding or authorization limitations. It played
a significant role in spreading awareness of, and access to, national networking and was a major milestone on the
path to development of the global Internet. CSNET was funded by the National Science Foundation for an initial
three-year period from 1981 to 1984.
History
Lawrence Landweber at the University of Wisconsin-Madison prepared the original CSNET proposal, on behalf of a
consortium of universities (Georgia Tech, University of Minnesota, University of New Mexico, Oklahoma
University, Purdue University, University of California-Berkeley, University of Utah, University of Virginia,
University of Washington, University of Wisconsin, and Yale University). The US National Science Foundation
(NSF) requested a review from David J. Farber at the University of Delaware. Farber assigned the task to his
graduate student Dave Crocker who was already active in the development of electronic mail.[1] The project was
deemed interesting but in need of significant refinement. The proposal eventually gained the support of Vinton Cerf
and DARPA. In 1980, the NSF awarded $5 million to launch the network. It was an unusually large project for the
NSF at the time.[2] A stipulation for the award of the contract was that the network needed to become self-sufficient
by 1986.[]
The first management team consisted of Landweber (University of Wisconsin), Farber (University of Delaware),
Peter J. Denning (Purdue University), Anthony Hearn (RAND Corporation), and Bill Kern from the NSF.[3] Once
CSNET was fully operational, the systems and ongoing network operations were transferred to Bolt Beranek and
Newman (BBN) of Cambridge, Massachusetts by 1984.[4]
By 1981, three sites were connected: University of Delaware, Princeton University, and Purdue University. By 1982,
24 sites were connected expanding to 84 sites by 1984, including one in Israel. Soon thereafter, connections were
established to computer science departments in Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Korea, and Japan. CSNET
eventually connected more than 180 institutions.[5]
One of the earliest experiments in free software distribution on a network, netlib, was available on CSNET.[6]
CSNET was a forerunner of the National Science Foundation Network (NSFNet) which eventually became a
backbone of the Internet. CSNET operated autonomously until 1989, when it merged with Bitnet to form the
Corporation for Research and Educational Networking (CREN). By 1991, the success of the NSFNET and
NSF-sponsored regional networks had rendered the CSNET services redundant, and the CSNET network was shut
down in October 1991.[7]
Components
The CSNET project had three primary components: an email relaying service (Delaware and RAND), a name service
(Wisconsin), and TCP/IP-over-X.25 tunnelling technology (Purdue). Initial access was with email relaying, through
gateways at Delaware and RAND, over dial-up telephone or X.29/X.25 terminal emulation. Eventually CSNET
access added TCP/IP, including running over X.25.[8]
The email relaying service was called Phonenet, after the telephone-specific channel of the MMDF software
developed by Crocker. The CSNET name service allowed manual and automated email address lookup based on
various user attributes, such as name, title, or institution.[9] The X.25 tunneling allowed an institution to connect
directly to the ARPANET via a commercial X.25 service (Telenet), by which the institution's TCP/IP traffic would
be tunneled to a CSNET computer that acted as a relay between the ARPANET and the commercial X.25 networks.
CSNET 74
CSNET also developed dialup-on-demand (Dialup IP) software to automatically initiate or disconnect SLIP sessions
[10]
as needed to remote locations. CSNET was developed on Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) VAX-11
systems using BSD Unix, but it grew to support a variety of hardware and operating system platforms.
Recognition
At the July 2009 Internet Engineering Task Force meeting in Stockholm, Sweden, the Internet Society recognized
the pioneering contribution of CSNET by honoring it with the Jonathan B. Postel Service Award. Crocker accepted
the award on behalf of Landweber and the other principal investigators.[] A recording of the award presentation and
acceptance is available.[11]
References
[5] CSNET History (http:/ / www. livinginternet. com/ i/ ii_csnet. htm)
[7] CSNET-CIC Shutdown Notice (ftp:/ / athos. rutgers. edu/ resource-guide/ chapter6/ section6-6. txt)
[10] Dialup IP 2.0 README (ftp:/ / ftp. isy. liu. se/ pub/ misc/ dialup2. 0. README)
External links
• Living Internet: CSNet (http://livinginternet.com/i/ii_csnet.htm)
• Exploring the Internet: Round Three, Madison (http://museum.media.org/eti/RoundThree08.html)
ENQUIRE 75
ENQUIRE
ENQUIRE
Invented by Tim Berners-Lee
Launch year 1980[]
Company CERN
ENQUIRE was a software project written in 1980 by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN,[] which was the predecessor to the
World Wide Web.[][][] It was a simple hypertext program[] that had some of the same ideas as the Web and the
Semantic Web but was different in several important ways.
According to Berners-Lee, the name was inspired by a book entitled Enquire Within Upon Everything.[][][1]
The conditions
Around 1980, approximately 10,000 people were working at CERN with different hardware, software and individual
requirements. Much work was done by email and file interchange.[] The scientists needed to keep track of different
things[] and different projects became involved with each other.[] Berners-Lee started to work for 6 months on 23
June 1980 at CERN while he developed ENQUIRE.[] The requirements for setting up a new system were
compatibility with different networks, disk formats, data formats, and character encoding schemes, which made any
attempt to transfer information between dissimilar systems a daunting and generally impractical task.[] The different
hypertext-systems before ENQUIRE were not passing these requirements i.e. Memex and NLS.[]
Difference to HyperCard
ENQUIRE was similar to Apple's HyperCard which also lacked clickable text and was not "hypertext", but
ENQUIRE lacked an image rendering system.[] The advantage was that it was portable and ran different systems.[]
Differences to the World Wide Web

It was not supposed to be released to the general public.[citation needed]
ENQUIRE had pages called cards and hyperlinks within the cards. The links had different meanings and about a
dozen relationships which were displayed to the creator, things, documents and groups described by the card. The
relationship between the links could be seen by everybody explaining what the need of the link was or what happen
if a card was removed.[] Everybody was allowed to add new cards but they always needed an existing card.[]
Relationship Inverse Relationship
made was made by
includes is part of
uses is used by
describes described by
ENQUIRE was closer to a modern wiki than to a web site:

• database, though a closed system (all of the data could be taken as a workable whole)[]
• bidirectional hyperlinks (in Wikipedia and MediaWiki, this is approximated by the What links here feature). This
bidirectionality allows ideas, notes, etc. to link to each other without the author being aware of this. In a way, they
ENQUIRE 76
(or, at least, their relationships) get a life of their own.[][]

• direct editing of the server (like wikis and CMS/blogs)[]
• ease of compositing, particularly when it comes to hyperlinking.[]
The World Wide Web was created to unify the different existing systems at CERN like ENQUIRE, the CERNDOC,
VAX/VMS Notes and the USENET.[]
Why ENQUIRE failed

Berners-Lee came back to CERN in 1984 and intensively used his own system.[][] He realized that most of the time
coordinating the project was to keep information up to date.[] He recognized that a system similar to ENQUIRE was
needed, "but accessible to everybody."[] There was a need that people be able to create cards independently of others
and to link to other cards without updating the linked card. This idea is the big difference and the cornerstone to the
World Wide Web.[] Berners-Lee didn't make ENQUIRE suitable for other persons to use the system successfully,
and in other CERN divisions there were similar situations to the division he was in.[] Another problem was that
external links, for example to existing databases, weren't allowed, and that the system wasn't powerful enough to
handle enough connections to the database.[][]
Further development stopped because Berners-Lee gave the ENQUIRE disc to Robert Cailliau, who had been
working under Brian Carpenter before he left CERN. Carpenter suspects that the disc was reused for other purposes
since nobody was later available to do further work on ENQUIRE.[]
Technical
The application ran on terminal with plaintext 24x80.[] The first version was able to hyperlink between files.[]
ENQUIRE was written in the Pascal programming language and implemented on a Norsk Data NORD-10 under
SINTRAN III,[][][][][] and version 2 was later ported to MS-DOS and to VAX/VMS.[][]
References
Further reading
• Berners-Lee, Tim (2000). Weaving the web. The original design and ultimate destiny of the World Wide Web.
New York: Harper Business.
External links
• ENQUIRE Manual (http://infomesh.net/2001/enquire/manual/)
• scanned images of the Enquire Manual from 1980 (http://www.w3.org/History/1980/Enquire/scaled/)
IPPS 77
IPPS
The International Packet Switched Service (IPSS) was created in 1978 by a collaboration between the United
Kingdom's General Post Office, Western Union International and the United States' Tymnet.
This network grew from Europe and the USA to cover Canada, Hong Kong and Australia by 1981, and by the 1990s
it provided a worldwide networking infrastructure.
Companies and individual users could connect in to the network, via a PSS (Packet Switch Stream) modem, or an
X.25 PAD (Packet Assembler/Disassembler), and a dedicated PSS line, and use it to connect to a variety of online
databases and mainframe systems. There was a choice of about three different speeds of PSS lines, although a faster
line was more costly to rent.
By 1984 British Telecomm had joined the PSS global network and was providing IPSS services to customers.
Companies including Dynatech, were providers of Interconnectivity and infrastructure devices including line drivers,
modems, self configuring modems, 4port, 8port and 16port PADs, and Switches. These were physical boxes
delivering full impmentation of x.25, x.28, x.29, x3 protocols with physical connectivity conforming to RS232
synchronous connectivity specification.
In 1988 the IPSS directory listed approximately 800 global sites available for connection via X.25
MILNET
In computer networking, MILNET (Military Network) was the name given to the part of the ARPANET
internetwork designated for unclassified United States Department of Defense traffic.
MILNET was split off from the ARPANET in 1983: the ARPANET remained in service for the academic research
community, but direct connectivity between the networks was severed for security reasons. Gateways relayed
electronic mail between the two networks. BBN Technologies built and managed both the MILNET and the
ARPANET and the two networks used very similar technology. It is also known as "Military Net."
During the 1980s the MILNET expanded to become the Defense Data Network, a worldwide set of military
networks running at different security levels. In the 1990s, MILNET became the NIPRNET.
References
NFSNET 78
NFSNET
NSFNET
Commercial? No
Type of network Data

Location USA
Operator Merit Network with IBM, MCI, the State of Michigan, and later ANS
Protocols TCP/IP and OSI
Established 1985
Funding National Science Foundation
Current status Decommissioned April 30, 1995, superseded by the commercial Internet
Website [1]
NSFNET history
The National Science Foundation Network (NSFNET) was a program of coordinated, evolving projects sponsored
by the National Science Foundation (NSF) beginning in 1985 to promote advanced research and education
networking in the United States.[2] NSFNET was also the name given to several nationwide backbone networks that
were constructed to support NSF's networking initiatives from 1985-1995. Initially created to link researchers to the
nation's NSF-funded supercomputing centers, through further public funding and private industry partnerships it
developed into a major part of the Internet backbone.
History
Following the deployment of the Computer Science Network (CSNET), a network that provided Internet services to
academic computer science departments, in 1981, the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) aimed to create an
academic research network facilitating access by researchers to the supercomputing centers funded by NSF in the
United States.[3]
In 1985, NSF began funding the creation of five new supercomputing centers:
• John von Neumann Computing Center at Princeton University
• San Diego Supercomputer Center (SDSC) on the campus of the University of California, San Diego (UCSD)
• National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
• Cornell Theory Center at Cornell University
• Pittsburgh Supercomputing Center (PSC), a joint effort of Carnegie Mellon University, the University of
Pittsburgh, and Westinghouse
Also in 1985, under the leadership of Dennis Jennings, the NSF
established the National Science Foundation Network (NSFNET).
NSFNET was to be a general-purpose research network, a hub to
connect the five supercomputing centers along with the NSF-funded
National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) to each other and
to the regional research and education networks that would in turn
connect campus networks. Using this three tier network architecture
NSFNET would provide access between the supercomputer centers
and other sites over the backbone network at no cost to the centers or NSF's three tiered network architecture
NFSNET 79
to the regional networks using the open TCP/IP protocols initially deployed successfully on the ARPANET.
The 56-kbit/s backbone

The NSFNET initiated operations in 1986 using TCP/IP. Its six
backbone sites were interconnected with leased 56-kbit/s links, built by
a group including the University of Illinois National Center for
Supercomputing Applications (NCSA), Cornell University Theory
Center, University of Delaware, and Merit Network. PDP-11/73
minicomputers with routing and management software, called
Fuzzballs, served as the network routers since they already
implemented the TCP/IP standard.
56K NSFNET Backbone, c. 1988
This original 56-kbit/s backbone was overseen by the supercomputer
centers themselves with the lead taken by Ed Krol at the University of
Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. PDP-11/73 Fuzzball routers were
configured and run by Hans-Werner Braun at the Merit Network[4] and
statistics were collected by Cornell University.
Support for NSFNET end-users was provided by the Network Service
Center (NNSC), located at BBN Technologies and included publishing
the softbound "Internet Manager's Phonebook" which listed the contact
information for every issued domain name and IP address in 1990.[5]
Incidentally, Ed Krol also authored the Hitchhiker's Guide to the
Internet to help users of the NSFNET understand its capabilities.[6] The T1 NSFNET Backbone, c. 1991
Hitchhiker's Guide became one of the first help manuals for the
Internet.
As regional networks grew the 56 K-bit/sec NSFNET backbone

experienced rapid increases in network traffic and became seriously
congested. In June 1987 NSF issued a new solicitation to upgrade and
expand NSFNET.[7]
The 1.5 Mbit/s (T1) backbone

T3 NSFNET Backbone, c. 1992
As a result of a November 1987 NSF award to the Merit Network, a
networking consortium by public universities in Michigan, the original 56-kbit/s network was expanded to include
13 nodes interconnected at 1.5 Mbit/s (T1) by July 1988. The backbone nodes used routers based on a collection of
nine IBM RT systems running AOS, IBM's version of Berkeley UNIX.
Under its cooperative agreement with NSF the Merit Network was the lead organization in a partnership that
included IBM, MCI, and the State of Michigan. Merit provided overall project coordination, network design and
engineering, a Network Operations Center (NOC), and information services to assist the regional networks. IBM
provided equipment, software development, installation, maintenance and operations support. MCI provided the T1
data circuits at reduced rates.
NFSNET 80
The state of Michigan provided funding for facilities and personnel.

Eric M. Aupperle, Merit's President, was the NSFNET Project
Director, and Hans-Werner Braun was Co-Principal Investigator.
From 1987 to 1994 Merit organized a series of "Regional-Techs"
meetings, where technical staff from the regional networks met to
discuss operational issues of common concern with each other and the
Merit engineering staff.
NSFNET Traffic 1991, NSFNET backbone nodes

are shown at the top, regional networks below,
traffic volume is depicted from purple (zero
bytes) to white (100 billion bytes), visualization
by NCSA using traffic data provided by the Merit
Network.
During this period, but separate from its support for the NSFNET backbone, NSF funded:
• the NSF Connections Program that helped colleges and universities obtain or upgrade connections to regional
networks;
• regional networks to obtain or upgrade equipment and data communications circuits;
• the NNSC, and successor Network Information Services Manager (aka InterNIC) information help desks;[8]
• the International Connections Manager (ICM), a task performed by Sprint, that encouraged connections between
the NSFNET backbone and international research and education networks; and
• various ad hoc grants to organizations such as the Federation of American Research Networks (FARNET).
The NSFNET became the principal Internet backbone starting in approximately 1988, when in addition to the five
NSF supercomputer centers it included connectivity to the regional networks BARRNet, Merit/MichNet, MIDnet,
NCAR, NorthWestNet, NYSERNet, JVNCNet, SESQUINET, SURAnet, and Westnet, which in turn connected
about 170 additional networks to the NSFNET.[9] Three new nodes were added as part of the upgrade to T3:
NEARNET in Cambridge, Massachusetts; Argone National Laboratory outside of Chicago; and SURAnet in Atlanta,
Georgia.[10] NSFNET connected to other federal government networks including the NASA Science Internet, the
Energy Science Network (ESNET), and others. Connections were also established to international research and
education networks, first to France and Canada, then to NordUnet serving Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and
Sweden, to Mexico, and many others.
Two Federal Internet Exchanges (FIXes) were established in June 1989[11] under the auspices of the Federal
Engineering Planning Group (FEPG). FIX East, at the University of Maryland in College Park and FIX West, at the
NASA Ames Research Center in Mountain View, California. The existence of NSFNET and the FIXes allowed the
ARPANET to be phased out in mid-1990.[12]
Starting in August 1990 the NSFNET backbone supported the OSI Connectionless Network Protocol (CLNP) in
addition to TCP/IP.[13] However, CLNP usage remained low when compared to TCP/IP.
Traffic on the network continued its rapid growth, doubling every seven months. Projections indicated that the T1
backbone would become overloaded sometime in 1990.
A critical routing technology, Border Gateway Protocol (BGP), originated during this period of Internet history.
BGP allowed routers on the NSFNET backbone to differentiate routes originally learned via multiple paths. Prior to
BGP, interconnection between IP network was inherently hierarchical, and careful planning was needed to avoid
routing loops.[14] BGP turned the Internet into a meshed topology, moving away from the centric architecture which
the ARPANET emphasized.
NFSNET 81
The 45-Mbit/s (T3) backbone

During 1991 the backbone was upgraded to 45 Mbit/s (T3)
transmission speed and expanded to interconnect 16 nodes. The routers
on the upgraded backbone were based on an IBM RS/6000 workstation
running UNIX. Core nodes were located at MCI facilities with end
nodes at the connected regional networks and supercomputing centers.
Completed in November 1991, the transition from T1 to T3 did not go
as smoothly as the transition from 56K to T1, took longer than
planned, and as a result there was at times serious congestion on the
overloaded T1 backbone. Following the transition to T3, portions of
Packet Traffic on the NSFNET Backbone,
the T1 backbone were left in place to act as a backup for the new T3
January 1988 to June 1994
backbone.
In anticipation of the T3 upgrade and the approaching end of the 5-year NSFNET cooperative agreement, in
September 1990 Merit, IBM, and MCI formed Advanced Network and Services (ANS), a new non-profit corporation
with a more broadly based Board of Directors than the Michigan based Merit Network. Under its cooperative
agreement with NSF, Merit remained ultimately responsible for the operation of NSFNET, but subcontracted much
of the engineering and operations work to ANS. Both IBM and MCI made substantial new financial and other
commitments to help support the new venture. Allan Weis left IBM to become ANS's first President and Managing
Director. Douglas Van Houweling, former Chair of the Merit Network Board and Vice Provost for Information
Technology at the University of Michigan, was Chairman of the ANS Board of Directors.
The new T3 backbone was named ANSNet and provided the physical infrastructure used by Merit to deliver the
NSFNET Backbone Service.
Regional networks
In addition to the five NSF supercomputer centers, NSFNET provided connectivity to eleven regional networks and
through these networks to many smaller regional and campus networks. The NSFNET regional networks
were:[10][15]
• BARRNet, the Bay Area Regional Research Network in Palo Alto, California;
• CERFNET, California Education and Research Federation Network in San Diego, California, serving California
and Nevada;
• CICNet, the Committee on Institutional Cooperation Network via the Merit Network in Ann Arbor, Michigan and
later as part of the T3 upgrade via Argonne National Laboratory outside of Chicago, serving the Big Ten
Universities and the University of Chicago in Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, and Wisconsin;
• Merit/MichNet in Ann Arbor, Michigan serving Michigan, formed in 1966, still in operation as of 2013;[16]
• MIDnet in Lincoln, Nebraska serving Arkansas, Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, Oklahoma, and South
Dakota;
• NEARNET, the New England Academic and Research Network in Cambridge, Massachusetts, added as part of
the upgrade to T3, serving Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont,
established in late 1988, operated by BBN under contract to MIT, BBN assumed responsibility for NEARNET on
1 July 1993;[17]
• NorthWestNet in Seattle, Washington, serving Alaska, Idaho, Montana, North Dakota, Oregon, and Washington,
founded in 1987;[18]
• NYSERNet, New York State Education and Research Network in Ithaca, New York;
• JVNCNet, the John von Neumann National Supercomputer Center Network in Princeton, New Jersey, serving
Delaware and New Jersey;
NFSNET 82
• SESQUINET, the Sesquicentennial Network in Houston, Texas, founded during the 150th anniversary of the
State of Texas;
• SURAnet, the Southeastern Universities Research Association network in College Park, Maryland and later as
part of the T3 upgrade in Atlanta, Georgia serving Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland,
Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia, sold to BBN in 1994; and
• Westnet in Salt Lake City, Utah and Boulder, Colorado, serving Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, and
Wyoming.
Commercial traffic
The NSF's appropriations act authorized NSF to "foster and support the development and use of computer and other
scientific and engineering methods and technologies, primarily for research and education in the sciences and
engineering." This allowed NSF to support NSFNET and related networking initiatives, but only to the extent that
that support was "primarily for research and education in the sciences and engineering."[19] And this in turn was
taken to mean that use of NSFNET for commercial purposes was not allowed.
[20]
The NSFNET Backbone Services Acceptable Use Policy
June 1992
1. General Principle
1. NSFNET Backbone services are provided to support open research and education in and among US research and instructional
institutions, plus research arms of for-profit firms when engaged in open scholarly communication and research. Use for other
purposes is not acceptable.
2. Specifically Acceptable Uses
3. Communication with foreign researchers and educators in connection with research or instruction, as long as any network that
the foreign user employs for such communication provides reciprocal access to US researchers and educators.
4. Communication and exchange for professional development, to maintain currency, or to debate issues in a field or subfield of
knowledge.
5. Use for disciplinary-society, university-association, government-advisory, or standards activities related to the user's research
and instructional activities.
6. Use in applying for or administering grants or contracts for research or instruction, but not for other fundraising or public
relations activities.
7. Any other administrative communications or activities in direct support of research and instruction.
8. Announcements of new products or services for use in research or instruction, but not advertising of any kind.
9. Any traffic originating from a network of another member agency of the Federal Networking Council if the traffic meets the
acceptable use policy of that agency.
10. Communication incidental to otherwise acceptable use, except for illegal or specifically unacceptable use.
11. Unacceptable Uses
12. Use for for-profit activities, unless covered by the General Principle or as a specifically acceptable use.
13. Extensive use for private or personal business.
This statement applies to use of the NSFNET Backbone only. NSF expects that connecting networks will formulate their own use
policies. The NSF Division of Networking and Communications Research and Infrastructure will resolve any questions about this
Policy or its interpretation.
NFSNET 83
Acceptable Use Policy (AUP)

To ensure that NSF support was used appropriately, NSF developed an NSFNET Acceptable Use Policy (AUP) that
outlined in broad terms the uses of NSFNET that were and were not allowed.[20] The AUP was revised several times
to make it clearer and to allow the broadest possible use of NSFNET, consistent with Congress' wishes as expressed
in the appropriations act.
A notable feature of the AUP is that it talks about acceptable uses of the network that are not directly related to who
or what type of organization is making that use. Use from for-profit organizations is acceptable when it is in support
of open research and education. And some uses such as fundraising, advertising, public relations activities, extensive
personal or private use, for-profit consulting, and all illegal activities are never acceptable, even when that use is by a
non-profit college, university, K-12 school, or library. And while these AUP provisions seem quite reasonable, in
specific cases they often proved difficult to interpret and enforce. NSF did not monitor the content of traffic that was
sent over NSFNET or actively police the use of the network. And it did not require Merit or the regional networks to
do so. NSF, Merit, and the regional networks did investigate possible cases of inappropriate use, when such use was
brought to their attention.[21]
An example may help to illustrate the problem. Is it acceptable for a parent to exchange e-mail with a child enrolled
at a college or university, if that exchange uses the NSFNET backbone? It would be acceptable, if the subject of the
e-mail was the student's instruction or a research project. Even if the subject was not instruction or research, the
e-mail still might be acceptable as private or personal business as long as the use was not extensive.[22]
The prohibition on commercial use of the NSFNET backbone[23] meant that some organizations could not connect to
the Internet via regional networks that were connected to the NSFNET backbone, while to be fully connected other
organizations (or regional networks on their behalf), including some non-profit research and educational institutions,
would need to obtain two connections, one to an NSFNET attached regional network and one to a non-NSFNET
attached network provider. In either case the situation was confusing and inefficient. It prevented economies of scale,
increased costs, or both. And this slowed the growth of the Internet and its adoption by new classes of users,
something no one was happy about.
Commercial ISPs, ANS CO+RE, and the CIX

During the period when NSFNET was being established, Internet service providers that allowed commercial traffic
began to emerge, such as Alternet, PSINet, CERFNet, and others. The commercial networks in many cases were
interconnected to the NSFNET and routed traffic over the NSFNET nominally accordingly to the NSFNET
acceptable use policy[24] Additionally, these early commercial networks often directly interconnected with each
other as well as, on a limited basis, with some of the regional Internet networks.
In 1991, the Commercial Internet eXchange (CIX, pronounced "kicks") was created by PSINet, UUNET and
CERFnet to provide a location at which multiple networks could exchange traffic free from traffic-based settlements
and restrictions imposed by an acceptable use policy.[25]
In 1991 a new ISP, ANS CO+RE (commercial plus research), raised concerns and unique questions regarding
commercial and non-commercial interoperability policies. ANS CO+RE was the for-profit subsidiary of the
non-profit Advanced Network and Services (ANS) that had been created earlier by the NSFNET partners, Merit,
IBM, and MCI.[26] ANS CO+RE was created specifically to allow commercial traffic on ANSNet without
jeopardizing its parent's non-profit status or violating any tax laws. The NSFNET Backbone Service and ANS
CO+RE both used and shared the common ANSNet infrastructure. NSF agreed to allow ANS CO+RE to carry
commercial traffic subject to several conditions:
• that the NSFNET Backbone Service was not diminished;
• that ANS CO+RE recovered at least the average cost of the commercial traffic traversing the network; and
NFSNET 84
• that any excess revenues recovered above the cost of carrying the commercial traffic would be placed into an
infrastructure pool to be distributed by an allocation committee broadly representative of the networking
community to enhance and extend national and regional networking infrastructure and support.
For a time ANS CO+RE refused to connect to the CIX and the CIX refused to purchase a connection to ANS
CO+RE. In May 1992 Mitch Kapor and Al Weis forged an agreement where ANS would connect to the CIX as a
"trial" with the ability to disconnect at a moment's notice and without the need to join the CIX as a member.[27] This
compromise resolved things for a time, but later the CIX started to block access from regional networks that had not
paid the $10,000 fee to become members of the CIX.[28]
An unfortunate state of affairs

The creation of ANS CO+RE and its initial refusal to connect to the CIX was one of the factors that lead to the
controversy described later in this article. Other issues had to do with:
• differences in the cultures of the non-profit research and education community and the for-profit community with
ANS trying to be a member of both camps and not being fully accepted by either;
• differences of opinion about the best approach to take to open the Internet to commercial use and to maintain and
encourage a fully interconnected Internet; and
• differences of opinion about the correct type and level of involvement in Internet networking initiatives by the
public and the private sectors.
For a time this unfortunate state of affairs kept the networking community as a whole from fully implementing the
true vision for the Internet—a world-wide network of fully interconnected TCP/IP networks allowing any connected
site to communicate with any other connected site. These problems would not be fully resolved until a new network
architecture was developed and the NSFNET Backbone Service was turned off in 1995.
Privatization and a new network architecture

The NSFNET Backbone Service was primarily used by academic and educational entities, and was a transitional
network bridging the era of the ARPANET and CSNET into the modern Internet of today.
On April 30, 1995, the NSFNET Backbone Service had been
successfully transitioned to a new architecture[29] and the NSFNET
backbone was decommissioned.[30] At this point there were still
NSFNET programs, but there was no longer an NSFNET network or
network service.
New network architecture, c. 1995

NFSNET 85
After the transition, network traffic was carried on any of several

commercial backbone networks, internetMCI, PSINet, SprintLink,
ANSNet, and others. Traffic between networks was exchanged at four
Network Access Points or NAPs. The NAPs were located in New York
(actually New Jersey), Washington, D.C., Chicago, and San Jose and
[31]
run by Sprint, MFS Datanet, Ameritech, and Pacific Bell. The
NAPs were the forerunners of modern Internet exchange points.
The former NSFNET regional networks could connect to any of the NSF's very high speed Backbone Network
Service (vBNS)
new backbone networks or directly to the NAPs, but in either case they
would need to pay for their own connections. NSF provided some
funding for the NAPs and interim funding to help the regional networks make the transition, but did not fund the new
backbone networks directly.
To help ensure the stability of the Internet during and immediately after the transition from NSFNET, NSF
conducted a solicitation to select a Routing Arbiter (RA) and ultimately made a joint award to the Merit Network and
USC's Information Science Institute to act as the RA.
To continue its promotion of advanced networking technology the NSF conducted a solicitation to create a very
high-speed Backbone Network Service (vBNS) that, like NSFNET before it, would focus on providing service to the
research and education community. MCI won this award and created a 155 M-bit/sec (OC3c) and later a 622
M-bit/sec (OC12c) and 2.5 G-bit/sec (OC48c) ATM network to carry TCP/IP traffic primarily between the
supercomputing centers and their users. NSF support[32] was available to organizations that could demonstrate a
need for very high speed networking capabilities and wished to connect to the vBNS or to the Abilene Network, the
high speed network operated by the University Corporation for Advanced Internet Development (UCAID, aka
Internet2).[33]
At the February 1994 regional techs meeting in San Diego, the group revised its charter[34] to include a broader base
of network service providers, and subsequently adopted North American Network Operators' Group (NANOG) as its
new name. Elise Gerich and Mark Knopper were the founders of NANOG and its first coordinators, followed by Bill
Norton, Craig Labovitz, and Susan Harris.[35]
Controversy
For much of the period from 1987 to 1995, following the opening up of the Internet through NSFNET and in
particular after the creation of the for-profit ANS CO+RE in May 1991, some Internet stakeholders[36] were
concerned over the effects of privatization and the manner in which ANS, IBM, and MCI received a perceived
competitive advantage in leveraging federal research money to gain ground in fields in which other companies
allegedly were more competitive. The Cook Report on the Internet,[37] which still exists, evolved as one of its largest
critics. Other writers, such as Chetly Zarko, a University of Michigan alumnus and freelance investigative writer,
offered their own critiques.[38]
On March 12, 1992 the Subcommittee on Science of the Committee on Science, Space, and Technology, U.S. House
of Representatives, held a hearing to review the management of NSFNET.[21] Witnesses at the hearing were asked to
focus on the agreement(s) that NSF put in place for the operation of the NSFNET backbone, the foundation's plan for
recompetition of those agreements, and to help the subcommittee explore whether the NSF's policies provided a level
playing field for network service providers, ensured that the network was responsive to user needs, and provided for
effective network management. The subcommittee heard from seven witnesses, asked them a number of questions,
and received written statements from all seven as well as from three others. At the end of the hearing, speaking to the
two witnesses from NSF, Dr. Nico Habermann, Assistant NSF Director for the Computer and Information Science
and Engineering Directorate (CISE), and Dr. Stephen Wolff, Director of NSF's Division of Networking &
NFSNET 86
Communications Research & Infrastructure (DNCRI), Representative Boucher, Chairman of the subcommittee, said:
"… I think you should be very proud of what you have accomplished. Even those who have some constructive
criticism of the way that the network is presently managed acknowledge at the outset that you have done a
terrific job in accomplishing the goal of this NSFNET, and its user-ship is enormously up, its cost to the users
has come down, and you certainly have our congratulations for that excellent success."
Subsequently the subcommittee drafted legislation, becoming law on October 23, 1992, which authorized the
National Science Foundation
… to foster and support access by the research and education communities to computer networks which may
be used substantially for purposes in addition to research and education in the sciences and engineering, if the
additional uses will tend to increase the overall capabilities of the networks to support such research and
education activities (that is to say, commercial traffic).[39]
This legislation allowed, but did not require, NSF to repeal or modify its existing NSFNET Acceptable Use Policy
(AUP)[20] which restricted network use to activities in support of research and education.[23]
The hearing also led to a request from Rep. Boucher asking the NSF Inspector General to conduct a review of NSF's
administration of NSFNET. The NSF Office of the Inspector General released its report on March 23, 1993.[26] The
report concluded by:
• stating that "[i]n general we were favorably impressed with the NSFNET program and staff";
• finding no serious problems with the administration, management, and use of the NSFNET Backbone Service;
• complimenting the NSFNET partners, saying that "the exchange of views among NSF, the NSFNET provider
(Merit/ANS), and the users of NSFNET [via a bulletin board system], is truly remarkable in a program of the
federal government"; and
• making 17 "recommendations to correct certain deficiencies and strengthen the upcoming re-solicitation."
References
[1] http:/ / www. nsf. gov/ about/ history/ nsf0050/ internet/ launch. htm
[2] NSFNET: The Partnership That Changed The World (http:/ / www. nsfnet-legacy. org/ ), Web site for an event held to celebrate the
NSFNET, November 2007
[3] The Internet - changing the way we communicate (http:/ / www. nsf. gov/ about/ history/ nsf0050/ internet/ internet. htm), the National
Science Foundation's Internet history
[4] The Merit Network, Inc. is an independent non-profit 501(c)(3) corporation governed by Michigan's public universities. Merit receives
administrative services under an agreement with the University of Michigan.
[6] RFC 1118: The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet (http:/ / tools. ietf. org/ html/ rfc1118), E. Krol, September 1989
[7] NSF 87-37: Project Solicitation for Management and Operation of the NSFNET Backbone Network, June 15, 1987.
[8] InterNIC Review Paper (http:/ / www. codeontheroad. com/ papers/ InterNIC. Review. pdf)
[9] NSFNET - National Science Foundation Network (http:/ / www. livinginternet. com/ i/ ii_nsfnet. htm) in the history section of the Living
Internet (http:/ / www. livinginternet. com/ )
[10] "Retiring the NSFNET Backbone Service: Chronicling the End of an Era" (http:/ / www. merit. edu/ research/ nsfnet_article. php), Susan R.
Harris and Elise Gerich, ConneXions, Vol. 10, No. 4, April 1996
[11] Profile: At Home's Milo Medin (http:/ / www. wired. com/ science/ discoveries/ news/ 1999/ 01/ 17425), Wired, January 20, 1999
[12] "The Technology Timetable" (https:/ / babel. hathitrust. org/ cgi/ pt?seq=1& view=image& size=100& id=mdp. 39015035356347& u=1&
num=40), Link Letter, Volume 7, No. 1 (July 1994), p.8, Merit/NSFNET Information Services, Merit Network, Ann Arbor
[13] Link Letter (http:/ / babel. hathitrust. org/ cgi/ pt?id=mdp. 39015035356347;page=root;view=image;size=100;seq=1;num=1), Volume 4, No.
3 (Sept/Oct 1991), p. 1, NSFNET Information Services, Merit Network, Inc., Ann Arbor
[14] "coprorations using BGP for advertising prefixes in mid-1990s" (http:/ / seclists. org/ nanog/ 2011/ May/ 478), e-mail to the NANOG list
from Jessica Yu, 13 May 2011
[15] "NSFNET: The Community" (http:/ / www. nsfnet-legacy. org/ archives/ 06--Community. pdf), panel presentation slides, Doug Gale
moderator, NSFNET: The Partnership That Changed The World, 29 November 2007
[16] "Merit–Who, What, and Why, Part One: The Early Years, 1964-1983" (http:/ / www. merit. edu/ about/ history/ pdf/ MeritHistory. pdf),
Eric M. Aupperle, Merit Network, Inc., in Library Hi Tech, vol. 16, No. 1 (1998)
[17] "BBN to operate NEARnet" (http:/ / web. mit. edu/ newsoffice/ 1993/ bbn-0714. html), MIT News, 14 July 1993
NFSNET 87
[18] "About NorthWestNet" (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ files/ 40/ 40-ps. ps), NorthWestNet User Services Internet Resource Guide,
NorthWestNet Academic Computing Consortium, Inc., 24 March 1992 accessed 3 July 2012
[19] March 16, 1992 memo from Mariam Leder, NSF Assistant General Counsel to Steven Wolff, Division Director, NSF DNCRI (included at
page 128 of Management of NSFNET (http:/ / www. eric. ed. gov/ ERICWebPortal/ search/ recordDetails.
subcommittee chairman, presiding)
[20] NSFNET Acceptable Use Policy (AUP) (http:/ / www. cybertelecom. org/ notes/ nsfnet. htm#aup), c. 1992
[21] Management of NSFNET (http:/ / www. eric. ed. gov/ ERICWebPortal/ search/ recordDetails.
subcommittee chairman, presiding
[22] "… I would dearly love to be able to exchange electronic mail with my son in college in Minnesota, but I feel that is probably not acceptable
…", Steve Wolff, NSF DNCRI Director, speaking as a witness during the March 12, 1992 Management of NSFNET Congressional Hearing
(page 124) (http:/ / www. eric. ed. gov/ ERICWebPortal/ search/ recordDetails. jsp?ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED350986&
searchtype=keyword& ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no& _pageLabel=RecordDetails& accno=ED350986& _nfls=false)
[23] Even after the appropriations act was amended in 1992 to give NSF more flexibility with regard to commercial traffic, NSF never felt that it
could entirely do away with the AUP and its restrictions on commercial traffic, see the response to Recommendation 5 in NSF's response to
the Inspector General's review (a April 19, 1993 memo from Frederick Bernthal, Acting Director, to Linda Sundro, Inspector General, that is
included at the end of Review of NSFNET (http:/ / www. nsf. gov/ pubs/ stis1993/ oig9301/ oig9301. txt), Office of the Inspector General,
National Science Foundation, 23 March 1993)
[24] R. Adams UUNET/NSFNET interconnection email (http:/ / www. interesting-people. org/ archives/ interesting-people/ 200912/ msg00032.
html)
[25] The Commercial Internet eXchange Association Router Agreement (http:/ / www. farooqhussain. org/ projects/ CIX Router Timeline_0905.
pdf), c. 2000
[26] Review of NSFNET (http:/ / www. nsf. gov/ pubs/ stis1993/ oig9301/ oig9301. txt), Office of the Inspector General, National Science
Foundation, 23 March 1993
[27] "ANS CO+RE and CIX Agree to Interconnect" (http:/ / w2. eff. org/ effector/ effect02. 10), EFFector Online, Issue 2.10, June 9, 1992,
Electronic Frontier Foundation, ISSN: 1062-9424
[28] A series of e-mail messages that talk about various aspects of the CIX as seen from MichNet, the regional network operated by Merit in the
State of Michigan: 1June1992 (http:/ / www. merit. edu/ mail. archives/ mjts/ 1992-06/ msg00019. html), 29June1992 (http:/ / www. merit.
edu/ mail. archives/ mjts/ 1992-06/ msg00015. html), 29Sep1992 (http:/ / www. merit. edu/ mail. archives/ mjts/ 1992-09/ msg00021. html),
4Jan1994 (http:/ / www. merit. edu/ mail. archives/ mjts/ 1994-01/ msg00000. html), 6Jan1994 (http:/ / www. merit. edu/ mail. archives/ mjts/
1994-01/ msg00011. html), and 10Jan1994 (http:/ / www. merit. edu/ mail. archives/ mjts/ 1994-01/ msg00016. html)
[29] NSF Solicitation 93-52 (http:/ / w2. eff. org/ Infrastructure/ Govt_docs/ nsf_nren. rfp) - Network Access Point Manager, Routing Arbiter,
Regional Network Providers, and Very High Speed Backbone Network Services Provider for NSFNET and the NREN(SM) Program, May 6,
1993
[30] "Retiring the NSFNET Backbone Service: Chronicling the End of an Era" (http:/ / www. merit. edu/ networkresearch/ projecthistory/ nsfnet/
nsfnet_article. php), Susan R. Harris, Ph.D., and Elise Gerich, ConneXions, Vol. 10, No. 4, April 1996
[31] E-mail regarding Network Access Points from Steve Wolff (NSF) to the com-priv list (http:/ / www. merit. edu/ mail. archives/ mjts/
1994-03/ msg00001. html), sent 13:51 EST 2 March 1994
[32] NSF Program Solicitation 01-73: High Performance Network Connections for Science and Engineering Research (HPNC) (http:/ / www.
nsf. gov/ publications/ pub_summ. jsp?ods_key=nsf0173), Advanced Networking Infrastructure and Research Program, Directorate for
Computer and Information Science and Engineering, National Science Foundation, February 16, 2001, 16 pp.
[33] E-mail regarding the launch of Internet2's Abillene network (http:/ / www. merit. edu/ mail. archives/ mjts/ 1999-02/ msg00024. html), Merit
Joint Technical Staff, 25 February 1999
[34] Original 1994 NANOG Charter (http:/ / www. nanog. org/ governance/ charter/ 1994charter. php)
[35] NANOG FAQ (http:/ / www. nanog. org/ about/ faq/ )
[36] Performance Systems International (PSI), AlterNet, Commercial Internet Exchange Association (CIX), Electronic Frontier Foundation
(EFF), Gordon Cook, among others, see Cyber Telecom's Web page on "Internet History :: NSFNET" (http:/ / www. cybertelecom. org/ notes/
nsfnet. htm)
[37] The Cook Report on the Internet (http:/ / www. cookreport. com)
[38] "A Critical Look at the University of Michigan's Role in the 1987 Merit Agreement" (http:/ / www. cookreport. com/ index.
php?option=com_content& view=article& id=216:310& catid=53:1995& Itemid=63), Chetly Zarko in The Cook Report on the Internet,
January 1995, pp. 9-17
[39] Scientific and Advanced-Technology Act of 1992 (http:/ / thomas. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ bdquery/ z?d102:S. 1146:), Public Law No: 102-476,
43 U.S.C. 1862(g)
NFSNET 88
External links
• The Internet - the Launch of NSFNET (http://www.nsf.gov/about/history/nsf0050/internet/launch.htm),
National Science Foundation
• NSFNET: A Partnership for High-Speed Networking, Final Report 1987-1995 (http://www.merit.edu/about/
history/pdf/NSFNET_final.pdf), Karen D. Frazer, Merit Network, Inc., 1995
• NSF and the Birth of the Internet (http://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/nsf-net/), National Science
Foundation, December 2007
• NSFNET notes, summary, photos, reflections, and a video (http://hpwren.ucsd.edu/~hwb/NSFNET/), from
Hans-Werner Braun, Co-Principal Investigator for the NSFNET Project at Merit Network, and later, Research
Scientist at the University of California San Diego, and Adjunct Professor at San Diego State University
• "Fool Us Once Shame on You—Fool Us Twice Shame on Us: What We Can Learn from the Privatizations of the
Internet Backbone Network and the Domain Name System" (http://digitalcommons.law.wustl.edu/lawreview/
vol79/iss1/2), Jay P. Kesan and Rajiv C. Shah, Washington University Law Review, Volume 79, Issue 1 (2001)
• "The Rise of the Internet" (http://www.ibm.com/ibm100/us/en/icons/internetrise/), one of IBM’s 100 Icons
of Progress (http://www.ibm.com/ibm100/us/en/icons/), by Stephen Grillo, February 11, 2011, highlights
IBM's contribution to NSFNET as part of its celebration of IBM's centennial year (http://www.ibm.com/
ibm100/us/en/)
• Merit Network: A history (http://www.merit.edu/about/history/)
• NSFNET Link Letter Archive (http://www.nic.funet.fi/pub/netinfo/NSFNET/Linkletter/), April 1988 (Vol.
1 No. 1) to July 1994 (Vol. 7 No. 1), text only, a web and FTP site provided by the Finnish IT center for science
(http://www.csc.fi/english)
• Full copies of volumes 4-7, 1991-1994 (http://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015035356347) are also
available from the Hathi Trust Digital Library
• Reflection on NSFNet (http://www.universalsubtitles.org/es/videos/ap3npBCf4nir/info/reflection-on-nsfnet/
)
TELENET 89
TELENET
Not to be confused with Telnet. For other uses, see Telenet (disambiguation).
[1]
Telenet was an American commercial packet switched network which went into service in 1974. It was the first
packet-switched network service that was available to the general public.[2] Various commercial and government
interests paid monthly fees for dedicated lines connecting their computers and local networks to this backbone
network. Free public dialup access to Telenet, for those who wished to access these systems, was provided in
hundreds of cities throughout the United States.
The original founding company, Telenet Inc., was established by Bolt Beranek and Newman (BBN) and recruited
Larry Roberts (former head of the ARPANet) as President of the company, and Barry Wessler. GTE acquired
Telenet in 1979.[3] It was later acquired by Sprint and called "Sprintnet". Sprint migrated customers from Telenet to
the modern-day Sprintlink[4] IP network, one of many networks composing today's Internet. Telenet had its first
offices in downtown Washington DC, then moved to McLean, Virginia. It was acquired by GTE while in McLean,
and then moved offices in Reston, Virginia.
Under the various names, the company operated a public network, and also sold its packet switching equipment to
other carriers and to large enterprise networks.
History
After establishing "value added carriers" was legalized in the U.S., Bolt Beranek and Newman (BBN) who were the
private contractors for ARPANET set out to create a private sector version. In January 1975, Telenet
Communications Corporation announced that they had acquired the necessary venture capital after a two year quest,
and on August 16 of the same year they began operating the first public packet-switching network.[5][6]
Coverage
Originally, the public network had switching nodes in seven US cities:[7]
• Washington, D.C. (network operations center as well as switching)
• Boston, Massachusetts
• New York, New York
• Chicago, Illinois
• Dallas, Texas
• San Francisco, California
• Los Angeles, California
The switching nodes were fed by Telenet Access Controller (TAC) terminal concentrators both colocated and remote
from the switches. By 1980, there were over 1000 switches in the public network. At that time, the next largest
network using Telenet switches was that of Southern Bell, which had approximately 250 switches.
Internal Network Technology

The initial network used statically-defined hop-by-hop routing, using Prime commercial minicomputers as switches,
but then migrated to a purpose-built multiprocessing switch based on 6502 microprocessors. Among the innovations
of this second-generation switch was a patented arbitrated bus interface that created a switched fabric among the
microprocessors.[8] By contrast, a typical microprocessor-based system of the time used a bus; switched fabrics did
not become common until about twenty years later, with the advent of PCI Express and HyperTransport.
Most interswitch lines ran at 56 kbit/s, with a few, such as New York-Washington, at T1 (i.e., 1.544 Mbit/s). The
main internal protocol was a proprietary variant on X.75; Telenet also ran standard X.75 gateways to other packet
TELENET 90
switching networks.
Originally, the switching tables could not be altered separately from the main executable code, and topology updates
had to be made by deliberately crashing the switch code and forcing a reboot from the network management center.
Improvements in the software allowed new tables to be loaded, but the network never used dynamic routing
protocols. Multiple static routes, on a switch-by-switch basis, could be defined for fault tolerance. Network
management functions continued to run on Prime minicomputers.
Its X.25 host interface was the first in the industry and Telenet helped standardize X.25 in the CCITT.
Accessing the Network
Basic Asynchronous Access

Users could use modems on the Public Switched Telephone Network to dial TAC ports, calling either from "dumb"
terminals or from computers emulating such terminals. Organizations with a large number of local terminals could
install a TAC on their own site, which used a dedicated line, at up to 56 kbit/s, to connect to a switch at the nearest
Telenet location. Dialup modems supported had a maximum speed of 1200 bit/s, and later 4800 bit/s.
Computer Access
Computers supporting the X.25 protocol could connect directly to switching centers. These connections ranged from
2.4 to 56 kbit/s.
Other Access Protocols

Telenet supported remote concentrators for IBM 3270 family intelligent terminals, which communicated, via X.25 to
Telenet-written software that ran in IBM 370x series front-end processors. Telenet also supported Block Mode
Terminal Interfaces (BMTI) for IBM Remote Job Entry terminals supporting the 2780/3780 and HASP Bisync
protocols.
PC Pursuit
In the late 1980s, Telenet offered a service called PC Pursuit. For a flat monthly fee, customers could dial into the
Telenet network in one city, then dial out on the modems in another city to access bulletin board systems and other
services. PC Pursuit was popular among computer hobbyists because it sidestepped long-distance charges. In this
sense, PC Pursuit was similar to the Internet.
Cities accessible by PC Pursuit
City Code Area Code(s) City
AZPHO 602 Phoenix, Arizona
CAGLE 818 Glendale, California
CALAN 213 Los Angeles, California
CODEN 303 Denver, Colorado
CTHAR 203 Hartford, Connecticut
FLMIA 305 Miami, Florida
GAATL 404 Atlanta, Georgia
ILCHI 312, 815 Chicago, Illinois
MABOS 617 Boston, Massachusetts
MIDET 313 Detroit, Michigan

TELENET 91
MNMIN 612 Minneapolis, Minnesota
NCRTP 919 Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
NJNEW 201 Newark, New Jersey
NYNYO 212, 718 New York City
OHCLV 216 Cleveland, Ohio
ORPOR 503 Portland, Oregon
PAPIT 412 Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
PAPHI 215 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
TXDAL 214, 817 Dallas, Texas
TXHOU 713 Houston, Texas
WIMIL 414 Milwaukee, Wisconsin
References
[1] C. J. P. Moschovitis, H. Poole, T. Schuyler, T. M. Senft, History of the Internet: A Chronology, 1843 to the Present, p. 79-80 (The
Moschovitis Group, Inc 1999)
[2] Stephen Segaller, NERDS 2.0.1: A Brief History of the Internet, p. 115 (TV Books Publisher 1998)
[5] "Electronic post for switching data." Timothy Johnson. New Scientist. May 13, 1976
[6] Mathison, S.L. Roberts, L.G. ; Walker, P.M., The history of telenet and the commercialization of packet switching in the U.S. (http:/ /
ieeexplore. ieee. org/ xpl/ articleDetails. jsp?arnumber=6194380), Communications Magazine, IEEE, May 2012
[7] Telenet inaugurates service (http:/ / portal. acm. org/ citation. cfm?id=1015671. 1015674& coll=GUIDE& dl=GUIDE& CFID=31545796&
CFTOKEN=18757936),ACM Computer Communications Review, Stuart L. Mathison, 1975
UUCP
UUCP is an abbreviation of Unix-to-Unix Copy.[1] The term generally refers to a suite of computer programs and
protocols allowing remote execution of commands and transfer of files, email and netnews between computers.
Specifically, a command named uucp is one of the programs in the suite; it provides a user interface for requesting
file copy operations. The UUCP suite also includes uux (user interface for remote command execution), uucico
(the communication program that performs the file transfers), uustat (reports statistics on recent activity),
uuxqt (execute commands sent from remote machines), and uuname (reports the UUCP name of the local
system).
Although UUCP was originally developed on Unix in the 1970s and 1980s, and is most closely associated with
Unix-like systems, UUCP implementations exist for several non-Unix-like operating systems, including Microsoft's
MS-DOS, Digital's VAX/VMS, Commodore's AmigaOS, classic Mac OS, and even CP/M.
Technology
UUCP can use several different types of physical connections and link layer protocols, but was most commonly used
over dial-up connections. Before the widespread availability of Internet access, computers were only connected by
smaller private networks within a company or organization. They were also often equipped with modems so they
could be used remotely from character-mode terminals via dial-up telephone lines. UUCP used the computers'
modems to dial out to other computers, establishing temporary, point-to-point links between them. Each system in a
UUCP network has a list of neighbor systems, with phone numbers, login names and passwords, etc. When work
(file transfer or command execution requests) is queued for a neighbor system, the uucico program typically calls
that system to process the work. The uucico program can also poll its neighbors periodically to check for work
UUCP 92
queued on their side; this permits neighbors without dial-out capability to participate.
Today, UUCP is rarely used over dial-up links, but is occasionally used over TCP/IP.[2][] The number of systems
involved, as of early 2006, ran between 1500 and 2000 sites across 60 enterprises. UUCP's longevity can be
attributed to its low cost, extensive logging, native failover to dialup, and persistent queue management.
History
UUCP was originally written at AT&T Bell Laboratories by Mike Lesk. By 1978 it was in use on 82 UNIX
machines inside the Bell system, primarily for software distribution. It was released in 1979 as part of Version 7
Unix.[3] The original UUCP was rewritten by AT&T researchers Peter Honeyman, David A. Nowitz, and Brian E.
Redman around 1983. The rewrite is referred to as HDB or HoneyDanBer uucp, which was later enhanced, bug
fixed, and repackaged as BNU UUCP ("Basic Network Utilities").[4]
Each of these versions was distributed as proprietary software, which inspired Ian Lance Taylor to write a new free
software version from scratch in 1991.[5] Taylor UUCP was released under the GNU General Public License. Taylor
UUCP addressed security holes which allowed some of the original network worms to remotely execute unexpected
shell commands. Taylor UUCP also incorporated features of all previous versions of UUCP, allowing it to
communicate with any other version and even use similar config file formats from other versions.
UUCP was also implemented for non-UNIX operating systems, most-notably MS-DOS systems. Packages such as
UUSLAVE/GNUUCP (John Gilmore, Garry Paxinos, Tim Pozar), UUPC (Drew Derbyshire) and FSUUCP
(Christopher Ambler of IODesign), brought early Internet connectivity to personal computers, expanding the
network beyond the interconnected university systems. FSUUCP formed the basis for many bulletin board system
(BBS) packages such as Galacticomm's Major BBS and Mustang Software's Wildcat! BBS to connect to the UUCP
network and exchange email and Usenet traffic. As an example, UFGATE (John Galvin, Garry Paxinos, Tim Pozar)
was a package that provided a gateway between networks running Fidonet and UUCP protocols.
FSUUCP was the only other implementation of Taylor's enhanced 'i' protocol, a significant improvement over the
standard 'g' protocol used by most UUCP implementations.[citation needed]
Mail routing
The uucp and uuxqt capabilities could be used to send email between machines, with suitable mail user
interfaces and delivery agent programs. A simple UUCP mail address was formed from the adjacent machine name,
an exclamation mark (often pronounced bang), followed by the user name on the adjacent machine. For example, the
address barbox!user would refer to user user on adjacent machine barbox.
Mail could furthermore be routed through the network, traversing any number of intermediate nodes before arriving
at its destination. Initially, this had to be done by specifying the complete path, with a list of intermediate host names
separated by bangs. For example, if machine barbox is not connected to the local machine, but it is known that
barbox is connected to machine foovax which does communicate with the local machine, the appropriate address to
send mail to would be foovax!barbox!user.
User barbox!user might publish their UUCP email address in a form such as …!bigsite!foovax!barbox!user. This
directs people to route their mail to machine bigsite (presumably a well-known and well-connected machine
accessible to everybody) and from there through the machine foovax to the account of user user on barbox. Many
users would suggest multiple routes from various large well-known sites, providing even better and perhaps faster
connection service from the mail sender.
UUCP 93
Bang path
An email address of this form was known as a bang path. Bang paths of eight to ten machines (or hops) were not
uncommon in 1981, and late-night dial-up UUCP links would cause week-long transmission times. Bang paths were
often selected by both transmission time and reliability, as messages would often get lost. Some hosts went so far as
to try to "rewrite" the path, sending mail via "faster" routes—this practice tended to be frowned upon.
The "pseudo-domain" ending .uucp was sometimes used to designate a hostname as being reachable by UUCP
networking, although this was never formally registered in the domain name system (DNS) as a top-level domain.
This would not have made sense anyway, because the DNS system is only appropriate for hosts reachable directly by
TCP/IP. Additionally, the uucp community administered itself and did not mesh well with the administration
methods and regulations governing the DNS; .uucp works where it needs to; some hosts punt mail out of SMTP
queue into uucp queues on gateway machines if a .uucp address is recognized on an incoming SMTP connection
Usenet traffic was originally transmitted over the UUCP protocol using bang paths. These are still in use within
Usenet message format Path header lines. They now have only an informational purpose, and are not used for
routing, although they can be used to ensure that loops do not occur.
In general, this form of e-mail address has now been superseded by the "@ notation", even by sites still using UUCP.
UUCPNET and mapping

UUCPNET was the name for the totality of the network of computers connected through UUCP. This network was
very informal, maintained in a spirit of mutual cooperation between systems owned by thousands of private
companies, universities, and so on. Often, particularly in the private sector, UUCP links were established without
official approval from the companies' upper management. The UUCP network was constantly changing as new
systems and dial-up links were added, others were removed, etc.
The UUCP Mapping Project was a volunteer, largely successful effort to build a map of the connections between
machines that were open mail relays and establish a managed namespace. Each system administrator would submit,
by e-mail, a list of the systems to which theirs would connect, along with a ranking for each such connection. These
submitted map entries were processed by an automatic program that combined them into a single set of files
describing all connections in the network. These files were then published monthly in a newsgroup dedicated to this
purpose. The UUCP map files could then be used by software such as "pathalias" to compute the best route path
from one machine to another for mail, and to supply this route automatically. The UUCP maps also listed contact
information for the sites, and so gave sites seeking to join UUCPNET an easy way to find prospective neighbors.
Connections with the Internet

Many UUCP hosts, particularly those at universities, were also connected to the Internet in its early years, and e-mail
gateways between Internet SMTP-based mail and UUCP mail were developed. A user at a system with UUCP
connections could thereby exchange mail with Internet users, and the Internet links could be used to bypass large
portions of the slow UUCP network. A "UUCP zone" was defined within the Internet domain namespace to facilitate
these interfaces.
With this infrastructure in place, UUCP's strength was that it permitted a site to gain Internet e-mail and Usenet
connectivity with only a dial-up modem link to another cooperating computer. This was at a time when true Internet
access required a leased data line providing a connection to an Internet Point of Presence, both of which were
expensive and difficult to arrange. By contrast, a link to the UUCP network could usually be established with a few
phone calls to the administrators of prospective neighbor systems. Neighbor systems were often close enough to
avoid all but the most basic charges for telephone calls.
UUCP 94
Remote commands
uux is remote command execution over UUCP. The uux command is used to execute a command on a remote
system, or to execute a command on the local system using files from remote systems. The command is run by the
uucico daemon which is not instant.
Decline
UUCP usage began to die out with the rise of Internet service providers offering inexpensive SLIP and PPP services.
The UUCP Mapping Project was formally shut down late in 2000.
The UUCP protocol has now mostly been replaced by the Internet TCP/IP based protocols SMTP for mail and
NNTP for Usenet news.
In July 2012, Dutch Internet provider XS4ALL closed down its UUCP service, claiming it was "probably one of the
last providers in the world that still offered it"; it still had 13 users at that time, and new users had been refused for
several years already.[6]
Last uses and legacy

One surviving feature of UUCP is the chat file format, largely inherited by the Expect software package.
UUCP was in use over special-purpose high cost links (e.g. marine satellite links) long after its disappearance
elsewhere,[7] and still remains in legacy use.
In the mid 2000s, UUCP over TCP/IP (often encrypted, using the SSH protocol[]) was proposed for use when a
computer does not have any fixed IP addresses but is still willing to run a standard mail transfer agent (MTA) like
Sendmail or Postfix.
Bang paths are still in use within the Usenet network, though not for routing; they are used to record the nodes
through which a message has passed, rather than to direct where it will go next. "Bang path" is also used as an
expression for any explicitly specified routing path between network hosts. That usage is not necessarily limited to
UUCP, IP routing, email messaging, or Usenet.
The concept of delay-tolerant networking protocols was revisited in the early 2000s. Similar techniques as those used
by UUCP can apply to other networks that experience delay or significant disruption.[8]
References
[3] Version 7 Unix manual: "UUCP Implementation Description" by D. A. Nowitz, and "A Dial-Up Network of UNIX Systems" by D. A.
Nowitz and M. E. Lesk (http:/ / cm. bell-labs. com/ 7thEdMan/ v7vol2b. pdf)
[6] Goodbye to UUCP (https:/ / blog. xs4all. nl/ 2012/ 07/ 30/ afscheid-van-uucp/ ), XS4ALL blog.
External links
• Using & Managing UUCP. Ed Ravin, Tim O'Reilly, Dale Doughtery, and Grace Todino. 1996, O'Reilly &
Associates, Inc. ISBN 1-56592-153-4
• Mark Horton (1986). RFC 976: UUCP Mail Interchange Format Standard. Internet Engineering Task Force
Requests for Comment.
• UUCP Internals Frequently Asked Questions (http://www.faqs.org/faqs/uucp-internals/)
• Setting up Taylor UUCP + qmail on FreeBSD 5.1 (http://ece.iisc.ernet.in/FAQ)
• Taylor UUCP (http://www.airs.com/ian/uucp.html) is a GPL licensed UUCP package.
• Taylor UUCP Documentation (http://www.airs.com/ian/uucp-doc/uucp.html) – useful information about
UUCP in general and various uucp protocols.
• The UUCP Project: History (http://www.uucp.org/history/)
UUCP 95
• The UUCP Mapping Project (http://www.uucp.org/uumap/)

• UUHECNET - Hobbyist UUCP network that offers free feeds (http://www.uuhec.net/)
USENET
Usenet is a worldwide distributed Internet discussion system. It was
developed from the general purpose UUCP dial-up network
architecture. Duke University graduate students Tom Truscott and Jim
Ellis conceived the idea in 1979 and it was established in 1980.[1]
Users read and post messages (called articles or posts, and collectively
termed news) to one or more categories, known as newsgroups. Usenet
resembles a bulletin board system (BBS) in many respects, and is the
precursor to Internet forums that are widely used today. Usenet can be
superficially regarded as a hybrid between email and web forums.
Discussions are threaded, as with web forums and BBSes, though posts
are stored on the server sequentially.
A diagram of Usenet servers and clients. The
One notable difference between a BBS or web forum and Usenet is the blue, green, and red dots on the servers represent
the groups they carry. Arrows between servers
absence of a central server and dedicated administrator. Usenet is
indicate newsgroup group exchanges (feeds).
distributed among a large, constantly changing conglomeration of Arrows between clients and servers indicate that a
servers that store and forward messages to one another in so-called user is subscribed to a certain group and reads or
news feeds. Individual users may read messages from and post submits articles.
messages to a local server operated by a commercial usenet provider,

their Internet service provider, university, employer, or their own server.
Introduction
Usenet is one of the oldest computer network communications systems still in widespread use. It was conceived in
1979 and publicly established in 1980 at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and Duke University,[1]
over a decade before the World Wide Web was developed and the general public received access to the Internet. It
was originally built on the "poor man's ARPANET," employing UUCP as its transport protocol to offer mail and file
transfers, as well as announcements through the newly developed news software such as A News. The name Usenet
emphasized its creators' hope that the USENIX organization would take an active role in its operation.[2]
The articles that users post to Usenet are organized into topical categories called newsgroups, which are themselves
logically organized into hierarchies of subjects. For instance, [news:sci.math sci.math] and
[news:sci.physics sci.physics] are within the sci.* hierarchy, for science. Or,
[news:talk.origins talk.origins], and [news:talk.atheism talk.atheism] are in the
talk.* hierarchy. When a user subscribes to a newsgroup, the news client software keeps track of which articles
that user has read.[3]
In most newsgroups, the majority of the articles are responses to some other article. The set of articles which can be
traced to one single non-reply article is called a thread. Most modern newsreaders display the articles arranged into
threads and subthreads.
When a user posts an article, it is initially only available on that user's news server. Each news server talks to one or
more other servers (its "newsfeeds") and exchanges articles with them. In this fashion, the article is copied from
server to server and should eventually reach every server in the network. The later peer-to-peer networks operate on
a similar principle; but for Usenet it is normally the sender, rather than the receiver, who initiates transfers. Some
USENET 96
have noted that this seems an inefficient protocol in the era of abundant high-speed network access. Usenet was
designed under conditions when networks were much slower, and not always available. Many sites on the original
[4]
Usenet network would connect only once or twice a day to batch-transfer messages in and out. This is largely
because the POTS (telephone) network was typically used for transfers, and phone charges were lower at night.
Usenet has significant cultural importance in the networked world, having given rise to, or popularized, many widely
recognized concepts and terms such as "FAQ" and "spam".[5]
The format and transmission of Usenet articles is similar to that of Internet e-mail messages. The difference between
the two is that Usenet articles can be read by any user whose news server carries the group to which the message was
posted, as opposed to email messages which have one or more specific recipients.[6]
Today, Usenet has diminished in importance with respect to Internet forums, blogs and mailing lists. Usenet differs
from such media in several ways: Usenet requires no personal registration with the group concerned; information
need not be stored on a remote server; archives are always available; and reading the messages requires not a mail or
web client, but a news client. The groups in alt.binaries are still widely used for data transfer.
ISPs, news servers, and newsfeeds

Many Internet service providers, and many other Internet sites, operate news servers for their users to access. ISPs
that do not operate their own servers directly will often offer their users an account from another provider that
specifically operates newsfeeds. In early news implementations, the server and newsreader were a single program
suite, running on the same system. Today, one uses separate newsreader client software, a program that resembles an
email client but accesses Usenet servers instead. Some clients such as Mozilla Thunderbird and Outlook Express
provide both abilities.
Not all ISPs run news servers. A news server is one of the most difficult Internet services to administer well because
of the large amount of data involved, small customer base (compared to mainstream Internet services such as email
and web access), and a disproportionately high volume of customer support incidents (frequently complaining of
missing news articles that are not the ISP's fault). Some ISPs outsource news operation to specialist sites, which will
usually appear to a user as though the ISP ran the server itself. Many sites carry a restricted newsfeed, with a limited
number of newsgroups. Commonly omitted from such a newsfeed are foreign-language newsgroups and the
alt.binaries hierarchy which largely carries software, music, videos and images, and accounts for over 99
percent of article data.
There are also Usenet providers that specialize in offering service to users whose ISPs do not carry news, or that
carry a restricted feed.
See also news server operation for an overview of how news systems are implemented.
Newsreaders
Newsgroups are typically accessed with newsreaders: applications that allow users to read and reply to postings in
newsgroups. These applications act as clients to one or more news servers. Although historically, Usenet was
associated with the Unix operating system developed at AT&T, newsreaders are available for all major operating
systems.[7] Modern mail clients or "communication suites" commonly also have an integrated newsreader. Often,
however, these integrated clients are of low quality, compared to standalone newsreaders, and incorrectly implement
Usenet protocols, standards and conventions. Many of these integrated clients, for example the one in Microsoft's
Outlook Express, are disliked by purists because of their misbehavior.[8]
With the rise of the World Wide Web (WWW), web front-ends (web2news) have become more common. Web front
ends have lowered the technical entry barrier requirements to that of one application and no Usenet NNTP server
account. There are numerous websites now offering web based gateways to Usenet groups, although some people
have begun filtering messages made by some of the web interfaces for one reason or another.[9][10] Google
USENET 97
[11]
Groups is one such web based front end and some web browsers can access Google Groups via news: protocol
links directly.[12]
Moderated and unmoderated newsgroups

A minority of newsgroups are moderated, meaning that messages submitted by readers are not distributed directly to
Usenet, but instead are emailed to the moderators of the newsgroup for approval. The moderator is to receive
submitted articles, review them, and inject approved articles so that they can be properly propagated worldwide.
Articles approved by a moderator must bear the Approved: header line. Moderators ensure that the messages that
readers see in the newsgroup conform to the charter of the newsgroup, though they are not required to follow any
such rules or guidelines.[13] Typically, moderators are appointed in the proposal for the newsgroup, and changes of
moderators follow a succession plan.[14]
Historically, a mod.* hierarchy existed before Usenet reorganization.[15] Now, moderated newsgroups may appear in
any hierarchy.
Usenet newsgroups in the Big-8 hierarchy are created by proposals called a Request for Discussion, or RFD. The
RFD is required to have the following information: newsgroup name, checkgroups file entry, and moderated or
unmoderated status. If the group is to be moderated, then at least one moderator with a valid email address must be
provided. Other information which is beneficial but not required includes: a charter, a rationale, and a moderation
policy if the group is to be moderated.[16] Discussion of the new newsgroup proposal follows, and is finished with
the members of the Big-8 Management Board making the decision, by vote, to either approve or disapprove the new
newsgroup.
Unmoderated newsgroups form the majority of Usenet newsgroups, and messages submitted by readers for
unmoderated newsgroups are immediately propagated for everyone to see. Minimal editorial content filtering vs
propagation speed form one crux of the Usenet community. One little cited defense of propagation is canceling a
propagated message, but few Usenet users use this command and some news readers do not offer cancellation
commands, in part because article storage expires in relatively short order anyway.
Creation of moderated newsgroups often becomes a hot subject of controversy, raising issues regarding censorship
and the desire of a subset of users to form an intentional community.
Technical details
Usenet is a set of protocols for generating, storing and retrieving news "articles" (which resemble Internet mail
messages) and for exchanging them among a readership which is potentially widely distributed. These protocols
most commonly use a flooding algorithm which propagates copies throughout a network of participating servers.
Whenever a message reaches a server, that server forwards the message to all its network neighbors that haven't yet
seen the article. Only one copy of a message is stored per server, and each server makes it available on demand to the
(typically local) readers able to access that server. The collection of Usenet servers has thus a certain peer-to-peer
character in that they share resources by exchanging them, the granularity of exchange however is on a different
scale than a modern peer-to-peer system and this characteristic excludes the actual users of the system who connect
to the news servers with a typical client-server application, much like an email reader.
RFC 850 was the first formal specification of the messages exchanged by Usenet servers. It was superseded by RFC
1036 and subsequently by RFC 5536 and RFC 5537.
In cases where unsuitable content has been posted, Usenet has support for automated removal of a posting from the
whole network by creating a cancel message, although due to a lack of authentication and resultant abuse, this
capability is frequently disabled. Copyright holders may still request the manual deletion of infringing material using
the provisions of World Intellectual Property Organization treaty implementations, such as the United States Online
Copyright Infringement Liability Limitation Act.
USENET 98
On the Internet, Usenet is transported via the Network News Transfer Protocol (NNTP) on TCP Port 119 for
standard, unprotected connections and on TCP port 563 for SSL encrypted connections which is offered only by a
few sites.
Organization
The major set of worldwide newsgroups is contained within nine
hierarchies, eight of which are operated under consensual guidelines
that govern their administration and naming. The current Big Eight are:
• comp.* – computer-related discussions (comp.software,
comp.sys.amiga)
• humanities.* – fine arts, literature, and philosophy
(humanities.classics, humanities.design.misc)
• misc.* – miscellaneous topics (misc.education, misc.forsale,
misc.kids)
• news.* – discussions and announcements about news (meaning
Usenet, not current events) (news.groups, news.admin)
• rec.* – recreation and entertainment (rec.music, rec.arts.movies) The "Big Nine" hierarchies of Usenet
• sci.* – science related discussions (sci.psychology, sci.research)

• soc.* – social discussions (soc.college.org, soc.culture.african)
• talk.* – talk about various controversial topics (talk.religion, talk.politics, talk.origins)
See also the Great Renaming.
The alt.* hierarchy is not subject to the procedures controlling groups in the Big Eight, and it is as a result less
organized. Groups in the alt.* hierarchy tend to be more specialized or specific—for example, there might be a
newsgroup under the Big Eight which contains discussions about children's books, but a group in the alt hierarchy
may be dedicated to one specific author of children's books. Binaries are posted in alt.binaries.*, making it the
largest of all the hierarchies.
Many other hierarchies of newsgroups are distributed alongside these. Regional and language-specific hierarchies
such as japan.*, malta.* and ne.* serve specific countries and regions such as Japan, Malta and New England.
Companies and projects administer their own hierarchies to discuss their products and offer community technical
support, such as the historical gnu.* hierarchy from the Free Software Foundation. Microsoft closed its newsserver in
June 2010, providing support for its products over forums now.[17] Some users prefer to use the term "Usenet" to
refer only to the Big Eight hierarchies; others include alt as well. The more general term "netnews" incorporates the
entire medium, including private organizational news systems.
Informal sub-hierarchy conventions also exist. *.answers are typically moderated cross-post groups for FAQs. An
FAQ would be posted within one group and a cross post to the *.answers group at the head of the hierarchy seen by
some as a refining of information in that news group. Some subgroups are recursive—to the point of some silliness
in alt.*.
USENET 99
Binary content
Usenet was originally created to distribute
text content encoded in the 7-bit ASCII
character set. With the help of programs that
encode 8-bit values into ASCII, it became
practical to distribute binary files as content.
Binary posts, due to their size and
often-dubious copyright status, were in time
restricted to specific newsgroups, making it A visual example of the many complex steps required to prepare data to be
uploaded to Usenet newsgroups. These steps must be done again in reverse to
easier for administrators to allow or disallow
download data from Usenet.
the traffic.
The oldest widely used encoding method for binary content is uuencode, from the Unix UUCP package. In the late
1980s, Usenet articles were often limited to 60,000 characters, and larger hard limits exist today. Files are therefore
commonly split into sections that require reassembly by the reader.
With the header extensions and the Base64 and Quoted-Printable MIME encodings, there was a new generation of
binary transport. In practice, MIME has seen increased adoption in text messages, but it is avoided for most binary
attachments. Some operating systems with metadata attached to files use specialized encoding formats. For Mac OS,
both Binhex and special MIME types are used.
Other lesser known encoding systems that may have been used at one time were BTOA, XX encoding, BOO, and
USR encoding.
In an attempt to reduce file transfer times, an informal file encoding known as yEnc was introduced in 2001. It
achieves about a 30% reduction in data transferred by assuming that most 8-bit characters can safely be transferred
across the network without first encoding into the 7-bit ASCII space.
The most common method of uploading large binary posts to Usenet is to convert the files into RAR archives and
create Parchive files for them. Parity files are used to recreate missing data when not every part of the files reaches a
server.
USENET 100
Binary retention time
Each newsgroup is generally allocated a

certain amount of storage space for post
content. When this storage has been filled,
each time a new post arrives, old posts are
deleted to make room for the new content. If
the network bandwidth available to a server
is high but the storage allocation is small, it
is possible for a huge flood of incoming
content to overflow the allocation and push
out everything that was in the group before
it. If the flood is large enough, the beginning
of the flood will begin to be deleted even
before the last part of the flood has been
posted.
Binary newsgroups are only able to function
reliably if there is sufficient storage
allocated to a group to allow readers enough This is a list of some of the biggest binary groups. With 1317+ days retention, the
time to download all parts of a binary (binary) Usenet storage (which binsearch.info indexes) is more than 9 petabytes
[18]
posting before it is flushed out of the group's (9000 terabytes).
storage allocation. This was at one time how

posting of undesired content was countered; the newsgroup would be flooded with random garbage data posts, of
sufficient quantity to push out all the content to be suppressed. This has been compensated by service providers
allocating enough storage to retain everything posted each day, including such spam floods, without deleting
anything.
The average length of time that posts are able to stay in the group before being deleted is commonly called the
retention time. Generally the larger Usenet servers have enough capacity to archive several years of binary content
even when flooded with new data at the maximum daily speed available. A good binaries service provider must not
only accommodate users of fast connections (3 megabit) but also users of slow connections (256 kilobit or less) who
need more time to download content over a period of several days or weeks.
Major NSPs have a retention time of more than 4 years.[19] This results in more than 9 petabytes (9000 terabytes) of
storage. [20]
In part because of such long retention times, as well as growing Internet upload speeds, Usenet is also used by
individual users to store backup data in a practice called Usenet backup, or uBackup.[21] While commercial providers
offer more easy to use online backup services, storing data on Usenet is free of charge (although access to Usenet
itself may not be). The method requires the user to manually select, prepare and upload the data. Because anyone can
potentially download the backup files, the data is typically encrypted. After the files are uploaded, the uploader does
not have any control over them; the files are automatically copied to all Usenet providers, so there will be multiple
copies of it spread over different geographical locations around the world — desirable in a backup scheme.
USENET 101
Legal issues
While binary newsgroups can be used to distribute completely legal user-created works, open-source software, and
public domain material, some binary groups are used to illegally distribute commercial software, copyrighted media,
and obscene material.
ISP-operated Usenet servers frequently block access to all alt.binaries.* groups to both reduce network traffic and to
avoid related legal issues. Commercial Usenet service providers claim to operate as a telecommunications service,
and assert that they are not responsible for the user-posted binary content transferred via their equipment. In the
United States, Usenet providers can qualify for protection under the DMCA Safe Harbor regulations, provided that
they establish a mechanism to comply with and respond to takedown notices from copyright holders.[22]
Removal of copyrighted content from the entire Usenet network is a nearly impossible task, due to the rapid
propagation between servers and the retention done by each server. Petitioning a Usenet provider for removal only
removes it from that one server's retention cache, but not any others. It is possible for a special post cancellation
message to be distributed to remove it from all servers, but many providers ignore cancel messages by standard
policy, because they can be easily falsified and submitted by anyone.[23][24] For a takedown petition to be most
effective across the whole network, it would have to be issued to the origin server to which the content has been
posted, before it has been propagated to other servers. Removal of the content at this early stage would prevent
further propagation, but with modern high speed links, content can be propagated as fast as it arrives, allowing no
time for content review and takedown issuance by copyright holders.[25]
Establishing the identity of the person posting illegal content is equally difficult due to the trust-based design of the
network. Like SMTP email, servers generally assume the header and origin information in a post is true and
accurate. However, as in SMTP email, Usenet post headers are easily falsified so as to obscure the true identity and
location of the message source.[26] In this manner, Usenet is significantly different from modern P2P services; most
P2P users distributing content are typically immediately identifiable to all other users by their network address, but
the origin information for a Usenet posting can be completely obscured and unobtainable once it has propagated past
the original server.[27][28]
Also unlike modern P2P services, the identity of the downloaders is hidden from view. On P2P services a
downloader is identifiable to all others by their network address. On Usenet, the downloader connects directly to a
server, and only the server knows the address of who is connecting to it. Some Usenet providers do keep usage logs,
but not all make this logged information casually available to outside parties such as the Recording Industry
Association of America.[29][30]
History
Newsgroup experiments first occurred in 1979. Tom Truscott and Jim Ellis of Duke University came up with the
idea as a replacement for a local announcement program, and established a link with nearby University of North
Carolina using Bourne shell scripts written by Steve Bellovin. The public release of news was in the form of
conventional compiled software, written by Steve Daniel and Truscott.[31] In 1980, Usenet was connected to
ARPANET through UC Berkeley which had connections to both Usenet and ARPANET. Michael Horton, the
graduate student that set up the connection, began “feeding mailing lists from the ARPANET into Usenet” with the
“fa” identifier. As a result, the number of people on Usenet increased dramatically; however, it was still a while
longer before Usenet users could contribute to ARPANET.[32] After 32 years, the Usenet news service link at the
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (news.unc.edu) was finally retired on February 4, 2011.
USENET 102
Network
UUCP networks spread quickly due to the lower costs involved, and the ability to use existing leased lines, X.25
links or even ARPANET connections. By 1983, the number of UUCP hosts had grown to 550, nearly doubling to
940 in 1984.[33]
As the mesh of UUCP hosts rapidly expanded, it became desirable to distinguish the Usenet subset from the overall
network. A vote was taken at the 1982 USENIX conference to choose a new name. The name Usenet was retained,
but it was established that it only applied to news.[34] The name UUCPNET became the common name for the
overall network.
In addition to UUCP, early Usenet traffic was also exchanged with Fidonet and other dial-up BBS networks.
Widespread use of Usenet by the BBS community was facilitated by the introduction of UUCP feeds made possible
by MS-DOS implementations of UUCP such as UFGATE (UUCP to FidoNet Gateway), FSUUCP and UUPC. The
Network News Transfer Protocol, or NNTP, was introduced in 1985 to distribute Usenet articles over TCP/IP as a
more flexible alternative to informal Internet transfers of UUCP traffic. Since the Internet boom of the 1990s, almost
all Usenet distribution is over NNTP.[35]
Software
Early versions of Usenet used Duke's A News software. Soon, at UC Berkeley, Matt Glickman and Mark Horton
produced an improved version called B News. With a message format that offered compatibility with Internet mail
and improved performance, it became the dominant server software. C News, developed by Geoff Collyer and Henry
Spencer at the University of Toronto, was comparable to B News in features but offered considerably faster
processing. In the early 1990s, InterNetNews by Rich Salz was developed to take advantage of the continuous
message flow made possible by NNTP versus the batched store-and-forward design of UUCP. Since that time INN
development has continued, and other news server software has also been developed.[36]
Public venue
Usenet was the initial Internet community and the place for many of the most important public developments in the
commercial Internet. It was the place where Tim Berners-Lee announced the launch of the World Wide Web,[37]
where Linus Torvalds announced the Linux project,[38] and where Marc Andreessen announced the creation of the
Mosaic browser and the introduction of the image tag,[39] which revolutionized the World Wide Web by turning it
into a graphical medium.
Internet jargon and history

Many jargon terms now in common use on the Internet originated or were popularized on Usenet.[40] Likewise,
many conflicts which later spread to the rest of the Internet, such as the ongoing difficulties over spamming, began
on Usenet.[41]
"Usenet is like a herd of performing elephants with diarrhea. Massive, difficult to redirect, awe-inspiring,
entertaining, and a source of mind-boggling amounts of excrement when you least expect it."
— Gene Spafford, 1992
Decline in growth rate

Sascha Segan of PC Magazine said in 2008 "Usenet has been dying for years". Segan said that some people pointed
to the Eternal September in 1993 as the beginning of Usenet's decline. Segan said that the "eye candy" on the World
Wide Web and the marketing funds spent by owners of websites convinced Internet users to use profit-making
websites instead of Usenet servers. In addition, DejaNews and Google Groups made conversations searchable, and
Segan said that this removed the obscurity of previously obscure Internet groups on Usenet. Segan explained that
USENET 103
when pornographers and software pirates began putting large files on Usenet by the late 1990s, Usenet disk space
and traffic increased correspondingly. Internet service providers allocated space to Usenet libraries, and Internet
service providers questioned why they needed to host space for pornography and pirated software. Segan said that
the hosting of porn and pirated software was "likely when Usenet became truly doomed" and "[i]t's the porn that's
putting nails in Usenet's coffin". AOL discontinued Usenet access in 2005. When the State of New York opened an
investigation on child pornographers who used Usenet, many ISPs dropped all Usenet access or access to the alt.*
hierarchy. Segan concluded "It's hard to completely kill off something as totally decentralized as Usenet; as long as
two servers agree to share the NNTP protocol, it'll continue on in some fashion. But the Usenet I mourn is long
gone".[42]
In response, John Biggs of TechCrunch said "Is Usenet dead, as Sascha posits? I don’t think so. As long as there are
folks who think a command line is better than a mouse, the original text-only social network will live on". Biggs
added that while many Internet service providers terminated access, "the real pros know where to go to get their
angst-filled, nit-picking, obsessive fix".[43]
In May 2010, Duke University, whose implementation had kicked off Usenet more than 30 years earlier,
decommissioned its Usenet server, citing low usage and rising costs.[44][45]
Usenet traffic changes

Over time, the amount of Usenet traffic has steadily increased. As of 2010[46] the number of all text posts made in
all Big-8 newsgroups averaged 1,800 new messages every hour, with an average of 25,000 messages per day.[]
However, these averages are minuscule in comparison to the traffic in the binary groups.[47] Much of this traffic
increase reflects not an increase in discrete users or newsgroup discussions, but instead the combination of massive
automated spamming and an increase in the use of .binaries newsgroups[] in which large files are often posted
publicly. A small sampling of the change (measured in feed size per day) follows:
Daily Volume Date Source
4.5 GB 1996-12 Altopia.com
9 GB 1997-07 Altopia.com
1.30 TB 2004-09-30 Octanews.net

USENET 104
1.52 TB 2005-01 Altopia.com
1.30 TB 2005-01-01 Newsreader.com
1.87 TB 2005-03-08 Newsreader.com
2.00 TB 2005-03-11 Various sources
3.80 TB 2008-04-16 Newsdemon.com
4.60 TB 2008-11-01 Giganews.com
6.00 TB 2009-12 Newsdemon.com
8.00 TB 2010-09 Newsdemon.com
8.25 TB 2011-10 Thecubenet.com
In 2008, Verizon Communications, Time Warner Cable and Sprint Nextel signed an agreement with Attorney
General of New York Andrew Cuomo to shut down access to sources of child pornography.[48] Time Warner Cable
stopped offering access to Usenet. Verizon reduced its access to the "Big 8" hierarchies. Sprint stopped access to the
alt.* hierarchies. AT&T stopped access to the alt.binaries.* hierarchies. Cuomo never specifically named Usenet in
his anti-child pornography campaign. David DeJean of PC World said that some worry that the ISPs used Cuomo's
campaign as an excuse to end portions of Usenet access, as it is costly for the Internet service providers and not in
high demand by customers. In 2008 AOL, which no longer offered Usenet access, and the four providers that
responded to the Cuomo campaign were the five largest Internet service providers in the United States; they had
more than 50% of the U.S. ISP marketshare.[49] On June 8, 2009, AT&T announced that it would no longer provide
access to the Usenet service as of July 15, 2009.[]
AOL announced that it would discontinue its integrated Usenet service in early 2005, citing the growing popularity
of weblogs, chat forums and on-line conferencing.[50] The AOL community had a tremendous role in popularizing
Usenet some 11 years earlier.[51]
In August 2009, Verizon announced that it would discontinue access to Usenet on September 30, 2009.[52][53]
JANET(UK) announced it will discontinue Usenet service, effective July 31, 2010, citing Google Groups as an
alternative.[54] Microsoft announced that it would discontinue support for its public newsgroups
(msnews.microsoft.com) from June 1, 2010, offering web forums as an alternative.[55]
Primary reasons cited for the discontinuance of Usenet service by general ISPs include the decline in volume of
actual readers due to competition from blogs, along with cost and liability concerns of increasing proportion of
traffic devoted to file-sharing and spam on unused or discontinued groups.[56][57]
Some ISPs did not include pressure from Attorney General of New York Andrew Cuomo's aggressive campaign
against child pornography as one of their reasons for dropping Usenet feeds as part of their services.[58] ISPs Cox
and Atlantic Communications resisted the 2008 trend but both did eventually drop their respective Usenet feeds in
USENET 105
2010.[][][59]
Archives
Public archives of Usenet articles have existed since the early days of Usenet, such as the system created by Kenneth
Almquist in late 1982.[60][61] Distributed archiving of Usenet posts was suggested in November 1982 by Scott
[62]
Orshan, who proposed that "Every site should keep all the articles it posted, forever." Also in November of that
year, Rick Adams responded to a post asking "Has anyone archived netnews, or does anyone plan to?"[63] by stating
that he was, "afraid to admit it, but I started archiving most 'useful' newsgroups as of September 18."[64] In June
1982, Gregory G. Woodbury proposed an "automatic access to archives" system that consisted of "automatic
answering of fixed-format messages to a special mail recipient on specified machines." [65]
In 1985, two news archiving systems and one RFC were posted to the Internet. The first system, called keepnews, by
Mark M. Swenson of The University of Arizona, was described as "a program that attempts to provide a sane way of
extracting and keeping information that comes over Usenet." The main advantage of this system was to allow users
to mark articles as worthwhile to retain.[66] The second system, YA News Archiver by Chuq Von Rospach, was
similar to keepnews, but was "designed to work with much larger archives where the wonderful quadratic search
time feature of the Unix ... becomes a real problem."[67] Von Rospach in early 1985 posted a detailed RFC for
"archiving and accessing usenet articles with keyword lookup." This RFC described a program that could "generate
and maintain an archive of Usenet articles and allow looking up articles based on the article-id, subject lines, or
keywords pulled out of the article itself." Also included was C code for the internal data structure of the system.[68]
The desire to have a fulltext search index of archived news articles is not new either, one such request having been
made in April 1991 by Alex Martelli who sought to "build some sort of keyword index for [the news archive]."[69] In
early May, Mr. Martelli posted a summary of his responses to Usenet, noting that the "most popular suggestion
award must definitely go to 'lq-text' package, by Liam Quin, recently posted in alt.sources."[70]
Today, the archiving of Usenet has led to a fear of loss of privacy.[71] An archive simplifies ways to profile people.
This has partly been countered with the introduction of the X-No-Archive: Yes header, which is itself
controversial.[72]
Archives by Google Groups and DejaNews

Web-based archiving of Usenet posts began in 1995 at Deja News with a very large, searchable database. In 2001,
this database was acquired by Google.[73]
Google Groups hosts an archive of Usenet posts dating back to May 1981. The earliest posts, which date from May
1981 to June 1991, were donated to Google by the University of Western Ontario with the help of David Wiseman
and others,[74] and were originally archived by Henry Spencer at the University of Toronto's Zoology department.[75]
The archives for late 1991 through early 1995 were provided by Kent Landfield from the NetNews CD series[76] and
Jürgen Christoffel from GMD.[77] The archive of posts from March 1995 onward was started by the company
DejaNews (later Deja), which was purchased by Google in February 2001. Google began archiving Usenet posts for
itself starting in the second week of August 2000.
USENET 106
Notes
[1] From Usenet to CoWebs: interacting with social information spaces, Christopher Lueg, Danyel Fisher, Springer (2003), ISBN
1-85233-532-7, ISBN 978-1-85233-532-8
[2] "Invitation to a General Access UNIX Network (http:/ / www. newsdemon. com/ first-official-announcement-usenet. php)", James Ellis and
Tom Truscott, in First Official Announcement of USENET, NewsDemon (K&L Technologies, Inc), 1979
[3] Lehnert, Wendy G.; Kopec, Richard (2007). Web 101. Addison Wesley. p. 291.
[4] . Carnegie Mellon School of Computer Science.
[6] Kozierok, Charles M. (2005). The TCP/IP guide: a comprehensive, illustrated Internet protocols reference. No Starch Press. p. 1401.
[17] Microsoft Responds to the Evolution of Communities (http:/ / www. microsoft. com/ communities/ newsgroups/ default. mspx),
Announcement, undated. , CNET, May 4, 2010.
[24] Microsoft knowledgebase article stating that many servers ignore cancel messages
[26] ...every part of a Usenet post may be forged apart from the left most portion of the "Path:" header...
[31] LaQuey, Tracy (1990). The User's directory of computer networks. Digital Press. p. 386.
[32] Hauben, Michael and Hauben, Rhonda. “Netizens: On the History and Impact of Usenet and the Internet, On the Early Days of Usenet: The
Roots of the Cooperative Online Culture”. First Monday vol. 3 num.August 8, 3 1998
[33] Haddadi, H. (2006). "Network Traffic Inference Using Sampled Statistics." University College London.
[35] Huston, Geoff (1999). ISP survival guide: strategies for running a competitive ISP. Wiley. p. 439.
[43] "." TechCrunch. August 1, 2008. Retrieved on May 8, 2011.
[46] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Usenet& action=edit
[48] Rosencrance, Lisa. "." Computer World. June 8, 2008. Retrieved on April 30, 2009.
[49] DeJean, David. "Usenet: Not Dead Yet." PC World. Tuesday October 7, 2008. . Retrieved on April 30, 2009.
[50] Hu, Jim. "." CNet. January 25, 2005. Retrieved on May 1, 2009.
[52] Bode, Karl. "". DSLReports. August 31, 2009. Retrieved on October 24, 2009.
[53] "" Verizon Central Support. Retrieved on October 24, 2009.
[54] Ukerna.ac.uk (http:/ / www. ukerna. ac. uk/ services/ news/ index. html)
[72] Strawbridge, Matthew (2006). Netiquette: Internet Etiquette in the Age of the Blog. Software Reference. p. 53.
[73] Cullen, Drew (February 12, 2001). . The Register.
[74] Wiseman, David. "Magi's NetNews Archive Involvement" (http:/ / www. csd. uwo. ca/ ~magi/ personal/ usenet. html), csd.uwo.ca
[75] Mieszkowski, Katharine. "", archive.salon.com (January 7, 2002).
[76] Feldman, Ian. , "TidBITS" (February 10, 1992)
[77] "" (December 21, 2001)
References
• Bruce Jones, archiver (1997). USENET History mailing list archive (http://communication.ucsd.edu/bjones/
Usenet.Hist/Nethist/index.html) covering 1990–1997. communication.ucsd.edu
• Michael Hauben, Ronda Hauben, and Thomas Truscott (April 27, 1997). Netizens: On the History and Impact of
Usenet and the Internet (Perspectives). Wiley-IEEE Computer Society P. ISBN 0-8186-7706-6.
• Bryan Pfaffenberger (December 31, 1994). The USENET Book: Finding, Using, and Surviving Newsgroups on
the Internet. Addison Wesley. ISBN 0-201-40978-X.
• Kate Gregory, Jim Mann, Tim Parker, and Noel Estabrook (June 1995). Using Usenet Newsgroups. Que.
ISBN 0-7897-0134-0.
• Mark Harrison (July 1995). The USENET Handbook (Nutshell Handbook). O'Reilly. ISBN 1-56592-101-1.
• Henry Spencer, David Lawrence (January 1998). Managing Usenet. O'Reilly. ISBN 1-56592-198-4.
• Don Rittner (June 1997). Rittner's Field Guide to Usenet. MNS Publishing. ISBN 0-937666-50-5.
• Konstan, J., Miller, B., Maltz, D., Herlocker, J., Gordon, L., and Riedl, J. (March 1997). "GroupLens: applying
collaborative filtering to Usenet news" (http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?doid=245108.245126).
Communications of the ACM 40 (3): 77–87. doi: 10.1145/245108.245126 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/245108.
245126). Retrieved June 29, 2009.
• Miller, B., Riedl, J., and Konstan, J. (January 1997). "Experiences with GroupLens: Making Usenet useful again"
(http://www.grouplens.org/papers/pdf/usenix97.pdf). Proceedings of the 1997 Usenix Winter Technical
Conference.
USENET 107
• "20 Year Usenet Timeline" (http://www.google.com/googlegroups/archive_announce_20.html). Google.

Retrieved June 27, 2006.
• "Web 2.0, Meet Usenet 1.0" (http://www.linux-mag.com/id/2675/). Linux Magazine. Retrieved February 13,
2007.
• Schwartz, Randal (June 15, 2006). "Web 2.0, Meet Usenet 1.0" (http://www.linux-mag.com/id/2675/).
Retrieved June 4, 2007.
• Kleiner, Dmytri; Wyrick, Brian (January 29, 2007). "InfoEnclosure 2.0" (http://www.metamute.org/
InfoEnclosure-2.0). Retrieved June 4, 2007.
External links
• Usenet information, software, and service providers (http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Usenet/) at the Open
Directory Project
• Usenet servers (http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Software/Internet/Servers/Usenet/) at the Open Directory
Project
• Public News Servers (http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Usenet/Public_News_Servers/) at the Open
Directory Project
• IETF working group USEFOR (http://tools.ietf.org/wg/usefor/) (USEnet article FORmat), tools.ietf.org
• son-of-1036 (http://purl.net/xyzzy/home/test/son-of-1.036) (287 KB, historical RFC 1036 bis draft), purl.net
• A-News Archive (http://quux.org:70/Archives/usenet-a-news/): Early Usenet news articles: 1981 to 1982.,
quux.org
• UTZoo Archive (http://www.skrenta.com/rt/utzoo-usenet/): 2,000,000 articles from early 1980s to July 1991
• "Netscan" (http://web.archive.org/web/*/http://netscan.research.microsoft.com). Archived from the
original (http://research.microsoft.com/en-us/groups/scg/) on June 29, 2009. Social Accounting Reporting
Tool
• Living Internet (http://www.livinginternet.com/u/u.htm) A comprehensive history of the Internet, including
Usenet. livinginternet.com
• lq-text (http://www.holoweb.net/~liam/lq-text/) text retrieval package mentioned in the article.
• Usenet Glossary (http://www.harley.com/usenet/usenet-tutorial/glossary.html) A comprehensive list of
Usenet terminology
• "Big 8 Management Board" (http://web.archive.org/web/20080130015435/http://www.big-8.org/).
Archived from the original (http://big-8.org/) on January 30, 2008. Group creation and maintenance in the Big
8 hierarchies.
• Michael Hauben (Fall 1992). "The Evolution Of Usenet News: The Poor Man's Arpanet" (http://www.
virtualschool.edu/mon/Internet/HaubenEvolutionNetnews.html). Retrieved May 24, 2010.
• "Giganews Deconstructs Cuomo's Child Porn 'Crackdown'" (http://www.dslreports.com/shownews/
Giganews-Deconstructs-Cuomos-Child-Porn-Crackdown-98446). Retrieved September 1, 2011.
• "Latest Child Porn Fight Mostly Empty Rhetoric" (http://www.dslreports.com/shownews/96203). Retrieved
September 1, 2011.
• "N.Y. AG says AOL will curb access to Usenet. It already did" (http://news.cnet.com/
8301-13578_3-9988278-38.html?hhTest=1â =rss&subj=news&tag=2547-1_3-0-20). Retrieved September 1,
2011.
• "Analysis of Cuomo Crusade shows little results." (http://www.giganews.com/blog/2008/09/
clearing-air-usenet-abuse-eliminating.html). Retrieved September 1, 2011.
X.25 108
X.25
X.25 is an ITU-T standard protocol suite for
packet switched wide area network (WAN)
communication. An X.25 WAN consists of
packet-switching exchange (PSE) nodes as
the networking hardware, and leased lines,
plain old telephone service connections or
ISDN connections as physical links. X.25 is
a family of protocols that was popular
during the 1980s with telecommunications
companies and in financial transaction
systems such as automated teller machines.
X.25 was originally defined by the
International Telegraph and Telephone
Consultative Committee (CCITT, now X.25 network diagram.
ITU-T) in a series of drafts[1] and finalized
in a publication known as The Orange Book in 1976.[2]
While X.25 has been, to a large extent, replaced by less complex protocols, especially the Internet protocol (IP), the
service is still used and available in niche and legacy applications.[citation needed]
History
X.25 is one of the oldest packet-switched services available. It was developed before the OSI Reference Model.[3]
The protocol suite is designed as three conceptual layers, which correspond closely to the lower three layers of the
seven-layer OSI model.[4] It also supports functionality not found in the OSI network layer.[5][6]
X.25 was developed in the ITU-T (formerly CCITT) Study Group VII based upon a number of emerging data
network projects.[7] Various updates and additions were worked into the standard, eventually recorded in the ITU
series of technical books describing the telecommunication systems. These books were published every fourth year
with different-colored covers. The X.25 specification is only part of the larger set of X-Series[8] specifications on
public data networks.[]
The public data network was the common name given to the international collection of X.25 providers. Their
combined network had large global coverage during the 1980s and into the 1990s.[9]
Publicly accessible X.25 networks (Compuserve, Tymnet, Euronet, PSS, Datapac, Datanet 1 and Telenet) were set
up in most countries during the 1970s and 80s, to lower the cost of accessing various online services.
Beginning in the early 1990s in North America, use of X.25 networks (predominated by Telenet and Tymnet)[9]
began being replaced with Frame Relay service offered by national telephone companies.[10] Most systems that
required X.25 now utilize TCP/IP, however it is possible to transport X.25 over IP when necessary.[11]
X.25 networks are still in use throughout the world. A variant called AX.25 is also used widely by amateur packet
radio. Racal Paknet, now known as Widanet, is still in operation in many regions of the world, running on an X.25
protocol base. In some countries, like the Netherlands or Germany, it is possible to use a stripped version of X.25 via
the D-channel of an ISDN-2 (or ISDN BRI) connection for low volume applications such as point-of-sale terminals;
but, the future of this service in the Netherlands is uncertain.
Additionally X.25 is still under heavy use in the aeronautical business (especially in the Asian region) even though a
transition to modern protocols like X.400 is without option as X.25 hardware becomes increasingly rare and
X.25 109
costly.Wikipedia:Please clarify As recently as March 2006, the National Airspace Data Interchange Network has
used X.25 to interconnect remote airfields with Air Route Traffic Control Centers.
France was one of last remaining countries where commercial end-user service based on X.25 operated. Known as
Minitel it was based on Videotex, itself running on X.25. In 2002 Minitel had about 9 million users, and in 2011 it
still accounted for about 2 million users in France when France Télécom announced it would completely shut down
the service by 30 June 2012.[12] As planned, service was terminated 30 June 2012. There were 800 000 terminals still
in operation at the time.[13]
Architecture
The general concept of X.25 was to create a universal and global packet-switched network. Much of the X.25 system
is a description of the rigorous error correction needed to achieve this, as well as more efficient sharing of
capital-intensive physical resources.
The X.25 specification defines only the interface between a subscriber (DTE) and an X.25 network (DCE). X.75, a
very similar protocol to X.25, defines the interface between two X.25 networks to allow connections to traverse two
or more networks. X.25 does not specify how the network operates internally—many X.25 network implementations
used something very similar to X.25 or X.75 internally, but others used quite different protocols internally. The ISO
equivalent protocol to X.25, ISO 8208, is compatible with X.25, but additionally includes provision for two X.25
DTEs to be directly connected to each other with no network in between. By separating the Packet-Layer Protocol,
ISO 8208 permits operation over additional networks such as ISO 8802 LLC2 (ISO LAN) and the OSI data link
layer.[14]
X.25 originally defined three basic protocol levels or architectural layers. In the original specifications these were
referred to as levels and also had a level number, whereas all ITU-T X.25 recommendations and ISO 8208 standards
released after 1984 refer to them as layers.[15] The layer numbers were dropped to avoid confusion with the OSI
Model layers.[1]
• Physical layer: This layer specifies the physical, electrical, functional and procedural characteristics to control the
physical link between a DTE and a DCE. Common implementations use X.21, EIA-232, EIA-449 or other serial
protocols.
• Data link layer: The data link layer consists of the link access procedure for data interchange on the link between
a DTE and a DCE. In its implementation, the Link Access Procedure, Balanced (LAPB) is a data link protocol
that manages a communication session and controls the packet framing. It is a bit-oriented protocol that provides
error correction and orderly delivery.
• Packet layer: This layer defined a packet-layer protocol for exchanging control and user data packets to form a
packet-switching network based on virtual calls, according to the Packet Layer Protocol.
The X.25 model was based on the traditional telephony concept of establishing reliable circuits through a shared
network, but using software to create "virtual calls" through the network. These calls interconnect "data terminal
equipment" (DTE) providing endpoints to users, which looked like point-to-point connections. Each endpoint can
establish many separate virtual calls to different endpoints.
For a brief period, the specification also included a connectionless datagram service, but this was dropped in the next
revision. The "fast select with restricted response facility" is intermediate between full call establishment and
connectionless communication. It is widely used in query-response transaction applications involving a single
request and response limited to 128 bytes of data carried each way. The data is carried in an extended call request
packet and the response is carried in an extended field of the call reject packet, with a connection never being fully
established.
Closely related to the X.25 protocol are the protocols to connect asynchronous devices (such as dumb terminals and
printers) to an X.25 network: X.3, X.28 and X.29. This functionality was performed using a Packet
X.25 110
Assembler/Disassembler or PAD (also known as a Triple-X device, referring to the three protocols used).
Relation to the OSI Reference Model

Although X.25 predates the OSI Reference Model (OSIRM), the physical Layer of the OSI model corresponds to the
X.25 physical layer, the data link layer to the X.25 data link layer, and the network layer to the X.25 packet layer.[]
The X.25 data link layer, LAPB, provides a reliable data path across a data link (or multiple parallel data links,
multilink) which may not be reliable itself. The X.25 packet layer, provides the virtual call mechanisms, running
over X.25 LAPB. The packet layer includes mechanisms to maintain virtual calls and to signal data errors in the
event that the data link layer cannot recover from data transmission errors. All but the earliest versions of X.25
include facilities[16] which provide for OSI network layer Addressing (NSAP addressing, see below).[17]
User device support

X.25 was developed in the era of computer terminals connecting to
host computers, although it also can be used for communications
between computers. Instead of dialing directly “into” the host computer
– which would require the host to have its own pool of modems and
phone lines, and require non-local callers to make long-distance calls –
the host could have an X.25 connection to a network service provider.
Now dumb-terminal users could dial into the network's local “PAD”
(Packet Assembly/Disassembly facility), a gateway device connecting
modems and serial lines to the X.25 link as defined by the X.29 and
X.3 standards.
A Televideo terminal model 925 made around
Having connected to the PAD, the dumb-terminal user tells the PAD 1982
which host to connect to, by giving a phone-number-like address in the

X.121 address format (or by giving a host name, if the service provider allows for names that map to X.121
addresses). The PAD then places an X.25 call to the host, establishing a virtual call. Note that X.25 provides for
virtual calls, so appears to be a circuit switched network, even though in fact the data itself is packet switched
internally, similar to the way TCP provides connections even though the underlying data is packet switched. Two
X.25 hosts could, of course, call one another directly; no PAD is involved in this case. In theory, it doesn't matter
whether the X.25 caller and X.25 destination are both connected to the same carrier, but in practice it was not always
possible to make calls from one carrier to another.
For the purpose of flow-control, a sliding window protocol is used with the default window size of 2. The
acknowledgements may have either local or end to end significance. A D bit (Data Delivery bit) in each data packet
indicates if the sender requires end to end acknowledgement. When D=1, it means that the acknowledgement has end
to end significance and must take place only after the remote DTE has acknowledged receipt of the data. When D=0,
the network is permitted (but not required) to acknowledge before the remote DTE has acknowledged or even
received the data.
While the PAD function defined by X.28 and X.29 specifically supported asynchronous character terminals, PAD
equivalents were developed to support a wide range of proprietary intelligent communications devices, such as those
for IBM System Network Architecture (SNA).
X.25 111
Error control
Error recovery procedures at the packet layer assume that the data link layer is responsible for retransmitting data
received in error. Packet layer error handling focuses on resynchronizing the information flow in calls, as well as
clearing calls that have gone into unrecoverable states:
• Level 3 Reset packets, which re-initializes the flow on a virtual call (but does not break the virtual call)
• Restart packet, which clears down all virtual calls on the data link and resets all permanent virtual circuits on the
data link
Addressing and virtual circuits

X.25 supports two types of virtual circuits, virtual calls (VC) and
permanent virtual circuits (PVC). Virtual calls are established on an
as-needed basis. For example, a VC is established when a call is placed
and torn down after the call is complete. VCs are established through a
call establishment and clearing procedure. On the other hand,
permanent virtual circuits are preconfigured into the network.[18] PVCs
are seldom torn down and thus provide a dedicated connection between An X.25 Modem once used to connect to the
German Datex-P network.
end points.
VC may be established using X.121 addresses. The X.121 address consists of a three-digit data country code (DCC)
plus a network digit, together forming the four-digit data network identification code (DNIC), followed by the
national terminal number (NTN) of at most ten digits. Note the use of a single network digit, seemingly allowing for
only 10 network carriers per country, but some countries are assigned more than one DCC to avoid this limitation.
Networks often used fewer than the full NTN digits for routing, and made the spare digits available to the subscriber
(sometimes called the sub-address) where they could be used to identify applications or for further routing on the
subscribers networks.
NSAP addressing facility was added in the X.25(1984) revision of the specification, and this enabled X.25 to better
meet the requirements of OSI Connection Oriented Network Service (CONS).[19] Public X.25 networks were not
required to make use of NSAP addressing, but, to support OSI CONS, were required to carry the NSAP addresses
and other ITU-T specified DTE facilities transparently from DTE to DTE.[20] Later revisions allowed multiple
addresses in addition to X.121 addresses to be carried on the same DTE-DCE interface: Telex addressing (F.69),
PSTN addressing (E.163), ISDN addressing (E.164), Internet Protocol addresses (IANA ICP), and local IEEE 802.2
MAC addresses.[21]
PVCs are permanently established in the network and therefore do not require the use of addresses for call setup.
PVCs are identified at the subscriber interface by their logical channel identifier (see below). However, in practice
not many of the national X.25 networks supported PVCs.
One DTE-DCE interface to an X.25 network has a maximum of 4095 logical channels on which it is allowed to
establish virtual calls and permanent virtual circuits,[22] although networks are not expected to support a full 4095
virtual circuits.[23] For identifying the channel to which a packet is associated, each packet contains a 12 bit logical
channel identifier made up of an 8-bit logical channel number and a 4-bit logical channel group number.[22] Logical
channel identifiers remain assigned to a virtual circuit for the duration of the connection.[22] Logical channel
identifiers identify a specific logical channel between the DTE (subscriber appliance) and the DCE (network), and
only has local significance on the link between the subscriber and the network. The other end of the connection at the
remote DTE is likely to have assigned a different logical channel identifier. The range of possible logical channels is
split into 4 groups: channels assigned to permanent virtual circuits, assigned to incoming virtual calls, two-way
(incoming or outgoing) virtual calls, and outgoing virtual calls.[24] (Directions refer to the direction of virtual call
X.25 112
initiation as viewed by the DTE—they all carry data in both directions.)[25] The ranges allowed a subscriber to be
configured to handle significantly differing numbers of calls in each direction while reserving some channels for
calls in one direction. All International networks are required to implement support for permanent virtual circuits,
two-way logical channels and one-way logical channels outgoing; one-way logical channels incoming is an
additional optional facility.[26] DTE-DCE interfaces are not required to support more than one logical channel.[24]
Logical channel identifier zero will not be assigned to a permanent virtual circuit or virtual call.[27] The logical
channel identifier of zero is used for packets which don't relate to a specific virtual circuit (e.g. packet layer restart,
registration, and diagnostic packets).
Billing
In public networks, X.25 was typically billed as a flat monthly service fee depending on link speed, and then a
price-per-segment on top of this.[28] Link speeds varied, typically from 2400 bit/s up to 2 Mbit/s, although speeds
above 64 kbit/s were uncommon in the public networks. A segment was 64 bytes of data (rounded up, with no
carry-over between packets),[29] charged to the caller[30] (or callee in the case of reverse charged calls, where
supported).[31] Calls invoking the Fast Select facility (allowing 128 bytes of data in call request, call confirmation
and call clearing phases)[32] would generally attract an extra charge, as might use of some of the other X.25 facilities.
PVCs would have a monthly rental charge and a lower price-per-segment than VCs, making them cheaper only
where large volumes of data are passed.
X.25 packet types

Packet Type DCE → DTE DTE → DCE Service VC PVC
Call setup and Clearing Incoming Call Call Request X
Call Connected Call Accepted X
Clear Indication Clear Request X
Clear Confirmation Clear Confirmation X
Data and Interrupt Data Data X X
Interrupt Interrupt X X
Interrupt Confirmation Interrupt Confirmation X X
Flow Control and Reset RR RR X X
RNR RNR X X
REJ REJ X X
Reset Indication Reset Request X X
Reset Confirmation Reset Confirmation X X
Restart Restart Indication Restart Request X
Restart Confirmation Restart Confirmation X
Diagnostic Diagnostic X
Registration Registration Confirmation Registration Request X

X.25 113
X.25 details
The network may allow the selection of the maximal length in range 16 to 4096 octets (2n values only) per virtual
circuit by negotiation as part of the call setup procedure. The maximal length may be different at the two ends of the
virtual circuit.
• Data terminal equipment constructs control packets which are encapsulated into data packets. The packets are sent
to the data circuit-terminating equipment, using LAPB Protocol.
• Data circuit-terminating equipment strips the layer-2 headers in order to encapsulate packets to the internal
network protocol.
X.25 facilities
X.25 provides a set of user facilities defined and described in ITU-T Recommendation X.2.[33] The X.2 user
facilities fall into five categories:
• essential facilities;
• additional facilities;
• conditional facilities;
• mandatory facilities; and,
• optional facilities.
X.25 also provides X.25 and ITU-T specified DTE optional user facilities defined and described in ITU-T
Recommendation X.7.[34] The X.7 optional user facilities fall into four categories of user facilities that require:
• subscription only;
• subscription followed by dynamic invocation;
• subscription or dynamic invocation; and,
• dynamic invocation only.
X.25 protocol versions

The CCITT/ITU-T versions of the protocol specifications are for public data networks (PDN).[35] The ISO/IEC
versions address additional features for private networks (e.g. local area networks (LAN) use) while maintaining
compatibility with the CCITT/ITU-T specifications.[36]
The user facilities and other features supported by each version of X.25 and ISO/IEC 8208 have varied from edition
to edition.[37] Several major protocol versions of X.25 exist:[38]
• CCITT Recommendation X.25 (1976) Orange Book
• CCITT Recommendation X.25 (1980) Yellow Book
• CCITT Recommendation X.25 (1984) Red Book
• CCITT Recommendation X.25 (1988) Blue Book
• ITU-T Recommendation X.25 (1993) White Book[39]
• ITU-T Recommendation X.25 (1996) Grey Book[40]
The X.25 Recommendation allows many options for each network to choose when deciding which features to
support and how certain operations are performed. This means each network needs to publish its own document
giving the specification of its X.25 implementation, and most networks required DTE appliance manufacturers to
undertake protocol conformance testing, which included testing for strict adherence and enforcement of their
network specific options. (Network operators were particularly concerned about the possibility of a badly behaving
or misconfigured DTE appliance taking out parts of the network and affecting other subscribers.) Therefore,
subscriber's DTE appliances have to be configured to match the specification of the particular network to which they
are connecting. Most of these were sufficiently different to prevent interworking if the subscriber didn't configure
their appliance correctly or the appliance manufacturer didn't include specific support for that network. In spite of
X.25 114
protocol conformance testing, this often lead to interworking problems when initially attaching an appliance to a
network.
In addition to the CCITT/ITU-T versions of the protocol, four editions of ISO/IEC 8208 exist:[37]
• ISO/IEC 8208 : 1987, First Edition, compatible with X.25 (1980) and (1984)
• ISO/IEC 8208 : 1990, Second Edition, compatible with 1st Ed. and X.25 (1988).
• ISO/IEC 8208 : 1995, Third Edition, compatible with 2nd Ed. and X.25 (1993).
• ISO/IEC 8208 : 2000, Fourth Edition, compatible with 3rd Ed. and X.25 (1996).
References
[1] CCITT, Study Group VII, Draft Recommendation X-25, March 1976
[2] History of X.25, CCITT Plenary Assemblies and Book Colors (http:/ / www. itu. int/ ITU-T/ studygroups/ com17/ history. html)
[5] ITU-T Recommendation X.28 (http:/ / www. itu. int/ rec/ T-REC-X. 28/ en/ ).
[8] X-Series recommendations (http:/ / www. itu. int/ rec/ T-REC-X/ en/ )
[9] .
[10] .
[11] Running X.25 over tcpip using Cisco routers (http:/ / www. techrepublic. com/ article/ running-x25-over-tcpip-on-cisco-routers/ 1056023), 1
Februari 2001, visited 4 April 2011
[13] (http:/ / www. zdnet. fr/ actualites/ minitel-dernier-rappel-arret-definitif-le-30-juin-2012-39769465. htm)
[14] ISO 8208:2000
[15] ISO 8208, Annex B.
[16] ITU-T Recommendation X.25 (http:/ / www. itu. int/ rec/ T-REC-X. 25-199610-I/ en/ ), G.3.2 Called address extension facility, pp.
141–142.
[17] ITU-T Recommendation X.223 (http:/ / www. itu. int/ rec/ T-REC-X. 223/ en/ ), Appendix II.
[18] ITU-T Recommendation X.7 (04/2004) (http:/ / www. itu. int/ rec/ T-REC-X. 7-200404-I/ en/ ), pp. 17–18.
[20] ITU-T Recommendation X.25 (10/96) (http:/ / www. itu. int/ rec/ T-REC-X. 25-199610-I/ en/ ), Annex G, p. 140.
[21] ITU-T Recommendation X.213 (http:/ / www. itu. int/ rec/ T-REC-X. 213-200110-I/ en/ ), Annex A.
[22] ITU-T Recommendation X.25 (10/96) (http:/ / www. itu. int/ rec/ T-REC-X. 25-199610-I/ en/ ), p. 45.
[24] ITU-T Recommendation X.25 (10/96) (http:/ / www. itu. int/ rec/ T-REC-X. 25-199610-I/ en/ ), Annex A, pp. 119–120.
[25] ISO/IEC 8208 : 2000, Fourth Edition, p. 61.
[27] ISO/IEC 8208 : 2000, Fourth Edition, 3.7.1, p. 7.
[28] ITU-T Recommendation D.11 (03/91) (http:/ / www. itu. int/ rec/ T-REC-D. 11-199103-I/ en/ ), p. 2.
[33] ITU-T Recommendation X.2 (http:/ / www. itu. int/ rec/ T-REC-X. 2/ en/ )
[34] ITU-T Recommendation X.7 (http:/ / www. itu. int/ rec/ T-REC-X. 7/ en/ )
[35] ITU-T Recommendation X.25 (10/96) (http:/ / www. itu. int/ rec/ T-REC-X. 25-199610-I/ en/ ), Summary, p. v.
[36] ISO/IEC 8208 : 2000, Fourth Edition, Section 1: Scope, p. 1.
[37] ISO/IEC 8208 : 2000, Fourth Edition, Annex C.
[39] ITU-T Recommendation X.25 (1993) White Book (http:/ / www. itu. int/ rec/ T-REC-X. 25-199303-S/ en/ )
[40] ITU-T Recommendation X.25 (1996) Grey Book (http:/ / www. itu. int/ rec/ T-REC-X. 25-199610-I/ en/ )
X.25 115
Further reading
• Computer Communications, lecture notes by Prof. Chaim Ziegler PhD, Brooklyn College
• Motorola Codex (1992). The Basics Book of X.25 Packet Switching. The Basics Book Series (2nd ed.). Reading,
MA: Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-56369-X.
• Deasington, Richard (1985). X.25 Explained. Computer Communications and Networking (2nd ed.). Chichester
UK: Ellis Horwood. ISBN 978-0-85312-626-3.
• Friend, George E.; Fike, John L.; Baker, H. Charles; Bellamy, John C. (1988). Understanding Data
Communications (2nd ed.). Indianapolis: Howard W. Sams & Company. ISBN 0-672-27270-9.
• Pooch, Udo W.; William H. Greene, Gary G. Moss (1983). Telecommunications and Networking. Boston: Little,
Brown and Company. ISBN 0-316-71498-4.
• Schatt, Stan (1991). Linking LANs: A Micro Manager's Guide. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-8306-3755-9.
• Thorpe, Nicolas M.; Ross, Derek (1992). X.25 Made Easy. Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-972183-5.
External links
• Recommendation X.25 (10/96) (http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-X.25/en) at ITU-T
• Cisco X.25 Reference (http://www.cisco.com/en/US/docs/internetworking/technology/handbook/X25.
html)
• An X.25 Networking Guide with comparisons to TCP/IP (http://www.farsite.com/X.25/X.25_info/X.25.
htm)
• X.25 – Directory & Informational Resource (http://softtechinfo.com/network/x25.html)
• RFCs and other resources by Open Directory (http://search.dmoz.org/cgi-bin/search?search=X.25)
116
Today's Internet
"Internet" or "internet"?
Publishers have different conventions regarding the capitalization of "Internet" or "internet", when referring to
the Internet/internet, as distinct from generic internets, or internetworks.
Since the widespread deployment of the Internet Protocol Suite in the early 1980s, the Internet standards-setting
bodies and technical infrastructure organizations, such as the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), the Internet
Society, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), the World Wide Web Consortium
and others have consistently spelled the name of the worldwide network, the Internet, with an initial capital letter and
treated it as a proper noun in the English language.Wikipedia:No original research Before the transformation of the
ARPANET into the modern Internet, the term internet in its lower case spelling was a common short form of the
term internetwork, and this spelling and use may still be found in discussions of networking.
Many publications today disregard the historical development and use the term in its common noun spelling, arguing
that it has become a generic medium of communication.
Name as Internet versus generic internets

The Internet standards community has historically differentiated between the Internet and an internet (or
internetwork), the first being treated as a proper noun with a capital letter, and the latter as a common noun with
lower-case first letter. An internet is any internetwork or inter-connected Internet Protocol networks. The distinction
is evident in a large number of the Request for Comments documents from the early 1980s, when the transition from
the ARPANET to the Internet was in progress, although it was not applied with complete uniformity.[1][2]
Another example is IBM's TCP/IP Tutorial and Technical Overview (ISBN 0-7384-2165-0) from 1989, which stated
that:
The words internetwork and internet is [sic] simply a contraction of the phrase interconnected network.
However, when written with a capital "I," the Internet refers to the worldwide set of interconnected
networks. Hence, the Internet is an internet, but the reverse does not apply. The Internet is sometimes
called the connected Internet.
The Internet/internet distinction fell out of common use after the Internet Protocol Suite was widely deployed in
commercial networks in the 1990s.[citation needed]
In the RFC documents that defined the evolving Internet Protocol (IP) standards, the term was introduced as a noun
adjunct, apparently a shortening of "internetworking"[3] and is mostly used in this way. As the impetus behind IP
grew, it became more common to regard the results of internetworking as entities of their own, and internet became a
noun, used both in a generic sense (any collection of computer networks connected through internetworking) and in
a specific sense (the collection of computer networks that internetworked with ARPANET, and later NSFNET, using
the IP standards, and that grew into the connectivity service we know today).
In its generic sense, internet is a common noun, a synonym for internetwork; therefore, it has a plural form (first
appearing in the RFC series in RFC 870, RFC 871 and RFC 872) and is not capitalized. In its specific sense, it is a
proper noun, and therefore, without a plural form and traditionally capitalized.[citation needed]
"Internet" or "internet"? 117
Argument for common noun usage

In 2002, a New York Times column said that Internet has been changing from a proper noun to a generic term.[]
Words for new technologies, such as Phonograph in the 19th century, are sometimes capitalized at first, later
becoming uncapitalized.[] In 1999, another column suggested that Internet might, like some other commonly used
proper nouns, lose its capital letter.[4]
Capitalization of the word as an adjective also varies. Some guides specify that the word should be capitalized as a
noun but not capitalized as an adjective, e.g., "internet resources".[5][6]
Usage examples
Examples of media publications and news outlets that capitalize the term include The New York Times, the
Associated Press, Time, and The Times of India. In addition, many peer-reviewed journals and professional
publications such as Communications of the ACM capitalize "Internet," and this style guideline is also specified by
the American Psychological Association in its electronic media spelling guide. AMA style capitalizes "Internet," and
so does the Chicago Manual of Style.[7] The Modern Language Association's MLA Handbook does not specifically
mention capitalization of Internet, but its consistent practice is to capitalize it.[8]
A significant number of publications do not capitalize internet. Among them are The Economist, the Financial
Times, The Times, the Guardian, the Observer[9] and the Sydney Morning Herald. As of 2011, most publications
using "internet" appear to be located outside of North America, but the gap is closing. Wired News, an American
news source, adopted the lower-case spelling in 2004.[10] Around April 2010, CNN shifted its house style to adopt
the lowercase spelling.
As Internet connectivity has expanded, it has started to be seen as a service similar to television, radio, and
telephone, and the word has come to be used in this way (e.g. "I have the internet at home" and "I found it on the
internet").
References
[1] RFC 871 (1982) "The 'network' composed of the concatenation of such subnets is sometimes called 'a catenet,' though more often—and less
picturesquely—merely 'an internet.
[2] RFC 872 (1982) "[TCP's] next most significant property is that it is designed to operate in a 'catenet' (also known as the, or an, 'internet')"
[3] The form first occurring in the RFC series is "internetworking protocol," RFC 604: "Four of the reserved link numbers are hereby assigned
for experimental use in the testing of an internetworking protocol." The first use of "internet" is in RFC 675, in the form "internet packet".
[5] E.g.
External links
• Internet, Web, and Other Post-Watergate Concerns (http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/CMS_FAQ/
InternetWebandOtherPost-WatergateConcerns/InternetWebandOtherPost-WatergateConcerns16.html), The
Chicago Manual of Style
Internet Protocol Suite

Internet
protocol suite
Application layer
• DHCP
• DHCPv6
• DNS
• FTP
• HTTP
• IMAP
• IRC
• LDAP
• MGCP
• NNTP
• BGP
• NTP
• POP
• RPC
• RTP
• RTSP
• RIP
• SIP
• SMTP
• SNMP
• SOCKS
• SSH
• Telnet
• TLS/SSL
• XMPP
• more...
Transport layer
• TCP
• UDP
• DCCP
• SCTP
• RSVP
• more...
Internet layer
• IP
• IPv4
• IPv6
• ICMP
• ICMPv6
• ECN
• IGMP
• IPsec
• (more)
Link layer
• ARP/InARP
• NDP
• OSPF
• Tunnels
• L2TP
• PPP
• Media access control
• Ethernet
• DSL
• ISDN
• FDDI
• more...
Internet
Internet portal
The Internet protocol suite is the networking model and a set of communications protocols used for the Internet
and similar networks. It is commonly known as TCP/IP, because its most important protocols, the Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP) were the first networking protocols defined in this standard. It
is occasionally known as the DoD model due to the foundational influence of the ARPANET in the 1970s (operated
by DARPA, an agency of the United States Department of Defense).
TCP/IP provides end-to-end connectivity specifying how data should be formatted, addressed, transmitted, routed
and received at the destination. It has four abstraction layers which are used to sort all related protocols according to
the scope of networking involved.[1][2] From lowest to highest, the layers are:
• The link layer contains communication technologies for a single network segment (link) of a local area network.
• The internet layer (IP) connects independent networks, thus establishing internetworking.
• The transport layer handles host-to-host communication.
• The application layer contains all protocols for specific data communications services on a process-to-process
level. For example, the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) specifies the web browser communication with a
web server.
The TCP/IP model and related protocols are maintained by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).
History
Early research
The Internet protocol suite resulted from research and development
conducted by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
[3]
(DARPA) in the late 1960s. After initiating the pioneering
ARPANET in 1969, DARPA started work on a number of other data
transmission technologies. In 1972, Robert E. Kahn joined the DARPA
Information Processing Technology Office, where he worked on both
satellite packet networks and ground-based radio packet networks, and
recognized the value of being able to communicate across both. In the
spring of 1973, Vinton Cerf, the developer of the existing ARPANET Diagram of the first internetworked connection
Network Control Program (NCP) protocol, joined Kahn to work on

open-architecture interconnection models with the goal of designing
the next protocol generation for the ARPANET.
By the summer of 1973, Kahn and Cerf had worked out a fundamental
reformulation, in which the differences between network protocols
were hidden by using a common internetwork protocol, and, instead of
the network being responsible for reliability, as in the ARPANET, the
hosts became responsible. Cerf credits Hubert Zimmermann and Louis
Pouzin, designer of the CYCLADES network, with important A Stanford Research Institute packet radio van,
influences on this design. site of the first three-way internetworked
transmission.
The design of the network included the recognition that it should
provide only the functions of efficiently transmitting and routing traffic
between end nodes and that all other intelligence should be located at the edge of the network, in the end nodes.
Using a simple design, it became possible to connect almost any network to the ARPANET, irrespective of the local
characteristics, thereby solving Kahn's initial problem. One popular expression is that TCP/IP, the eventual product
of Cerf and Kahn's work, will run over "two tin cans and a string." As a joke, the IP over Avian Carriers formal
protocol specification was created and successfully tested.
A computer called a router is provided with an interface to each network. It forwards packets back and forth between
them.[4] Originally a router was called gateway, but the term was changed to avoid confusion with other types of
gateways.
Specification
From 1973 to 1974, Cerf's networking research group at Stanford worked out details of the idea, resulting in the first
TCP specification.[5] A significant technical influence was the early networking work at Xerox PARC, which
produced the PARC Universal Packet protocol suite, much of which existed around that time.
DARPA then contracted with BBN Technologies, Stanford University, and the University College London to
develop operational versions of the protocol on different hardware platforms. Four versions were developed: TCP
v1, TCP v2, TCP v3 and IP v3, and TCP/IP v4. The last protocol is still in use today.
In 1975, a two-network TCP/IP communications test was performed between Stanford and University College
London (UCL). In November, 1977, a three-network TCP/IP test was conducted between sites in the US, the UK,
and Norway. Several other TCP/IP prototypes were developed at multiple research centers between 1978 and 1983.
The migration of the ARPANET to TCP/IP was officially completed on flag day January 1, 1983, when the new
protocols were permanently activated.[6]
Adoption
In March 1982, the US Department of Defense declared TCP/IP as the standard for all military computer
networking.[7] In 1985, the Internet Architecture Board held a three-day workshop on TCP/IP for the computer
industry, attended by 250 vendor representatives, promoting the protocol and leading to its increasing commercial
use.
In 1985, the first Interop conference focused on network interoperability by broader adoption of TCP/IP. The
conference was founded by Dan Lynch, an early Internet activist. From the beginning, large corporations, such as
IBM and DEC, attended the meeting. Interoperability conferences have been held every year since then. Every year
from 1985 through 1993, the number of attendees tripled.[citation needed]
IBM, AT&T and DEC were the first major corporations to adopt TCP/IP, despite having competing internal
protocols (SNA, XNS, etc.). In IBM, from 1984, Barry Appelman's group did TCP/IP development. (Appelman later
moved to AOL to be the head of all its development efforts.) They navigated the corporate politics to get a stream of
TCP/IP products for various IBM systems, including MVS, VM, and OS/2. At the same time, several smaller
companies began offering TCP/IP stacks for DOS and MS Windows, such as the company FTP Software, and the
Wollongong Group.[8] The first VM/CMS TCP/IP stack came from the University of Wisconsin.[9]
Back then, most of these TCP/IP stacks were written single-handedly by a few talented programmers. For example,
John Romkey of FTP Software was the author of the MIT PC/IP package.[10] John Romkey's PC/IP implementation
was the first IBM PC TCP/IP stack. Jay Elinsky and Oleg Vishnepolsky of IBM Research wrote TCP/IP stacks for
VM/CMS and OS/2, respectively.[11]
The spread of TCP/IP was fueled further in June 1989, when AT&T agreed to place the TCP/IP code developed for
UNIX into the public domain. Various vendors, including IBM, included this code in their own TCP/IP stacks. Many
companies sold TCP/IP stacks for Windows until Microsoft released a native TCP/IP stack in Windows 95. This
event was a little late in the evolution of the Internet, but it cemented TCP/IP's dominance over other protocols,
which eventually disappeared. These protocols included IBM Systems Network Architecture (SNA), Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI), Microsoft's native NetBIOS, and Xerox Network Systems (XNS).[citation needed]
Key architectural principles

An early architectural document, RFC 1122, emphasizes architectural principles over layering.[12]
• End-to-end principle: This principle has evolved over time. Its original expression put the maintenance of state
and overall intelligence at the edges, and assumed the Internet that connected the edges retained no state and
concentrated on speed and simplicity. Real-world needs for firewalls, network address translators, web content
caches and the like have forced changes in this principle.[13]
• Robustness Principle: "In general, an implementation must be conservative in its sending behavior, and liberal in
its receiving behavior. That is, it must be careful to send well-formed datagrams, but must accept any datagram
that it can interpret (e.g., not object to technical errors where the meaning is still clear)." [14] "The second part of
the principle is almost as important: software on other hosts may contain deficiencies that make it unwise to
exploit legal but obscure protocol features." [15]
Layers in the Internet protocol suite

The Internet protocol suite uses
encapsulation to provide abstraction of
protocols and services. Encapsulation
is usually aligned with the division of
the protocol suite into layers of general
functionality. In general, an application
(the highest level of the model) uses a
set of protocols to send its data down
the layers, being further encapsulated
at each level.
The layers of the protocol suite near

the top are logically closer to the user
application, while those near the
bottom are logically closer to the
physical transmission of the data.
Viewing layers as providing or
consuming a service is a method of
abstraction to isolate upper layer
protocols from the details of
transmitting bits over, for example,
Ethernet and collision detection, while
the lower layers avoid having to know
the details of each and every Two Internet hosts connected via two routers and the corresponding layers used at
application and its protocol. each hop. The application on each host executes read and write operations as if the
processes were directly connected to each other by some kind of data pipe. Every
Even when the layers are examined, other detail of the communication is hidden from each process. The underlying
mechanisms that transmit data between the host computers are located in the lower
the assorted architectural
protocol layers.
documents—there is no single
architectural model such as ISO 7498,
the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) model—have fewer and less
rigidly defined layers than the OSI
model, and thus provide an easier fit
for real-world protocols. One
frequently referenced document, RFC
1958, does not contain a stack of
layers. The lack of emphasis on
layering is a major difference between
the IETF and OSI approaches. It only
refers to the existence of the
internetworking layer and generally to
upper layers; this document was
Encapsulation of application data descending through the layers described in RFC 1122
intended as a 1996 snapshot of the
architecture: "The Internet and its
architecture have grown in evolutionary fashion from modest beginnings, rather than from a Grand Plan. While this
process of evolution is one of the main reasons for the technology's success, it nevertheless seems useful to record a
snapshot of the current principles of the Internet architecture."
RFC 1122, entitled Host Requirements, is structured in paragraphs referring to layers, but the document refers to
many other architectural principles not emphasizing layering. It loosely defines a four-layer model, with the layers
having names, not numbers, as follows:
• Application layer (process-to-process): This is the scope within which applications create user data and
communicate this data to other processes or applications on another or the same host. The communications
partners are often called peers. This is where the higher level protocols such as SMTP, FTP, SSH, HTTP, etc.
operate.
• Transport layer (host-to-host): The transport layer constitutes the networking regime between two network hosts,
either on the local network or on remote networks separated by routers. The transport layer provides a uniform
networking interface that hides the actual topology (layout) of the underlying network connections. This is where
flow-control, error-correction, and connection protocols exist, such as TCP. This layer deals with opening and
maintaining connections between Internet hosts.
• Internet layer: The internet layer has the task of exchanging datagrams across network boundaries. It is therefore
also referred to as the layer that establishes internetworking, indeed, it defines and establishes the Internet. This
layer defines the addressing and routing structures used for the TCP/IP protocol suite. The primary protocol in
this scope is the Internet Protocol, which defines IP addresses. Its function in routing is to transport datagrams to
the next IP router that has the connectivity to a network closer to the final data destination.
• Link layer: This layer defines the networking methods within the scope of the local network link on which hosts
communicate without intervening routers. This layer describes the protocols used to describe the local network
topology and the interfaces needed to effect transmission of Internet layer datagrams to next-neighbor hosts.
The Internet protocol suite and the layered protocol stack design were in use before the OSI model was established.
Since then, the TCP/IP model has been compared with the OSI model in books and classrooms, which often results
in confusion because the two models use different assumptions and goals, including the relative importance of strict
layering.
This abstraction also allows upper layers to provide services that the lower layers do not provide. While the original
OSI model was extended to include connectionless services (OSIRM CL),[16] IP is not designed to be reliable and is
a best effort delivery protocol. This means that all transport layer implementations must choose whether or how to
provide reliability. UDP provides data integrity via a checksum but does not guarantee delivery; TCP provides both
data integrity and delivery guarantee by retransmitting until the receiver acknowledges the reception of the packet.
This model lacks the formalism of the OSI model and associated documents, but the IETF does not use a formal
model and does not consider this a limitation, as illustrated in the comment by David D. Clark, "We reject: kings,
presidents and voting. We believe in: rough consensus and running code." Criticisms of this model, which have been
made with respect to the OSI model, often do not consider ISO's later extensions to that model.
For multiaccess links with their own addressing systems (e.g. Ethernet) an address mapping protocol is needed. Such
protocols can be considered to be below IP but above the existing link system. While the IETF does not use the
terminology, this is a subnetwork dependent convergence facility according to an extension to the OSI model, the
internal organization of the network layer (IONL).[17]
ICMP & IGMP operate on top of IP but do not transport data like UDP or TCP. Again, this functionality exists as
layer management extensions to the OSI model, in its Management Framework (OSIRM MF) [18]
The SSL/TLS library operates above the transport layer (uses TCP) but below application protocols. Again, there
was no intention, on the part of the designers of these protocols, to comply with OSI architecture.
The link is treated like a black box. The IETF explicitly does not intend to discuss transmission systems, which is a
less academic[citation needed] but practical alternative to the OSI model.
The following is a description of each layer in the TCP/IP networking model starting from the lowest level.
Link layer
The link layer is the networking scope of the local network connection to which a host is attached. This regime is
called the link in TCP/IP literature. It is the lowest component layer of the Internet protocols, as TCP/IP is designed
to be hardware independent. As a result TCP/IP may be implemented on top of virtually any hardware networking
technology.
The link layer is used to move packets between the Internet layer interfaces of two different hosts on the same link.
The processes of transmitting and receiving packets on a given link can be controlled both in the software device
driver for the network card, as well as on firmware or specialized chipsets. These perform data link functions such as
adding a packet header to prepare it for transmission, then actually transmit the frame over a physical medium. The
TCP/IP model includes specifications of translating the network addressing methods used in the Internet Protocol to
data link addressing, such as Media Access Control (MAC), however all other aspects below that level are implicitly
assumed to exist in the link layer, but are not explicitly defined.
This is also the layer where packets may be selected to be sent over a virtual private network or other networking
tunnel. In this scenario, the link layer data may be considered application data which traverses another instantiation
of the IP stack for transmission or reception over another IP connection. Such a connection, or virtual link, may be
established with a transport protocol or even an application scope protocol that serves as a tunnel in the link layer of
the protocol stack. Thus, the TCP/IP model does not dictate a strict hierarchical encapsulation sequence.
The TCP/IP model's link layer corresponds to the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model physical and data link
layers, layers one and two of the OSI model.
Internet layer
The internet layer has the responsibility of sending packets across potentially multiple networks. Internetworking
requires sending data from the source network to the destination network. This process is called routing.[19]
In the Internet protocol suite, the Internet Protocol performs two basic functions:
• Host addressing and identification: This is accomplished with a hierarchical IP addressing system.
• Packet routing: This is the basic task of sending packets of data (datagrams) from source to destination by
forwarding them to the next network router closer to the final destination.
The internet layer is not only agnostic of application data structures at the transport layer, but it also does not
distinguish between operation of the various transport layer protocols. IP can carry data for a variety of different
upper layer protocols. These protocols are each identified by a unique protocol number: for example, Internet
Control Message Protocol (ICMP) and Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) are protocols 1 and 2,
respectively.
Some of the protocols carried by IP, such as ICMP which is used to transmit diagnostic information, and IGMP
which is used to manage IP Multicast data, are layered on top of IP but perform internetworking functions. This
illustrates the differences in the architecture of the TCP/IP stack of the Internet and the OSI model. The TCP/IP
model's internet layer corresponds to layer three of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, where it is
referred to as the network layer.
The internet layer provides only an unreliable datagram transmission facility between hosts located on potentially
different IP networks by forwarding the transport layer datagrams to an appropriate next-hop router for further
relaying to its destination. With this functionality, the internet layer makes possible internetworking, the
interworking of different IP networks, and it essentially establishes the Internet. The Internet Protocol is the principal
component of the internet layer, and it defines two addressing systems to identify network hosts computers, and to
locate them on the network. The original address system of the ARPANET and its successor, the Internet, is Internet
Protocol version 4 (IPv4). It uses a 32-bit IP address and is therefore capable of identifying approximately four
billion hosts. This limitation was eliminated by the standardization of Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) in 1998, and
beginning production implementations in approximately 2006.
Transport layer
The transport layer establishes a basic data channel that an application uses in its task-specific data exchange. The
layer establishes host-to-host connectivity, meaning it handles the details of data transmission that are independent of
the structure of user data and the logistics of exchanging information for any particular specific purpose. Its
responsibility includes end-to-end message transfer independent of the underlying network, along with error control,
segmentation, flow control, congestion control, and application addressing (port numbers). End to end message
transmission or connecting applications at the transport layer can be categorized as either connection-oriented,
implemented in TCP, or connectionless, implemented in UDP.
For the purpose of providing process-specific transmission channels, the layer establishes the concept of the port.
This is a numbered logical construct allocated specifically for each of the communication channels an application
needs. For many types of services, these port numbers have been standardized so that client computers may address
specific services of a server computer without the involvement of service announcements or directory services.
Because IP provides only a best effort delivery, the transport layer is the first layer of the TCP/IP stack to offer
reliability. However, IP can run over a reliable data link protocol such as the High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC).
For example, the TCP is a connection-oriented protocol that addresses numerous reliability issues in providing a
reliable byte stream:
• data arrives in-order
• data has minimal error (i.e. correctness)
• duplicate data is discarded
• lost or discarded packets are resent
• includes traffic congestion control
The newer Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) is also a reliable, connection-oriented transport
mechanism. It is message-stream-oriented — not byte-stream-oriented like TCP — and provides multiple streams
multiplexed over a single connection. It also provides multi-homing support, in which a connection end can be
represented by multiple IP addresses (representing multiple physical interfaces), such that if one fails, the connection
is not interrupted. It was developed initially for telephony applications (to transport SS7 over IP), but can also be
used for other applications.
The User Datagram Protocol is a connectionless datagram protocol. Like IP, it is a best effort, "unreliable" protocol.
Reliability is addressed through error detection using a weak checksum algorithm. UDP is typically used for
applications such as streaming media (audio, video, Voice over IP etc.) where on-time arrival is more important than
reliability, or for simple query/response applications like DNS lookups, where the overhead of setting up a reliable
connection is disproportionately large. Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) is a datagram protocol that is designed
for real-time data such as streaming audio and video.
The applications at any given network address are distinguished by their TCP or UDP port. By convention certain
well known ports are associated with specific applications.
The TCP/IP model's transport or host-to-host layer corresponds to the fourth layer in the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model, also called the transport layer.
Application layer
The application layer contains the higher-level protocols used by most applications for network communication.
Examples of application layer protocols include the File Transfer Protocol (FTP) and the Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol (SMTP).[20] Data coded according to application layer protocols are then encapsulated into one or
(occasionally) more transport layer protocols (such as TCP or UDP), which in turn use lower layer protocols to effect
actual data transfer.
As the IP model does not consider the specifics of formatting and presenting data, it defines no layers between the
application and transport layers as in the OSI model (presentation and session layers). Such functions are the realm
of the applications which often implement such functions in libraries and application programming interfaces.
Application layer protocols generally treat the transport layer (and lower) protocols as black boxes which provide a
stable network connection across which to communicate, although the applications are usually aware of key qualities
of the transport layer connection such as the end point IP addresses and port numbers. As noted above, layers are not
necessarily clearly defined in the Internet protocol suite. Application layer protocols are most often associated with
client–server applications, and the commoner servers have specific ports assigned to them by the IANA: HTTP has
port 80; Telnet has port 23; etc. Clients, on the other hand, tend to use ephemeral ports, i.e. port numbers assigned at
random from a range set aside for the purpose.
Transport and lower level layers are largely unconcerned with the specifics of application layer protocols. Routers
and switches do not typically "look inside" the encapsulated traffic to see what kind of application protocol it
represents, rather they just provide a conduit for it. However, some firewall and bandwidth throttling applications do
try to determine what's inside, as with the Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP). It is also sometimes necessary for
network address translation (NAT) facilities to take account of the needs of particular application layer protocols.
The TCP/IP model's application layer encompasses the fifth, sixth, and seventh layers of the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model, which are the session layer, presentation layer, and application layer, respectively.
Layer names and number of layers in the literature

The following table shows various networking models. The number of layers varies between three and seven.
[21] [23] [25] [26] RFC 1122, Mike Padlipsky's 1982 OSI model
Kurose, Comer, Stallings Tanenbaum Cisco
[22] [24] Internet STD [27] "Arpanet Reference
Forouzan Kozierok Academy
3 (1989) Model" (RFC 871)
Five layers Four+one Five layers Five layers Four layers Four layers Three layers Seven
layers layers
"Five-layer "TCP/IP 5-layer "TCP/IP "TCP/IP 5-layer "Internet "Internet "Arpanet reference OSI model
Internet model" reference model" reference model" model" model" model"
or "TCP/IP model"
protocol suite"
Application Application Application Application Application Application Application/Process Application
Presentation
Session
Transport Transport Host-to-host Transport Transport Transport Host-to-host Transport

or transport
Network Internet Internet Internet Internet Internetwork Network
Data link Data link Network Data link Link Network Network interface Data link
(Network access interface
interface)
Physical (Hardware) Physical Physical Physical

Some of the networking models are from textbooks, which are secondary sources that may contravene the intent of
RFC 1122 and other IETF primary sources.[]
OSI and TCP/IP layering differences

The three top layers in the OSI model—the application layer, the presentation layer and the session layer—are not
distinguished separately in the TCP/IP model where it is just the application layer. While some pure OSI protocol
applications, such as X.400, also combined them, there is no requirement that a TCP/IP protocol stack must impose
monolithic architecture above the transport layer. For example, the NFS application protocol runs over the eXternal
Data Representation (XDR) presentation protocol, which, in turn, runs over a protocol called Remote Procedure Call
(RPC). RPC provides reliable record transmission, so it can safely use the best-effort UDP transport.
Different authors have interpreted the RFCs differently, about whether the link layer (and the TCP/IP model) covers
OSI model layer 1 (physical layer) issues, or whether a hardware layer is assumed below the link layer.
Several authors have attempted to incorporate the OSI model's layers 1 and 2 into the TCP/IP model, since these are
commonly referred to in modern standards (for example, by IEEE and ITU). This often results in a model with five
layers, where the link layer or network access layer is split into the OSI model's layers 1 and 2.
The session layer roughly corresponds to the Telnet virtual terminal functionality[citation needed], which is part of text
based protocols such as the HTTP and SMTP TCP/IP model application layer protocols. It also corresponds to TCP
and UDP port numbering, which is considered as part of the transport layer in the TCP/IP model. Some functions
that would have been performed by an OSI presentation layer are realized at the Internet application layer using the
MIME standard, which is used in application layer protocols such as HTTP and SMTP.
The IETF protocol development effort is not concerned with strict layering. Some of its protocols may not fit cleanly
into the OSI model, although RFCs sometimes refer to it and often use the old OSI layer numbers. The IETF has
repeatedly stated[citation needed] that Internet protocol and architecture development is not intended to be
OSI-compliant. RFC 3439, addressing Internet architecture, contains a section entitled: "Layering Considered
Harmful".[]
Conflicts are apparent also in the original OSI model, ISO 7498, when not considering the annexes to this model
(e.g., ISO 7498/4 Management Framework), or the ISO 8648 Internal Organization of the Network layer (IONL).
When the IONL and Management Framework documents are considered, the ICMP and IGMP are neatly defined as
layer management protocols for the network layer. In like manner, the IONL provides a structure for "subnetwork
dependent convergence facilities" such as ARP and RARP.
IETF protocols can be encapsulated recursively, as demonstrated by tunneling protocols such as Generic Routing
Encapsulation (GRE). GRE uses the same mechanism that OSI uses for tunneling at the network layer.
Implementations
No specific hardware or software implementation is required by the protocols or the layered model, so there are
many. Most computer operating systems in use today, including all consumer-targeted systems, include a TCP/IP
implementation.
A minimally acceptable implementation includes the following protocols, listed from most essential to least
essential: IP, ARP, ICMP, UDP, TCP and sometimes IGMP. In principle, it is possible to support only one transport
protocol, such as UDP, but this is rarely done, because it limits usage of the whole implementation. IPv6, beyond its
own version of ARP (NDP), ICMP (ICMPv6) and IGMP (IGMPv6), has some additional required functions, and
often is accompanied by an integrated IPSec security layer. Other protocols could be easily added later (possibly
being implemented entirely in userspace), such as DNS for resolving domain names to IP addresses, or DHCP for
automatically configuring network interfaces.
Normally, application programmers are concerned only with interfaces in the application layer and often also in the
transport layer, while the layers below are services provided by the TCP/IP stack in the operating system. Most IP
implementations are accessible to programmers through sockets and APIs.
Unique implementations include Lightweight TCP/IP, an open source stack designed for embedded systems, and
KA9Q NOS, a stack and associated protocols for amateur packet radio systems and personal computers connected
via serial lines.
Microcontroller firmware in the network adapter typically handles link issues, supported by driver software in the
operational system. Non-programmable analog and digital electronics are normally in charge of the physical
components below the link layer, typically using an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) chipset for each
network interface or other physical standard. High-performance routers are to a large extent based on fast
non-programmable digital electronics, carrying out link level switching.
References
[1] RFC 1122, Requirements for Internet Hosts – Communication Layers, R. Braden (ed.), October 1989
[2] RFC 1123, Requirements for Internet Hosts – Application and Support, R. Braden (ed.), October 1989
[3] "The DoD Internet Architecture Model" (http:/ / citeseerx. ist. psu. edu/ viewdoc/ download?doi=10. 1. 1. 88. 7505& rep=rep1& type=pdf),
Vinton G. Cerf and Edward Cain, Computer Networks, 7 (1983), North-Holland, pp. 307-318
[4] RFC 1812, Requirements for IP Version 4 Routers, F. Baker (June 1995)
[5] RFC 675, Specification of Internet Transmission Control Protocol, V. Cerf et al. (December 1974)
[6] Internet History (http:/ / www. livinginternet. com/ i/ ii. htm)
[8] Wollongong (http:/ / support. microsoft. com/ kb/ 108007)
[9] A Short History of Internet Protocols at CERN (http:/ / www. weblab. isti. cnr. it/ education/ ssfs/ lezioni/ slides/ archives/ cern. htm)
[10] About | "romkey" (http:/ / www. romkey. com/ about/ )
[11] Barry Appelman
[12] RFC 1958, Architectural Principles of the Internet, B. Carpenter (June 1996)
[13] Rethinking the design of the Internet: The end to end arguments vs. the brave new world (http:/ / www. csd. uoc. gr/ ~hy558/ papers/
Rethinking_2001. pdf), Marjory S. Blumenthal, David D. Clark, August 2001
[14] p.23 INTERNET PROTOCOL DARPA INTERNET PROGRAM PROTOCOL SPECIFICATION September 1981 Jon Postel Editor (http:/
/ www. ietf. org/ rfc/ rfc0791. txt?number=791)
[15] Requirements for Internet Hosts -- Communication Layers p.13 October 1989 R. Braden, Editor (http:/ / tools. ietf. org/ html/
rfc1122#page-12)
[16] [ OSI: Reference Model Addendum 1: Connectionless-mode Transmission,ISO7498/AD1],ISO7498/AD1, May 1986
[17] “Information processing systems -- Open Systems Interconnection -- Internal organization of the Network Layer” (http:/ / www. iso. org/ iso/
home/ store/ catalogue_tc/ catalogue_detail. htm?csnumber=16011), ISO 8648:1988.
[18] “Information processing systems -- Open Systems Interconnection -- Basic Reference Model -- Part 4: Management framework” (http:/ /
www. iso. org/ iso/ home/ store/ catalogue_tc/ catalogue_detail. htm?csnumber=14258), ISO 7498-4:1989.
[19] IP Packet Structure (http:/ / www. comsci. us/ datacom/ ippacket. html)
[20] TCP/IP Illustrated: the protocols (http:/ / www. kohala. com/ start/ tcpipiv1. html), ISBN 0-201-63346-9, W. Richard Stevens, February
1994
[21] James F. Kurose, Keith W. Ross, Computer Networking: A Top-Down Approach, 2008, ISBN 0-321-49770-8 (http:/ / www.
pearsonhighered. com/ educator/ academic/ product/ 0,,0321497708,00+ en-USS_01DBC. html)
[22] Behrouz A. Forouzan, Data Communications and Networking, 2003 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=U3Gcf65Pu9IC&
printsec=frontcover& dq=forouzan+ "computer+ networks"& ei=RPZ9SOCvMofctAO02di0AQ& hl=en&
sig=ACfU3U2Hh_n83pPtf5uCreCih0HnWvNcxg#PPA29,M1)
[23] Douglas E. Comer, Internetworking with TCP/IP: Principles, Protocols and Architecture, Pearson Prentice Hall 2005, ISBN 0-13-187671-6
(http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=jonyuTASbWAC& pg=PA155& hl=sv& source=gbs_toc_r& cad=0_0&
sig=ACfU3U18gHAia1pU_Pxn-rhkCnH1v70M6Q#PPA161,M1)
[24] Charles M. Kozierok, "The TCP/IP Guide", No Starch Press 2005 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Pm4RgYV2w4YC& pg=PA131&
dq="TCP/ IP+ model+ layers"& lr=& hl=sv& sig=ACfU3U3ofMwYAbZfGz1BmAXc2oNNFC2b8A#PPA129,M1)
[25] William Stallings, Data and Computer Communications, Prentice Hall 2006, ISBN 0-13-243310-9 (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=c_AWmhkovR0C& pg=PA35& dq="internet+ layer"+ "network+ access+ layer"& ei=-O99SI3EJo32sgOQpPThDw& hl=en&
sig=ACfU3U38aXznzeAnQdbLcPFXfCgxAd4lFg)
[26] Andrew S. Tanenbaum, Computer Networks, Prentice Hall 2002, ISBN 0-13-066102-3 (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=Pd-z64SJRBAC& pg=PA42& vq=internet+ layer& dq=networks& hl=sv& source=gbs_search_s&
sig=ACfU3U3DHANeIz0sOsd5NK4VXSrgNFYVAw#PPA42,M1)
[27] Mark A. Dye, Rick McDonald, Antoon W. Rufi, Network Fundamentals: CCNA Exploration Companion Guide, 2007, ISBN 1-58713-208-7
(http:/ / books. google. com. br/ books/ about/ Network_Fundamentals. html?id=JVAk7r6jHF4C)
Bibliography
• Douglas E. Comer. Internetworking with TCP/IP - Principles, Protocols and Architecture. ISBN 86-7991-142-9
• Joseph G. Davies and Thomas F. Lee. Microsoft Windows Server 2003 TCP/IP Protocols and Services. ISBN
0-7356-1291-9
• Forouzan, Behrouz A. (2003). TCP/IP Protocol Suite (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-246060-1.
• Craig Hunt TCP/IP Network Administration. O'Reilly (1998) ISBN 1-56592-322-7
• Maufer, Thomas A. (1999). IP Fundamentals. Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-975483-0.
• Ian McLean. Windows(R) 2000 TCP/IP Black Book. ISBN 1-57610-687-X
• Ajit Mungale Pro .NET 1.1 Network Programming. ISBN 1-59059-345-6
• W. Richard Stevens. TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume 1: The Protocols. ISBN 0-201-63346-9
• W. Richard Stevens and Gary R. Wright. TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume 2: The Implementation. ISBN
0-201-63354-X
• W. Richard Stevens. TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume 3: TCP for Transactions, HTTP, NNTP, and the UNIX Domain
Protocols. ISBN 0-201-63495-3
• Andrew S. Tanenbaum. Computer Networks. ISBN 0-13-066102-3
• Clark, D. (1988). "The Design Philosophy of the DARPA Internet Protocols" (http://www.cs.princeton.edu/
~jrex/teaching/spring2005/reading/clark88.pdf). SIGCOMM '88 Symposium proceedings on Communications
architectures and protocols (ACM): 106–114. doi: 10.1145/52324.52336 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/52324.
52336). Retrieved 2011-10-16.
External links
• Internet History (http://www.livinginternet.com/i/ii.htm)—Pages on Robert Kahn, Vinton Cerf, and TCP/IP
(reviewed by Cerf and Kahn).
• RFC 675 (http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0675.txt) - Specification of Internet Transmission Control Program,
December 1974 Version
• TCP/IP State Transition Diagram (http://www.night-ray.com/TCPIP_State_Transition_Diagram.pdf) (PDF)
• RFC 1180 A TCP/IP Tutorial - from the Internet Engineering Task Force (January 1991)
• TCP/IP FAQ (http://www.itprc.com/tcpipfaq/)
• The TCP/IP Guide (http://www.tcpipguide.com/free/) - A comprehensive look at the protocols and the
procedures/processes involved
• A Study of the ARPANET TCP/IP Digest (http://www.columbia.edu/~rh120/other/tcpdigest_paper.txt)
• TCP/IP Sequence Diagrams (http://www.eventhelix.com/RealtimeMantra/Networking/)
• Daryl's TCP/IP Primer (http://www.ipprimer.com/) - Intro to TCP/IP LAN administration, conversational style
• Introduction to TCP/IP (http://www.linux-tutorial.info/MContent-142)
Internet access 130
Internet access
Internet
Internet portal
Internet access connects individual computer terminals, computers, mobile devices, and computer networks to the
Internet, enabling users to access Internet services (for example, email and the World Wide Web). Internet service
providers (ISPs) offer Internet access to the public through various technologies that offer a wide range of data
signaling rates (speeds).
Consumer use of the Internet first became popular through dial-up Internet access in the 1980s and 1990s. By the
first decade of the 21st century, many consumers used faster, broadband Internet access technologies.
History
The Internet began as a network funded by the US government to support projects within the government and at
universities and research laboratories in the US – but grew over time to include most of the world's large universities
and the research arms of many technology companies.[1][2][3] Use by a wider audience only came in 1995 when
restrictions on the use of the Internet to carry commercial traffic were lifted.[4]
In the early to mid-1980s, most Internet access was from personal computers and workstations directly connected to
local area networks or from dial-up connections using modems and analog telephone lines. LANs typically operated
at 10 Mbit/s and grew to support 100 and 1000 Mbit/s, while modem data-rates grew from 1200 and 2400 bit/s in the
1980s, to 28 and 56 kbit/s by the mid to late 1990s. Initially dial-up connections were made from terminals or
computers running terminal emulation software to terminal servers on LANs. These dial-up connections did not
support end-to-end use of the Internet protocols and only provided terminal to host connections. The introduction of
network access servers (NASs) supporting the Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP) and later the point-to-point
protocol (PPP) extended the Internet protocols and made the full range of Internet services available to dial-up users,
subject only to limitations imposed by the lower data rates available using dial-up.
Broadband Internet access, often shortened to just broadband and also known as high-speed Internet access, are
services that provide bit-rates considerably higher than that available using a 56 kbit/s modem. In the US National
Broadband Plan of 2009, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) defined broadband access as "Internet
access that is always on and faster than the traditional dial-up access",[5] although the FCC has defined it differently
through the years.[6] The term broadband was originally a reference to multi-frequency communication, as opposed
to narrowband or baseband. Broadband is now a marketing term that telephone, cable, and other companies use to
sell their more expensive higher-data-rate products.[7] Broadband connections are typically made using a computer's
built in Ethernet networking capabilities, or by using a NIC expansion card.
Internet access 131
Most broadband services provide a continuous "always on" connection; there is no dial-in process required, and it
does not “hog” phone lines.[8] Broadband provides improved access to Internet services such as:
• Faster world wide web browsing
• Faster downloading of documents, photographs, videos, and other large files
• Telephony, radio, television, and videoconferencing
• Virtual private networks and remote system administration
• Online gaming, especially massively multiplayer online role-playing games which are interaction-intensive
In the 1990s, the National Information Infrastructure initiative in the U.S. made broadband Internet access a public
policy issue.[9] In 2000, most Internet access to homes was provided using dial-up, while many businesses and
schools were using broadband connections. In 2000 there were just under 150 million dial-up subscriptions in the 34
OECD countries[10] and fewer than 20 million broadband subscriptions. By 2004, broadband had grown and dial-up
had declined so that the number of subscriptions were roughly equal at 130 million each. In 2010, in the OECD
countries, over 90% of the Internet access subscriptions used broadband, broadband had grown to more than 300
million subscriptions, and dial-up subscriptions had declined to fewer than 30 million.[11]
The broadband technologies in widest use are ADSL and cable Internet access. Newer technologies include VDSL
and optical fibre extended closer to the subscriber in both telephone and cable plants. Fibre-optic communication,
while only recently being used in premises and to the curb schemes, has played a crucial role in enabling broadband
Internet access by making transmission of information at very high data rates over longer distances much more
cost-effective than copper wire technology.
In areas not served by ADSL or cable, some community organizations and local governments are installing Wi-Fi
networks. Wireless and satellite Internet are often used in rural, undeveloped, or other hard to serve areas where
wired Internet is not readily available.
Newer technologies being deployed for fixed (stationary) and mobile broadband access include WiMAX, LTE, and
fixed wireless, e.g., Motorola Canopy.
Starting in roughly 2006, mobile broadband access is increasingly available at the consumer level using "3G" and
"4G" technologies such as HSPA, EV-DO, HSPA+, and LTE.
Availability
In addition to access from home, school, and the workplace Internet access may be available from public places such
as libraries and Internet cafes, where computers with Internet connections are available. Some libraries provide
stations for connecting users' laptops to local area networks (LANs).
Wireless Internet access points are available in public places such as airport halls, in some cases just for brief use
while standing. Some access points may also provide coin operated computers. Various terms are used, such as
"public Internet kiosk", "public access terminal", and "Web payphone". Many hotels also have public terminals,
usually fee based.
Coffee shops, shopping malls, and other venues increasingly offer wireless access to computer networks, referred to
as hotspots, for users who bring their own wireless-enabled devices such as a laptop or PDA. These services may be
free to all, free to customers only, or fee-based. A hotspot need not be limited to a confined location. A whole
campus or park, or even an entire city can be enabled. Grassroots efforts have led to wireless community networks.
Additionally, Mobile broadband access allows smart phones and other digital devices to connect to the Internet from
any location from which a mobile phone call can be made, subject to the capabilities of that mobile network.
Internet access 132
Data rates
Data rate units (SI)
Unit Symbol Bits Bytes

Kilobit per second 3
(10 ) kbit/s 1,024 bit/s 128 bytes/s
Megabit/s 6
(10 ) Mbit/s 1,024 kbit/s 128 kB/s
Gigabit/s 9
(10 ) Gbit/s 1,024 Mbit/s 128 MB/s
Terabit/s (10 ) Tbit/s

12 1,024 Gbit/s 128 GB/s
Petabit/s (10 ) Pbit/s

15 1,024 Tbit/s 128 TB/s
Kilobyte per second (103) kB/s 8,192 bit/s 1,024 bytes/s
Megabyte/s (106) MB/s 8,192 kbit/s 1,024 kB/s
Gigabyte/s (109) GB/s 8,192 Mbit/s 1,024 MB/s
Terabyte/s (1012) TB/s 8,192 Gbit/s 1,024 GB/s
Petabyte/s (1015) PB/s 8,192 Tbit/s 1,024 TB/s
The bit rates for dial-up modems range from as little as 110 bit/s in the late 1950s, to a maximum of from 33 to 64
kbit/s (V.90 and V.92) in the late 1990s. Dial-up connections generally require the dedicated use of a telephone line.
Data compression can boost the effective bit rate for a dial-up modem connection to from 220 (V.42bis) to 320
(V.44) kbit/s.[12] However, the effectiveness of data compression is quite variable, depending on the type of data
being sent, the condition of the telephone line, and a number of other factors. In reality, the overall data rate rarely
exceeds 150 kbit/s.[13]
Broadband technologies supply considerably higher bit rates than dial-up, generally without disrupting regular
telephone use. Various minimum data rates and maximum latencies have been used in definitions of broadband,
ranging from 64 kbit/s up to 4.0 Mbit/s.[] In 1988 the CCITT standards body defined "broadband service" as
requiring transmission channels capable of supporting bit rates greater than the primary rate which ranged from
about 1.5 to 2 Mbit/s.[14] A 2006 Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) report defined
broadband as having download data transfer rates equal to or faster than 256 kbit/s.[10] And in 2010 the U.S. Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) defined "Basic Broadband" as data transmission speeds of at least 4 Mbit/s
downstream (from the Internet to the user’s computer) and 1 Mbit/s upstream (from the user’s computer to the
Internet).[15] The trend is to raise the threshold of the broadband definition as higher data rate services become
available.[]
The higher data rate dial-up modems and many broadband services are "asymmetric"—supporting much higher data
rates for download (toward the user) than for upload (toward the Internet).
Data rates, including those given in this article, are usually defined and advertised in terms of the maximum or peak
download rate. In practice, these maximum data rates are not always reliably available to the customer.[] Actual
end-to-end data rates can be lower due to a number of factors.[16] Physical link quality can vary with distance and for
wireless access with terrain, weather, building construction, antenna placement, and interference from other radio
sources. Network bottlenecks may exist at points anywhere on the path from the end-user to the remote server or
service being used and not just on the first or last link providing Internet access to the end-user.
Internet access 133
Users may share access over a common network infrastructure. Since most users do not use their full connection
capacity all of the time, this aggregation strategy (known as contended service) usually works well and users can
burst to their full data rate at least for brief periods. However, peer-to-peer (P2P) file sharing and high-quality
streaming video can require high data-rates for extended periods, which violates these assumptions and can cause a
service to become oversubscribed, resulting in congestion and poor performance. The TCP protocol includes
flow-control mechanisms that automatically throttle back on the bandwidth being used during periods of network
congestion. This is fair in the sense that all users that experience congestion receive less bandwidth, but it can be
frustrating for customers and a major problem for ISPs. In some cases the amount of bandwidth actually available
may fall below the threshold required to support a particular service such as video conferencing or streaming live
video–effectively making the service unavailable.
When traffic is particularly heavy, an ISP can deliberately throttle back the bandwidth available to classes of users or
for particular services. This is known as traffic shaping and careful use can ensure a better quality of service for time
critical services even on extremely busy networks. However, overuse can lead to concerns about fairness and
network neutrality or even charges of censorship, when some types of traffic are severely or completely blocked.
Technologies
Access technologies generally use a modem, which converts digital data to analog for transmission over analog
networks such as the telephone and cable networks.[8]
Local Area Networks

Local area networks (LANs) provide Internet access to computers and other devices in a limited area such as a home,
school, computer laboratory, or office building, usually at relatively high data-rates that typically range from 10 to
1000 Mbit/s.[17] There are wired and wireless LANs. Ethernet over twisted pair cabling and Wi-Fi are the two most
common technologies used to build LANs today, but ARCNET, Token Ring, Localtalk, FDDI, and other
technologies were used in the past.
Most Internet access today is through a LAN, often a very small LAN with just one or two devices attached. And
while LANs are an important form of Internet access, this begs the question of how and at what data rate the LAN
itself is connected to the rest of the global Internet. The technologies described below are used to make these
connections.
Dial-up access
"Dial up modem noises"

Typical noises of a dial-up modem while establishing connection with a local ISP in order to get access to the Internet.
Problems playing this file? See media help.
Dial-up access uses a modem and a phone call placed over the public switched telephone network (PSTN) to connect
to a pool of modems operated by an ISP. The modem converts a computer's digital signal into an analog signal that
travels over a phone line's local loop until it reaches a telephone company's switching facilities or central office (CO)
where it is switched to another phone line that connects to another modem at the remote end of the connection.[]
Operating on a single channel, a dial-up connection monopolizes the phone line and is one of the slowest methods of
accessing the Internet. Dial-up is often the only form of Internet access available in rural areas as it requires no new
infrastructure beyond the already existing telephone network, to connect to the Internet. Typically, dial-up
Internet access 134
connections do not exceed a speed of 56 kbit/s, as they are primarily made using modems that operate at a maximum
data rate of 56 kbit/s downstream (towards the end user) and 34 or 48 kbit/s upstream (toward the global Internet).[8]
Broadband access
The term broadband includes a broad range of technologies, all of which provide higher data rate access to the
Internet. These technologies use wires or fiber optic cables in contrast to wireless broadband described later.
Multilink dial-up
Multilink dial-up provides increased bandwidth by bonding two or more dial-up connections together and treating
them as a single data channel.[18] It requires two or more modems, phone lines, and dial-up accounts, as well as an
ISP that supports multilinking – and of course any line and data charges are also doubled. This inverse multiplexing
option was briefly popular with some high-end users before ISDN, DSL and other technologies became available.
Diamond and other vendors created special modems to support multilinking.[19]
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), a switched telephone service capable of transporting voice and digital
data, is one of the oldest Internet access methods. ISDN has been used for voice, video conferencing, and broadband
data applications. ISDN was very popular in Europe, but less common in North America. Its use peaked in the late
1990s before the availability of DSL and cable modem technologies.[20]
Basic rate ISDN, known as ISDN-BRI, has two 64 kbit/s "bearer" or "B" channels. These channels can be used
separately for voice or data calls or bonded together to provide a 128 kbit/s service. Multiple ISDN-BRI lines can be
bonded together to provide data rates above 128 kbit/s. Primary rate ISDN, known as ISDN-PRI, has 23 bearer
channels (64 kbit/s each) for a combined data rate of 1.5 Mbit/s (US standard). An ISDN E1 (European standard)
line has 30 bearer channels and a combined data rate of 1.9 Mbit/s.
Leased lines
Leased lines are dedicated lines used primarily by ISPs, business, and other large enterprises to connect LANs and
campus networks to the Internet using the existing infrastructure of the public telephone network or other providers.
Delivered using wire, optical fiber, and radio, leased lines are used to provide Internet access directly as well as the
building blocks from which several other forms of Internet access are created.[21]
T-carrier technology dates to 1957 and provides data rates that range from 56 and 64 kbit/s (DS0) to 1.5 Mbit/s (DS1
or T1), to 45 Mbit/s (DS3 or T3). A T1 line carries 24 voice or data channels (24 DS0s), so customers may use some
channels for data and others for voice traffic or use all 24 channels for clear channel data. A DS3 (T3) line carries 28
DS1 (T1) channels. Fractional T1 lines are also available in multiples of a DS0 to provide data rates between 56 and
1,500 kbit/s. T-carrier lines require special termination equipment that may be separate from or integrated into a
router or switch and which may be purchased or leased from an ISP.[22] In Japan the equivalent standard is J1/J3. In
Europe, a slightly different standard, E-carrier, provides 32 user channels (64 kbit/s) on an E1 (2.0 Mbit/s) and 512
user channels or 16 E1s on an E3 (34.4 Mbit/s).
Synchronous Optical Networking (SONET, in the U.S. and Canada) and Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH, in
the rest of the world) are the standard multiplexing protocols used to carry high-data-rate digital bit-streams over
optical fiber using lasers or highly coherent light from light-emitting diodes (LEDs). At lower transmission rates data
can also be transferred via an electrical interface. The basic unit of framing is an OC-3c (optical) or STS-3c
(electrical) which carries 155.520 Mbit/s. Thus an OC-3c will carry three OC-1 (51.84 Mbit/s) payloads each of
which has enough capacity to include a full DS3. Higher data rates are delivered in OC-3c multiples of four
providing OC-12c (622.080 Mbit/s), OC-48c (2.488 Gbit/s), OC-192c (9.953 Gbit/s), and OC-768c (39.813 Gbit/s).
The "c" at the end of the OC labels stands for "concatenated" and indicates a single data stream rather than several
Internet access 135
multiplexed data streams.[21]

The 1, 10, 40, and 100 gigabit ethernet (GbE, 10 GbE, 40 GbE, and 100 GbE) IEEE standards (802.3) allow digital
data to be delivered over copper wiring at distances to 100 m and over optical fiber at distances to 40 km.[23]
Cable Internet access

Cable Internet or cable modem access provides Internet access via hybrid fiber coaxial wiring originally developed
to carry television signals. Either fiber-optic or coaxial copper cable may connect a node to a customer's location at a
connection known as a cable drop. In a cable modem termination system, all nodes for cable subscribers in a
neighborhood connect to a cable company's central office, known as the "head end." The cable company then
connects to the Internet using a variety of means – usually fiber optic cable or digital satellite and microwave
transmissions.[24] Like DSL, broadband cable provides a continuous connection with an ISP.
Downstream, the direction toward the user, bit rates can be as much as 400 Mbit/s for business connections, and
100 Mbit/s for residential service in some countries. Upstream traffic, originating at the user, ranges from 384 kbit/s
to more than 20 Mbit/s. Broadband cable access tends to service fewer business customers because existing
television cable networks tend to service residential buildings and commercial buildings do not always include
wiring for coaxial cable networks.[25] In addition, because broadband cable subscribers share the same local line,
communications may be intercepted by neighboring subscribers. Cable networks regularly provide encryption
schemes for data traveling to and from customers, but these schemes may be thwarted.[24]
Digital subscriber line (DSL, ADSL, SDSL, and VDSL)
DSL technologies
Standard
ADSL ANSI T1.413 Issue 2

ITU G.992.1
(G.DMT)
ITU G.992.2 (G.Lite)
ADSL2 ITU G.992.3

ITU G.992.3 Annex J
ITU G.992.3 Annex L
ITU G.992.4
ADSL2+ ITU G.992.5

ITU G.992.5 Annex M
HDSL ITU G.991.1
HDSL2
IDSL
MSDSL
PDSL
RADSL
SDSL
SHDSL ITU G.991.2
UDSL
VDSL ITU G.993.1
VDSL2 ITU G.993.2

Internet access 136
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) service provides a connection to the Internet through the telephone network. Unlike
dial-up, DSL can operate using a single phone line without preventing normal use of the telephone line for voice
phone calls. DSL uses the high frequencies, while the low (audible) frequencies of the line are left free for regular
telephone communication.[8] These frequency bands are subsequently separated by filters installed at the customer's
premises.
DSL originally stood for "digital subscriber loop". In telecommunications marketing, the term digital subscriber line
is widely understood to mean Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL), the most commonly installed variety of
DSL. The data throughput of consumer DSL services typically ranges from 256 kbit/s to 20 Mbit/s in the direction to
the customer (downstream), depending on DSL technology, line conditions, and service-level implementation. In
ADSL, the data throughput in the upstream direction, (i.e. in the direction to the service provider) is lower than that
in the downstream direction (i.e. to the customer), hence the designation of asymmetric.[26] With a symmetric digital
subscriber line (SDSL), the downstream and upstream data rates are equal.[27]
Very-high-bit-rate digital subscriber line (VDSL or VHDSL, ITU G.993.1)[28] is a digital subscriber line (DSL)
standard approved in 2001 that provides data rates up to 52 Mbit/s downstream and 16 Mbit/s upstream over copper
wires[29] and up to 85 Mbit/s down- and upstream on coaxial cable.[30] VDSL is capable of supporting applications
such as high-definition television, as well as telephone services (voice over IP) and general Internet access, over a
single physical connection.
VDSL2 (ITU-T G.993.2) is a second-generation version and an enhancement of VDSL.[] Approved in February
2006, it is able to provide data rates exceeding 100 Mbit/s simultaneously in both the upstream and downstream
directions. However, the maximum data rate is achieved at a range of about 300 meters and performance degrades as
distance and loop attenuation increases.
DSL Rings
DSL Rings (DSLR) or Bonded DSL Rings is a ring topology that uses DSL technology over existing copper
telephone wires to provide data rates of up to 400 Mbit/s.[]
Fiber to the home

Fiber-to-the-home (FTTH) is one member of the Fiber-to-the-x (FTTx) family that includes Fiber-to-the-building or
basement (FTTB), Fiber-to-the-premises (FTTP), Fiber-to-the-desk (FTTD), Fiber-to-the-curb (FTTC), and
Fiber-to-the-node (FTTN).[] These methods all bring data closer to the end user on optical fibers. The differences
between the methods have mostly to do with just how close to the end user the delivery on fiber comes. All of these
delivery methods are similar to hybrid fiber-coaxial (HFC) systems used to provide cable Internet access.
The use of optical fiber offers much higher data rates over relatively longer distances. Most high-capacity Internet
and cable television backbones already use fiber optic technology, with data switched to other technologies (DSL,
cable, POTS) for final delivery to customers.[31]
Australia has already begun rolling out its National Broadband Network across the country using fiber-optic cables
to 93 percent of Australian homes, schools, and businesses.[32] Similar efforts are underway in Italy, Canada, India,
and many other countries (see Fiber to the premises by country).[33][34][35][36]
Power-line Internet
Power-line Internet, also known as Broadband over power lines (BPL), carries Internet data on a conductor that is
also used for electric power transmission. Because of the extensive power line infrastructure already in place, this
technology can provide people in rural and low population areas access the Internet with little cost in terms of new
transmission equipment, cables, or wires. Data rates are asymmetric and generally range from 256 kbit/s to 2.7
Mbit/s.[37]
Internet access 137
Because these systems use parts of the radio spectrum allocated to other over-the-air communication services,
interference between the services is a limiting factor in the introduction of power-line Internet systems. The IEEE
P1901 standard specifies that all power-line protocols must detect existing usage and avoid interfering with it.[37]
Power-line Internet has developed faster in Europe than in the U.S. due to a historical difference in power system
design philosophies. Data signals cannot pass through the step-down transformers used and so a repeater must be
installed on each transformer.[37] In the U.S. a transformer serves a small cluster of from one to a few houses. In
Europe, it is more common for a somewhat larger transformer to service larger clusters of from 10 to 100 houses.
Thus a typical U.S. city requires an order of magnitude more repeaters than in a comparable European city.[38]
ATM and Frame Relay

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) and Frame Relay are wide area networking standards that can be used to
provide Internet access directly or as building blocks of other access technologies. For example many DSL
implementations use an ATM layer over the low-level bitstream layer to enable a number of different technologies
over the same link. Customer LANs are typically connected to an ATM switch or a Frame Relay node using leased
lines at a wide range of data rates.[39][40]
While still widely used, with the advent of Ethernet over optical fiber, MPLS, VPNs and broadband services such as
cable modem and DSL, ATM and Frame Relay no longer play the prominent role they once did.
Wireless broadband access

Wireless broadband is used to provide both fixed and mobile Internet access.
Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi is the popular name for a "wireless local area network" that uses one of
the IEEE 802.11 standards. It is a trademark of the Wi-Fi Alliance. Individual
homes and businesses often use Wi-Fi to connect laptops and smart phones to
the Internet. Wi-Fi Hotspots may be found in coffee shops and various other
public establishments. Wi-Fi is used to create campus-wide and city-wide
wireless networks.[41][42][43]
Wi-Fi networks are built using one or more wireless routers called access Wi-Fi logo
points. "Ad hoc" computer to computer Wi-Fi" networks are also possible.
The Wi-Fi network is connected to the larger Internet using DSL, cable modem, and other Internet access
technologies. Data rates range from 6 to 600 Mbit/s. Wi-Fi service range is fairly short, typically 20 to 250 meters or
from 65 to 820 feet. Both data rate and range are quite variable depending on the Wi-Fi protocol, location,
frequency, building construction, and interference from other devices.[] Using directional antennas and with careful
engineering Wi-Fi can be extended to operate over distances of up to several kilometers, see "Wireless ISP" below.
Wireless ISP
Wireless ISPs typically employ low-cost 802.11 Wi-Fi radio systems to link up remote locations over great
distances, but may use other higher-power radio communications systems as well.
Traditional 802.11b is an unlicensed omnidirectional service designed to span between 100 and 150 meters (300 to
500 ft). By focusing the radio signal using a directional antenna 802.11b can operate reliably over a distance of many
kilometres (miles), although the technology's line-of-sight requirements hamper connectivity in areas with hilly or
heavily foliated terrain. In addition, compared to hard-wired connectivity, there are security risks (unless robust
security protocols are enabled); data rates are significantly slower (2 to 50 times slower); and the network can be less
stable, due to interference from other wireless devices and networks, weather and line-of-sight problems.[44]
Internet access 138
Rural wireless-ISP installations are typically not commercial in nature and are instead a patchwork of systems built
up by hobbyists mounting antennas on radio masts and towers, agricultural storage silos, very tall trees, or whatever
other tall objects are available. There are currently a number of companies that provide this service.[45]
Motorola Canopy and other proprietary technologies offer wireless access to rural and other markets that are hard to
reach using Wi-Fi or WiMAX.
WiMAX
WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) is a set of interoperable implementations of the IEEE
802.16 family of wireless-network standards certified by the WiMAX Forum. WiMAX enables "the delivery of last
mile wireless broadband access as an alternative to cable and DSL".[46] The original IEEE 802.16 standard, now
[47]
called "Fixed WiMAX", was published in 2001 and provided 30 to 40 megabit-per-second data rates. Mobility
support was added in 2005. A 2011 update provides data rates up to 1 Gbit/s for fixed stations. WiMax offers a
metropolitan area network with a signal radius of about 50 km (30 miles), far surpassing the 30-metre (100-foot)
wireless range of a conventional Wi-Fi local area network (LAN). WiMAX signals also penetrate building walls
much more effectively than Wi-Fi.
Satellite broadband
Satellites can provide fixed, portable, and mobile Internet access. It is

among the most expensive forms of broadband Internet access, but
may be the only choice available in remote areas.[48] Data rates range
from 2 kbit/s to 1 Gbit/s downstream and from 2 kbit/s to 10 Mbit/s
upstream. Satellite communication typically requires a clear line of
sight, will not work well through trees and other vegetation, is
adversely affected by moisture, rain, and snow (known as rain fade),
and may require a fairly large, carefully aimed, directional antenna.
Satellites in geostationary Earth orbit (GEO) operate in a fixed position Satellite Internet access via VSAT in Ghana
35,786 km (22,236 miles) above the earth's equator. Even at the speed
of light (about 300,000 km/s or 186,000 miles per second), it takes a quarter of a second for a radio signal to travel
from the earth to the satellite and back. When other switching and routing delays are added and the delays are
doubled to allow for a full round-trip transmission, the total delay can be 0.75 to 1.25 seconds. This latency is large
when compared to other forms of Internet access with typical latencies that range from 0.015 to 0.2 seconds. Long
latencies can make some applications, such as video conferencing, voice over IP, multiplayer games, and remote
control of equipment, that require a real-time response impracticable via satellite. TCP tuning and TCP acceleration
techniques can mitigate some of these problems. GEO satellites do not cover the earth's polar regions.[49] HughesNet
and ViaSat are GEO systems.
Satellites in Low Earth orbit (LEO, below 2000 km or 1243 miles) and Medium earth orbit (MEO, between 2000 and
35,786 km or 1,243 and 22,236 miles) are less common, operate at lower altitudes, and are not fixed in their position
above the earth. Lower altitudes allow lower latencies and make real-time interactive Internet applications feasible.
LEO systems include Globalstar and Iridium. The O3b Satellite Constellation is a proposed MEO system with a
latency of 125 ms. COMMStellation™ is a LEO system, scheduled for launch in 2015, that is expected to have a
latency of just 7 ms..
Internet access 139
Mobile broadband
Mobile broadband is the marketing term for wireless Internet access delivered through mobile phone towers to
computers, mobile phones (called "cell phones" in North America and South Africa), and other digital devices using
portable modems. Some mobile services allow more than one device to be connected to the Internet using a single
cellular connection using a process called tethering. The modem may be built into laptop computers, tablets, mobile
phones, and other devices, added to some devices using PC cards, USB modems, and USB sticks or dongles, or
separate wireless modems can be used.[]
Roughly every ten years new mobile phone technology and infrastructure involving a change in the fundamental
nature of the service, non-backwards-compatible transmission technology, higher peak data rates, new frequency
bands, wider channel frequency bandwidth in Hertz becomes available. These transitions are referred to as
generations. The first mobile data services became available during the second generation (2G).
Second generation (2G) from 1991:

Speeds in kbit/s down and up
• GSM CSD 9.6 kbit/s
• CDPD up to 19.2 kbit/s
• GSM GPRS (2.5G) 56 to 115 kbit/s
• GSM EDGE (2.75G) up to 237 kbit/s
Third generation (3G) from 2001:

Speeds in Mbit/s down up
• UMTS W-CDMA 0.4 Mbit/s
• UMTS HSPA 14.4 5.8
• UMTS TDD 16 Mbit/s
• CDMA2000 1xRTT 0.3 0.15
• CDMA2000 EV-DO 2.5–4.9 0.15–1.8
• GSM EDGE-Evolution 1.6 0.5
Fourth generation (4G) from 2006:

• HSPA+ 21–672 5.8–168
• Mobile WiMAX (802.16) 37–365 17–376
• LTE 100–300 50–75
• LTE-Advanced:
• moving at higher speeds 100 Mbit/s
• not moving or moving at lower speeds up to 1000 Mbit/s
• MBWA (802.20) 80 Mbit/s
The download (to the user) and upload (to the Internet) data rates given above are peak or maximum rates and end
users will typically experience lower data rates.
Internet access 140
WiMAX was originally developed to deliver fixed wireless service with wireless mobility added in 2005. CDPD,
CDMA2000 EV-DO, and MBWA are no longer being actively developed.
In 2011, 90% of the world's population lived in areas with 2G coverage, while 45% lived in areas with 2G and 3G
coverage.[50]
Local Multipoint Distribution Service

Local Multipoint Distribution Service (LMDS) is a broadband wireless access technology that uses microwave
signals operating between 26 GHz and 29 GHz.[51] Originally designed for digital television transmission (DTV), it
is conceived as a fixed wireless, point-to-multipoint technology for utilization in the last mile. Data rates range from
64 kbit/s to 155 Mbit/s.[52] Distance is typically limited to about 1.5 miles (2.4 km), but links of up to 5 miles (8 km)
from the base station are possible in some circumstances.[53]
LMDS has been surpassed in both technological and commercial potential by the LTE and WiMAX standards.
Pricing and spending

Internet access is limited by the relation between pricing and available resources to spend. Regarding the latter, it is
estimated that 40% of the world's population has less than US$ 20 per year available to spend on information and
communications technology (ICT).[54] In Mexico, the poorest 30% of the society counts with an estimated US$ 35
per year (US$ 3 per month) and in Brazil, the poorest 22% of the population counts with merely US$9 per year to
spend on ICT (US$ 0.75 per month). From Latin America it is known that the borderline between ICT as a necessity
good and ICT as a luxury good is roughly around the “magical number” of US$10 per person per month, or US$120
per year.[54] This is the amount of ICT spending people esteem to be a basic necessity. Current Internet access prices
exceed the available resources by large in many countries.
Dial-up users pay the costs for making local or long distance phone calls, usually pay a monthly subscription fee, and
may be subject to additional per minute or traffic based charges, and connect time limits by their ISP. Though less
common today than in the past, some dial-up access is offered for "free" in return for watching banner ads as part of
the dial-up service. NetZero, BlueLight, Juno, Freenet (NZ), and Free-nets are examples of services providing free
access. Some Wireless community networks continue the tradition of providing free Internet access.
Fixed broadband Internet access is often sold under an "unlimited" or flat rate pricing model, with price determined
by the maximum data rate chosen by the customer, rather than a per minute or traffic based charge. Per minute and
traffic based charges and traffic caps are common for mobile broadband Internet access.
With increased consumer demand for streaming content such as video on demand and peer-to-peer file sharing,
demand for bandwidth has increased rapidly and for some ISPs the flat rate pricing model may become
unsustainable. However, with fixed costs estimated to represent 80–90% of the cost of providing broadband service,
the marginal cost to carry additional traffic is low. Most ISPs do not disclose their costs, but the cost to transmit a
gigabyte of data in 2011 was estimated to be about $0.03.[55]
Some ISPs estimate that about 5% of their users consume about 50% of the total bandwidth.[] To ensure these
high-bandwidth users do not slow down the network for everyone, some ISPs are considering, are experimenting
with, or have implemented combinations of traffic based pricing, time of day or "peak" and "off peak" pricing, and
bandwidth or traffic caps.[56][57]
In Canada, Rogers Hi-Speed Internet and Bell Canada have imposed bandwidth caps.[] In 2008 Time Warner began
experimenting with usage-based pricing in Beaumont, Texas.[58] In 2009 an effort by Time Warner to expand
usage-based pricing into the Rochester, New York area met with public resistance, however, and was abandoned.[59]
On August 1, 2012 in Nashville, Tennessee and on October 1, 2012 in Tucson, Arizona Comcast began tests that
impose data caps on area residents. In Nashville exceeding the 300 Gbyte cap, mandates a temporary purchase of 50
Gbytes of additional data.[60]
Internet access 141
Growth in number of users
2005 2010 2013

a

World population

a
Estimate.
[62]
Internet users by region
2005b 2010b 2013a,b

Africa 2% 10% 16%
Americas 36% 49% 61%
Arab States 8% 26% 38%
Asia and Pacific 9% 23% 32%

Commonwealth of 10% 34% 52%
Independent States
Europe 46% 67% 75%
a
Estimate. b Per 100 inhabitants.
[62]
Access to the Internet grew from an estimated 10 million people in 1993, to almost 40 million in 1995, to 670
million in 2002, and to 2.45 billion in 2011.[50] With market saturation, growth in the number of Internet users is
slowing in industrialized countries, but continues in Asia,[63] Africa, Latin America, the Caribbean, and the Middle
East.
There were roughly 0.6 billion fixed broadband subscribers and almost 1.2 billion mobile broadband subscribers in
2011.[64] In developed countries people frequently use both fixed and mobile broadband networks. In developing
countries mobile broadband is often the only access method available.[50]
Internet access 142
Digital Divide
Despite its tremendous growth,
Internet access is not distributed
equally within or between
countries.[50][67]
The digital divide refers to “the gap
between people with effective access
to information and communications
technology (ICT), and those with very
limited or no access”. The gap between
people with Internet access and those
without is one of many aspects of the List of countries by number of Internet usersInternet users in 2012 as a percentage of a
digital divide.[68] Whether someone country's populationSource: International Telecommunications Union.
has access to the Internet can depend
greatly on financial status,
geographical location as well as
government policies. “Low-income,
rural, and minority populations have
received special scrutiny as the
technological "have-nots."[69]
Government policies play a

tremendous role in bringing Internet
access to or limiting access for
underserved groups, regions, and
countries. For example in Pakistan,
which is pursuing an aggressive IT subscriptions in 2012as a percentage of a country's populationSource: International
policy aimed at boosting its drive for Telecommunications Union. "Fixed (wired)-broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants
economic modernization, the number 2012", Dynamic Report, ITU ITC EYE, International Telecommunication Union.
of Internet users grew from 133,900
(0.1% of the population) in 2000 to 31
million (17.6% of the population) in 2011.[70] In countries such as North Korea and Cuba there is relatively little
access to the Internet due to the governments' fear of political instability that might accompany the benefits of access
to the global Internet.[71] The U.S. trade embargo is another barrier limiting Internet access in Cuba.[72]
In the United States, billions of dollars has been invested in efforts to narrow the digital divide and bring Internet
Internet access 143
access to more people in low-income

and rural areas of the United States.
The Obama administration has
continued this commitment to
narrowing the digital divide through
[69]
the use of stimulus funding. The
National Center for Education
Statistics reported that 98% of all U.S.
classroom computers had Internet
access in 2008 with roughly one
computer with Internet access
List of countries by number of broadband Internet subscriptionsMobile broadband
available for every three students. The Internet subscriptions in 2012as a percentage of a country's populationSource:
percentage and ratio of students to International Telecommunications Union. "Active mobile-broadband subscriptions per
computers was the same for rural 100 inhabitants 2012", Dynamic Report, ITU ITC EYE, International Telecommunication
Union. Retrieved on 29 June 2013.
schools (98% and 1 computer for every
2.9 students).[73]
Access to computers is a dominant factor in determining the level of Internet access. In 2011, in developing
countries, 25% of households had a computer and 20% had Internet access, while in developed countries the figures
were 74% of households had a computer and 71% had Internet access.[50] When buying computers was legalized in
Cuba in 2007, the private ownership of computers soared (there were 630,000 computers available on the island in
2008, a 23% increase over 2007).[74][]
Internet access has changed the way in which many people think and has become an integral part of peoples
economic, political, and social lives. Providing Internet access to more people in the world allow will them to take
advantage of the “political, social, economic, educational, and career opportunities” available over the Internet.[67]
Several of the 67 principles adopted at the World Summit on the Information Society convened by the United
Nations in Geneva in 2003, directly address the digital divide.[75] To promote economic development and a
reduction of the digital divide, national broadband plans have been and are being developed to increase the
availability of affordable high-speed Internet access throughout the world.
Rural access
One of the great challenges for Internet access in general and for broadband access in particular is to provide service
to potential customers in areas of low population density, such as to farmers, ranchers, and small towns. In cities
where the population density is high, it is easier for a service provider to recover equipment costs, but each rural
customer may require expensive equipment to get connected. While 66% of Americans had an Internet connection in
2010, that figure was only 50% in rural areas, according to the Pew Internet & American Life Project.[76] Virgin
Media advertised over 100 towns across the United Kingdom "from Cwmbran to Clydebank" that have access to
their 100 Mbit/s service.[]
Wireless Internet Service Provider (WISPs) are rapidly becoming a popular broadband option for rural areas.[77] The
technology's line-of-sight requirements may hamper connectivity in some areas with hilly and heavily foliated
terrain. However, the Tegola project, a successful pilot in remote Scotland, demonstrates that wireless can be a
viable option.[78]
The Broadband for Rural Nova Scotia initiative is the first program in North America to guarantee access to "100%
of civic addresses" in a region. It is based on Motorola Canopy technology. As of November 2011, under 1000
households have reported access problems. Deployment of a new cell network by one Canopy provider (Eastlink)
was expected to provide the alternative of 3G/4G service, possibly at a special unmetered rate, for areas harder to
Internet access 144
serve by Canopy.[79]
[80] [81]
A rural broadband initiative in New Zealand is a joint project between Vodafone and Chorus, with Chorus
providing the fibre infrastructure and Vodafone providing wireless broadband, supported by the fibre backhaul.
Access as a civil or human right

The actions, statements, opinions, and recommendations outlined below have led to the suggestion that Internet
access itself is or should become a civil or perhaps a human right.[82][83]
Several countries have adopted laws requiring the state to work to ensure that Internet access is broadly available
and/or preventing the state from unreasonably restricting an individual's access to information and the Internet:
• Costa Rica: A 30 July 2010 ruling by the Supreme Court of Costa Rica stated: "Without fear of equivocation, it
can be said that these technologies [information technology and communication] have impacted the way humans
communicate, facilitating the connection between people and institutions worldwide and eliminating barriers of
space and time. At this time, access to these technologies becomes a basic tool to facilitate the exercise of
fundamental rights and democratic participation (e-democracy) and citizen control, education, freedom of thought
and expression, access to information and public services online, the right to communicate with government
electronically and administrative transparency, among others. This includes the fundamental right of access to
these technologies, in particular, the right of access to the Internet or World Wide Web."[84]
• Estonia: In 2000, the parliament launched a massive program to expand access to the countryside. The Internet,
the government argues, is essential for life in the 21st century.[85]
• Finland: By July 2010, every person in Finland was to have access to a one-megabit per second broadband
connection, according to the Ministry of Transport and Communications. And by 2015, access to a 100 Mbit/s
connection.[86]
• France: In June 2009, the Constitutional Council, France's highest court, declared access to the Internet to be a
basic human right in a strongly-worded decision that struck down portions of the HADOPI law, a law that would
have tracked abusers and without judicial review automatically cut off network access to those who continued to
download illicit material after two warnings[87]
• Greece: Article 5A of the Constitution of Greece states that all persons has a right to participate in the Information
Society and that the state has an obligation to facilitate the production, exchange, diffusion, and access to
electronically transmitted information.[88]
• Spain: Starting in 2011, Telefónica, the former state monopoly that holds the country's "universal service"
contract, has to guarantee to offer "reasonably" priced broadband of at least one megabyte per second throughout
Spain.[89]
In December 2003, the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) was convened under the auspice of the
United Nations. After lengthy negotiations between governments, businesses and civil society representatives the
WSIS Declaration of Principles was adopted reaffirming the importance of the Information Society to maintaining
and strengthening human rights:[] []
1. We, the representatives of the peoples of the world, assembled in Geneva from 10–12 December 2003 for
the first phase of the World Summit on the Information Society, declare our common desire and commitment
to build a people-centred, inclusive and development-oriented Information Society, where everyone can create,
access, utilize and share information and knowledge, enabling individuals, communities and peoples to
achieve their full potential in promoting their sustainable development and improving their quality of life,
premised on the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations and respecting fully and
upholding the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
3. We reaffirm the universality, indivisibility, interdependence and interrelation of all human rights and
fundamental freedoms, including the right to development, as enshrined in the Vienna Declaration. We also
reaffirm that democracy, sustainable development, and respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms as
Internet access 145
well as good governance at all levels are interdependent and mutually reinforcing. We further resolve to
strengthen the rule of law in international as in national affairs.
The WSIS Declaration of Principles makes specific reference to the importance of the right to freedom of expression
in the "Information Society" in stating:
4. We reaffirm, as an essential foundation of the Information Society, and as outlined in Article 19 of the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, that everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; that
this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information
and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers. Communication is a fundamental social process, a
basic human need and the foundation of all social organisation. It is central to the Information Society.
Everyone, everywhere should have the opportunity to participate and no one should be excluded from the
benefits of the Information Society offers."[]
A poll of 27,973 adults in 26 countries, including 14,306 Internet users,[90] conducted for the BBC World Service
between 30 November 2009 and 7 February 2010 found that almost four in five Internet users and non-users around
the world felt that access to the Internet was a fundamental right.[91] 50% strongly agreed, 29% somewhat agreed,
9% somewhat disagreed, 6% strongly disagreed, and 6% gave no opinion.[92]
The 88 recommendations made by the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of
opinion and expression in a May 2011 report to the Human Rights Council of the United Nations General Assembly
include several that bear on the question of the right to Internet access:[93]
67. Unlike any other medium, the Internet enables individuals to seek, receive and impart information and
ideas of all kinds instantaneously and inexpensively across national borders. By vastly expanding the capacity
of individuals to enjoy their right to freedom of opinion and expression, which is an “enabler” of other human
rights, the Internet boosts economic, social and political development, and contributes to the progress of
humankind as a whole. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur encourages other Special Procedures mandate
holders to engage on the issue of the Internet with respect to their particular mandates.
78. While blocking and filtering measures deny users access to specific content on the Internet, States have
also taken measures to cut off access to the Internet entirely. The Special Rapporteur considers cutting off
users from Internet access, regardless of the justification provided, including on the grounds of violating
intellectual property rights law, to be disproportionate and thus a violation of article 19, paragraph 3, of the
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.
79. The Special Rapporteur calls upon all States to ensure that Internet access is maintained at all times,
including during times of political unrest.
85. Given that the Internet has become an indispensable tool for realizing a range of human rights, combating
inequality, and accelerating development and human progress, ensuring universal access to the Internet should
be a priority for all States. Each State should thus develop a concrete and effective policy, in consultation with
individuals from all sections of society, including the private sector and relevant Government ministries, to
make the Internet widely available, accessible and affordable to all segments of population.
Natural disasters and access

Natural disasters disrupt internet access in profound ways. This is important—not only for telecommunication
companies who own the networks and the businesses who use them, but for emergency crew and displaced citizens
as well. The situation is worsened when hospitals or other buildings necessary to disaster response lose their
connection. Knowledge gained from studying past internet disruptions by natural disasters could be put to use in
planning or recovery. Additionally, because of both natural and man-made disasters, studies in network resiliency
are now being conducted to prevent large-scale outages.[94]
Internet access 146
One way natural disasters impact internet connection is by damaging end sub-networks (subnets), making them
unreachable. A study on local networks after Hurricane Katrina found that 26% of subnets within the storm coverage
were unreachable.[95] At Hurricane Katrina’s peak intensity, almost 35% of networks in Mississippi were without
power, while around 14% of Louisiana’s networks were disrupted.[96] Of those unreachable subnets, 73% were
disrupted for four weeks or longer and 57% were at “network edges where important emergency organizations such
as hospitals and government agencies are mostly located”.[95] Extensive infrastructure damage and inaccessible areas
were two explanations for the long delay in returning service.[95] The company Cisco has revealed a Network
Emergency Response Vehicle (NERV), a truck that makes portable communications possible for emergency
responders despite traditional networks being disrupted.[97]
A second way natural disasters destroy internet connectivity is by severing submarine cables—fiber-optic cables
placed on the ocean floor that provide international internet connection. The 2006 undersea earthquake near Taiwan
(Richter scale 7.2) cut six out of seven international cables connected to that country and caused a tsunami that
wiped out one of its cable and landing stations.[98][99] The impact slowed or disabled internet connection for five
days within the Asia-Pacific region as well as between the region and the United States and Europe.[100]
With the rise in popularity of cloud computing, concern has grown over access to cloud-hosted data in the event of a
natural disaster. Amazon Web Services (AWS) has been in the news for major network outages in April 2011 and
June 2012.[101][102] AWS, like other major cloud hosting companies, prepares for typical outages and large-scale
natural disasters with backup power as well as backup data centers in other locations. AWS divides the globe into
five regions and then splits each region into availability zones. A data center in one availability zone should be
backed up by a data center in a different availability zone. Theoretically, a natural disaster would not affect more
than one availability zone.[103] This theory plays out as long as human error is not added to the mix. The June 2012
major storm only disabled the primary data center, but human error disabled the secondary and tertiary backups,
affecting companies such as Netflix, Pinterest, Reddit, and Instagram.[104][105]
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jurisprudencia/ jur_texto_sentencia. asp?nValor2=483874& tem1=013141& param7=0& lResultado=3& nValor1=1& strTipM=T&
strLib=LIB))
[85] "Estonia, where being wired is a human right" (http:/ / www. csmonitor. com/ 2003/ 0701/ p07s01-woeu. html), Colin Woodard, Christian
Science Monitor, 1 July 2003
[86] "Finland makes 1Mb broadband access a legal right" (http:/ / news. cnet. com/ 8301-17939_109-10374831-2. html), Don Reisinger, CNet
News, 14 October 2009
[88] Constitution of Greece As revised by the parliamentary resolution of May 27th 2008 of the VIIIth Revisionary Parliament (http:/ / www.
hellenicparliament. gr/ UserFiles/ f3c70a23-7696-49db-9148-f24dce6a27c8/ 001-156 aggliko. pdf), English language translation, Hellenic
Parliament
[90] For the BBC poll Internet users are those who used the Internet within the previous six months.
[91] "BBC Internet Poll: Detailed Findings" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ shared/ bsp/ hi/ pdfs/ 08_03_10_BBC_internet_poll. pdf), BBC World
Service, 8 March 2010
[92] "Internet access is 'a fundamental right'" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ 8548190. stm), BBC News, 8 March 2010
[93] "VI. Conclusions and recommendations" (http:/ / www2. ohchr. org/ english/ bodies/ hrcouncil/ docs/ 17session/ A. HRC. 17. 27_en. pdf),
Report of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, Frank La Rue, Human
Rights Council, Seventeenth session Agenda item 3, United Nations General Assembly, 16 May 2011
[94] Measuring the Resilience of the Global Internet Infrastructure System (http:/ / www. stevens-tech. edu/ csr/ fileadmin/ csr/ Publications/
Omer_Measuring_the_Resilience_of_the_Global_Internet__Infrastructure. pdf), 2009 3rd Annual IEEE Systems Conference, 156–162.
[95] Inference of Network-Service Disruption upon Natural Disasters (http:/ / users. ece. gatech. edu/ ~jic/ katrina. pdf), accessed 5 December
2012.
[96] Impact of Hurricane Katrina on Internet Infrastructure (http:/ / www. renesys. com/ tech/ presentations/ pdf/
Renesys-Katrina-Report-9sep2005. pdf), Renesys Report, 9 September 2005, accessed 5 December 2012.
[97] Cisco trucks help restore internet after disasters (http:/ / abclocal. go. com/ kgo/ story?section=news/ business& id=8867345), ABC News
report, 30 October 2012, accessed 5 December 2012.
[98] Taiwan’s Earthquake and Tsunami Caused Internet access’s Interference (http:/ / www. telkom. co. id/ media-corner/ press-release/
taiwan-s-earthquake-and-tsunami-caused-internet-access-s-interference. html), Telkom Indonesia Press Release, 27 December 2006, accessed
5 December 2012.
Internet access 149
[99] Impact of Taiwan Earthquake on Internet Access (http:/ / www. ust. hk/ itsc/ channel/ 2007feb/ earthquake. html), Choy, C. (2007).
Channel, The Hong Kong University of Science & Technology, 46. Accessed 5 December 2012.
[100] Understanding and Mitigating Catastrophic Disruption and Attack (http:/ / www. noblis. org/ NewsPublications/ Publications/
TechnicalPublications/ SigmaJournal/ Documents/ Sigma_RE_UnderstandingAndMitigating. pdf), Masi, D., Smith E., Fischer M.
Telecommunications and Cybersecurity, Noblis. Accessed 5 December 2012.
[101] Summary of the Amazon EC2 and Amazon RDS Service Disruption in the US East Region (http:/ / aws. amazon. com/ message/ 65648/ ),
AWS message, 29 April 2011, accessed 5 December 2012.
[102] Summary of the AWS Service Event in the US East Region (https:/ / aws. amazon. com/ message/ 67457/ ), AWS message, 2 July 2012,
accessed 5 December 2012.
[103] AWS is down: Why the sky is falling (http:/ / justinsb. posterous. com/ aws-down-why-the-sky-is-falling), justinsb's posterous, 21 April
2011, accessed 5 December 2012.
[104] Amazon Web Services June 2012 Outage Explained (http:/ / cloud-computing-today. com/ 2012/ 06/ 18/
amazon-web-services-june-2012-outage-explained/ ), Cloud Computing Today, 18 June 2012, accessed 5 December 2012.
[105] Will Natural Disasters Kill the Cloud? (http:/ / crashcloud. com/ will-natural-disasters-kill-cloud/ ), CrashCloud, 21 August 2012, accessed
5 December 2012.
External links
• European broadband (http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/eeurope/i2010/digital_divide/index_en.
htm#European_broadband_portal)
• Corporate vs. Community Internet (http://www.alternet.org/story/22216/), AlterNet, June 14, 2005, – on the
clash between US cities' attempts to expand municipal broadband and corporate attempts to defend their markets
• Broadband data (http://www.google.com/publicdata/directory#!q=broadband), from Google public data
• US National Broadband Maps (http://broadbandmap.gov)
Broadband Internet access

Internet
Internet portal
Internet access connects individual computer terminals, computers, mobile devices, and computer networks to the
Internet, enabling users to access Internet services (for example, email and the World Wide Web). Internet service
providers (ISPs) offer Internet access to the public through various technologies that offer a wide range of data
signaling rates (speeds).
Consumer use of the Internet first became popular through dial-up Internet access in the 1980s and 1990s. By the
first decade of the 21st century, many consumers used faster, broadband Internet access technologies.
History
The Internet began as a network funded by the US government to support projects within the government and at
universities and research laboratories in the US – but grew over time to include most of the world's large universities
and the research arms of many technology companies.[1][2][3] Use by a wider audience only came in 1995 when
restrictions on the use of the Internet to carry commercial traffic were lifted.[4]
In the early to mid-1980s, most Internet access was from personal computers and workstations directly connected to
local area networks or from dial-up connections using modems and analog telephone lines. LANs typically operated
at 10 Mbit/s and grew to support 100 and 1000 Mbit/s, while modem data-rates grew from 1200 and 2400 bit/s in the
1980s, to 28 and 56 kbit/s by the mid to late 1990s. Initially dial-up connections were made from terminals or
computers running terminal emulation software to terminal servers on LANs. These dial-up connections did not
support end-to-end use of the Internet protocols and only provided terminal to host connections. The introduction of
network access servers (NASs) supporting the Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP) and later the point-to-point
protocol (PPP) extended the Internet protocols and made the full range of Internet services available to dial-up users,
subject only to limitations imposed by the lower data rates available using dial-up.
Broadband Internet access, often shortened to just broadband and also known as high-speed Internet access, are
services that provide bit-rates considerably higher than that available using a 56 kbit/s modem. In the US National
Broadband Plan of 2009, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) defined broadband access as "Internet
access that is always on and faster than the traditional dial-up access",[5] although the FCC has defined it differently
through the years.[6] The term broadband was originally a reference to multi-frequency communication, as opposed
to narrowband or baseband. Broadband is now a marketing term that telephone, cable, and other companies use to
sell their more expensive higher-data-rate products.[7] Broadband connections are typically made using a computer's
built in Ethernet networking capabilities, or by using a NIC expansion card.
Most broadband services provide a continuous "always on" connection; there is no dial-in process required, and it
does not “hog” phone lines.[8] Broadband provides improved access to Internet services such as:
• Faster world wide web browsing
• Faster downloading of documents, photographs, videos, and other large files
• Telephony, radio, television, and videoconferencing
• Virtual private networks and remote system administration
• Online gaming, especially massively multiplayer online role-playing games which are interaction-intensive
In the 1990s, the National Information Infrastructure initiative in the U.S. made broadband Internet access a public
policy issue.[9] In 2000, most Internet access to homes was provided using dial-up, while many businesses and
schools were using broadband connections. In 2000 there were just under 150 million dial-up subscriptions in the 34
OECD countries[10] and fewer than 20 million broadband subscriptions. By 2004, broadband had grown and dial-up
had declined so that the number of subscriptions were roughly equal at 130 million each. In 2010, in the OECD
countries, over 90% of the Internet access subscriptions used broadband, broadband had grown to more than 300
million subscriptions, and dial-up subscriptions had declined to fewer than 30 million.[11]
The broadband technologies in widest use are ADSL and cable Internet access. Newer technologies include VDSL
and optical fibre extended closer to the subscriber in both telephone and cable plants. Fibre-optic communication,
while only recently being used in premises and to the curb schemes, has played a crucial role in enabling broadband
Internet access by making transmission of information at very high data rates over longer distances much more
cost-effective than copper wire technology.
In areas not served by ADSL or cable, some community organizations and local governments are installing Wi-Fi
networks. Wireless and satellite Internet are often used in rural, undeveloped, or other hard to serve areas where
wired Internet is not readily available.
Newer technologies being deployed for fixed (stationary) and mobile broadband access include WiMAX, LTE, and
fixed wireless, e.g., Motorola Canopy.
Starting in roughly 2006, mobile broadband access is increasingly available at the consumer level using "3G" and
"4G" technologies such as HSPA, EV-DO, HSPA+, and LTE.
Availability
In addition to access from home, school, and the workplace Internet access may be available from public places such
as libraries and Internet cafes, where computers with Internet connections are available. Some libraries provide
stations for connecting users' laptops to local area networks (LANs).
Wireless Internet access points are available in public places such as airport halls, in some cases just for brief use
while standing. Some access points may also provide coin operated computers. Various terms are used, such as
"public Internet kiosk", "public access terminal", and "Web payphone". Many hotels also have public terminals,
usually fee based.
Coffee shops, shopping malls, and other venues increasingly offer wireless access to computer networks, referred to
as hotspots, for users who bring their own wireless-enabled devices such as a laptop or PDA. These services may be
free to all, free to customers only, or fee-based. A hotspot need not be limited to a confined location. A whole
campus or park, or even an entire city can be enabled. Grassroots efforts have led to wireless community networks.
Additionally, Mobile broadband access allows smart phones and other digital devices to connect to the Internet from
any location from which a mobile phone call can be made, subject to the capabilities of that mobile network.
Data rates
Data rate units (SI)

Kilobit per second (103) kbit/s 1,024 bit/s 128 bytes/s
Megabit/s (106) Mbit/s 1,024 kbit/s 128 kB/s
Gigabit/s (109) Gbit/s 1,024 Mbit/s 128 MB/s
Terabit/s (1012) Tbit/s 1,024 Gbit/s 128 GB/s
Petabit/s (1015) Pbit/s 1,024 Tbit/s 128 TB/s

Kilobyte per second (103) kB/s 8,192 bit/s 1,024 bytes/s
Megabyte/s (106) MB/s 8,192 kbit/s 1,024 kB/s
Gigabyte/s (109) GB/s 8,192 Mbit/s 1,024 MB/s
Terabyte/s (1012) TB/s 8,192 Gbit/s 1,024 GB/s
Petabyte/s (1015) PB/s 8,192 Tbit/s 1,024 TB/s
The bit rates for dial-up modems range from as little as 110 bit/s in the late 1950s, to a maximum of from 33 to 64
kbit/s (V.90 and V.92) in the late 1990s. Dial-up connections generally require the dedicated use of a telephone line.
Data compression can boost the effective bit rate for a dial-up modem connection to from 220 (V.42bis) to 320
(V.44) kbit/s.[12] However, the effectiveness of data compression is quite variable, depending on the type of data
being sent, the condition of the telephone line, and a number of other factors. In reality, the overall data rate rarely
exceeds 150 kbit/s.[13]
Broadband technologies supply considerably higher bit rates than dial-up, generally without disrupting regular
telephone use. Various minimum data rates and maximum latencies have been used in definitions of broadband,
ranging from 64 kbit/s up to 4.0 Mbit/s.[] In 1988 the CCITT standards body defined "broadband service" as
requiring transmission channels capable of supporting bit rates greater than the primary rate which ranged from
about 1.5 to 2 Mbit/s.[14] A 2006 Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) report defined
[10]
broadband as having download data transfer rates equal to or faster than 256 kbit/s. And in 2010 the U.S. Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) defined "Basic Broadband" as data transmission speeds of at least 4 Mbit/s
downstream (from the Internet to the user’s computer) and 1 Mbit/s upstream (from the user’s computer to the
Internet).[15] The trend is to raise the threshold of the broadband definition as higher data rate services become
available.[]
The higher data rate dial-up modems and many broadband services are "asymmetric"—supporting much higher data
rates for download (toward the user) than for upload (toward the Internet).
Data rates, including those given in this article, are usually defined and advertised in terms of the maximum or peak
download rate. In practice, these maximum data rates are not always reliably available to the customer.[] Actual
end-to-end data rates can be lower due to a number of factors.[16] Physical link quality can vary with distance and for
wireless access with terrain, weather, building construction, antenna placement, and interference from other radio
sources. Network bottlenecks may exist at points anywhere on the path from the end-user to the remote server or
service being used and not just on the first or last link providing Internet access to the end-user.
Users may share access over a common network infrastructure. Since most users do not use their full connection
capacity all of the time, this aggregation strategy (known as contended service) usually works well and users can
burst to their full data rate at least for brief periods. However, peer-to-peer (P2P) file sharing and high-quality
streaming video can require high data-rates for extended periods, which violates these assumptions and can cause a
service to become oversubscribed, resulting in congestion and poor performance. The TCP protocol includes
flow-control mechanisms that automatically throttle back on the bandwidth being used during periods of network
congestion. This is fair in the sense that all users that experience congestion receive less bandwidth, but it can be
frustrating for customers and a major problem for ISPs. In some cases the amount of bandwidth actually available
may fall below the threshold required to support a particular service such as video conferencing or streaming live
video–effectively making the service unavailable.
When traffic is particularly heavy, an ISP can deliberately throttle back the bandwidth available to classes of users or
for particular services. This is known as traffic shaping and careful use can ensure a better quality of service for time
critical services even on extremely busy networks. However, overuse can lead to concerns about fairness and
network neutrality or even charges of censorship, when some types of traffic are severely or completely blocked.
Technologies
Access technologies generally use a modem, which converts digital data to analog for transmission over analog
networks such as the telephone and cable networks.[8]
Local Area Networks

Local area networks (LANs) provide Internet access to computers and other devices in a limited area such as a home,
school, computer laboratory, or office building, usually at relatively high data-rates that typically range from 10 to
1000 Mbit/s.[17] There are wired and wireless LANs. Ethernet over twisted pair cabling and Wi-Fi are the two most
common technologies used to build LANs today, but ARCNET, Token Ring, Localtalk, FDDI, and other
technologies were used in the past.
Most Internet access today is through a LAN, often a very small LAN with just one or two devices attached. And
while LANs are an important form of Internet access, this begs the question of how and at what data rate the LAN
itself is connected to the rest of the global Internet. The technologies described below are used to make these
connections.
Dial-up access
"Dial up modem noises"

Typical noises of a dial-up modem while establishing connection with a local ISP in order to get access to the Internet.
Problems playing this file? See media help.
Dial-up access uses a modem and a phone call placed over the public switched telephone network (PSTN) to connect
to a pool of modems operated by an ISP. The modem converts a computer's digital signal into an analog signal that
travels over a phone line's local loop until it reaches a telephone company's switching facilities or central office (CO)
where it is switched to another phone line that connects to another modem at the remote end of the connection.[]
Operating on a single channel, a dial-up connection monopolizes the phone line and is one of the slowest methods of
accessing the Internet. Dial-up is often the only form of Internet access available in rural areas as it requires no new
infrastructure beyond the already existing telephone network, to connect to the Internet. Typically, dial-up
connections do not exceed a speed of 56 kbit/s, as they are primarily made using modems that operate at a maximum
data rate of 56 kbit/s downstream (towards the end user) and 34 or 48 kbit/s upstream (toward the global Internet).[8]
Broadband access
The term broadband includes a broad range of technologies, all of which provide higher data rate access to the
Internet. These technologies use wires or fiber optic cables in contrast to wireless broadband described later.
Multilink dial-up
Multilink dial-up provides increased bandwidth by bonding two or more dial-up connections together and treating
them as a single data channel.[18] It requires two or more modems, phone lines, and dial-up accounts, as well as an
ISP that supports multilinking – and of course any line and data charges are also doubled. This inverse multiplexing
option was briefly popular with some high-end users before ISDN, DSL and other technologies became available.
Diamond and other vendors created special modems to support multilinking.[19]
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), a switched telephone service capable of transporting voice and digital
data, is one of the oldest Internet access methods. ISDN has been used for voice, video conferencing, and broadband
data applications. ISDN was very popular in Europe, but less common in North America. Its use peaked in the late
1990s before the availability of DSL and cable modem technologies.[20]
Basic rate ISDN, known as ISDN-BRI, has two 64 kbit/s "bearer" or "B" channels. These channels can be used
separately for voice or data calls or bonded together to provide a 128 kbit/s service. Multiple ISDN-BRI lines can be
bonded together to provide data rates above 128 kbit/s. Primary rate ISDN, known as ISDN-PRI, has 23 bearer
channels (64 kbit/s each) for a combined data rate of 1.5 Mbit/s (US standard). An ISDN E1 (European standard)
line has 30 bearer channels and a combined data rate of 1.9 Mbit/s.
Leased lines
Leased lines are dedicated lines used primarily by ISPs, business, and other large enterprises to connect LANs and
campus networks to the Internet using the existing infrastructure of the public telephone network or other providers.
Delivered using wire, optical fiber, and radio, leased lines are used to provide Internet access directly as well as the
building blocks from which several other forms of Internet access are created.[21]
T-carrier technology dates to 1957 and provides data rates that range from 56 and 64 kbit/s (DS0) to 1.5 Mbit/s (DS1
or T1), to 45 Mbit/s (DS3 or T3). A T1 line carries 24 voice or data channels (24 DS0s), so customers may use some
channels for data and others for voice traffic or use all 24 channels for clear channel data. A DS3 (T3) line carries 28
DS1 (T1) channels. Fractional T1 lines are also available in multiples of a DS0 to provide data rates between 56 and
1,500 kbit/s. T-carrier lines require special termination equipment that may be separate from or integrated into a
router or switch and which may be purchased or leased from an ISP.[22] In Japan the equivalent standard is J1/J3. In
Europe, a slightly different standard, E-carrier, provides 32 user channels (64 kbit/s) on an E1 (2.0 Mbit/s) and 512
user channels or 16 E1s on an E3 (34.4 Mbit/s).
Synchronous Optical Networking (SONET, in the U.S. and Canada) and Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH, in
the rest of the world) are the standard multiplexing protocols used to carry high-data-rate digital bit-streams over
optical fiber using lasers or highly coherent light from light-emitting diodes (LEDs). At lower transmission rates data
can also be transferred via an electrical interface. The basic unit of framing is an OC-3c (optical) or STS-3c
(electrical) which carries 155.520 Mbit/s. Thus an OC-3c will carry three OC-1 (51.84 Mbit/s) payloads each of
which has enough capacity to include a full DS3. Higher data rates are delivered in OC-3c multiples of four
providing OC-12c (622.080 Mbit/s), OC-48c (2.488 Gbit/s), OC-192c (9.953 Gbit/s), and OC-768c (39.813 Gbit/s).
The "c" at the end of the OC labels stands for "concatenated" and indicates a single data stream rather than several
multiplexed data streams.[21]
The 1, 10, 40, and 100 gigabit ethernet (GbE, 10 GbE, 40 GbE, and 100 GbE) IEEE standards (802.3) allow digital
data to be delivered over copper wiring at distances to 100 m and over optical fiber at distances to 40 km.[23]
Cable Internet access

Cable Internet or cable modem access provides Internet access via hybrid fiber coaxial wiring originally developed
to carry television signals. Either fiber-optic or coaxial copper cable may connect a node to a customer's location at a
connection known as a cable drop. In a cable modem termination system, all nodes for cable subscribers in a
neighborhood connect to a cable company's central office, known as the "head end." The cable company then
connects to the Internet using a variety of means – usually fiber optic cable or digital satellite and microwave
transmissions.[24] Like DSL, broadband cable provides a continuous connection with an ISP.
Downstream, the direction toward the user, bit rates can be as much as 400 Mbit/s for business connections, and
100 Mbit/s for residential service in some countries. Upstream traffic, originating at the user, ranges from 384 kbit/s
to more than 20 Mbit/s. Broadband cable access tends to service fewer business customers because existing
television cable networks tend to service residential buildings and commercial buildings do not always include
wiring for coaxial cable networks.[25] In addition, because broadband cable subscribers share the same local line,
communications may be intercepted by neighboring subscribers. Cable networks regularly provide encryption
schemes for data traveling to and from customers, but these schemes may be thwarted.[24]
Digital subscriber line (DSL, ADSL, SDSL, and VDSL)

DSL technologies
Standard
ADSL ANSI T1.413 Issue 2

ITU G.992.1
(G.DMT)
ITU G.992.2 (G.Lite)
ADSL2 ITU G.992.3

ITU G.992.3 Annex J
ITU G.992.3 Annex L
ITU G.992.4
ADSL2+ ITU G.992.5

ITU G.992.5 Annex M
HDSL ITU G.991.1
HDSL2
IDSL
MSDSL
PDSL
RADSL
SDSL
SHDSL ITU G.991.2
UDSL
VDSL ITU G.993.1
VDSL2 ITU G.993.2
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) service provides a connection to the Internet through the telephone network. Unlike
dial-up, DSL can operate using a single phone line without preventing normal use of the telephone line for voice
phone calls. DSL uses the high frequencies, while the low (audible) frequencies of the line are left free for regular
telephone communication.[8] These frequency bands are subsequently separated by filters installed at the customer's
premises.
DSL originally stood for "digital subscriber loop". In telecommunications marketing, the term digital subscriber line
is widely understood to mean Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL), the most commonly installed variety of
DSL. The data throughput of consumer DSL services typically ranges from 256 kbit/s to 20 Mbit/s in the direction to
the customer (downstream), depending on DSL technology, line conditions, and service-level implementation. In
ADSL, the data throughput in the upstream direction, (i.e. in the direction to the service provider) is lower than that
in the downstream direction (i.e. to the customer), hence the designation of asymmetric.[26] With a symmetric digital
subscriber line (SDSL), the downstream and upstream data rates are equal.[27]
Very-high-bit-rate digital subscriber line (VDSL or VHDSL, ITU G.993.1)[28] is a digital subscriber line (DSL)
standard approved in 2001 that provides data rates up to 52 Mbit/s downstream and 16 Mbit/s upstream over copper
wires[29] and up to 85 Mbit/s down- and upstream on coaxial cable.[30] VDSL is capable of supporting applications
such as high-definition television, as well as telephone services (voice over IP) and general Internet access, over a
single physical connection.
VDSL2 (ITU-T G.993.2) is a second-generation version and an enhancement of VDSL.[] Approved in February
2006, it is able to provide data rates exceeding 100 Mbit/s simultaneously in both the upstream and downstream
directions. However, the maximum data rate is achieved at a range of about 300 meters and performance degrades as
distance and loop attenuation increases.
DSL Rings
DSL Rings (DSLR) or Bonded DSL Rings is a ring topology that uses DSL technology over existing copper
telephone wires to provide data rates of up to 400 Mbit/s.[]
Fiber to the home

Fiber-to-the-home (FTTH) is one member of the Fiber-to-the-x (FTTx) family that includes Fiber-to-the-building or
basement (FTTB), Fiber-to-the-premises (FTTP), Fiber-to-the-desk (FTTD), Fiber-to-the-curb (FTTC), and
Fiber-to-the-node (FTTN).[] These methods all bring data closer to the end user on optical fibers. The differences
between the methods have mostly to do with just how close to the end user the delivery on fiber comes. All of these
delivery methods are similar to hybrid fiber-coaxial (HFC) systems used to provide cable Internet access.
The use of optical fiber offers much higher data rates over relatively longer distances. Most high-capacity Internet
and cable television backbones already use fiber optic technology, with data switched to other technologies (DSL,
cable, POTS) for final delivery to customers.[31]
Australia has already begun rolling out its National Broadband Network across the country using fiber-optic cables
to 93 percent of Australian homes, schools, and businesses.[32] Similar efforts are underway in Italy, Canada, India,
and many other countries (see Fiber to the premises by country).[33][34][35][36]
Power-line Internet
Power-line Internet, also known as Broadband over power lines (BPL), carries Internet data on a conductor that is
also used for electric power transmission. Because of the extensive power line infrastructure already in place, this
technology can provide people in rural and low population areas access the Internet with little cost in terms of new
transmission equipment, cables, or wires. Data rates are asymmetric and generally range from 256 kbit/s to 2.7
Mbit/s.[37]
Because these systems use parts of the radio spectrum allocated to other over-the-air communication services,
interference between the services is a limiting factor in the introduction of power-line Internet systems. The IEEE
P1901 standard specifies that all power-line protocols must detect existing usage and avoid interfering with it.[37]
Power-line Internet has developed faster in Europe than in the U.S. due to a historical difference in power system
design philosophies. Data signals cannot pass through the step-down transformers used and so a repeater must be
installed on each transformer.[37] In the U.S. a transformer serves a small cluster of from one to a few houses. In
Europe, it is more common for a somewhat larger transformer to service larger clusters of from 10 to 100 houses.
Thus a typical U.S. city requires an order of magnitude more repeaters than in a comparable European city.[38]
ATM and Frame Relay

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) and Frame Relay are wide area networking standards that can be used to
provide Internet access directly or as building blocks of other access technologies. For example many DSL
implementations use an ATM layer over the low-level bitstream layer to enable a number of different technologies
over the same link. Customer LANs are typically connected to an ATM switch or a Frame Relay node using leased
lines at a wide range of data rates.[39][40]
While still widely used, with the advent of Ethernet over optical fiber, MPLS, VPNs and broadband services such as
cable modem and DSL, ATM and Frame Relay no longer play the prominent role they once did.
Wireless broadband access

Wireless broadband is used to provide both fixed and mobile Internet access.
Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi is the popular name for a "wireless local area network" that uses one of
the IEEE 802.11 standards. It is a trademark of the Wi-Fi Alliance. Individual
homes and businesses often use Wi-Fi to connect laptops and smart phones to
the Internet. Wi-Fi Hotspots may be found in coffee shops and various other
public establishments. Wi-Fi is used to create campus-wide and city-wide
[41][42][43]
wireless networks.
Wi-Fi networks are built using one or more wireless routers called access Wi-Fi logo
points. "Ad hoc" computer to computer Wi-Fi" networks are also possible.
The Wi-Fi network is connected to the larger Internet using DSL, cable modem, and other Internet access
technologies. Data rates range from 6 to 600 Mbit/s. Wi-Fi service range is fairly short, typically 20 to 250 meters or
from 65 to 820 feet. Both data rate and range are quite variable depending on the Wi-Fi protocol, location,
frequency, building construction, and interference from other devices.[] Using directional antennas and with careful
engineering Wi-Fi can be extended to operate over distances of up to several kilometers, see "Wireless ISP" below.
Wireless ISP
Wireless ISPs typically employ low-cost 802.11 Wi-Fi radio systems to link up remote locations over great
distances, but may use other higher-power radio communications systems as well.
Traditional 802.11b is an unlicensed omnidirectional service designed to span between 100 and 150 meters (300 to
500 ft). By focusing the radio signal using a directional antenna 802.11b can operate reliably over a distance of many
kilometres (miles), although the technology's line-of-sight requirements hamper connectivity in areas with hilly or
heavily foliated terrain. In addition, compared to hard-wired connectivity, there are security risks (unless robust
security protocols are enabled); data rates are significantly slower (2 to 50 times slower); and the network can be less
stable, due to interference from other wireless devices and networks, weather and line-of-sight problems.[44]
Rural wireless-ISP installations are typically not commercial in nature and are instead a patchwork of systems built
up by hobbyists mounting antennas on radio masts and towers, agricultural storage silos, very tall trees, or whatever
other tall objects are available. There are currently a number of companies that provide this service.[45]
Motorola Canopy and other proprietary technologies offer wireless access to rural and other markets that are hard to
reach using Wi-Fi or WiMAX.
WiMAX
WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) is a set of interoperable implementations of the IEEE
802.16 family of wireless-network standards certified by the WiMAX Forum. WiMAX enables "the delivery of last
mile wireless broadband access as an alternative to cable and DSL".[46] The original IEEE 802.16 standard, now
called "Fixed WiMAX", was published in 2001 and provided 30 to 40 megabit-per-second data rates.[47] Mobility
support was added in 2005. A 2011 update provides data rates up to 1 Gbit/s for fixed stations. WiMax offers a
metropolitan area network with a signal radius of about 50 km (30 miles), far surpassing the 30-metre (100-foot)
wireless range of a conventional Wi-Fi local area network (LAN). WiMAX signals also penetrate building walls
much more effectively than Wi-Fi.
Satellite broadband
Satellites can provide fixed, portable, and mobile Internet access. It is

among the most expensive forms of broadband Internet access, but
[48]
may be the only choice available in remote areas. Data rates range
from 2 kbit/s to 1 Gbit/s downstream and from 2 kbit/s to 10 Mbit/s
upstream. Satellite communication typically requires a clear line of
sight, will not work well through trees and other vegetation, is
adversely affected by moisture, rain, and snow (known as rain fade),
and may require a fairly large, carefully aimed, directional antenna.
Satellites in geostationary Earth orbit (GEO) operate in a fixed position Satellite Internet access via VSAT in Ghana
35,786 km (22,236 miles) above the earth's equator. Even at the speed
of light (about 300,000 km/s or 186,000 miles per second), it takes a quarter of a second for a radio signal to travel
from the earth to the satellite and back. When other switching and routing delays are added and the delays are
doubled to allow for a full round-trip transmission, the total delay can be 0.75 to 1.25 seconds. This latency is large
when compared to other forms of Internet access with typical latencies that range from 0.015 to 0.2 seconds. Long
latencies can make some applications, such as video conferencing, voice over IP, multiplayer games, and remote
control of equipment, that require a real-time response impracticable via satellite. TCP tuning and TCP acceleration
techniques can mitigate some of these problems. GEO satellites do not cover the earth's polar regions.[49] HughesNet
and ViaSat are GEO systems.
Satellites in Low Earth orbit (LEO, below 2000 km or 1243 miles) and Medium earth orbit (MEO, between 2000 and
35,786 km or 1,243 and 22,236 miles) are less common, operate at lower altitudes, and are not fixed in their position
above the earth. Lower altitudes allow lower latencies and make real-time interactive Internet applications feasible.
LEO systems include Globalstar and Iridium. The O3b Satellite Constellation is a proposed MEO system with a
latency of 125 ms. COMMStellation™ is a LEO system, scheduled for launch in 2015, that is expected to have a
latency of just 7 ms..
Mobile broadband
Mobile broadband is the marketing term for wireless Internet access delivered through mobile phone towers to
computers, mobile phones (called "cell phones" in North America and South Africa), and other digital devices using
portable modems. Some mobile services allow more than one device to be connected to the Internet using a single
cellular connection using a process called tethering. The modem may be built into laptop computers, tablets, mobile
phones, and other devices, added to some devices using PC cards, USB modems, and USB sticks or dongles, or
separate wireless modems can be used.[]
Roughly every ten years new mobile phone technology and infrastructure involving a change in the fundamental
nature of the service, non-backwards-compatible transmission technology, higher peak data rates, new frequency
bands, wider channel frequency bandwidth in Hertz becomes available. These transitions are referred to as
generations. The first mobile data services became available during the second generation (2G).
Second generation (2G) from 1991:

Speeds in kbit/s down and up
• GSM CSD 9.6 kbit/s
• CDPD up to 19.2 kbit/s
• GSM GPRS (2.5G) 56 to 115 kbit/s
• GSM EDGE (2.75G) up to 237 kbit/s
Third generation (3G) from 2001:

• UMTS W-CDMA 0.4 Mbit/s
• UMTS HSPA 14.4 5.8
• UMTS TDD 16 Mbit/s
• CDMA2000 1xRTT 0.3 0.15
• CDMA2000 EV-DO 2.5–4.9 0.15–1.8
• GSM EDGE-Evolution 1.6 0.5
Fourth generation (4G) from 2006:

• HSPA+ 21–672 5.8–168
• Mobile WiMAX (802.16) 37–365 17–376
• LTE 100–300 50–75
• LTE-Advanced:
• moving at higher speeds 100 Mbit/s
• not moving or moving at lower speeds up to 1000 Mbit/s
• MBWA (802.20) 80 Mbit/s
The download (to the user) and upload (to the Internet) data rates given above are peak or maximum rates and end
users will typically experience lower data rates.
WiMAX was originally developed to deliver fixed wireless service with wireless mobility added in 2005. CDPD,
CDMA2000 EV-DO, and MBWA are no longer being actively developed.
In 2011, 90% of the world's population lived in areas with 2G coverage, while 45% lived in areas with 2G and 3G
coverage.[50]
Local Multipoint Distribution Service

Local Multipoint Distribution Service (LMDS) is a broadband wireless access technology that uses microwave
signals operating between 26 GHz and 29 GHz.[51] Originally designed for digital television transmission (DTV), it
is conceived as a fixed wireless, point-to-multipoint technology for utilization in the last mile. Data rates range from
64 kbit/s to 155 Mbit/s.[52] Distance is typically limited to about 1.5 miles (2.4 km), but links of up to 5 miles (8 km)
from the base station are possible in some circumstances.[53]
LMDS has been surpassed in both technological and commercial potential by the LTE and WiMAX standards.
Pricing and spending

Internet access is limited by the relation between pricing and available resources to spend. Regarding the latter, it is
estimated that 40% of the world's population has less than US$ 20 per year available to spend on information and
communications technology (ICT).[54] In Mexico, the poorest 30% of the society counts with an estimated US$ 35
per year (US$ 3 per month) and in Brazil, the poorest 22% of the population counts with merely US$9 per year to
spend on ICT (US$ 0.75 per month). From Latin America it is known that the borderline between ICT as a necessity
good and ICT as a luxury good is roughly around the “magical number” of US$10 per person per month, or US$120
per year.[54] This is the amount of ICT spending people esteem to be a basic necessity. Current Internet access prices
exceed the available resources by large in many countries.
Dial-up users pay the costs for making local or long distance phone calls, usually pay a monthly subscription fee, and
may be subject to additional per minute or traffic based charges, and connect time limits by their ISP. Though less
common today than in the past, some dial-up access is offered for "free" in return for watching banner ads as part of
the dial-up service. NetZero, BlueLight, Juno, Freenet (NZ), and Free-nets are examples of services providing free
access. Some Wireless community networks continue the tradition of providing free Internet access.
Fixed broadband Internet access is often sold under an "unlimited" or flat rate pricing model, with price determined
by the maximum data rate chosen by the customer, rather than a per minute or traffic based charge. Per minute and
traffic based charges and traffic caps are common for mobile broadband Internet access.
With increased consumer demand for streaming content such as video on demand and peer-to-peer file sharing,
demand for bandwidth has increased rapidly and for some ISPs the flat rate pricing model may become
unsustainable. However, with fixed costs estimated to represent 80–90% of the cost of providing broadband service,
the marginal cost to carry additional traffic is low. Most ISPs do not disclose their costs, but the cost to transmit a
gigabyte of data in 2011 was estimated to be about $0.03.[55]
Some ISPs estimate that about 5% of their users consume about 50% of the total bandwidth.[] To ensure these
high-bandwidth users do not slow down the network for everyone, some ISPs are considering, are experimenting
with, or have implemented combinations of traffic based pricing, time of day or "peak" and "off peak" pricing, and
bandwidth or traffic caps.[56][57]
In Canada, Rogers Hi-Speed Internet and Bell Canada have imposed bandwidth caps.[] In 2008 Time Warner began
experimenting with usage-based pricing in Beaumont, Texas.[58] In 2009 an effort by Time Warner to expand
usage-based pricing into the Rochester, New York area met with public resistance, however, and was abandoned.[59]
On August 1, 2012 in Nashville, Tennessee and on October 1, 2012 in Tucson, Arizona Comcast began tests that
impose data caps on area residents. In Nashville exceeding the 300 Gbyte cap, mandates a temporary purchase of 50
Gbytes of additional data.[60]
Growth in number of users

2005 2010 2013a

World population
a
Estimate.
[62]
2005b 2010b 2013a,b

Africa 2% 10% 16%

Independent States
Europe 46% 67% 75%

a
Estimate. b Per 100 inhabitants.
[62]
Access to the Internet grew from an estimated 10 million people in 1993, to almost 40 million in 1995, to 670
million in 2002, and to 2.45 billion in 2011.[50] With market saturation, growth in the number of Internet users is
slowing in industrialized countries, but continues in Asia,[63] Africa, Latin America, the Caribbean, and the Middle
East.
There were roughly 0.6 billion fixed broadband subscribers and almost 1.2 billion mobile broadband subscribers in
2011.[64] In developed countries people frequently use both fixed and mobile broadband networks. In developing
countries mobile broadband is often the only access method available.[50]
Digital Divide
Despite its tremendous growth,
Internet access is not distributed
equally within or between
countries.[50][67]
The digital divide refers to “the gap
between people with effective access
to information and communications
technology (ICT), and those with very
limited or no access”. The gap between
people with Internet access and those
without is one of many aspects of the List of countries by number of Internet usersInternet users in 2012 as a percentage of a
digital divide.[68] Whether someone country's populationSource: International Telecommunications Union.
has access to the Internet can depend
greatly on financial status,
geographical location as well as
government policies. “Low-income,
rural, and minority populations have
received special scrutiny as the
technological "have-nots."[69]
Government policies play a

tremendous role in bringing Internet
access to or limiting access for
underserved groups, regions, and
countries. For example in Pakistan,
which is pursuing an aggressive IT subscriptions in 2012as a percentage of a country's populationSource: International
policy aimed at boosting its drive for Telecommunications Union. "Fixed (wired)-broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants
economic modernization, the number 2012", Dynamic Report, ITU ITC EYE, International Telecommunication Union.
of Internet users grew from 133,900
(0.1% of the population) in 2000 to 31
million (17.6% of the population) in 2011.[70] In countries such as North Korea and Cuba there is relatively little
access to the Internet due to the governments' fear of political instability that might accompany the benefits of access
to the global Internet.[71] The U.S. trade embargo is another barrier limiting Internet access in Cuba.[72]
In the United States, billions of dollars has been invested in efforts to narrow the digital divide and bring Internet
access to more people in low-income

and rural areas of the United States.
The Obama administration has
continued this commitment to
narrowing the digital divide through
[69]
the use of stimulus funding. The
National Center for Education
Statistics reported that 98% of all U.S.
classroom computers had Internet
access in 2008 with roughly one
computer with Internet access
List of countries by number of broadband Internet subscriptionsMobile broadband
available for every three students. The Internet subscriptions in 2012as a percentage of a country's populationSource:
percentage and ratio of students to International Telecommunications Union. "Active mobile-broadband subscriptions per
computers was the same for rural 100 inhabitants 2012", Dynamic Report, ITU ITC EYE, International Telecommunication
Union. Retrieved on 29 June 2013.
schools (98% and 1 computer for every
2.9 students).[73]
Access to computers is a dominant factor in determining the level of Internet access. In 2011, in developing
countries, 25% of households had a computer and 20% had Internet access, while in developed countries the figures
were 74% of households had a computer and 71% had Internet access.[50] When buying computers was legalized in
Cuba in 2007, the private ownership of computers soared (there were 630,000 computers available on the island in
2008, a 23% increase over 2007).[74][]
Internet access has changed the way in which many people think and has become an integral part of peoples
economic, political, and social lives. Providing Internet access to more people in the world allow will them to take
advantage of the “political, social, economic, educational, and career opportunities” available over the Internet.[67]
Several of the 67 principles adopted at the World Summit on the Information Society convened by the United
Nations in Geneva in 2003, directly address the digital divide.[75] To promote economic development and a
reduction of the digital divide, national broadband plans have been and are being developed to increase the
availability of affordable high-speed Internet access throughout the world.
Rural access
One of the great challenges for Internet access in general and for broadband access in particular is to provide service
to potential customers in areas of low population density, such as to farmers, ranchers, and small towns. In cities
where the population density is high, it is easier for a service provider to recover equipment costs, but each rural
customer may require expensive equipment to get connected. While 66% of Americans had an Internet connection in
2010, that figure was only 50% in rural areas, according to the Pew Internet & American Life Project.[76] Virgin
Media advertised over 100 towns across the United Kingdom "from Cwmbran to Clydebank" that have access to
their 100 Mbit/s service.[]
Wireless Internet Service Provider (WISPs) are rapidly becoming a popular broadband option for rural areas.[77] The
technology's line-of-sight requirements may hamper connectivity in some areas with hilly and heavily foliated
terrain. However, the Tegola project, a successful pilot in remote Scotland, demonstrates that wireless can be a
viable option.[78]
The Broadband for Rural Nova Scotia initiative is the first program in North America to guarantee access to "100%
of civic addresses" in a region. It is based on Motorola Canopy technology. As of November 2011, under 1000
households have reported access problems. Deployment of a new cell network by one Canopy provider (Eastlink)
was expected to provide the alternative of 3G/4G service, possibly at a special unmetered rate, for areas harder to
serve by Canopy.[79]
[80] [81]
A rural broadband initiative in New Zealand is a joint project between Vodafone and Chorus, with Chorus
providing the fibre infrastructure and Vodafone providing wireless broadband, supported by the fibre backhaul.
Access as a civil or human right

The actions, statements, opinions, and recommendations outlined below have led to the suggestion that Internet
access itself is or should become a civil or perhaps a human right.[82][83]
Several countries have adopted laws requiring the state to work to ensure that Internet access is broadly available
and/or preventing the state from unreasonably restricting an individual's access to information and the Internet:
• Costa Rica: A 30 July 2010 ruling by the Supreme Court of Costa Rica stated: "Without fear of equivocation, it
can be said that these technologies [information technology and communication] have impacted the way humans
communicate, facilitating the connection between people and institutions worldwide and eliminating barriers of
space and time. At this time, access to these technologies becomes a basic tool to facilitate the exercise of
fundamental rights and democratic participation (e-democracy) and citizen control, education, freedom of thought
and expression, access to information and public services online, the right to communicate with government
electronically and administrative transparency, among others. This includes the fundamental right of access to
these technologies, in particular, the right of access to the Internet or World Wide Web."[84]
• Estonia: In 2000, the parliament launched a massive program to expand access to the countryside. The Internet,
the government argues, is essential for life in the 21st century.[85]
• Finland: By July 2010, every person in Finland was to have access to a one-megabit per second broadband
connection, according to the Ministry of Transport and Communications. And by 2015, access to a 100 Mbit/s
connection.[86]
• France: In June 2009, the Constitutional Council, France's highest court, declared access to the Internet to be a
basic human right in a strongly-worded decision that struck down portions of the HADOPI law, a law that would
have tracked abusers and without judicial review automatically cut off network access to those who continued to
download illicit material after two warnings[87]
• Greece: Article 5A of the Constitution of Greece states that all persons has a right to participate in the Information
Society and that the state has an obligation to facilitate the production, exchange, diffusion, and access to
electronically transmitted information.[88]
• Spain: Starting in 2011, Telefónica, the former state monopoly that holds the country's "universal service"
contract, has to guarantee to offer "reasonably" priced broadband of at least one megabyte per second throughout
Spain.[89]
In December 2003, the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) was convened under the auspice of the
United Nations. After lengthy negotiations between governments, businesses and civil society representatives the
WSIS Declaration of Principles was adopted reaffirming the importance of the Information Society to maintaining
and strengthening human rights:[] []
1. We, the representatives of the peoples of the world, assembled in Geneva from 10–12 December 2003 for
the first phase of the World Summit on the Information Society, declare our common desire and commitment
to build a people-centred, inclusive and development-oriented Information Society, where everyone can create,
access, utilize and share information and knowledge, enabling individuals, communities and peoples to
achieve their full potential in promoting their sustainable development and improving their quality of life,
premised on the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations and respecting fully and
upholding the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
3. We reaffirm the universality, indivisibility, interdependence and interrelation of all human rights and
fundamental freedoms, including the right to development, as enshrined in the Vienna Declaration. We also
reaffirm that democracy, sustainable development, and respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms as
well as good governance at all levels are interdependent and mutually reinforcing. We further resolve to
strengthen the rule of law in international as in national affairs.
The WSIS Declaration of Principles makes specific reference to the importance of the right to freedom of expression
in the "Information Society" in stating:
4. We reaffirm, as an essential foundation of the Information Society, and as outlined in Article 19 of the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, that everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; that
this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information
and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers. Communication is a fundamental social process, a
basic human need and the foundation of all social organisation. It is central to the Information Society.
Everyone, everywhere should have the opportunity to participate and no one should be excluded from the
benefits of the Information Society offers."[]
A poll of 27,973 adults in 26 countries, including 14,306 Internet users,[90] conducted for the BBC World Service
between 30 November 2009 and 7 February 2010 found that almost four in five Internet users and non-users around
the world felt that access to the Internet was a fundamental right.[91] 50% strongly agreed, 29% somewhat agreed,
9% somewhat disagreed, 6% strongly disagreed, and 6% gave no opinion.[92]
The 88 recommendations made by the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of
opinion and expression in a May 2011 report to the Human Rights Council of the United Nations General Assembly
include several that bear on the question of the right to Internet access:[93]
67. Unlike any other medium, the Internet enables individuals to seek, receive and impart information and
ideas of all kinds instantaneously and inexpensively across national borders. By vastly expanding the capacity
of individuals to enjoy their right to freedom of opinion and expression, which is an “enabler” of other human
rights, the Internet boosts economic, social and political development, and contributes to the progress of
humankind as a whole. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur encourages other Special Procedures mandate
holders to engage on the issue of the Internet with respect to their particular mandates.
78. While blocking and filtering measures deny users access to specific content on the Internet, States have
also taken measures to cut off access to the Internet entirely. The Special Rapporteur considers cutting off
users from Internet access, regardless of the justification provided, including on the grounds of violating
intellectual property rights law, to be disproportionate and thus a violation of article 19, paragraph 3, of the
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.
79. The Special Rapporteur calls upon all States to ensure that Internet access is maintained at all times,
including during times of political unrest.
85. Given that the Internet has become an indispensable tool for realizing a range of human rights, combating
inequality, and accelerating development and human progress, ensuring universal access to the Internet should
be a priority for all States. Each State should thus develop a concrete and effective policy, in consultation with
individuals from all sections of society, including the private sector and relevant Government ministries, to
make the Internet widely available, accessible and affordable to all segments of population.
Natural disasters and access

Natural disasters disrupt internet access in profound ways. This is important—not only for telecommunication
companies who own the networks and the businesses who use them, but for emergency crew and displaced citizens
as well. The situation is worsened when hospitals or other buildings necessary to disaster response lose their
connection. Knowledge gained from studying past internet disruptions by natural disasters could be put to use in
planning or recovery. Additionally, because of both natural and man-made disasters, studies in network resiliency
are now being conducted to prevent large-scale outages.[94]
One way natural disasters impact internet connection is by damaging end sub-networks (subnets), making them
unreachable. A study on local networks after Hurricane Katrina found that 26% of subnets within the storm coverage
were unreachable.[95] At Hurricane Katrina’s peak intensity, almost 35% of networks in Mississippi were without
power, while around 14% of Louisiana’s networks were disrupted.[96] Of those unreachable subnets, 73% were
disrupted for four weeks or longer and 57% were at “network edges where important emergency organizations such
as hospitals and government agencies are mostly located”.[95] Extensive infrastructure damage and inaccessible areas
were two explanations for the long delay in returning service.[95] The company Cisco has revealed a Network
Emergency Response Vehicle (NERV), a truck that makes portable communications possible for emergency
responders despite traditional networks being disrupted.[97]
A second way natural disasters destroy internet connectivity is by severing submarine cables—fiber-optic cables
placed on the ocean floor that provide international internet connection. The 2006 undersea earthquake near Taiwan
(Richter scale 7.2) cut six out of seven international cables connected to that country and caused a tsunami that
wiped out one of its cable and landing stations.[98][99] The impact slowed or disabled internet connection for five
days within the Asia-Pacific region as well as between the region and the United States and Europe.[100]
With the rise in popularity of cloud computing, concern has grown over access to cloud-hosted data in the event of a
natural disaster. Amazon Web Services (AWS) has been in the news for major network outages in April 2011 and
June 2012.[101][102] AWS, like other major cloud hosting companies, prepares for typical outages and large-scale
natural disasters with backup power as well as backup data centers in other locations. AWS divides the globe into
five regions and then splits each region into availability zones. A data center in one availability zone should be
backed up by a data center in a different availability zone. Theoretically, a natural disaster would not affect more
than one availability zone.[103] This theory plays out as long as human error is not added to the mix. The June 2012
major storm only disabled the primary data center, but human error disabled the secondary and tertiary backups,
affecting companies such as Netflix, Pinterest, Reddit, and Instagram.[104][105]
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Technology Diffusion in Latin America" (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. worlddev. 2009. 11. 019). World Development (http:/ / www.
elsevier. com/ locate/ worlddev), Volume 38, issue 5, p. 756-770. free access to the study here:
martinhilbert.net/CheapEnoughWD_Hilbert_pre-print.pdf
[55] "What is a fair price for Internet service?" (http:/ / www. theglobeandmail. com/ news/ technology/ gadgets-and-gear/ hugh-thompson/
what-is-a-fair-price-for-internet-service/ article1890596/ ), Hugh Thompson, Globe and Mail (Toronto), 1 February 2011
[56] "On- and Off-Peak Quotas" (http:/ / www. comparebroadband. com. au/ article_64_On--and-Off-Peak-Quotas. htm), Compare Broadband,
12 July 2009
[60] "Comcast Begins Capping Data in the U.S." (http:/ / www. webpronews. com/ comcast-begins-capping-data-in-the-u-s-2012-09), Sean
Patterson, Web Pro News, 19 September 2012
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[63] "The lives of Asian youth" (http:/ / www. synovate. com/ changeagent/ index. php/ site/ full_story/ the_lives_of_asian_youth/ ), Change
Agent, August 2005
[64] Giga.com (http:/ / gigaom. com/ 2010/ 07/ 09/ worldwide-broadband-subscribers/ ) Nearly Half a Billion Broadband Subscribers
[67] Amir Hatem Ali, A. (2011). "The power of social media in developing nations" (http:/ / harvardhrj. com/ wp-content/ uploads/ 2009/ 09/
185-220. pdf), Human Rights Journal, Harvard Law School, Vol. 24, Issue 1 (2011), pp. 185–219
[68] Wattal, S.; Yili Hong; Mandviwalla, M.; Jain, A., "Technology Diffusion in the Society: Analyzing Digital Divide in the Context of Social
Class (http:/ / ieeexplore. ieee. org/ xpl/ freeabs_all. jsp?arnumber=5718600)", Proceedings of the 44th Hawaii International Conference on
System Sciences (HICSS), pp.1–10, 4–7 January 2011, ISBN 978-0-7695-4282-9
[69] McCollum, S., "Getting Past the 'Digital Divide'" (http:/ / www. tolerance. org/ magazine/ number-39-spring-2011/
getting-past-digital-divide), Teaching Tolerance, No. 39 (Spring 2011), pp. 46–49, and Education Digest, Vol. 77 No. 2 (October 2011), pp.
52–55
TelecomICT_Indicators_Definition_March2010_for_web. pdf), International Telecommunication Union, March 2010. Accessed on 21
October 2011.
[72] The state of the Internet in Cuba, January 2011 (http:/ / som. csudh. edu/ fac/ lpress/ cuba/ chapters/ lpdraft2. docx), Larry Press, Professor
of Information Systems at California State University, January 2011
[73] "Table 108: Number and internet access of instructional computers and rooms in public schools, by selected school characteristics: Selected
years, 1995 through 2008" (http:/ / nces. ed. gov/ programs/ digest/ d10/ tables/ dt10_108. asp), 2010 Tables and Figures, National Center for
Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education, August 2010, accessed 28 April 2012
[74] "Changes in Cuba: From Fidel to Raul Castro" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Q2qQZfkOCNsC& pg=PA114& lpg=PA114&
dq=Private+ ownership+ of+ computers+ in+ Cuba& source=bl& ots=bKMn5ZraA6& sig=8CcYmtODxcyXSr9LxtjatH_vkdE& hl=en&
ei=ydWPTuKbLcaWtweR_qCNDA& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=4& ved=0CDAQ6AEwAw#v=onepage& q=Private
ownership computers& f=false), Perceptions of Cuba: Canadian and American policies in comparative perspective, Lana Wylie, University
of Toronto Press Incorporated, 2010, p. 114, ISBN 978-1-4426-4061-0
[75] "Declaration of Principles" (http:/ / www. itu. int/ wsis/ docs/ geneva/ official/ dop. html), WSIS-03/GENEVA/DOC/4-E, World Summit on
the Information Society, Geneva, 12 December 2003
[77] Wireless World: Wi-Fi now in rural areas (http:/ / www. physorg. com/ news71497509. html) July 7, 2006
[79] "Broadband for Rural Nova Scotia" (http:/ / www. gov. ns. ca/ econ/ broadband/ ), Economic and Rural Development, Nova Scotia, Canada,
access 27 April 2012
[80] "Rural Broadband Initiative" (http:/ / www. vodafone. co. nz/ about/ rural-broadband-initiative/ ), Vodafone, accessed 26 May 2013
[81] "Rural Broadband Initiative" (http:/ / www. chorus. co. nz/ rural-broadband-initiative), Chorus, accessed 26 May 2013
[82] "Can the Internet be a Human Right?" (http:/ / www. du. edu/ gsis/ hrhw/ volumes/ 2004/ best-2004. pdf), Michael L. Best, Human rights &
Human Welfare, Vol. 4 (2004)
[84] "Judgement 12790 of the Supreme Court" (http:/ / 200. 91. 68. 20/ pj/ scij/ busqueda/ jurisprudencia/ jur_texto_sentencia.
asp?nValor2=483874& tem1=013141& param7=0& lResultado=3& nValor1=1& strTipM=T& strLib=LIB), File 09-013141-0007-CO, 30
July 2010. ( English translation (http:/ / www. google. com/ translate_c?langpair=en& u=http:/ / 200. 91. 68. 20/ pj/ scij/ busqueda/
jurisprudencia/ jur_texto_sentencia. asp?nValor2=483874& tem1=013141& param7=0& lResultado=3& nValor1=1& strTipM=T&
strLib=LIB))
[85] "Estonia, where being wired is a human right" (http:/ / www. csmonitor. com/ 2003/ 0701/ p07s01-woeu. html), Colin Woodard, Christian
Science Monitor, 1 July 2003
[86] "Finland makes 1Mb broadband access a legal right" (http:/ / news. cnet. com/ 8301-17939_109-10374831-2. html), Don Reisinger, CNet
News, 14 October 2009
[88] Constitution of Greece As revised by the parliamentary resolution of May 27th 2008 of the VIIIth Revisionary Parliament (http:/ / www.
hellenicparliament. gr/ UserFiles/ f3c70a23-7696-49db-9148-f24dce6a27c8/ 001-156 aggliko. pdf), English language translation, Hellenic
Parliament
[93] "VI. Conclusions and recommendations" (http:/ / www2. ohchr. org/ english/ bodies/ hrcouncil/ docs/ 17session/ A. HRC. 17. 27_en. pdf),
Report of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, Frank La Rue, Human
Rights Council, Seventeenth session Agenda item 3, United Nations General Assembly, 16 May 2011
[94] Measuring the Resilience of the Global Internet Infrastructure System (http:/ / www. stevens-tech. edu/ csr/ fileadmin/ csr/ Publications/
Omer_Measuring_the_Resilience_of_the_Global_Internet__Infrastructure. pdf), 2009 3rd Annual IEEE Systems Conference, 156–162.
[95] Inference of Network-Service Disruption upon Natural Disasters (http:/ / users. ece. gatech. edu/ ~jic/ katrina. pdf), accessed 5 December
2012.
[96] Impact of Hurricane Katrina on Internet Infrastructure (http:/ / www. renesys. com/ tech/ presentations/ pdf/
Renesys-Katrina-Report-9sep2005. pdf), Renesys Report, 9 September 2005, accessed 5 December 2012.
[97] Cisco trucks help restore internet after disasters (http:/ / abclocal. go. com/ kgo/ story?section=news/ business& id=8867345), ABC News
report, 30 October 2012, accessed 5 December 2012.
[98] Taiwan’s Earthquake and Tsunami Caused Internet access’s Interference (http:/ / www. telkom. co. id/ media-corner/ press-release/
taiwan-s-earthquake-and-tsunami-caused-internet-access-s-interference. html), Telkom Indonesia Press Release, 27 December 2006, accessed
5 December 2012.
[99] Impact of Taiwan Earthquake on Internet Access (http:/ / www. ust. hk/ itsc/ channel/ 2007feb/ earthquake. html), Choy, C. (2007).
Channel, The Hong Kong University of Science & Technology, 46. Accessed 5 December 2012.
[100] Understanding and Mitigating Catastrophic Disruption and Attack (http:/ / www. noblis. org/ NewsPublications/ Publications/
TechnicalPublications/ SigmaJournal/ Documents/ Sigma_RE_UnderstandingAndMitigating. pdf), Masi, D., Smith E., Fischer M.
Telecommunications and Cybersecurity, Noblis. Accessed 5 December 2012.
[101] Summary of the Amazon EC2 and Amazon RDS Service Disruption in the US East Region (http:/ / aws. amazon. com/ message/ 65648/ ),
AWS message, 29 April 2011, accessed 5 December 2012.
[102] Summary of the AWS Service Event in the US East Region (https:/ / aws. amazon. com/ message/ 67457/ ), AWS message, 2 July 2012,
accessed 5 December 2012.
[103] AWS is down: Why the sky is falling (http:/ / justinsb. posterous. com/ aws-down-why-the-sky-is-falling), justinsb's posterous, 21 April
2011, accessed 5 December 2012.
[104] Amazon Web Services June 2012 Outage Explained (http:/ / cloud-computing-today. com/ 2012/ 06/ 18/
amazon-web-services-june-2012-outage-explained/ ), Cloud Computing Today, 18 June 2012, accessed 5 December 2012.
[105] Will Natural Disasters Kill the Cloud? (http:/ / crashcloud. com/ will-natural-disasters-kill-cloud/ ), CrashCloud, 21 August 2012, accessed
5 December 2012.
External links
• Corporate vs. Community Internet (http://www.alternet.org/story/22216/), AlterNet, June 14, 2005, – on the
Languages used on the Internet

Languages used on the Internet provides a compilation of information on the number of Internet users and the
number of Web sites on the Internet by language.
Languages used
Most web pages on the Internet are in English. A study made by W3Techs showed that in April 2013, almost 55% of
the most visited websites used English as their content language.[] Other top languages which are used at least in 2%
of websites are Russian, German, Spanish, Chinese, French, Japanese, Arabic and Portuguese.
Note that these figures are based on the one million most visited web sites (e.g. 0.27% of the total web sites
according to figures of December 2011), according to Alexa.com, and language is identified using only the home
page of the sites in most cases. As a consequence, the figures show a significantly higher percentage for many
languages (especially for English) as compared to the figures for all websites. The figures for all websites are
unknown, but some sources estimate below 50% for English - see for instance Towards a multilingual cyberspace.[1]
The number of non-English pages is rapidly expanding. The use of English online increased by around 281% from
2001 to 2011, however this is far less than Spanish (743%), Chinese (1,277%), Russian (1,826%) or Arabic
(2,501%) over the same period.[2]
Content languages for websites

Estimates of the percentages of Web sites using various content languages as of 26 April 2013:[]
Content languages for websites
Rank Language Percentage
1 English 54.9%
2 Russian 6.1%
3 German 5.3%
4 Spanish 4.8%
5 Chinese 4.4%
6 French 4.3%
7 Japanese 4.2%
8 Arabic 3.0%
9 Portuguese 2.3%
10 Polish 1.8%
11 Italian 1.5%
12 Turkish 1.4%
13 Dutch 1.1%
14 Persian 1.0%
15 Czech 0.6%
16 Swedish 0.6%
17 Indonesian 0.5%
18 Greek 0.4%
19 Romanian 0.4%
20 Vietnamese 0.4%
21 Hungarian 0.4%
22 Thai 0.3%
23 Danish 0.3%
24 Korean 0.3%
25 Slovak 0.2%
26 Finnish 0.2%
27 Bulgarian 0.2%
28 Norwegian 0.2%
29 Hebrew 0.2%
30 Lithuanian 0.1%
31 Croatian 0.1%
32 Serbian 0.1%
33 Slovenian 0.1%
34 Ukrainian 0.1%
35 Catalan 0.1%
36 Latvian 0.1%
37 Estonian 0.1%
All other languages are used in less than 0.1% of websites.
Internet users by language

Estimates of the number of Internet users by language as of 31 May 2011:[3]
Percentage of Internet users by language

Rank Language Internet

users
1 English 565,004,000 27%
2 Chinese 509,965,000 25%
3 Spanish 164,969,000 8%
4 Japanese 99,182,000 5%
5 Portuguese 82,587,000 4%
6 German 75,423,000 4%
7 Arabic 65,365,000 3%
8 French 59,779,000 3%
9 Russian 59,700,000 3%
10 Korean 39,440,000 2%
Others 350,557,000 17%
References
[1] NET.LANG: Towards a multilingual cyberspace (http:/ / net-lang. net/ lang_en), Laurent VAnnini and Hervé le crosnier (eds.), Maaya
Network, C&F éditions, March 2012, 446 pp., ISBN 978-2-915825-08-4
[3] "Number of Internet Users by Language" (http:/ / www. internetworldstats. com/ stats7. htm), Internet World Stats, Miniwatts Marketing
Group, 31 May 2011, accessed 22 April 2012
External links
• Internet World Stats — Global Internet usage by language (http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats7.htm)
• Estimation of English and non-English Language Use on the WWW (http://arxiv.org/abs/cs.cl/0006032)
(2000)
• World GDP by Language (http://unicode.org/notes/tn13/) (1975-2002)
• Writing the Web’s Future in Many Languages - NYTimes.com (http://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/31/
technology/internet/31hindi.html?partner=rss&emc=rss) (December 2008)
• English translation of the 23rd CNNIC Statistical Survey Report on Internet Usage in China (http://www.
nanjingmarketinggroup.com/knowledge/23rd-report-internet-development-in-China)
• List of CNNIC statistical reports (http://www.cnnic.cn/en/index/0O/02/index.htm)
• Measuring Linguistic Diversity on the Internet (http://www.uis.unesco.org/ev.php?ID=6341_201&
ID2=DO_TOPIC), UNESCO (2006)
• Twelve years of measuring linguistic diversity in the Internet (http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0018/
001870/187016e.pdf), UNESCO (2009)
• Language Observatory (http://gii2.nagaokaut.ac.jp/gii/blog/lopdiary.php/), Japan Science and Technology
Agency
• FUNREDES Observatory of linguistic and cultural diversity on the Internet (http://funredes.org/lc/english/
inicio/) Wikipedia:Link rot
List of countries by number of Internet

subscriptions
This is a sortable list of countries by number of Internet users in 2012. Internet users are persons using the
Internet in the last 12 months from any device, including mobile phones. Penetration is the percentage of a country's
population that are Internet users. Estimates are derived from either household surveys or from Internet subscription
data.[1]
Non-country and disputed areas are shown in italics. All United Nations member states are included, except South
Sudan. Taiwan is listed as a sovereign country.
Country or area Internet Rank Penetration[3] Rank

[2]
users
China 568,192,066 1 42.3% 102
United States 254,295,536 2 81.0% 28
India 151,598,994 3 12.6% 164
Japan 100,684,474 4 79.1% 33
Brazil 99,357,737 5 49.8% 86
Russia 75,926,004 6 53.3% 81
Germany 68,296,919 7 84.0% 22
Nigeria 55,930,391 8 32.9% 128
United Kingdom 54,861,245 9 87.0% 14
France 54,473,474 10 83.0% 24
Mexico 44,173,551 11 38.4% 114
South Korea 41,091,681 12 84.1% 21
Indonesia 38,191,873 13 15.4% 154
Philippines 37,602,976 14 36.2% 118
Egypt 36,881,374 15 44.1% 99
Vietnam 36,140,967 16 39.5% 111
Turkey 35,990,932 17 45.1% 97
Italy 35,531,527 18 58.0% 68
Spain 33,870,948 19 72.0% 45
Canada 29,760,764 20 86.8% 16
Poland 24,969,935 21 65.0% 54
Argentina 23,543,412 22 55.8% 72
Colombia 22,160,055 23 49.0% 87
Iran 20,504,000 24 26.0% 133
South Africa 20,012,275 25 41.0% 108
Malaysia 19,200,408 26 65.8% 51
Pakistan 18,960,037 27 10.0% 173
Australia 18,129,727 28 82.3% 25

Thailand 17,779,139 29 26.5% 132
Morocco 17,770,081 30 55.0% 76
Taiwan 17,656,414 31 76.0% 36
Netherlands 15,559,488 32 93.0% 5
Ukraine 15,115,820 33 33.7% 127
Saudi Arabia 14,328,632 34 54.0% 79
Kenya 13,805,311 35 32.1% 129
Venezuela 12,353,883 36 44.0% 100
Peru 11,287,915 37 38.2% 115
Romania 10,924,252 38 50.0% 85
Chile 10,482,463 39 61.4% 61
Uzbekistan 10,369,924 40 36.5% 117
Bangladesh 10,148,280 41 6.3% 181
Kazakhstan 9,341,977 42 53.3% 80
Belgium 8,559,449 43 82.0% 27
Sweden 8,557,561 44 94.0% 4
Czech Republic 7,632,975 45 75.0% 37
Sudan 7,183,409 46 21.0% 142
Hungary 7,170,086 47 72.0% 45
Portugal 6,900,134 48 64.0% 57
Switzerland 6,752,540 49 85.2% 19
Austria 6,657,992 50 81.0% 29
Tanzania 6,136,331 51 13.1% 161
Greece 6,029,983 52 56.0% 71
Algeria 5,690,291 53 15.2% 155
Israel 5,568,961 54 73.4% 42
Syria 5,474,994 55 24.3% 139
Ecuador 5,348,765 56 35.1% 119
Hong Kong 5,207,762 57 72.8% 44
Denmark 5,155,411 58 93.0% 5
Azerbaijan 5,145,531 59 54.2% 78
Uganda 4,941,704 60 14.7% 156
Finland 4,789,266 61 91.0% 9
Dominican Republic 4,539,869 62 45.0% 98
Belarus 4,523,412 63 46.9% 93
United Arab Emirates 4,517,169 64 85.0% 20
Norway 4,471,907 65 95.0% 3
Tunisia 4,447,885 66 41.4% 104
Slovakia 4,386,470 67 80.0% 30

Yemen 4,321,814 68 17.4% 148
Ghana 4,217,454 69 17.1% 149
Singapore 3,971,318 70 74.2% 38
Sri Lanka 3,927,948 71 18.3% 146
Bulgaria 3,881,287 72 55.1% 74
New Zealand 3,873,982 73 89.5% 10
Ireland 3,730,402 74 79.0% 34
Bolivia 3,517,991 75 34.2% 125
Serbia 3,500,047 76 48.1% 89
Nepal 3,332,602 77 11.1% 167
Angola 3,058,195 78 16.9% 151
Cuba 2,839,881 79 25.6% 135
Croatia 2,822,427 80 63.0% 59
Jordan 2,668,644 81 41.0% 108
Lebanon 2,535,918 82 61.2% 62
Bosnia and Herzegovina 2,535,356 83 65.4% 52
Senegal 2,490,631 84 19.2% 145
Lithuania 2,397,517 85 68.0% 50
Guatemala 2,255,845 86 16.0% 153
Iraq 2,210,175 87 7.1% 179
Costa Rica 2,202,308 88 47.5% 91
Zimbabwe 2,156,791 89 17.1% 150
Kuwait 2,095,304 90 79.2% 32
Georgia 2,079,917 91 45.5% 95
Puerto Rico 1,897,555 92 51.4% 83
Zambia 1,860,966 93 13.5% 160
Oman 1,854,090 94 60.0% 65
Uruguay 1,827,781 95 55.1% 75
[4][5] 1,779,915 96 41.1% 106

Palestinian Authority
Paraguay 1,771,188 97 27.1% 131
Qatar 1,719,437 98 88.1% 12
Afghanistan 1,659,269 99 5.5% 185
Albania 1,641,241 100 54.7% 77
Latvia 1,621,769 101 74.0% 40
Panama 1,586,537 102 45.2% 96
Moldova 1,585,973 103 43.4% 101
El Salvador 1,553,115 104 25.5% 136
Honduras 1,503,350 105 18.1% 147
Slovenia 1,397,632 106 70.0% 48

Ethiopia 1,352,259 107 1.5% 204
Jamaica 1,343,472 108 46.5% 94
Macedonia 1,314,969 109 63.1% 58
Democratic Republic of the Congo 1,236,438 110 1.7% 202
Kyrgyzstan 1,194,084 111 21.7% 140
Armenia 1,163,269 112 39.2% 112
Cameroon 1,147,199 113 5.7% 184
Mozambique 1,140,311 114 4.8% 188
Tajikistan 1,127,193 115 14.5% 157
Libya 1,115,025 116 19.9% 144
Bahrain 1,098,546 117 88.0% 13
Haiti 1,065,470 118 10.9% 168
Estonia 1,007,020 119 79.0% 34
Rwanda 937,964 120 8.0% 177
Nicaragua 773,240 121 13.5% 159
Cambodia 738,641 122 4.9% 187
Trinidad and Tobago 729,897 123 59.5% 66
Malawi 710,150 124 4.4% 190
Laos 707,871 125 10.7% 169
Cyprus 694,223 126 61.0% 63
Burkina Faso 643,504 127 3.7% 194
Burma 583,564 128 1.1% 209
Mauritius 543,550 129 41.4% 105
Ivory Coast 522,231 130 2.4% 197
Mongolia 521,520 131 16.4% 152
Luxembourg 468,348 132 92.0% 7
Madagascar 452,185 133 2.1% 201
Montenegro 373,655 134 56.8% 70
Macau 371,512 135 64.3% 56
Benin 364,534 136 3.8% 192
Turkmenistan 363,735 137 7.2% 178
Mali 336,059 138 2.2% 199
Iceland 300,656 139 96.0% 2
Fiji 300,326 140 33.7% 126
Swaziland 288,225 141 20.8% 143
Malta 286,885 142 70.0% 48
Namibia 280,288 143 12.9% 162
Togo 278,442 144 4.0% 191
Republic of the Congo 266,635 145 6.1% 182

Guyana 254,534 146 34.3% 124
Brunei 246,388 147 60.3% 64
Botswana 241,272 148 11.5% 166
Chad 230,489 149 2.1% 200
Niger 230,084 150 1.4% 205
The Gambia 229,122 151 12.4% 165
The Bahamas 226,855 152 71.7% 47
Barbados 210,994 153 73.3% 43
Suriname 194,269 154 34.7% 123
Bhutan 182,338 155 25.4% 137
Cape Verde 181,905 156 34.7% 122
Mauritania 180,358 157 5.4% 186
Guinea 162,202 158 1.5% 203
Maldives 153,560 159 38.9% 113
Central African Republic 151,716 160 3.0% 195
New Caledonia 150,896 161 58.0% 68
Liberia 147,510 162 3.8% 193
Papua New Guinea 145,256 163 2.3% 198
French Polynesia 145,153 164 52.9% 82
Somalia 138,849 165 1.4% 206
Gabon 138,584 166 8.6% 175
Burundi 128,799 167 1.2% 208
Guam 98,402 168 61.5% 60
Equatorial Guinea 95,649 169 13.9% 158
Lesotho 88,602 170 4.6% 189
Belize 81,930 171 25.0% 138
Aruba 79,650 172 74.0% 40
Saint Lucia 78,864 173 48.6% 88
Antigua and Barbuda 74,586 174 83.8% 23
Andorra 73,540 175 86.4% 17
Sierra Leone 71,318 176 1.3% 207
Djibouti 64,021 177 8.3% 176
Bermuda 63,070 178 91.3% 8
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 49,201 179 47.5% 90
Eritrea 48,692 180 0.8% 211
Guinea-Bissau 47,132 181 2.9% 196
Grenada 45,883 182 42.1% 103
Comoros 44,055 183 6.0% 183
U.S. Virgin Islands 42,687 184 40.5% 110

Seychelles 42,380 185 47.1% 92
Faroe Islands 42,226 186 85.3% 18
Solomon Islands 40,905 187 7.0% 180
Dominica 40,349 188 55.2% 73
Saint Kitts and Nevis 40,251 189 79.3% 31
São Tomé and Príncipe 39,515 190 21.6% 141
Cayman Islands 38,961 191 74.1% 39
Jersey 38,958 192 41.0% 106
Greenland 37,442 193 64.9% 55
Tonga 37,003 194 34.9% 121
Liechtenstein 32,824 195 89.4% 11
Micronesia, Federated States of 27,659 196 26.0% 134
Vanuatu 27,147 197 10.6% 171
Monaco 26,544 198 87.0% 15
Samoa 25,111 199 12.9% 163
Gibraltar 18,877 200 65.0% 53
San Marino 16,354 201 50.9% 84
Kiribati 10,962 202 10.7% 170
East Timor 10,461 203 0.9% 210
Anguilla 9,133 204 59.2% 67
Marshall Islands 6,848 205 10.0% 172
Tuvalu 3,717 206 35.0% 120
Saint Helena 2,906 207 37.6% 116
[6] 2,842 208 96.9% 1

Falkland Islands
Montserrat 1,583 209 30.7% 130
Wallis and Futuna 1,383 210 9.0% 174
[7] 1,011 211 82.2% 26

Niue
[8] 361 212 41.0% 106

Ascension
2005 2010 2013a

World population

a
Estimate.
[10]
2005b 2010b 2013a,b
Africa 2% 10% 16%


Independent States
Europe 46% 67% 75%
a b
Estimate. Per 100 inhabitants.
[10]
References
[1] Definitions of World
Telecommunication/ICT Indicators, March
2010 (http:/ / www. itu. int/ ITU-D/ ict/
material/
TelecomICT_Indicators_Definition_March2010_for_web.
pdf), International Telecommunication
Union (Geneva), March 2010. Accessed on
30 September 2011.
[2] Calculated using penetration rate and
population data from "Countries and Areas
Ranked by Population: 2012" (http:/ / www.
census. gov/ population/ international/ data/
idb/ rank. php), Population data, Internet users per 100 inhabitantsSource: International Telecommunications Union.
International Programs, U.S. Census Bureau, "Internet users per 100 inhabitants 2001-2011", International Telecommunications Union
retrieved 26 June 2013 (Geneva), accessed 4 April 2012 "Internet users per 100 inhabitants 2006-2013",
International Telecommunications Union (Geneva), accessed 3 June 2013
[3] "Percentage of Individuals using the Internet
2000-2012" (http:/ / www. itu. int/ en/
ITU-D/ Statistics/ Documents/ statistics/
2013/ Individuals_Internet_2000-2012. xls),
International Telecommunications Union
(Geneva), June 2013, retrieved 22 June 2013
[4] Percent penetration data for the Palestinian
Authority is the ITU data for 2011.
[5] Population data combines the 2012 figures
for the Gaza Strip and the West Bank.
[6] "Falkland Islands Census 2012: Headline
Results" (http:/ / www. falklands. gov. fk/
assets/ Headline-Results-from-Census-2012.
pdf), Falkland Islands Government Policy
Unit, 12 September 2012, retrieved 26 June
2013
Internet users in 2012 as a percentage of a country's populationSource: International
[7] Population data is the estimate for 2013
Telecommunications Union.
from the Population, People and Society
section of the Niue entry in the CIA World
Factbook (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ ne. html), U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, retrieved 26
June 2013.
[8] Population data is for 2010 and is taken

from the Wikipedia article on Ascension
Island, retrieved 26 June 2013.
[9] "Total Midyear Population for the World:
1950-2050" (http:/ / www. census. gov/
population/ international/ data/ idb/
worldpoptotal. php), International Programs
Center for Demographic and Economic
Studies, U.S. Census Bureau, Retrieved 25
May 2013
[10] "Key ICT indicators for developed and
developing countries and the world (totals
and penetration rates)" (http:/ / www. itu. int/
en/ ITU-D/ Statistics/ Documents/ statistics/ Number of Internet users in 2012Source: International Telecommunications Union.
2012/ ITU_Key_2006-2013_ICT_data. xls),
International Telecommunications Unions (ITU), Geneva, 27 February 2013
xls), International Telecommunications Union (Geneva), accessed 4 April 2012
ITU_Key_2006-2013_ICT_data. xls), International Telecommunications Union (Geneva), accessed 3 June 2013
List of countries by number of broadband

Internet subscriptions
Internet
Internet portal
Worldwide broadband subscriptions
2007a 2010a 2013a,b

World population 6.6 billion 6.9 billion 7.1 billion
Fixed broadband 5.2% 7.6% 9.8%
Developing world 2.3% 4.2% 6.1%
Developed world 18.0% 23.6% 27.2%
Mobile broadband 4.0% 11.3% 29.5%
Developing world 0.8% 4.4% 19.8%

Developed world 18.5% 42.9% 74.8%
a
Per 100 inhabitants. b Estimate.
[1]
Broadband subscriptions by region
Fixed subscriptions: 2007

a
2010
a
2013
a,b
Africa 0.1% 0.2% 0.3%

Americas 10.9% 14.1% 17.1%
Arab States 0.9% 1.9% 3.3%
Asia and Pacific 3.2% 5.5% 7.6%

Commonwealth of 2.3% 8.2% 13.5%
Independent States
Europe 18.4% 23.6% 27.0%
Mobile subscriptions: 2007a 2010a 2013a,b

Africa 0.2% 1.8% 10.9%
Americas 6.4% 22.9% 48.0%
Arab States 0.8% 5.1% 18.9%
Asia and Pacific 3.1% 7.4% 22.4%
Commonwealth of 0.2% 22.3% 46.0%

Independent States
Europe 14.7% 28.7% 67.5%
a
Per 100 inhabitants. b Estimate.
[2][1]
This article contains a sortable list of countries by number of broadband Internet subscriptions and penetration
rates, using data compiled by the International Telecommunication Union for 2012.
List of countries
The list includes figures for both fixed and mobile access subscriptions:[3]
• Fixed broadband access refers to high-speed fixed (wired) access to the public Internet at downstream speeds
equal to, or greater than, 256 kbit/s. This includes cable modem, DSL, fibre-to-the-home/building, and other fixed
(wired) broadband subscriptions. The totals are measured irrespective of the method of payment.
• Mobile broadband access refers to high-speed mobile access to the public Internet at advertised data speeds equal
to, or greater than, 256 kbit/s. To be counted, a mobile subscription must allow access to the greater Internet via
HTTP and must have been used to make a data connection using the Internet Protocol in the previous three
months. SMS and MMS messaging do not count as an active Internet data connection even if they are delivered
via IP.
Penetration rate is the percentage (%) of a country's population that are subscribers. A dash (—) is shown when data
for 2012 is not available. Non-country and disputed areas are shown in italics. Taiwan is listed as a sovereign
country.
Note: Because a single Internet subscription may be shared by many people and a single person my have more than
one subscription, the penetration rate will not reflect the actual level of access to broadband Internet of the
population and penetration rates larger than 100% are possible.
Fixed subscriptions Mobile subscriptions
Country or area [4] Rank [5] Rank [4] Rank [6] Rank
Number % Number %
China 174,285,380 1 13.0 66 231,614,860 2 17.2 75
United States 87,974,583 2 28.0 24 234,412,672 1 74.7 9
Japan 35,556,075 3 27.9 25 144,077,507 3 113.1 2
Germany 27,674,074 4 34.0 13 33,336,214 11 41.0 40
France 24,780,180 5 37.8 8 34,233,625 10 52.2 27
United Kingdom 21,455,580 6 34.0 14 45,419,806 9 72.0 14
Russia 20,630,858 7 14.5 61 75,344,817 5 52.9 25
South Korea 18,354,447 8 37.6 9 51,810,697 8 106.0 4
Brazil 18,275,780 9 9.2 85 73,021,400 6 36.6 44
India 13,701,687 10 1.1 137 59,048,607 7 4.9 110
Italy 13,548,539 11 22.1 45 31,710,663 12 51.8 28
Mexico 12,588,657 12 10.9 76 11,180,208 23 9.7 94
Spain 11,410,276 13 24.3 37 25,044,744 13 53.2 24
Canada 11,282,326 14 32.9 16 17,163,076 19 50.0 32
Turkey 8,411,176 15 10.5 80 13,017,505 20 16.3 79
Netherlands 6,598,394 16 39.4 6 10,202,005 25 61.0 20
Poland 6,388,846 17 16.6 54 18,921,448 16 49.3 33
Taiwan 5,548,270 18 23.9 38 10,715,720 24 46.1 34
Australia 5,516,663 19 25.1 34 21,184,928 15 96.2 6
Argentina 4,592,231 20 10.9 77 5,233,135 34 12.4 85
Vietnam 4,535,696 21 5.0 104 17,378,598 17 19.0 73
Thailand 4,182,458 22 6.2 97 95,940 119 0.1 145
Colombia 3,781,987 23 8.4 89 2,237,977 62 4.9 109
Ukraine 3,636,319 24 8.1 93 2,465,179 59 5.5 105
Belgium 3,560,000 25 34.1 12 3,520,543 46 33.7 48
Romania 3,473,257 26 15.9 57 5,179,188 35 23.7 63
Switzerland 3,317,304 27 41.9 3 3,281,402 49 41.4 39
Iran 3,208,379 28 4.1 110 — — — —
Indonesia 3,030,983 29 1.2 136 79,225,759 4 31.9 54
Sweden 2,929,963 30 32.2 18 9,219,679 26 101.3 5
Belarus 2,561,813 31 26.6 28 3,167,236 51 32.8 51
Greece 2,532,270 32 23.5 40 4,789,637 38 44.5 35
Malaysia 2,447,906 33 8.4 88 3,945,130 44 13.5 84
Portugal 2,409,117 34 22.3 43 3,500,632 47 32.5 52
Philippines 2,308,994 35 2.2 125 3,969,394 43 3.8 116
Hungary 2,283,075 36 22.9 41 2,299,506 61 23.1 64
Egypt 2,279,666 37 2.7 121 22,471,109 14 26.9 60

Hong Kong 2,257,221 38 31.6 20 5,256,334 33 73.5 10
Chile 2,122,498 39 12.4 70 4,771,695 39 28.0 57
Denmark 2,118,541 40 38.2 7 4,851,519 37 87.5 7
Austria 2,074,252 41 25.2 33 4,564,834 40 55.5 23
Venezuela 1,889,309 42 6.7 95 1,332,277 67 4.8 112
Saudi Arabia 1,817,083 43 6.8 94 11,351,726 22 42.8 37
Norway 1,736,182 44 36.9 10 3,983,527 42 84.6 8
Kazakhstan 1,702,964 45 9.7 84 7,356,441 28 42.0 38
Czech Republic 1,689,534 46 16.6 56 4,473,330 41 44.0 36
Israel 1,687,881 47 22.2 44 4,974,376 36 65.5 17
Finland 1,602,457 48 30.4 23 5,606,178 32 106.5 3
Peru 1,413,353 49 4.8 107 820,295 77 2.8 121
Singapore 1,396,352 50 26.1 29 6,600,483 29 123.3 1
Azerbaijan 1,310,022 51 13.8 63 3,160,514 52 33.3 50
Bulgaria 1,241,914 52 17.6 53 2,835,021 55 40.3 41
New Zealand 1,202,952 53 27.8 26 2,823,031 56 65.2 18
Algeria 1,137,832 54 3.0 116 — — — —
Ireland 1,071,995 55 22.7 42 3,033,242 53 64.2 19
South Africa 1,065,044 56 2.2 126 12,698,521 21 26.0 62
Pakistan 979,999 57 0.5 150 618,446 87 0.3 140
Croatia 909,090 58 20.3 48 2,341,270 60 52.3 26
Ecuador 825,732 59 5.4 102 3,380,114 48 22.2 67
Slovakia 798,776 60 14.6 59 1,916,230 63 34.9 46
Serbia 740,467 61 10.2 81 2,922,357 54 40.2 42
Bangladesh 705,074 56 0.5 150 325,389 105 0.2 142
Lithuania 688,475 63 19.5 49 301,488 106 8.6 97
Morocco 675,586 64 2.1 127 3,244,494 50 10.0 93
United Arab Emirates 624,007 65 11.7 72 2,704,509 57 50.9 30
Uruguay 550,643 66 16.6 55 1,060,462 69 32.0 53
Tunisia 513,569 67 4.8 106 558,647 89 5.2 107
Slovenia 491,467 68 24.6 36 740,605 80 37.1 43
Lebanon 482,344 69 11.7 74 13,042 139 0.3 141
Latvia 471,847 70 21.5 47 1,122,768 68 51.2 29
Costa Rica 465,536 71 10.0 82 673,615 84 14.5 82
Dominican Republic 446,420 72 4.4 108 1,557,377 65 15.4 80
Moldova 433,482 73 11.9 71 185,439 111 5.1 108
Sri Lanka 428,338 74 2.0 128 953,986 73 4.4 114
Bosnia and Herzegovina 418,692 75 10.8 78 421,641 95 10.9 88
Georgia 416,366 76 9.1 86 1,023,112 71 22.4 66

Syria 403,300 77 1.8 129 415,918 96 1.8 126
Estonia 327,243 78 25.7 31 924,699 74 72.5 12
Macedonia 304,547 79 14.6 58 449,646 93 21.6 68
Panama 288,280 80 8.2 91 526,893 91 15.0 81
El Salvador 235,403 81 3.9 111 335,716 104 5.5 104
Cyprus 218,783 82 19.2 51 384,270 98 33.8 47
Uzbekistan 205,006 83 0.7 146 5,869,645 30 20.7 71
Armenia 197,181 84 6.6 96 820,272 78 27.6 58
Jordan 195,136 85 3.0 117 697,167 82 10.7 90
Trinidad and Tobago 166,948 86 13.6 65 18,028 132 1.5 131
Luxembourg 165,994 87 32.6 17 369,430 100 72.6 11
Yemen 162,008 88 0.7 147 46,571 126 0.2 143
Qatar 160,050 89 8.2 92 1,407,253 66 72.1 13
Bahrain 159,015 90 12.7 67 838,004 76 67.1 16
Albania 148,882 91 5.0 103 552,676 90 18.4 74
Macau 147,130 92 25.5 32 — — — —
Kyrgyzstan 144,179 93 2.6 122 — — — —
Mauritius 138,820 94 10.6 79 282,302 107 21.5 69
Malta 129,848 95 31.7 19 236,229 109 57.6 21
Jamaica 125,188 96 4.3 109 45,505 127 1.6 128
Nepal 119,563 97 0.4 151 — — — —
Mongolia 115,561 98 3.6 114 848,391 75 26.7 61
Bolivia 111,029 99 1.1 139 690,768 83 6.7 101
Iceland 107,895 100 34.5 11 224,568 110 71.7 15
Laos 96,291 101 1.5 134 50,648 124 0.8 134
Nicaragua 95,023 102 1.7 131 58,365 123 1.0 133
Senegal 94,548 103 0.7 145 486,490 92 3.8 117
Oman 75,770 104 2.5 123 1,751,590 64 56.7 22
Paraguay 72,612 105 1.1 138 358,545 101 5.5 106
Zimbabwe 69,282 106 0.5 148 3,743,226 45 29.7 55
Barbados 68,547 107 23.8 39 104,810 116 36.4 45
Honduras 64,216 108 0.8 144 347,217 103 4.2 115
Ghana 62,124 109 0.3 156 8,209,743 27 33.3 49
Namibia 60,188 110 2.8 119 624,257 86 28.8 56
Libya 58,379 111 1.0 140 775,545 79 13.8 83
Montenegro 54,439 112 8.3 90 177,437 112 27.0 59
Ivory Coast 52,685 113 0.2 157 — — — —
New Caledonia 48,165 114 18.5 52 6,033 141 2.3 123
Kenya 43,013 115 0.1 167 954,896 72 2.2 124

Kuwait 43,003 116 1.6 132 — — — —
Ethiopia 40,126 117 0.0 176 402,173 97 0.4 138
French Polynesia 39,878 118 14.5 60 15,971 135 5.8 103
Uganda 36,332 119 0.1 165 2,542,911 58 7.6 99
Suriname 32,192 120 5.7 98 — — — —
Cambodia 30,653 121 0.2 158 1,032,781 70 6.9 100
Liechtenstein 29,504 122 80.4 1 — — — —
Guyana 28,593 123 3.9 112 — — — —
Angola 27,987 124 0.2 162 278,966 108 1.5 129
Andorra 26,346 125 31.0 22 — — — —
Saint Lucia 22,415 126 13.8 62 — — — —
Maldives 21,718 127 5.5 101 84,700 122 21.5 70
Cape Verde 19,791 128 3.8 113 117,986 114 22.5 65
Mozambique 19,753 129 0.1 168 431,988 94 1.8 127
Brunei 19,650 130 4.8 105 31,080 130 7.6 98
Sudan 18,472 131 0.1 172 5,607,848 31 16.4 78
Chad 18,000 132 0.2 161 — — — —
Cayman Islands 17,750 133 33.8 15 — — — —
Botswana 16,407 134 0.8 143 348,124 102 16.6 76
Bhutan 16,015 135 2.2 124 17,851 133 2.5 122
Nigeria 15,311 136 0.0 185 17,339,012 18 10.2 91
Grenada 14,945 137 13.7 64 — — — —
Zambia 14,785 138 0.1 166 90,643 121 0.7 137
Burkina Faso 14,166 139 0.1 169 — — — —
Monaco 13,889 140 45.5 2 15,494 138 50.8 31
Saint Kitts and Nevis 13,792 141 27.2 27 — — — —
Fiji 13,734 142 1.5 133 96,277 118 10.8 89
Djibouti 13,343 143 1.7 130 — — — —
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 12,890 144 12.5 69 — — — —
Gibraltar 11,879 145 40.9 4 2,954 143 10.2 92
Greenland 11,177 146 19.4 50 2,803 144 4.9 111
Seychelles 10,546 147 11.7 73 7,809 140 8.7 96
Belize 10,077 148 3.1 115 419 147 0.1 146
San Marino 9,962 149 31.0 21 3,521 142 11.0 87
Madagascar 9,242 150 0.0 177 — — — —
Dominica 9,186 151 12.6 68 — — — —
The Bahamas 8,730 152 2.8 120 — — — —
Papua New Guinea 8,077 153 0.1 164 — — — —
British Virgin Islands 7,785 154 25.0 35 — — — —

Mauritania 6,013 155 0.2 160 108,434 115 3.2 120
Burma 6,004 156 0.0 184 15,830 136 0.0 147
Tajikistan 5,904 157 0.1 171 — — — —
Togo 5,569 158 0.1 170 47,892 125 0.7 135
Benin 5,183 159 0.1 172 33,596 129 0.4 139
Gabon 5,147 160 0.3 154 — — — —
Antigua and Barbuda 5,016 161 5.6 99 17,703 134 19.9 72
Cuba 4,984 162 0.0 175 — — — —
Anguilla 3,974 163 25.8 30 — — — —
Tanzania 3,753 164 0.0 187 698,531 81 1.5 130
Swaziland 3,717 165 0.3 155 166,485 113 12.0 86
Niger 3,596 166 0.0 182 — — — —
Rwanda 2,806 167 0.0 181 379,331 99 3.2 119
Vanuatu 2,646 168 1.0 141 — — — —
Lesotho 2,529 169 0.1 163 — — — —
Solomon Islands 2,198 170 0.4 152 36,969 128 6.3 102
Mali 2,014 171 0.0 183 101,954 117 0.7 136
Saint Helena 1,683 172 21.8 46 — — — —
Tonga 1,518 173 1.4 135 — — — —
Equatorial Guinea 1,372 174 0.2 159 — — — —
Turkmenistan 1,365 175 0.0 178 — — — —
Wallis and Futuna 1,363 176 8.8 87 — — — —
Malawi 1,306 177 0.0 187 565,267 88 3.5 118
Cook Islands 1,212 178 11.2 75 — — — —
[7] 1,187 179 40.5 5 — — — —

Falkland Islands
Cameroon 1,006 180 0.0 190 — — — —
Kiribati 993 181 1.0 142 — — — —
São Tomé and Príncipe 960 182 0.5 149 — — — —
Guinea 762 183 0.0 189 — — — —
Palau 621 184 3.0 118 — — — —
Tuvalu 592 185 5.6 100 — — — —
East Timor 583 186 0.1 174 — — — —
Montserrat 512 187 9.9 83 854 146 16.5 77
The Gambia 497 188 0.0 178 22,435 131 1.2 132
Burundi 422 189 0.0 191 — — — —
Republic of the Congo 393 190 0.0 185 90,906 120 2.1 125
Comoros 192 191 0.0 180 — — — —
Eritrea 122 192 0.0 192 — — — —
Liberia 78 193 0.0 192 — — — —

Guatemala — — — — 632,624 85 4.5 113
Haiti — — — — 15,781 137 0.2 144
Nauru — — — — 904 145 9.6 95
Maps
Fixed broadband Internet subscriptions in 2012as a percentage of a country's populationSource: International Telecommunications Union.
Mobile broadband Internet subscriptions in 2012as a percentage of a country's populationSource: International Telecommunications Union.
References
February 2013
[2] "Key Global Telecom Indicators for the World Telecommunication Service Sector" (http:/ / www. itu. int/ ITU-D/ ict/ statistics/ at_glance/
keytelecom. html), International Telecommunications Unions (ITU), Geneva, 2011
TelecomICT_Indicators_Definition_March2010_for_web. pdf), International Telecommunication Union. Retrieved on 30 September 2011.
[4] Calculated using penetration rate and population data from "Countries and Areas Ranked by Population: 2012" (http:/ / www. census. gov/
population/ international/ data/ idb/ rank. php), Population data, International Programs, U.S. Census Bureau, retrieved 26 June 2013
[7] Population data from "Falkland Islands Census 2012: Headline Results" (http:/ / www. falklands. gov. fk/ assets/
Headline-Results-from-Census-2012. pdf), Falkland Islands Government Policy Unit, 12 September 2012, retrieved 26 June 2013
External links
• Corporate vs. Community Internet (http://www.alternet.org/story/22216/), AlterNet, June 14, 2005, - on the
Internet governance
Internet
Internet portal
Internet governance is the development and application of shared principles, norms, rules, decision-making
procedures, and programs that shape the evolution and use of the Internet. This article describes how the Internet was
and is currently governed, some of the controversies that occurred along the way, and the ongoing debates about how
the Internet should or should not be governed in the future.
Internet governance should not be confused with E-Governance which refers to technology driven governance.
Background
No one person, company, organization or government runs the Internet. It is a globally distributed network
comprising many voluntarily interconnected autonomous networks. It operates without a central governing body
with each constituent network setting and enforcing its own policies. Its governance is conducted by a decentralized
and international multi-stakeholder network of interconnected autonomous groups drawing from civil society, the
private sector, governments, the academic and research communities and national and international organizations.
They work cooperatively from their respective roles to create shared policies and standards that maintain the
Internet's global interoperability for the public good.
However, to help ensure interoperability, several key technical and
policy aspects of the underlying core infrastructure and the principal
namespaces are administered by the Internet Corporation for Assigned
Names and Numbers (ICANN), headquartered in Los Angeles,
California. ICANN oversees the assignment of globally unique
identifiers on the Internet, including domain names, Internet Protocol
(IP) addresses, application port numbers in the transport protocols, and
many other parameters. This seeks to create a globally unified
Who-Runs-the-Internet-graphic
namespace to ensure the global reach of the Internet. ICANN is
governed by an international board of directors drawn from across the
Internet's technical, business, academic, and other non-commercial communities. However, the National
Telecommunications and Information Administration, an agency of the United States Department of Commerce,
continues to have final approval over changes to the DNS root zone.[1][2] This authority over the root zone file makes
ICANN one of a few bodies with global, centralized influence over the otherwise distributed Internet.[3]
The technical underpinning and standardization of the Internet's core protocols (IPv4 and IPv6) is an activity of the
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), a non-profit organization of loosely affiliated international participants that
anyone may associate with by contributing technical expertise.
On 16 November 2005, the United Nations-sponsored World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS), held in
Tunis, established the Internet Governance Forum (IGF) to open an ongoing, non-binding conversation among
multiple stakeholders about the future of Internet governance.[4] Since WSIS, the term "Internet governance" has
been broadened beyond narrow technical concerns to include a wider range of Internet-related policy issues.[5][6]
Definition
The definition of Internet governance has been contested by differing groups across political and ideological lines.
One of the main debates concerns the authority and participation of certain actors, such as national governments,
corporate entities and civil society, to play a role in the Internet's governance.
A Working group established after a United Nations-initiated World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS)
proposed the following definition of Internet governance as part of its June 2005 report:
Internet governance is the development and application by Governments, the private sector and civil society,
in their respective roles, of shared principles, norms, rules, decision-making procedures, and programmes that
shape the evolution and use of the Internet.[7]
Law professor Yochai Benkler developed a conceptualization of Internet governance by the idea of three "layers" of
governance: the "physical infrastructure" layer through which information travels; the "code" or "logical" layer that
controls the infrastructure; and the "content" layer, which contains the information that signals through the
network.[8]
History
To understand how the Internet is managed today, it is necessary to know some of the main events of Internet
governance.
Formation and growth of the network

The original ARPANET, one of the components which evolved eventually into the Internet, connected four
Universities: University of California Los Angeles, University of California Santa Barbara, Stanford Research
Institute and Utah University. The IMPs, interface minicomputers, were built during 1969 by Bolt, Beranek and
Newman in accord with a proposal by the US Department of Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, which
funded the system as an experiment. By 1973 it connected many more systems and included satellite links to Hawaii
and Scandinavia, and a further link from Norway to London. ARPANET continued to grow in size, becoming more a
utility than a research project. For this reason, in 1975 it was transferred to the US Defense Communications
Agency.[9]
During the development of ARPANET, a numbered series of Request for Comments (RFCs) memos documented
technical decisions and methods of working as they evolved. The standards of today's Internet are still documented
by RFCs, produced through the very process which evolved on ARPANET.[10]
Outside of the USA the dominant technology was X.25.[11] The International Packet Switched Service, created
during 1978, used X.25 and extended to Europe, Australia, Hong Kong, Canada, and the USA.[12] It allowed
individual users and companies to connect to a variety of mainframe systems, including Compuserve. Between 1979
and 1984, a system known as Unix to Unix Copy Program(UUCP) grew to connect 940 hosts, using methods like
X.25 links, ARPANET connections, and leased lines.[13] Usenet News, a distributed discussion system, was a major
use of UUCP.
The Internet protocol suite, developed between 1973 and 1977 with funding from ARPA, was intended to hide the
differences between different underlying networks and allow many different applications to be used over the same
network.[14]
RFC 801 describes how the US Department of Defense organized the replacement of ARPANET's Network Control
Program by the new Internet Protocol during January 1983.[15] During the same year, the military systems were
removed to a distinct MILNET, and the Domain Name System was invented to manage the names and addresses of
computers on the "ARPA Internet". The familiar top-level domains .gov, .mil, .edu, .org, .net, .com, and .int, and the
two-letter country code top-level domains were deployed during 1984.
Between 1984 and 1986 the US National Science Foundation created the NSFNET backbone, using TCP/IP, to
connect their supercomputing facilities. NSFNET became a general-purpose research network, a hub to connect the
supercomputing centers to each other and to the regional research and education networks that would in turn connect
campus networks.[16] The combined networks became generally known as the Internet.
By the end of 1989 Australia, Germany, Israel, Italy, Japan, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, and the United
Kingdom had connected to the Internet, which now contained over 160,000 hosts.
During 1990, ARPANET formally terminated, and during 1991 the NSF began to relax its restrictions on
commercial use of its part of the Internet. Commercial network providers began to interconnect, extending the
Internet. The final restrictions on carrying commercial traffic ended on April 30, 1995 when the National Science
Foundation ended its sponsorship of the NSFNET Backbone Service and the service ended.[17][18]
Today almost all Internet infrastructure is provided and owned by the private sector. Traffic is exchanged between
these networks, at major interconnect points, in accordance with established Internet standards and commercial
agreements.
Governors
During 1979 the Internet Configuration Control Board was founded by DARPA to oversee the network's
development. During 1984 it was renamed the Internet Advisory Board (IAB), and during 1986 it became the
Internet Activities Board.[19][20]
The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) was formed during 1986 by the US Government to develop and
promote Internet standards. It consisted initially of researchers, but by the end of the year participation was available
to anyone, and its business was performed largely by email.[21][22]
From the early days of the network until his death during 1998, Jon Postel oversaw address allocation and other
Internet protocol numbering and assignments in his capacity as Director of the Computer Networks Division at the
Information Sciences Institute of the University of Southern California, under a contract from the Dept. of Defense.
This function eventually became known as the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), and as it expanded to
include management of the global Domain Name System (DNS) root servers, a small organization grew. Postel also
served as RFC Editor.
Allocation of IP addresses was delegated to four Regional Internet Registries (RIRs):
• American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN) for North America
• Réseaux IP Européens - Network Coordination Centre (RIPE NCC) for Europe, the Middle East, and Central Asia
• Asia-Pacific Network Information Centre (APNIC) for Asia and the Pacific region
• Latin American and Caribbean Internet Addresses Registry (LACNIC) for Latin America and the Caribbean
region
A fifth RIR, AfriNIC, was created in 2004 to manage allocations for Africa.
After Jon Postel's death during 1998, the IANA became part of the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and
Numbers (ICANN), a newly created Californian non-profit corporation, initiated during September 1998 by the US
Government and awarded a contract by the US Department of Commerce. Initially two board members were elected
by the Internet community at large, though this was changed by the rest of the board during 2002 in a little- attended
public meeting in Accra, Ghana.[23]
During 1992 the Internet Society (ISOC) was founded, with a mission to "assure the open development, evolution
and use of the Internet for the benefit of all people throughout the world".[24] Its members include individuals
(anyone may join) as well as corporations, organizations, governments, and universities. The IAB was renamed the
Internet Architecture Board, and became part of ISOC. The Internet Engineering Task Force also became part of the
ISOC. The IETF is overseen currently by the Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG), and longer term research
is carried on by the Internet Research Task Force and overseen by the Internet Research Steering Group.
At the first World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) in Geneva in 2003 the topic of Internet governance
was discussed. ICANN's status as a private corporation under contract to the U.S. government created controversy
among other governments, especially Brazil, China, South Africa and some Arab states. Since no general agreement
existed even on the definition of what comprised Internet governance, United Nations Secretary General Kofi Annan
initiated a Working Group on Internet Governance (WGIG) to clarify the issues and report before the second part of
the World Summit on the Information Society in Tunis 2005. After much controversial debate, during which the US
delegation refused to consider surrendering the U.S. control of the Root Zone file, participants agreed on a
compromise to allow for wider international debate on the policy principles. They agreed to establish an Internet
Governance Forum, to be convened by the United Nations Secretary General before the end of the second quarter of
2006. The Greek government volunteered to host the first such meeting.[25]
Globalization and governance controversy

The position of the US Department of Commerce as the controller of the Internet gradually attracted criticism from
those who felt that control should be more international. A hands-off philosophy by the US Dept. of Commerce
helped limit this criticism, but this was undermined in 2005 when the Bush administration intervened to help kill the
.xxx top level domain proposal.
When the IANA functions were given to a new US non-profit Corporation called ICANN, controversy increased.
ICANN's decision-making process was criticised by some observers as being secretive and unaccountable. When the
directors' posts which had previously been elected by the "at-large" community of Internet users were abolished,
some feared that ICANN would become illegitimate and its qualifications questionable, due to the fact that it was
now losing the aspect of being a neutral governing body. ICANN stated that they were merely streamlining
decision-making processes, and developing a structure suitable for the modern Internet.
Other topics of controversy included the creation and control of generic top-level domains (.com, .org, and possible
new ones, such as .biz or .xxx), the control of country-code domains, recent proposals for a large increase in
ICANN's budget and responsibilities, and a proposed "domain tax" to pay for the increase.
There were also suggestions that individual governments should have more control, or that the International
Telecommunication Union or the United Nations should have a function in Internet governance.[26]
One controversial proposal to this effect, resulting from a September 2011 summit between India, Brazil, and South
Africa (IBSA), would seek to move internet governance into a "UN Committee on Internet Related Policy"
(UN-CIRP).[27][28] The move was a reaction to a perception that the principles of the 2005 Tunis Agenda for the
Information Society have not been met.[28][29] The statement called for the subordination of independent technical
organizations such as ICANN and the ITU to a political organization operating under the auspices of the United
Nations.[28] After outrage from India’s civil society and media, the Indian Government backed away from the
proposal.[30]
References
[1] Klein, Hans. (2004). "ICANN and Non-Territorial Sovereignty: Government Without the Nation State." (http:/ / www. ip3. gatech. edu/
research/ KLEIN_ICANN+ Sovereignty. doc) Internet and Public Policy Project. Georgia Institute of Technology.
[6] DeNardis, Laura, The Emerging Field of Internet Governance (http:/ / ssrn. com/ abstract=1678343) (September 17, 2010). Yale Information
Society Project Working Paper Series.
[7] "Report of the Working Group on Internet Governance (WGIG)" (http:/ / www. wgig. org/ docs/ WGIGREPORT. pdf), June 2005), p.4.
[8] Yochai Benkler, "From Consumers to Users: Shifting the Deeper Structures of Regulation Towards Sustainable Commons and User Access"
(http:/ / www. law. indiana. edu/ fclj/ pubs/ v52/ no3/ benkler1. pdf), 52 Fed. Comm. L.J. 561, (2000).
[13] UUCP Internals Frequently Asked Questions (http:/ / www. faqs. org/ faqs/ uucp-internals/ )
[15] Jon Postel, NCP/TCP Transition Plan, RFC 801
[16] NSFNET: A Partnership for High-Speed Networking, Final Report 19877-1995 (http:/ / www. merit. edu/ about/ history/ pdf/
NSFNET_final. pdf), Karen D. Frazer, Merit Network, Inc., 1995
[17] "Retiring the NSFNET Backbone Service: Chronicling the End of an Era" (http:/ / merit. edu/ research/ nsfnet_article. php), Susan R. Harris,
Ph.D., and Elise Gerich, ConneXions, Vol. 10, No. 4, April 1996
[20] RFC 2850: Charter of the Internet Architecture Board (IAB), May 2000
[23] "Net governance chief will step down next year" (http:/ / business. highbeam. com/ 437235/ article-1G1-106850793/
net-governance-chief-step-down-next-year), David McGuire, Washingtonpost.com, 28 May 2002.
[24] Internet Society (ISOC) All About The Internet: History of the Internet (http:/ / www. isoc. org/ internet/ history/ isochistory. shtml)
[25] "Internet governance: U.S., Developing countries strike deal" (http:/ / allafrica. com/ stories/ 200511210250. html), Innocent Gore, Africa
News Service, 21 November 2005
[28] "Recommendations from the IBSA (India-Brazil-South Africa) Multistakeholder meeting on Global Internet Governance" (http:/ / www.
culturalivre. org. br/ artigos/ IBSA_recommendations_Internet_Governance. pdf), 1–2 September 2011, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
[29] "Tunis Agenda for the Information Society" (http:/ / www. itu. int/ wsis/ docs2/ tunis/ off/ 6rev1. html), World Summit on the Information
Society, 18 November 2005
Further reading
• Ruling the Root: Internet Governance and the Taming of Cyberspace (http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/
default.asp?ttype=2&tid=10205/) by Milton Mueller, MIT Press, 2002. The definitive study of DNS and
ICANN's early history.
• Protocol Politics (http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/default.asp?ttype=2&tid=11893/), Laura DeNardis,
MIT Press, 2009. IP addressing and the migration to IPv6
• "One History of DNS" (http://www.byte.org/one-history-of-dns.pdf) by Ross W. Rader. April 2001. Article
contains historic facts about DNS and explains the reasons behind the so-called "dns war".
• "The Emerging Field of Internet Governance" (http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1678343),
by Laura DeNardis. September 2010. Suggests a framework for understanding problems in Internet governance.
• Launching the DNS War: Dot-Com Privatization and the Rise of Global Internet Governance (http://www.
scribd.com/doc/58805571/
Launching-the-DNS-War-Dot-Com-Privatization-and-the-Rise-of-Global-Internet-Governance) by Craig Simon.
December 2006. Ph.D. dissertation containing an extensive history of events which sparked the so-called "dns
war".
• "Habermas@discourse.net: Toward a Critical Theory of Cyberspace" (http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.
cfm?abstract_id=363840), by A. Michael Froomkin, 116 Harv. L. Rev. 749 (2003). Argues that the Internet
standards process undertaken by the IETF fulfils Jürgen Habermas's conditions for the best practical discourse.
• Mueller, Milton L. (2010). Networks and States: The Global Politics of Internet Governance. MIT Press.
ISBN 978-0-262-01459-5.
• Dutton, William H.; Malcolm Peltu (2007-03). "The emerging Internet governance mosaic: Connecting the
pieces". Information Polity: The International Journal of Government & Democracy in the Information Age 12
(1/2): 63–81. ISSN 15701255 (http://www.worldcat.org/issn/15701255).
External links
• APC Internet Rights Charter (http://www.apc.org/en/pubs/about-apc/apc-internet-rights-charter), Association
for Progressive Communications, November 2006
• CircleID: Internet Governance (http://www.circleid.com/topics/internet_governance)
• Diplo Internet Governance Community (http://www.diplointernetgovernance.org/)
• Electronic Frontier Foundation (http://www.eff.org), website
• The Future of Global Internet governance (http://www.iit.cnr.it/en/taxonomy/term/334/), Institute of
Informatics and Telematics - Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricercha (IIT-CNR), Pisa
• Global Internet Governance Academic Network (GigaNet) (http://giga-net.org/)
• ICANN - Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (http://www.icann.org)
• Internet Governance Forum (IGF) (http://www.intgovforum.org/cms/)
• Internet Governance Project (http://www.internetgovernance.org/)
• Internet Society (http://www.internetsociety.org/), website
• "The Politics and Issues of Internet Governance" (http://www.institut-gouvernance.org/en/analyse/
fiche-analyse-265.html), Milton L. Mueller, April 2007, analysis from the Institute of research and debate on
Governance (Institut de recherche et débat sur la gouvernance)
• "United States cedes control of the internet - but what now? - Review of an extraordinary meeting" (http://www.
theregister.co.uk/2006/07/27/ntia_icann_meeting/), Kieren McCarthy, The Register, 27 July 2006
• World Summit on the Information Society: Geneva 2003 and Tunis 2005 (http://www.itu.int/wsis)
194
Common uses
Timeline of popular Internet services

2012
• Wikidata, a collaboratively edited knowledge base operated by the Wikimedia Foundation.
2011
• Google+, a social networking system by Google, integrating several of the company's existing services, such as
Google Buzz and Picasa Web Albums.
• Duolingo, a free language-learning website and crowdsourced text translation platform.
2010
• OnLive, a cloud gaming platform where the video games are synchronized, rendered, and stored on remote
servers and delivered via the Internet.
• Diaspora, a free personal web server that implements a distributed social networking service.
• Flattr, a microdonation system.
• Instagram, an online photo-sharing and social networking service that enables its users to take a picture, apply a
digital filter to it, and share it.
• Pinterest, a pinboard-style photo sharing website that allows users to create and manage theme-based image
collections such as events, interests, hobbies, and more.
2009
• Google Docs, a free, Web-based word processor, spreadsheet, presentation, form, and data storage service offered
by Google goes out of beta.
• Wolfram Alpha, the answer engine is born.
• Kickstarter, an online threshold pledge system for funding creative projects.
• Web 2.0 Suicide Machine, a service to automatically delete private content and friend relationships from many
social networking sites at once.
• Bing, a web search engine from Microsoft.
2008
• Encyclopedia of Life, a free, online collaborative encyclopedia intended to document all of the 1.8 million living
species known to science.
• GitHub, a web-based hosting service for software development projects that use the Git revision control system
• TinEye, a reverse image search engine.
• Spotify, a DRM-based music streaming service offering unlimited streaming of selected music from a range of
major and independent record labels.
• Jinni, a semantic search and recommendation engine for movies, TV shows and short films.
• Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud (EC2), a cloud computing platform that allows users to rent virtual computers on
which to run their own computer applications.
• Dropbox, a file hosting service that uses cloud computing to enable users to store and share files and folders with
others across the Internet using file synchronization.
2007
• Google Street View, a technology featured in Google Maps and Google Earth that provides panoramic views
from various positions along many streets in the world.
• Kindle, the e-book reader by Amazon.com is launched together with the e-book virtual bookshop. In July 2010
Amazon announced that e-book sales for its Kindle reader outnumbered sales of hardcover books.
• Tumblr is a microblogging platform that allows users to post text, images, videos, links, quotes and audio to their
tumblelog, a short-form blog.
• Experience Project, a free social networking website of online communities premised on connecting people
through shared life experiences.
• SoundCloud, an online audio distribution platform which allows collaboration, promotion and distribution of
audio recordings.
2006
• WikiLeaks, an international non-profit organisation that publishes submissions of private, secret, and classified
media from anonymous news sources and news leaks.
• Twitter is a social networking and micro-blogging service that enables its users to send and read other users'
updates, tweets, which are text-based posts of up to 140 characters in length.
• IMSLP, the International Music Score Library Project.
• Spokeo, a social network aggregator web site that aggregates data from many online and offline sources launches,
raising many privacy concerns.
• YouPorn, a free pornographic video sharing website.
• Mint.com is a free web-based personal financial management service for the US and Canada.
• Khan Academy, free educational video repository with more than 3,000 micro lectures, automated exercises, and
tutoring.
• PlayStation Network, a multiplayer gaming service for use with the PlayStation 3, PlayStation Portable,
PlayStation Vita and the upcoming PlayStation 4
2005
• YouTube, a video sharing website.
• Google Earth, a virtual globe computer program.
• Megaupload, allows users to upload and download files.
• Musopen, an online music library of copyright-free (public domain) music.
• OpenID, an open standard that describes how users can be authenticated in a decentralized manner
• eyeOS, an open source web desktop following the cloud computing concept.
• Etsy, an e-commerce website focused on handmade or vintage items as well as art and craft supplies.
• Pandora Radio, an online radio and music recommendation system based on the Music Genome Project.
• Reddit, a social news and entertainment website.
2004
• OpenStreetMap, a collaborative project to create a free editable map of the world.
• Podcast: A downloadable audio file for listening to on a portable media player. A bit like a radio program that you
can save and listen to at your convenience. "Podcast" is a portmanteau of the words "iPod" and "broadcast".
Podcasting began to catch hold in late 2004, though the ability to distribute audio and video files easily has been
around since before the dawn of the Internet.
• Facebook is a social networking website.
• World of Warcraft (WoW) is a massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG).
• Flickr is a photo/ video sharing website.
2003
• Skype, a software application that allows users to make voice calls over the Internet.
• iTunes is an online store which sells music and videos in downloadable form.
• MySpace is a social networking website.
• Steam, a digital distribution, digital rights management, multiplayer and communications platform for computer
games developed by Valve Corporation.
• Second Life is a virtual world.
• 4chan, an English-language imageboard website.
• CouchSurfing, a hospitality exchange network.
• The Pirate Bay, a Swedish website that hosts torrent files.
2002
• Moodle, a free software e-learning platform.
• Tor, a system intended to enable online anonymity is released.
• Last.fm, a music recommender system.
• LinkedIn, a business-oriented social networking site is founded and launched next year.
• TinyURL, a URL shortening service.
• Skyscanner, a flight search engine that allows users to browse for flights via price and location.
• Xbox Live, an online multiplayer gaming service, originally and previously available for the Xbox, now for Xbox
360 and some Windows operating systems.
2001
• Wikipedia, a collaboratively edited, multilingual, free Internet encyclopedia.
• StumbleUpon, a discovery engine that uses collaborative filtering to recommend web content to its users.
• PartyPoker.com, a set of online poker card rooms.
• Meetup, an online social networking portal that facilitates offline group meetings in various localities around the
world.
2000
• Blogger is a blog publishing service that allows private or multi-user blogs with time-stamped entries.
• Geocaching.com starts its activity. This outdoor sport activity with online support can be considered one of the
early forms of geosocial networking.
• deviantArt, an online community showcasing various forms of user-made artwork.
• TripAdvisor, travel site that assists customers in gathering travel information, posting reviews and opinions of
travel related content and engaging in interactive travel forums.
1999
• RSS, the first version of the web feed formats used to publish frequently updated works is created at Netscape.
• Monster.com, an employment website.
• SourceForge, a web-based source code repository. It acts as a centralized location for software developers to
control and manage open source software development.
• SETI@home, an internet-based public volunteer computing project. Its purpose is to analyze radio signals,
searching for signs of extra terrestrial intelligence.
• Napster (now defunct) was an online music peer-to-peer file sharing service
1998
• Google Inc. launched a search engine for web sites of the World Wide Web, subsequently extending search
facilities to many types of media, including books, magazines, forums, email, news.
• Yahoo! Groups a community-driven Internet communication tool, a hybrid between an electronic mailing list and
an Internet forum starts off as Yahoo! Clubs
• PayPal, an e-commerce business allowing payments and money transfers to be made through the Internet.
1997
• Babel Fish launched by AltaVista. It was the first language translation service for web content, with technology
provided by SYSTRAN.
• Netflix, an American corporation that offers both on-demand video streaming over the internet, and flat rate
online video rental.
• Go Daddy, an Internet domain registrar and Web hosting company.
• About.com, an online resource for original information and advice.
1996
• Ultima Online (UO), a graphical massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG).
• Internet Archive is an archive of periodically cached versions of websites.
• Hotmail, a free web-based email service.
• Ticketmaster, a ticket sales and distribution company goes online and sells its first ticket through their platform.
• Shopzilla, a price comparison service.
1995
• Ebay is an auction and shopping website.
• Wiki: A website that anyone can edit.
• Craigslist, a centralized network of online communities, featuring free online classified advertisements.
• AltaVista, a web search engine owned by Yahoo!. It was once one of the most popular search engines but its
popularity declined with the rise of Google.
1994
• Amazon.com is an online retailer, best known for selling books, but now sells all kinds of goods.
• GeoCities a free web hosting service, now defunct, founded as Beverly Hills Internet (BHI) by David Bohnett and
John Rezner .
• The Yahoo! website started off as a web directory and soon became a webportal offering all kinds of Internet
services.
• Match.com, an online dating company.
• FedEx.com launches, being the first transportation web site to offer online package tracking.
1993
• Blog: A blog (a contraction of the term weblog) is a type of website which resembles an online diary. Entries are
commonly displayed in reverse-chronological order. Originally hand-coded, there are now blogging tools (a kind
of content management system) to facilitate searching and linking to other blogs.
• CDDB, a database for software applications to look up audio CD (compact disc) information over the Internet.
• Hutchison Paging email gateway allows emails to be sent to message pagers in the UK. This same system worked
with Orange mobile phones when they were launched in 1994, emails would arrive as texts.
1992
• HTML was developed by a British engineer, Tim Berners-Lee while working in CERN. This was devised so that
reports from CERN, including photographs, graphs and tables could be shared (served) across the web.
• Veronica (search engine) provides an index of files on Gopher servers.
1991
• arXiv, an open access archive for electronic preprints of scientific papers.
• Gopher: A hypertext system which was soon largely replaced by the World Wide Web.
1990
• ARPANET was retired and merged into the NSFNET.
• IMDb, the Internet Movie Database.
• The Archie search engine lists names of files on FTP sites.
1988
• Internet Relay Chat (IRC): A form of real-time Internet text messaging (chat) or synchronous conferencing. It is
mainly designed for group communication in discussion forums, called channels, but also allows one-to-one
communication via private message.
1986
• LISTSERV the first electronic mailing list software application,
1983
• Internet: A global computer network which was created by interconnecting various existing networks with the
TCP/IP protocol suite.
1982
• First standardization of the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, a network transmission standard for the transport of
email.
1979
• Usenet: A distributed threaded discussion and file sharing system; a collection of forums known as newsgroups,
that was a precursor to today's web-based forums. One notable difference from a BBS or web forum is that there
is no central system owner. Usenet is distributed among a large, constantly changing conglomeration of servers
which store and forward messages to one another.
1978
• MUD: First real-time, multi-player MUD adventure game was developed by Roy Trubshaw and Richard Bartle at
Essex University, England.
1973
• E-mail: First proposal for standardization of electronic mail message format in RFC 561.
• ARPANET made its first international connection between University college in London and Royal Radar
establishment in Norway.
1971
• FTP: File Transfer Protocol
• Project Gutenberg, a volunteer effort to digitize and archive cultural works.
1969
• Telnet: A system for logging in, over a network, to a computer situated in another location.
• ARPANET connected Stanford research Institute in Santa Barbara to the University of Utah, the internet was
born, although the first attempt actually crashed on the 'g' of the word 'Login'
1960s
• Email: Electronic mail applications are developed on timesharing main frame computers for communication
between system users.
• The beginning of the internet can be traced back to 1962, when the RAND (America's military think tank) tackled
the problem of how they could communicate in the aftermath of a nuclear attack, their thinking was prompted by
the Cuban Missile Crisis.
Email 200
Email
Electronic mail, most commonly referred to as email or e-mail since
approximately 1993,[2] is a method of exchanging digital messages from an
author to one or more recipients. Modern email operates across the Internet or
other computer networks. Some early email systems required that the author
and the recipient both be online at the same time, in common with instant
messaging. Today's email systems are based on a store-and-forward model.
Email servers accept, forward, deliver, and store messages. Neither the users
nor their computers are required to be online simultaneously; they need
connect only briefly, typically to an email server, for as long as it takes to
send or receive messages.
The at sign, a part of every SMTP email
[1]
Historically, the term electronic mail was used generically for any electronic address
document transmission. For example, several writers in the early 1970s used
the term to describe fax document transmission.[3][4] As a result, it is difficult to find the first citation for the use of
the term with the more specific meaning it has today.
An Internet email message[5] consists of three components, the message envelope, the message header, and the
message body. The message header contains control information, including, minimally, an originator's email address
and one or more recipient addresses. Usually descriptive information is also added, such as a subject header field and
a message submission date/time stamp.
Originally a text-only (ASCII) communications medium, Internet email was extended to carry, e.g., text in other
character sets, multi-media content attachments, a process standardized in RFC 2045 through 2049. Collectively,
these RFCs have come to be called Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME). Subsequent RFC's [6] have
proposed standards for internationalized email addresses using UTF-8.
Electronic mail predates the inception of the Internet and was in fact a crucial tool in creating it,[7] but the history of
modern, global Internet email services reaches back to the early ARPANET. Standards for encoding email messages
were proposed as early as 1973 (RFC 561). Conversion from ARPANET to the Internet in the early 1980s produced
the core of the current services. An email sent in the early 1970s looks quite similar to a basic text message sent on
the Internet today.
Network-based email was initially exchanged on the ARPANET in extensions to the File Transfer Protocol (FTP),
but is now carried by the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), first published as Internet standard 10 (RFC 821)
in 1982. In the process of transporting email messages between systems, SMTP communicates delivery parameters
using a message envelope separate from the message (header and body) itself.
Spelling
Electronic mail has several English spelling options that occasionally prove cause for vehement disagreement.[8][9]
• e-mail is the most common form in print, and is recommended by some prominent journalistic and technical style
guides[citation needed]. According to Corpus of Contemporary American English data, this is the form that appears
most frequently in edited, published American English and British English writing.[10]
• email is the most common form used online, and is required by IETF Requests for Comment and working
groups[11] and increasingly by style guides.[12][13][14] This spelling also appears in most
dictionaries.[15][16][17][18][19][20]
• mail was the form used in the original RFC. The service is referred to as mail and a single piece of electronic mail
is called a message.[21][22][23]
Email 201
• eMail, capitalizing only the letter M, was common among ARPANET users and the early developers of Unix,
CMS, AppleLink, eWorld, AOL, GEnie, and Hotmail.[citation needed]
[22][23]
• EMail is a traditional form that has been used in RFCs for the "Author's Address", and is expressly required
[24]
"for historical reasons".
• E-mail is sometimes used, capitalizing the initial letter E as in similar abbreviations like E-piano, E-guitar,
A-bomb, H-bomb, and C-section.[25]
There is also some variety in the plural form of the term. In US English email is used as a mass noun (like the term
mail for items sent through the postal system), but in British English it is more commonly used as a count noun with
the plural emails.[citation needed]
Origin
The AUTODIN network provided message service between 1,350 terminals, handling 30 million messages per
month, with an average message length of approximately 3,000 characters. Autodin was supported by 18 large
computerized switches, and was connected to the United States General Services Administration Advanced Record
System, which provided similar services to roughly 2,500 terminals.[26]
Host-based mail systems

With the introduction of MIT's Compatible Time-Sharing System (CTSS) in 1961[27] multiple users were able to log
into a central system[28] from remote dial-up terminals, and to store and share files on the central disk.[29] Informal
methods of using this to pass messages developed and were expanded to create the first system worthy of the name
"email":
• 1965 – MIT's CTSS MAIL.[]
Other early systems soon had their own email applications:
• 1962 – 1440/1460 Administrative Terminal System[30]
• 1968 – ATS/360[31][32]
• 1972 – Unix mail program[33][34]
• 1972 – APL Mailbox by Larry Breed[35][36]
• 1974 – The PLATO IV Notes on-line message board system was generalized to offer 'personal notes' (email) in
August, 1974.[26][37]
• 1978 – EMAIL at University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey[38]
• 1981 – PROFS by IBM[39][40]
• 1982 – ALL-IN-1[41] by Digital Equipment Corporation
Though they're all similar in concept, these original email systems had widely different features and ran on systems
that were incompatible with each other. They allowed communication only between users logged into the same host
or "mainframe," although there might be hundreds or thousands of users within an organization.
Email 202
LAN email systems

In the early 1980s, networked personal computers on LANs became increasingly important. Server-based systems
similar to the earlier mainframe systems were developed. Again, these systems initially allowed communication only
between users logged into the same server infrastructure. Examples include:
• cc:Mail
• Lantastic
• WordPerfect Office
• Microsoft Mail
• Banyan VINES
• Lotus Notes
Eventually these systems too could link different organizations as long as they ran the same email system and
[42]
proprietary protocol.
Email networks
Soon systems were developed to link compatible mail programs between different organisations over dialup modems
or leased lines, creating local and global networks.
• In 1971 the first ARPANET email was sent,[43] and through RFC 561, RFC 680, RFC 724, and finally 1977's
RFC 733, became a standardized working system.
Other, separate networks were also being created including:
• Unix mail was networked by 1978's uucp,[44] which was also used for USENET newsgroup postings
• IBM mainframe email was linked by BITNET in 1981[45]
• IBM PCs running DOS in 1984 could link with FidoNet for email and shared bulletin board posting
Attempts at interoperability
Early interoperability among independent systems included:
• ARPANET, the forerunner of today's Internet, which defined the first protocols for dissimilar computers to
exchange email
• uucp implementations for non-Unix systems, which were used as an open "glue" between differing mail systems,
primarily over dialup telephones
• CSNET, which used dial-up telephone access to link additional sites to the ARPANET and then Internet
There were later efforts at interoperability standardization too:
• Novell briefly championed the open MHS protocol but abandoned it after purchasing the non-MHS WordPerfect
Office (renamed Groupwise)
• The Coloured Book protocols on UK academic networks until 1992
• X.400 in the 1980s and early 1990s was promoted by major vendors and mandated for government use under
GOSIP but abandoned by all but a few – in favor of Internet SMTP by the mid-1990s.
From SNDMSG to MSG

In the early 1970s, Ray Tomlinson updated an existing utility called SNDMSG so that it could copy messages (as
files) over the network. Lawrence Roberts, the project manager for the ARPANET development, took the idea of
READMAIL, which dumped all "recent" messages onto the user's terminal, and wrote a program for TENEX in
TECO macros called RD, which permitted access to individual messages.[46] Barry Wessler then updated RD and
called it NRD.[47]
Email 203
Marty Yonke rewrote NRD to include reading, access to SNDMSG for sending, and a help system, and called the
utility WRD, which was later known as BANANARD. John Vittal then updated this version to include three important
commands: Move (combined save/delete command), Answer (determined to whom a reply should be sent) and
Forward (sent an email to a person who was not already a recipient). The system was called MSG. With inclusion of
these features, MSG is considered to be the first integrated modern email program, from which many other
applications have descended.[46]
Rise of ARPANET mail

The ARPANET computer network made a large contribution to the development of email. There is one report that
indicates experimental inter-system email transfers began shortly after its creation in 1969.[] Ray Tomlinson is
generally credited as having sent the first email across a network, initiating the use of the "@" sign to separate the
names of the user and the user's machine in 1971, when he sent a message from one Digital Equipment Corporation
DEC-10 computer to another DEC-10. The two machines were placed next to each other.[48][49] Tomlinson's work
was quickly adopted across the ARPANET, which significantly increased the popularity of email. For many years,
email was the killer app of the ARPANET and then the Internet.
Most other networks had their own email protocols and address formats; as the influence of the ARPANET and later
the Internet grew, central sites often hosted email gateways that passed mail between the internet and these other
networks. Internet email addressing is still complicated by the need to handle mail destined for these older networks.
Some well-known examples of these were UUCP (mostly Unix computers), BITNET (mostly IBM and VAX
mainframes at universities), FidoNet (personal computers), DECnet (various networks) and CSNET, a forerunner of
NSFNet.
An example of an Internet email address that routed mail to a user at a UUCP host:
hubhost!middlehost!edgehost!user@uucpgateway.somedomain.example.com
This was necessary because in early years UUCP computers did not maintain (and could not consult central servers
for) information about the location of all hosts they exchanged mail with, but rather only knew how to communicate
with a few network neighbors; email messages (and other data such as Usenet News) were passed along in a chain
among hosts who had explicitly agreed to share data with each other. (Eventually the UUCP Mapping Project would
provide a form of network routing database for email.)
Operation overview
The diagram to the right shows a typical sequence of events[50] that takes place when Alice composes a message
using her mail user agent (MUA). She enters the email address of her correspondent, and hits the "send" button.
Email 204
1. Her MUA formats the message in email format and uses the Submission Protocol (a profile of the Simple Mail
Transfer Protocol (SMTP), see RFC 6409) to send the message to the local mail submission agent (MSA), in this
case smtp.a.org, run by Alice's internet service provider (ISP).
2. The MSA looks at the destination address provided in the SMTP protocol (not from the message header), in this
case bob@b.org. An Internet email address is a string of the form localpart@exampledomain. The part
before the @ sign is the local part of the address, often the username of the recipient, and the part after the @ sign
is a domain name or a fully qualified domain name. The MSA resolves a domain name to determine the fully
qualified domain name of the mail exchange server in the Domain Name System (DNS).
3. The DNS server for the b.org domain, ns.b.org, responds with any MX records listing the mail exchange
servers for that domain, in this case mx.b.org, a message transfer agent (MTA) server run by Bob's ISP.
4. smtp.a.org sends the message to mx.b.org using SMTP.
This server may need to forward the message to other MTAs before the message reaches the final message delivery
agent (MDA).
1. The MDA delivers it to the mailbox of the user bob.
2. Bob presses the "get mail" button in his MUA, which picks up the message using either the Post Office Protocol
(POP3) or the Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP4).
That sequence of events applies to the majority of email users. However, there are many alternative possibilities and
complications to the email system:
• Alice or Bob may use a client connected to a corporate email system, such as IBM Lotus Notes or Microsoft
Exchange. These systems often have their own internal email format and their clients typically communicate with
the email server using a vendor-specific, proprietary protocol. The server sends or receives email via the Internet
through the product's Internet mail gateway which also does any necessary reformatting. If Alice and Bob work
for the same company, the entire transaction may happen completely within a single corporate email system.
• Alice may not have a MUA on her computer but instead may connect to a webmail service.
• Alice's computer may run its own MTA, so avoiding the transfer at step 1.
• Bob may pick up his email in many ways, for example logging into mx.b.org and reading it directly, or by
using a webmail service.
• Domains usually have several mail exchange servers so that they can continue to accept mail when the main mail
exchange server is not available.
• Email messages are not secure if email encryption is not used correctly.
Email 205
Many MTAs used to accept messages for any recipient on the Internet and do their best to deliver them. Such MTAs
are called open mail relays. This was very important in the early days of the Internet when network connections were
unreliable. If an MTA couldn't reach the destination, it could at least deliver it to a relay closer to the destination.
The relay stood a better chance of delivering the message at a later time. However, this mechanism proved to be
exploitable by people sending unsolicited bulk email and as a consequence very few modern MTAs are open mail
relays, and many MTAs don't accept messages from open mail relays because such messages are very likely to be
spam.
Message format
The Internet email message format is now defined by RFC 5322, with multi-media content attachments being
defined in RFC 2045 through RFC 2049, collectively called Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions or MIME. RFC
5322 replaced the earlier RFC 2822 in 2008, and in turn RFC 2822 in 2001 replaced RFC 822 – which had been the
standard for Internet email for nearly 20 years. Published in 1982, RFC 822 was based on the earlier RFC 733 for the
ARPANET.[51]
Internet email messages consist of two major sections:
• Header – Structured into fields such as From, To, CC, Subject, Date, and other information about the email.
• Body – The basic content, as unstructured text; sometimes containing a signature block at the end. This is exactly
the same as the body of a regular letter.
The header is separated from the body by a blank line.
Message header
Each message has exactly one header, which is structured into fields. Each field has a name and a value. RFC 5322
specifies the precise syntax.
Informally, each line of text in the header that begins with a printable character begins a separate field. The field
name starts in the first character of the line and ends before the separator character ":". The separator is then
followed by the field value (the "body" of the field). The value is continued onto subsequent lines if those lines have
a space or tab as their first character. Field names and values are restricted to 7-bit ASCII characters. Non-ASCII
values may be represented using MIME encoded words.
Header fields
Email header fields can be multi-line, and each line should be at most 78 characters long and in no event more than
998 characters long.[52] Header fields defined by RFC 5322 can only contain US-ASCII characters; for encoding
characters in other sets, a syntax specified in RFC 2047 can be used.[53] Recently the IETF EAI working group has
defined some standards track extensions,[54][55] replacing previous experimental extensions, to allow UTF-8 encoded
Unicode characters to be used within the header. In particular, this allows email addresses to use non-ASCII
characters. Such characters must only be used by servers that support these extensions.
The message header must include at least the following fields:[56]
• From: The email address, and optionally the name of the author(s). In many email clients not changeable except
through changing account settings.
• Date: The local time and date when the message was written. Like the From: field, many email clients fill this in
automatically when sending. The recipient's client may then display the time in the format and time zone local to
him/her.
The message header should include at least the following fields:[57]
• Message-ID: Also an automatically generated field; used to prevent multiple delivery and for reference in
In-Reply-To: (see below).
Email 206
• In-Reply-To: Message-ID of the message that this is a reply to. Used to link related messages together. This field
only applies for reply messages.
RFC 3864 describes registration procedures for message header fields at the IANA; it provides for permanent [58]
and provisional [59] message header field names, including also fields defined for MIME, netnews, and http, and
referencing relevant RFCs. Common header fields for email include:
• To: The email address(es), and optionally name(s) of the message's recipient(s). Indicates primary recipients
(multiple allowed), for secondary recipients see Cc: and Bcc: below.
• Subject: A brief summary of the topic of the message. Certain abbreviations are commonly used in the subject,
including "RE:" and "FW:".
• Bcc: Blind Carbon Copy; addresses added to the SMTP delivery list but not (usually) listed in the message data,
remaining invisible to other recipients.
• Cc: Carbon Copy; Many email clients will mark email in your inbox differently depending on whether you are in
the To: or Cc: list.
• Content-Type: Information about how the message is to be displayed, usually a MIME type.
• Precedence: commonly with values "bulk", "junk", or "list"; used to indicate that automated "vacation" or "out of
office" responses should not be returned for this mail, e.g. to prevent vacation notices from being sent to all other
subscribers of a mailinglist. Sendmail uses this header to affect prioritization of queued email, with "Precedence:
special-delivery" messages delivered sooner. With modern high-bandwidth networks delivery priority is less of an
issue than it once was. Microsoft Exchange respects a fine-grained automatic response suppression mechanism,
the X-Auto-Response-Suppress header.[60]
• References: Message-ID of the message that this is a reply to, and the message-id of the message the previous
reply was a reply to, etc.
• Reply-To: Address that should be used to reply to the message.
• Sender: Address of the actual sender acting on behalf of the author listed in the From: field (secretary, list
manager, etc.).
• Archived-At: A direct link to the archived form of an individual email message.[61]
Note that the To: field is not necessarily related to the addresses to which the message is delivered. The actual
delivery list is supplied separately to the transport protocol, SMTP, which may or may not originally have been
extracted from the header content. The "To:" field is similar to the addressing at the top of a conventional letter
which is delivered according to the address on the outer envelope. In the same way, the "From:" field does not have
to be the real sender of the email message. Some mail servers apply email authentication systems to messages being
relayed. Data pertaining to server's activity is also part of the header, as defined below.
SMTP defines the trace information of a message, which is also saved in the header using the following two
fields:[62]
• Received: when an SMTP server accepts a message it inserts this trace record at the top of the header (last to
first).
• Return-Path: when the delivery SMTP server makes the final delivery of a message, it inserts this field at the top
of the header.
Other header fields that are added on top of the header by the receiving server may be called trace fields, in a broader
sense.[63]
• Authentication-Results: when a server carries out authentication checks, it can save the results in this field for
consumption by downstream agents.[64]
• Received-SPF: stores the results of SPF checks.[65]
• Auto-Submitted: is used to mark automatically generated messages.[66]
• VBR-Info: claims VBR whitelisting[67]
Email 207
Message body
Content encoding
[68]
Email was originally designed for 7-bit ASCII. Most email software is 8-bit clean but must assume it will
communicate with 7-bit servers and mail readers. The MIME standard introduced character set specifiers and two
content transfer encodings to enable transmission of non-ASCII data: quoted printable for mostly 7 bit content with a
few characters outside that range and base64 for arbitrary binary data. The 8BITMIME and BINARY extensions
were introduced to allow transmission of mail without the need for these encodings, but many mail transport agents
still do not support them fully. In some countries, several encoding schemes coexist; as the result, by default, the
message in a non-Latin alphabet language appears in non-readable form (the only exception is coincidence, when the
sender and receiver use the same encoding scheme). Therefore, for international character sets, Unicode is growing
in popularity.
Plain text and HTML

Most modern graphic email clients allow the use of either plain text or HTML for the message body at the option of
the user. HTML email messages often include an automatically generated plain text copy as well, for compatibility
reasons.
Advantages of HTML include the ability to include in-line links and images, set apart previous messages in block
quotes, wrap naturally on any display, use emphasis such as underlines and italics, and change font styles.
Disadvantages include the increased size of the email, privacy concerns about web bugs, abuse of HTML email as a
vector for phishing attacks and the spread of malicious software.[69]
Some web based Mailing lists recommend that all posts be made in plain-text, with 72 or 80 characters per
line[70][71] for all the above reasons, but also because they have a significant number of readers using text-based
email clients such as Mutt.
Some Microsoft email clients allow rich formatting using RTF, but unless the recipient is guaranteed to have a
compatible email client this should be avoided.[72]
In order to ensure that HTML sent in an email is rendered properly by the recipient's client software, an additional
header must be specified when sending: "Content-type: text/html". Most email programs send this header
automatically.
Servers and client applications

Messages are exchanged between hosts
using the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
with software programs called mail transfer
agents (MTAs); and delivered to a mail
store by programs called mail delivery
agents (MDAs, also sometimes called local
delivery agents, LDAs). Users can retrieve
their messages from servers using standard
protocols such as POP or IMAP, or, as is
more likely in a large corporate
environment, with a proprietary protocol
specific to Novell Groupwise, Lotus Notes
or Microsoft Exchange Servers. Webmail
The interface of an email client, Thunderbird.
Email 208
interfaces allow users to access their mail with any standard web browser, from any computer, rather than relying on
an email client. Programs used by users for retrieving, reading, and managing email are called mail user agents
(MUAs).
Mail can be stored on the client, on the server side, or in both places. Standard formats for mailboxes include Maildir
and mbox. Several prominent email clients use their own proprietary format and require conversion software to
transfer email between them. Server-side storage is often in a proprietary format but since access is through a
standard protocol such as IMAP, moving email from one server to another can be done with any MUA supporting
the protocol.
Accepting a message obliges an MTA to deliver it,[73] and when a message cannot be delivered, that MTA must send
a bounce message back to the sender, indicating the problem.
Filename extensions
Upon reception of email messages, email client applications save messages in operating system files in the file
system. Some clients save individual messages as separate files, while others use various database formats, often
proprietary, for collective storage. A historical standard of storage is the mbox format. The specific format used is
often indicated by special filename extensions:
eml
Used by many email clients including Microsoft Outlook Express, Lotus notes, Windows Mail, Mozilla
Thunderbird, and Postbox. The files are plain text in MIME format, containing the email header as well as the
message contents and attachments in one or more of several formats.
emlx
Used by Apple Mail.
msg
Used by Microsoft Office Outlook and OfficeLogic Groupware.
mbx
Used by Opera Mail, KMail, and Apple Mail based on the mbox format.
Some applications (like Apple Mail) leave attachments encoded in messages for searching while also saving separate
copies of the attachments. Others separate attachments from messages and save them in a specific directory.
Mobile devices, such as cell phones and tablet computers, commonly have the ability to receive e-mail. Since users
may always have their mobile device with them, users may access e-mail significantly faster on these devices than
through other methods, such as desktop computers or laptops.
URI scheme mailto

The URI scheme, as registered with the IANA, defines the mailto: scheme for SMTP email addresses. Though
its use is not strictly defined, URLs of this form are intended to be used to open the new message window of the
user's mail client when the URL is activated, with the address as defined by the URL in the To: field.[74]
Types
Web-based email (webmail)

This is the type of email that most users are familiar with. Many free email providers host their serves as web-based
email (e.g. AOL Mail, Gmail, Outlook.com and Yahoo! Mail). This allows users to log into the email account by
using a web browser to send and receive their email. Its main disadvantage is the need to be connected to the internet
while using it. Other software tools exist which integrate parts of the webmail functionality into the OS (e.g. creating
Email 209
messages directly from third party applications via MAPI).
POP3 email services

POP3 is the acronym for Post Office Protocol 3. It is a leading email account type on the Internet. In a POP3 email
account, email messages are downloaded to the client device (i.e. a computer) and then they are deleted from the
mail server. It is difficult to save and view messages on multiple devices. Also, the messages sent from the computer
are not copied to the Sent Items folder on the devices. The messages are deleted from the server to make room for
more incoming messages. POP supports simple download-and-delete requirements for access to remote mailboxes
(termed maildrop in the POP RFC's).[] Although most POP clients have an option to leave messages on the server
after downloading a copy of them, most e-mail clients using POP3 simply connect, retrieve all messages, store them
on the client device as new messages, delete them from the server, and then disconnect. Other protocols, notably
IMAP, (Internet Message Access Protocol) provide more complete and complex remote access to typical mailbox
operations. Many e-mail clients support POP as well as IMAP to retrieve messages; however, fewer Internet Service
Providers (ISPs) support IMAP.[citation needed]
IMAP email servers

IMAP refers to Internet Message Access Protocol. It is an alternative to the POP3 email. With an IMAP account, a
user's account has access to mail folders on the mail server and can use any compatible device to read messages, as
long as such a device can access the server. It shows the headers of messages, the sender and the subject and the
device needs to request to download specific messages. Usually mail is saved on a mail server, therefore it is safer
and it is backed up on an email server.
MAPI email servers

Messaging Application Programming Interface (MAPI) is a messaging architecture and a Component Object Model
based API for Microsoft Windows.
Use
Flaming
Flaming occurs when a person sends a message with angry or antagonistic content. The term is derived from the use
of the word Incendiary to describe particularly heated email discussions. Flaming is assumed to be more common
today because of the ease and impersonality of email communications: confrontations in person or via telephone
require direct interaction, where social norms encourage civility, whereas typing a message to another person is an
indirect interaction, so civility may be forgotten.
Email bankruptcy
Also known as "email fatigue", email bankruptcy is when a user ignores a large number of email messages after
falling behind in reading and answering them. The reason for falling behind is often due to information overload and
a general sense there is so much information that it is not possible to read it all. As a solution, people occasionally
send a boilerplate message explaining that the email inbox is being cleared out. Harvard University law professor
Lawrence Lessig is credited with coining this term, but he may only have popularized it.[75]
Email 210
In business
Email was widely accepted by the business community as the first broad electronic communication medium and was
the first 'e-revolution' in business communication. Email is very simple to understand and like postal mail, email
solves two basic problems of communication: logistics and synchronization (see below).[]
LAN based email is also an emerging form of usage for business. It not only allows the business user to download
mail when offline, it also allows the small business user to have multiple users' email IDs with just one email
connection.
Pros
• The problem of logistics: Much of the business world relies upon communications between people who are not
physically in the same building, area or even country; setting up and attending an in-person meeting, telephone
call, or conference call can be inconvenient, time-consuming, and costly. Email provides a way to exchange
information between two or more people with no set-up costs and that is generally far less expensive than
physical meetings or phone calls.
• The problem of synchronisation: With real time communication by meetings or phone calls, participants have to
work on the same schedule, and each participant must spend the same amount of time in the meeting or call.
Email allows asynchrony: each participant may control their schedule independently.
Cons
Most business workers today spend from one to two hours of their working day on email: reading, ordering, sorting,
're-contextualizing' fragmented information, and writing email.[76] The use of email is increasing due to increasing
levels of globalisation – labour division and outsourcing amongst other things. Email can lead to some well-known
problems:
• Loss of context: which means that the context is lost forever; there is no way to get the text back. Information in
context (as in a newspaper) is much easier and faster to understand than unedited and sometimes unrelated
fragments of information. Communicating in context can only be achieved when both parties have a full
understanding of the context and issue in question.
• Information overload: Email is a push technology – the sender controls who receives the information. Convenient
availability of mailing lists and use of "copy all" can lead to people receiving unwanted or irrelevant information
of no use to them.
• Inconsistency: Email can duplicate information. This can be a problem when a large team is working on
documents and information while not in constant contact with the other members of their team.
• Liability. Statements made in an email can be deemed legally binding and be used against a party in a court of
law.[77]
Despite these disadvantages, email has become the most widely used medium of communication within the business
world. In fact, a 2010 study on workplace communication [78], found that 83% of U.S. knowledge workers felt that
email was critical to their success and productivity at work.[79]
Research on email marketing

Research suggests that email marketing can be viewed as useful by consumers if it contains information such as
special sales offerings and new product information. Offering interesting hyperlinks or generic information on
consumer trends is less useful.[80] This research by Martin et al. (2003) also shows that if consumers find email
marketing useful, they are likely to visit a store, thereby overcoming limitations of Internet marketing such as not
being able to touch or try on a product.
Email 211
Problems
Speed of correspondence
Despite its name implying that its use is faster than either postal (physical) mail or telephone calls, correspondence
over email often varies incredibly steeply — ranging from communication that is indeed semi-instant (often the
fastest when a person is already sitting in front of a computer with their email program open, or when the person has
email services automatically set up to speedily check for new messages on their mobile phone) to communication
that can quite literally take weeks or even months to garner a response. In the case of the latter, it often proves much
more rapid to call the person via telephone or via some other means of audio. Therefore, as a rule, unless one's
workplace or social circle already communicates heavily via email in a rapid manner, a person should assume that
email runs a perpetual risk of actually being slower as a communication mode than either mobile phone or text
messaging communication.[citation needed]
This general rule of thumb is often perplexing to those who use email heavily but whose colleagues and friends do
not. Meanwhile, some people, due to exasperation with not getting responses to urgent messages, may eventually
decline to use email with any regularity at all, and may be put in the sometimes-awkward position of having to notify
their friends and colleagues who do use email regularly, that this is not a good way to reach them.
Attachment size limitation

Email messages may have one or more attachments, i.e., MIME parts intended to provide copies of files.
Attachments serve the purpose of delivering binary or text files of unspecified size. In principle there is no technical
intrinsic restriction in the InternetMessage Format, SMTP protocol or MIME limiting the size or number of
attachments. In practice, however, email service providers implement various limitations on the permissible size of
files or the size of an entire message.
Furthermore, due to technical reasons, often a small attachment can increase in size when sent,[81] which can be
confusing to senders when trying to assess whether they can or cannot send a file by email, and this can result in
their message being rejected.
As larger and larger file sizes are being created and traded, many users are either forced to upload and download
their files using an FTP server, or more popularly, use online file sharing facilities or services, usually over
web-friendly HTTP, in order to send and receive them.
Information overload
A December 2007 New York Times blog post described information overload as "a $650 Billion Drag on the
Economy",[82] and the New York Times reported in April 2008 that "E-MAIL has become the bane of some people's
professional lives" due to information overload, yet "none of the current wave of high-profile Internet start-ups
focused on email really eliminates the problem of email overload because none helps us prepare replies".[83] GigaOm
posted a similar article in September 2010, highlighting research [84] that found 57% of knowledge workers were
overwhelmed by the volume of email they received.[79] Technology investors reflect similar concerns.[85]
In October 2010, CNN published an article titled "Happy Information Overload Day" that compiled research on
email overload from IT companies and productivity experts. According to Basex, the average knowledge worker
receives 93 emails a day. Subsequent studies have reported higher numbers.[86] Marsha Egan, an email productivity
expert, called email technology both a blessing and a curse in the article. She stated, "Everyone just learns that they
have to have it dinging and flashing and open just in case the boss e-mails," she said. "The best gift any group can
give each other is to never use e-mail urgently. If you need it within three hours, pick up the phone."[87]
Email 212
Spamming and computer viruses

The usefulness of email is being threatened by four phenomena: email bombardment, spamming, phishing, and email
worms.
Spamming is unsolicited commercial (or bulk) email. Because of the minuscule cost of sending email, spammers can
send hundreds of millions of email messages each day over an inexpensive Internet connection. Hundreds of active
spammers sending this volume of mail results in information overload for many computer users who receive
voluminous unsolicited email each day.[88][89]
Email worms use email as a way of replicating themselves into vulnerable computers. Although the first email worm
affected UNIX computers, the problem is most common today on the Microsoft Windows operating system.
The combination of spam and worm programs results in users receiving a constant drizzle of junk email, which
reduces the usefulness of email as a practical tool.
A number of anti-spam techniques mitigate the impact of spam. In the United States, U.S. Congress has also passed a
law, the Can Spam Act of 2003, attempting to regulate such email. Australia also has very strict spam laws
restricting the sending of spam from an Australian ISP,[90] but its impact has been minimal since most spam comes
from regimes that seem reluctant to regulate the sending of spam.[citation needed]
Email spoofing
Email spoofing occurs when the header information of an email is designed to make the message appear to come
from a known or trusted source. Spam and phishing emails typically use such spoofing to mislead the recipient about
the origin of the message.
Email bombing
Email bombing is the intentional sending of large volumes of messages to a target address. The overloading of the
target email address can render it unusable and can even cause the mail server to crash.
Privacy concerns
Today it can be important to distinguish between Internet and internal email systems. Internet email may travel and
be stored on networks and computers without the sender's or the recipient's control. During the transit time it is
possible that third parties read or even modify the content. Internal mail systems, in which the information never
leaves the organizational network, may be more secure, although information technology personnel and others
whose function may involve monitoring or managing may be accessing the email of other employees.
Email privacy, without some security precautions, can be compromised because:
• email messages are generally not encrypted.
• email messages have to go through intermediate computers before reaching their destination, meaning it is
relatively easy for others to intercept and read messages.
• many Internet Service Providers (ISP) store copies of email messages on their mail servers before they are
delivered. The backups of these can remain for up to several months on their server, despite deletion from the
mailbox.
• the "Received:"-fields and other information in the email can often identify the sender, preventing anonymous
communication.
There are cryptography applications that can serve as a remedy to one or more of the above. For example, Virtual
Private Networks or the Tor anonymity network can be used to encrypt traffic from the user machine to a safer
network while GPG, PGP, SMEmail,[91] or S/MIME can be used for end-to-end message encryption, and SMTP
STARTTLS or SMTP over Transport Layer Security/Secure Sockets Layer can be used to encrypt communications
for a single mail hop between the SMTP client and the SMTP server.
Email 213
Additionally, many mail user agents do not protect logins and passwords, making them easy to intercept by an
attacker. Encrypted authentication schemes such as SASL prevent this.
Finally, attached files share many of the same hazards as those found in peer-to-peer filesharing. Attached files may
contain trojans or viruses.
Tracking of sent mail

The original SMTP mail service provides limited mechanisms for tracking a transmitted message, and none for
verifying that it has been delivered or read. It requires that each mail server must either deliver it onward or return a
failure notice (bounce message), but both software bugs and system failures can cause messages to be lost. To
remedy this, the IETF introduced Delivery Status Notifications (delivery receipts) and Message Disposition
Notifications (return receipts); however, these are not universally deployed in production. (A complete Message
Tracking mechanism was also defined, but it never gained traction; see RFCs 3885 through 3888.)
Many ISPs now deliberately disable non-delivery reports (NDRs) and delivery receipts due to the activities of
spammers:
• Delivery Reports can be used to verify whether an address exists and so is available to be spammed
• If the spammer uses a forged sender email address (email spoofing), then the innocent email address that was
used can be flooded with NDRs from the many invalid email addresses the spammer may have attempted to mail.
These NDRs then constitute spam from the ISP to the innocent user
There are a number of systems that allow the sender to see if messages have been opened.[92][93][94][95] The receiver
could also let the sender know that the emails have been opened through an "Okay" button. A check sign can appear
in the sender's screen when the receiver's "Okay" button is pressed.
U.S. government
The U.S. federal government has been involved in email in several different ways.
Starting in 1977, the U.S. Postal Service (USPS) recognized that electronic mail and electronic transactions posed a
significant threat to First Class mail volumes and revenue. Therefore, the USPS initiated an experimental email
service known as E-COM. Electronic messages were transmitted to a post office, printed out, and delivered as hard
copy. To take advantage of the service, an individual had to transmit at least 200 messages. The delivery time of the
messages was the same as First Class mail and cost 26 cents. Both the Postal Regulatory Commission and the
Federal Communications Commission opposed E-COM. The FCC concluded that E-COM constituted common
carriage under its jurisdiction and the USPS would have to file a tariff.[96] Three years after initiating the service,
USPS canceled E-COM and attempted to sell it off.[97][98][99][100][101][102]
The early ARPANET dealt with multiple email clients that had various, and at times incompatible, formats. For
example, in the Multics, the "@" sign meant "kill line" and anything before the "@" sign was ignored, so Multics
users had to use a command-line option to specify the destination system.[] The Department of Defense DARPA
desired to have uniformity and interoperability for email and therefore funded efforts to drive towards unified
inter-operable standards. This led to David Crocker, John Vittal, Kenneth Pogran, and Austin Henderson publishing
RFC 733, "Standard for the Format of ARPA Network Text Message" (November 21, 1977), which was apparently
not effective. In 1979, a meeting was held at BBN to resolve incompatibility issues. Jon Postel recounted the meeting
in RFC 808, "Summary of Computer Mail Services Meeting Held at BBN on 10 January 1979" (March 1, 1982),
which includes an appendix listing the varying email systems at the time. This, in turn, lead to the release of David
Crocker's RFC 822, "Standard for the Format of ARPA Internet Text Messages" (August 13, 1982).[103]
The National Science Foundation took over operations of the ARPANET and Internet from the Department of
Defense, and initiated NSFNet, a new backbone for the network. A part of the NSFNet AUP forbade commercial
traffic.[104] In 1988, Vint Cerf arranged for an interconnection of MCI Mail with NSFNET on an experimental basis.
Email 214
The following year Compuserve email interconnected with NSFNET. Within a few years the commercial traffic
restriction was removed from NSFNETs AUP, and NSFNET was privatised.
In the late 1990s, the Federal Trade Commission grew concerned with fraud transpiring in email, and initiated a
series of procedures on spam, fraud, and phishing.[105] In 2004, FTC jurisdiction over spam was codified into law in
the form of the CAN SPAM Act.[106] Several other U.S. federal agencies have also exercised jurisdiction including
the Department of Justice and the Secret Service.
NASA has provided email capabilities to astronauts aboard the Space Shuttle and International Space Station since
1991 when a Macintosh Portable was used aboard Space Shuttle mission STS-43 to send the first email via
AppleLink.[107][108][109] Today astronauts aboard the International Space Station have email capabilities via the
wireless networking throughout the station and are connected to the ground at 3 Mbit/s Earth to station and 10 Mbit/s
station to Earth, comparable to home DSL connection speeds.[]
Notes
[3] Ron Brown, Fax invades the mail market, New Scientist (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Ry64sjvOmLkC& pg=PA218), Vol. 56, No.
817 (Oct., 26, 1972), pages 218–221.
[4] Herbert P. Luckett, What's News: Electronic-mail delivery gets started, Popular Science (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=cKSqa8u3EIoC& pg=PA85), Vol. 202, No. 3 (March 1973); page 85
[5] Unless explicitly qualified, any technical descriptions in this article will refer to current Internet e-mail rather than to earlier email systems.
[6] http:/ / www. ietf. org/ wg/ concluded/ eai. html
[7] See for early history of email, from origins through 1991.
[11] This is suggested by the RFC Document Style Guide (http:/ / www. rfc-editor. org/ rfc-style-guide/ rfc-style-manual-08. txt)
[12] Yahoo style guide (http:/ / styleguide. yahoo. com/ word-list/ e)
[13] AP Stylebook editors share big changes (http:/ / www. aces2011. org/ sessions/ 18/ the-ap-stylebook-editors-visit-aces-2011/ ) from the
American Copy Editors Society
[16] Reference.com (http:/ / dictionary. reference. com/ browse/ email)
[17] Random House Unabridged Dictionary, 2006
[18] The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition
[19] Princeton University WordNet 3.0
[20] The American Heritage Science Dictionary, 2002
[21] RFC 821 (rfc821) – Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (http:/ / www. faqs. org/ rfcs/ rfc821. html)
[22] RFC 1939 (rfc1939) – Post Office Protocol – Version 3 (http:/ / www. faqs. org/ rfcs/ rfc1939. html)
[23] RFC 3501 (rfc3501) – Internet Message Access Protocol – version 4rev1 (http:/ / www. faqs. org/ rfcs/ rfc3501. html)
[24] "RFC Style Guide", Table of decisions on consistent usage in RFC (http:/ / www. rfc-editor. org/ rfc-style-guide/ terms-online. txt)
[25] Excerpt from the FAQ list of the Usenet newsgroup alt.usage.english (http:/ / alt-usage-english. org/ excerpts/ fxhowdoy. html)
[26] USPS Support Panel, Louis T Rader, Chair, Chapter IV: Systems, Electronic Message Systems for the U.S. Postal Service (http:/ / books.
google. com/ books?id=5TQrAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA27), National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., 1976; pages 27–35.
[27] "CTSS, Compatible Time-Sharing System" (September 4, 2006), University of South Alabama, USA-CTSS (http:/ / www. cis. usouthal.
edu/ faculty/ daigle/ project1/ ctss. htm).
[28] an IBM 7094
[29] Tom Van Vleck, "The IBM 7094 and CTSS" (September 10, 2004), Multicians.org (Multics), web: Multicians-7094 (http:/ / www.
multicians. org/ thvv/ 7094. html).
[33] Version 3 Unix mail(1) manual page from 10/25/1972 (http:/ / minnie. tuhs. org/ cgi-bin/ utree. pl?file=V3/ man/ man1/ mail. 1)
[34] Version 6 Unix mail(1) manual page from 2/21/1975 (http:/ / minnie. tuhs. org/ cgi-bin/ utree. pl?file=V6/ usr/ man/ man1/ mail. 1)
[35] APL Quotations and Anecdotes (http:/ / www. jsoftware. com/ papers/ APLQA. htm), including Leslie Goldsmith's story of the Mailbox
[36] History of the Internet, including Carter/Mondale use of email (http:/ / www. actewagl. com. au/ Education/ communications/ Internet/
historyOfTheInternet/ InternetOnItsInfancy. aspx)
[37] David Wooley, PLATO: The Emergence of an Online Community (http:/ / www. thinkofit. com/ plato/ dwplato. htm#pnotes), 1994.
[39] "...PROFS changed the way organizations communicated, collaborated and approached work when it was introduced by IBM's Data
Processing Division in 1981..." (http:/ / www. ibm. com/ ibm100/ us/ en/ icons/ networkbus/ ), IBM.com
[40] "1982 – The National Security Council (NSC) staff at the White House acquires a prototype electronic mail system, from IBM, called the
Professional Office System (PROFs)...." (http:/ / www. fas. org/ spp/ starwars/ offdocs/ reagan/ chron. txt), fas.org
[41] Gordon Bell's timeline of Digital Equipment Corporation (https:/ / research. microsoft. com/ en-us/ um/ people/ gbell/ Digital/ timeline/
1982. htm)
[42] with various vendors supplying gateway software to link these incompatible systems
Email 215
[44] Version 7 Unix manual: "UUCP Implementation Description" by D. A. Nowitz, and "A Dial-Up Network of UNIX Systems" by D. A.
Nowitz and M. E. Lesk (http:/ / cm. bell-labs. com/ 7thEdMan/ vol2/ uucp. bun)
[45] "BITNET History" (http:/ / www. livinginternet. com/ u/ ui_bitnet. htm), livinginternet.com
[46] Email History (http:/ / www. livinginternet. com/ e/ ei. htm)
[47] "The Technical Development of Internet Email" (http:/ / www. ir. bbn. com/ ~craig/ email. pdf) Craig Partridge, April–June 2008, p.5
[48] The First Email (http:/ / openmap. bbn. com/ ~tomlinso/ ray/ firstemailframe. html)
[49] Wave New World,Time Magazine, October 19, 2009, p.48
[56] RFC 5322, 3.6. Field Definitions (http:/ / tools. ietf. org/ html/ rfc5322#section-3. 6)
[57] RFC 5322, 3.6.4. Identification Fields (http:/ / tools. ietf. org/ html/ rfc5322#section-3. 6. 4)
[58] http:/ / www. iana. org/ assignments/ message-headers/ perm-headers. html
[59] http:/ / www. iana. org/ assignments/ message-headers/ prov-headers. html
[60] Microsoft, Auto Response Suppress, 2010, microsoft reference (http:/ / msdn. microsoft. com/ en-us/ library/ ee219609(v=EXCHG. 80).
aspx), 2010 Sep 22
[61] RFC 5064 (http:/ / tools. ietf. org/ html/ rfc5064)
[64] This extensible field was defined by RFC 5451, that also defined an IANA registry of Email Authentication Parameters (http:/ / www. iana.
org/ assignments/ email-auth/ email-auth. xml).
[65] RFC 4408.
[66] Defined in RFC 3834, and updated by RFC 5436.
[67] RFC 5518.
[70] "When posting to a RootsWeb mailing list..." (http:/ / helpdesk. rootsweb. com/ listadmins/ plaintext. html)
[71] "...Plain text, 72 characters per line..." (http:/ / www. openbsd. org/ mail. html)
[72] How to Prevent the Winmail.dat File from Being Sent to Internet Users (http:/ / support. microsoft. com/ kb/ 138053)
[73] In practice, some accepted messages may nowadays not be delivered to the recipient's InBox, but instead to a Spam or Junk folder which,
especially in a corporate environment, may be inaccessible to the recipient
[74] RFC 2368 section 3 : by Paul Hoffman in 1998 discusses operation of the "mailto" URL.
[78] http:/ / www. plantronics. com/ north_america/ en_US/ howwework/
[79] By Om Malik, GigaOm. " Is Email a Curse or a Boon? (http:/ / gigaom. com/ collaboration/ is-email-a-curse-or-a-boon/ )" September 22,
2010. Retrieved October 11, 2010.
[80] Martin, Brett A. S., Joel Van Durme, Mika Raulas, and Marko Merisavo (2003), "E-mail Marketing: Exploratory Insights from Finland"
(http:/ / www. basmartin. com/ wp-content/ uploads/ 2010/ 08/ Martin-et-al-2003. pdf), Journal of Advertising Research, 43 (3), 293–300.
[84] http:/ / gigaom. com/ collaboration/ is-email-a-curse-or-a-boon/
[88] Rich Kawanagh. The top ten email spam list of 2005. ITVibe news, 2006, January 02, ITvibe.com (http:/ / itvibe. com/ news/ 3837/ )
[89] How Microsoft is losing the war on spam Salon.com (http:/ / dir. salon. com/ story/ tech/ feature/ 2005/ 01/ 19/ microsoft_spam/ index.
html)
[90] Spam Bill 2003 ( PDF (http:/ / www. aph. gov. au/ library/ pubs/ bd/ 2003-04/ 04bd045. pdf))
[91] M. Toorani, SMEmail – A New Protocol for the Secure E-mail in Mobile Environments (http:/ / ieeexplore. ieee. org/ xpl/ freeabs_all.
jsp?arnumber=4783292), Proceedings of the Australian Telecommunications Networks and Applications Conference (ATNAC'08), pp. 39–44,
Adelaide, Australia, December 2008. ()
[93] About.com (http:/ / email. about. com/ od/ emailbehindthescenes/ a/ html_return_rcp. htm)
[94] Webdevelopersnotes.com (http:/ / www. webdevelopersnotes. com/ tips/ yahoo/ notification-when-yahoo-email-is-opened. php)
[95] Microsoft.com (http:/ / support. microsoft. com/ kb/ 222163)
[96] In re Request for declaratory ruling and investigation by Graphnet Systems, Inc., concerning the proposed E-COM service, FCC Docket No.
79-6 (September 4, 1979)
[97] History of the United States Postal Service, USPS (http:/ / www. usps. com/ history/ history/ his1. htm)
[98] Hardy, Ian R; The Evolution of ARPANET Email (http:/ / www. archive. org/ web/ */ http:/ www. ifla. org/ documents/ internet/ hari1. txt);
1996-05-13; History Thesis Paper; University of California at Berkeley
[99] James Bovard, The Law Dinosaur: The US Postal Service, CATO Policy Analysis (February 1985)
[100] Jay Akkad, The History of Email (http:/ / www. cs. ucsb. edu/ ~almeroth/ classes/ F04. 176A/ homework1_good_papers/ jay-akkad. html)
[101] US Postal Service: Postal Activities and Laws Related to Electronic Commerce, GAO-00-188 (http:/ / www. gao. gov/ archive/ 2000/
gg00188. pdf)
[102] Implications of Electronic Mail and Message Systems for the U.S. Postal Service , Office of Technology Assessment, Congress of the
United States, August 1982 (http:/ / govinfo. library. unt. edu/ ota/ Ota_4/ DATA/ 1982/ 8214. PDF)
[103] Email History, How Email was Invented, Living Internet (http:/ / www. livinginternet. com/ e/ ei. htm)
[104] Cybertelecom : Internet History (http:/ / www. cybertelecom. org/ notes/ internet_history80s. htm)
[105] Cybertelecom : SPAM Reference (http:/ / www. cybertelecom. org/ spam/ Spamref. htm)
[106] Cybertelecom : Can Spam Act (http:/ / www. cybertelecom. org/ spam/ canspam. htm)
[107] 2001: A Space Laptop | SpaceRef – Your Space Reference (http:/ / www. spaceref. com/ news/ viewnews. html?id=213)
[108] The Mac Observer – This Week in Apple History – August 22–31: "Welcome, IBM. Seriously," Too Late to License (http:/ / www.
macobserver. com/ columns/ thisweek/ 2004/ 20040831. shtml)
Email 216
References
Further reading
• Cemil Betanov, Introduction to X.400, Artech House, ISBN 0-89006-597-7.
• Marsha Egan, " Inbox Detox and The Habit of Email Excellence (http://www.inboxdetox.com)", Acanthus
Publishing ISBN 978-0-9815589-8-1
• Lawrence Hughes, Internet e-mail Protocols, Standards and Implementation, Artech House Publishers, ISBN
0-89006-939-5.
• Kevin Johnson, Internet Email Protocols: A Developer's Guide, Addison-Wesley Professional, ISBN
0-201-43288-9.
• Pete Loshin, Essential Email Standards: RFCs and Protocols Made Practical, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN
0-471-34597-0.
• Partridge, Craig (April–June 2008). "The Technical Development of Internet Email" (http://www.ir.bbn.com/
~craig/email.pdf) (PDF). IEEE Annals of the History of Computing (Berlin: IEEE Computer Society) 30 (2).
ISSN 1934-1547 (http://www.worldcat.org/issn/1934-1547)
• Sara Radicati, Electronic Mail: An Introduction to the X.400 Message Handling Standards, Mcgraw-Hill, ISBN
0-07-051104-7.
• John Rhoton, Programmer's Guide to Internet Mail: SMTP, POP, IMAP, and LDAP, Elsevier, ISBN
1-55558-212-5.
• John Rhoton, X.400 and SMTP: Battle of the E-mail Protocols, Elsevier, ISBN 1-55558-165-X.
• David Wood, Programming Internet Mail, O'Reilly, ISBN 1-56592-479-7.
• Yoram M. Kalman & Sheizaf Rafaeli, Online Pauses and Silence: Chronemic Expectancy Violations in Written
Computer-Mediated Communication (http://rafaeli.net/KalmanRafaeliChronemics2011.pdf), Communication
Research, Vol. 38, pp. 54–69, 2011
External links
• E-mail (http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Internet/E-mail//) at the Open Directory Project
• IANA's list of standard header fields (http://www.iana.org/assignments/message-headers/perm-headers.html)
• The History of Email (http://emailhistory.org/) is Dave Crocker's attempt at capturing the sequence of
'significant' occurrences in the evolution of email; a collaborative effort that also cites this page.
• The History of Electronic Mail (http://www.multicians.org/thvv/mail-history.html) is a personal memoir by
the implementer of an early email system
• The Official MCI Mail Blog! (http://mcimail.blogspot.com/) a blog about MCI Mail, one of the early
commercial electronic mail services
Web content 217
Web content
Web content is the textual, visual or aural content that is encountered as part of the user experience on websites. It
may include, among other things: text, images, sounds, videos and animations.
In Information Architecture for the World Wide Web, Lou Rosenfeld and Peter Morville write, "We define content
broadly as 'the stuff in your Web site.' This may include documents, data, applications, e-services, images, audio and
video files, personal Web pages, archived e-mail messages, and more. And we include future stuff as well as present
stuff."[1]
Beginnings of web content

While the Internet began with a U.S. Government research project in the late 1950s, the web in its present form did
not appear on the Internet until after Tim Berners-Lee and his colleagues at the European laboratory (CERN)
proposed the concept of linking documents with hypertext. But it was not until Mosaic, the forerunner of the famous
Netscape Navigator, appeared that the Internet become more than a file serving system.
The use of hypertext, hyperlinks and a page-based model of sharing information, introduced with Mosaic and later
Netscape, helped to define web content, and the formation of websites. Today, we largely categorize websites as
being a particular type of website according to the content a website contains.
The page concept

Web content is dominated by the "page" concept, its beginnings in an academic settings, and in a setting dominated
by type-written pages, the idea of the web was to link directly from one academic paper to another academic paper.
This was a completely revolutionary idea in the late 1980s and early 1990s when the best a link could be made was
to cite a reference in the midst of a type written paper and name that reference either at the bottom of the page or on
the last page of the academic paper.
When it was possible for any person to write and own a Mosaic page, the concept of a "home page" blurred the idea
of a page.[2] It was possible for anyone to own a "Web page" or a "home page" which in many cases the website
contained many physical pages in spite of being called "a page". People often cited their "home page" to provide
credentials, links to anything that a person supported, or any other individual content a person wanted to publish.
Even though "the web" may be the resource we commonly use to "get to" particular locations online, many different
protocols[3] are invoked to access embedded information. When we are given an address, such as http:/ / www.
youtube. com, we expect to see a range of web pages, but in each page we have embedded tools to watch "video
clips".
HTML web content

Even though we may embed various protocols within web pages, the "web page" composed of "html" (or some
variation) content is still the dominant way whereby we share content. And while there are many web pages with
localized proprietary structure (most usually, business websites), many millions of websites abound that are
structured according to a common core idea.
Blogs are a type of website that contain mainly web pages authored in html (although the blogger may be totally
unaware that the web pages are composed using html due to the blogging tool that may be in use). Millions of people
use blogs online; a blog is now the new "home page", that is, a place where a persona can reveal personal
information, and/or build a concept as to who this persona is. Even though a blog may be written for other purposes,
such as promoting a business, the core of a blog is the fact that it is written by a "person" and that person reveals
information from her/his perspective.
Web content 218
Search engine sites are composed mainly of html content, but also has a typically structured approach to revealing
information. A search engine results page (SERP) displays a heading, usually the name of the search engine, and
then a list of websites and their addresses. What is being listed are the results from a query that may be defined as
keywords. The results page lists webpages that are connected in some way with those keywords used in the query.
Discussion boards are sites composed of "textual" content organized by html or some variation that can be viewed
in a web browser. The driving mechanism of a discussion board is the fact that users are registered and once
registered can write posts. Often a discussion board is made up of posts asking some type of question to which other
users may provide answers to those questions.
Ecommerce sites are largely composed of textual material and embedded with graphics displaying a picture of the
item(s) for sale. However, there are extremely few sites that are composed page-by-page using some variant of
HTML. Generally, webpages are composed as they are being served from a database to a customer using a web
browser. However, the user sees the mainly text document arriving as a webpage to be viewed in a web browser.
Ecommerce sites are usually organized by software we identify as a "shopping cart".
A wider view of web content

While there are many millions of pages that are predominantly composed of HTML, or some variation, in general we
view data, applications, E-Services, images (graphics), audio and video files, personal web pages, archived e-mail
messages, and many more forms of file and data systems as belonging to websites and web pages.
While there are many hundreds of ways to deliver information on a website, there is a common body of knowledge
of search engine optimization that needs to be read as an advisory of ways that anything but text should be delivered.
Currently search engines are text based and are one of the common ways people using a browser locate sites of
interest.
Content is king
The phrase can be interpreted to mean that - without original and desirable content, or consideration for the rights
and commercial interests of content creators - any media venture is likely to fail through lack of appealing content,
regardless of other design factors.
Content can mean any creative work, such as text, graphics, images or video. "Content is King" is a current meme
when organizing or building a website[4] (although Andrew Odlyzko in "Content is Not King"[5] argues otherwise).
Text content is particularly important for search engine placement. Without original text content, most search
engines will be unable to match search terms to the content of a site.
Content management
Because websites are often complex, a term "content management" appeared in the late 1990s identifying a method
or in some cases a tool to organize all the diverse elements to be contained on a website. [6] Content management
often means that within a business there is a range of people who have distinct roles to do with content management,
such as content author, editor, publisher, and administrator. But it also means there may be a content
management system whereby each of the different roles are organized to provide their assistance in operating the
system and organizing the information for a website. A business may also employ various content protection
measures, which are typically technologies used to attempt to frustrate copying without permission.
Even though a business may organize to collect, contain and represent that information online, content needs
organization in such a manner to provide the reader (browser) with an overall "customer experience" that is easy to
use, the site can be navigated with ease, and the website can fulfill the role assigned to it by the business, that is, to
sell to customers, or to market products and services, or to inform customers.
Web content 219
Geo targeting of web content

Geo targeting of web content in internet marketing and geo marketing is the method of determining the geolocation
(the physical location) of a website visitor with geolocation software and delivering different content to that visitor
based on his or her location, such as country, region/state, city, metro code/zip code, organization, Internet Protocol
(IP) address, ISP or other criteria.
Different content by choice

A typical example for different content by choice in geo targeting is the FedEx website at FedEx.com where users
have the choice to select their country location first and are then presented with different site or article content
depending on their selection.
Automated different content

With automated different content in internet marketing and geomarketing the delivery of different content based on
the geographical geolocation and other personal information is automated.
References
[1] Information Architecture for the World Wide Web (http:/ / www. oreilly. com/ catalog/ infotecture/ ), second edition, page 219
[2] NetValley (http:/ / www. netvalley. com/ archives/ mirrors/ davemarsh-timeline-1. htm)
[3] Internet Tutorial - What Is the World Wide Web? (http:/ / www. centerspan. org/ tutorial/ www. htm#tour)
[5] http:/ / www. blogismarketing. com/ seo-tips-and-tricks-boost-traffic-website-ranking/
[6] Is Content King? (http:/ / www. skyrme. com/ updates/ u59_f2. htm)
File sharing
Part of a series on
File sharing
Technologies
• Peer to peer
• BitTorrent
• File hosting services
Development and societal aspects
• Timeline
• Legal aspects
Non-public file sharing
• Anonymous P2P
• Friend-to-friend
• Darknet
• Private P2P
File sharing networks and services

• Gnutella / Gnutella2 (G2)
File sharing 220
• FastTrack
• eDonkey
• Direct Connect
• Mininova
• isoHunt
• The Pirate Bay
• Bitcoin
By country or region
• Canada
• UK
Related
• PeerBlock
File sharing is the practice of distributing or providing access to digitally stored information, such as computer
programs, multimedia (audio, images and video), documents or electronic books. It may be implemented through a
variety of ways. Common methods of storage, transmission and dispersion include manual sharing utilizing
removable media, centralized servers on computer networks, World Wide Web-based hyperlinked documents, and
the use of distributed peer-to-peer networking.
Types of file sharing
Peer-to-peer file sharing

Users can use software that connects in to a peer-to-peer network to search for shared files on the computers of other
users connected to the network. Files of interest can then be downloaded directly from other users on the network.
Typically, large files are broken down into smaller chunks, which may be obtained from multiple peers and then
reassembled by the downloader. This is done while the peer is simultaneously uploading the chunks it already has to
other peers.
History
Files were first exchanged on removable media.[citation needed] Computers were able to access remote files using
filesystem mounting, bulletin board systems (1978), Usenet (1979), and FTP servers (1985). Internet Relay Chat
(1988) and Hotline (1997) enabled users to communicate remotely through chat and to exchange files. The mp3
encoding, which was standardized in 1991 and which substantially reduced the size of audio files, grew to
widespread use in the late 1990s. In 1998, MP3.com and Audiogalaxy were established, the Digital Millennium
Copyright Act was unanimously passed, and the first mp3 player devices were launched.
In June 1999, Napster was released as an unstructured centralized peer-to-peer system,[1] requiring a central server
for indexing and peer discovery. It is generally credited as being the first peer-to-peer file sharing system.
Gnutella, eDonkey2000, and Freenet were released in 2000, as MP3.com and Napster were facing litigation.
Gnutella, released in March, was the first decentralized file sharing network. In the gnutella network, all connecting
software was considered equal, and therefore the network had no central point of failure. In July, Freenet was
released and became the first anonymity network. In September the eDonkey2000 client and server software was
released.
In 2001, Kazaa and Poisoned for the Mac was released. Its FastTrack network was distributed, though unlike
gnutella, it assigned more traffic to 'supernodes' to increase routing efficiency. The network was proprietary and
encrypted, and the Kazaa team made substantial efforts to keep other clients such as Morpheus off of the FastTrack
network.
File sharing 221
In July 2001, Napster was sued by several recording companies and lost in A&M Records, Inc. v. Napster, Inc..[2] In
the case of Napster, it has been ruled that an online service provider could not use the "transitory network
transmission" safe harbor in the DMCA if they had control of the network with a server.[3]
Shortly after its loss in court, Napster was shut down to comply with a court order. This drove users to other P2P
[4]
applications and file sharing continued its growth. The Audiogalaxy Satellite client grew in popularity, and the
LimeWire client and BitTorrent protocol were released. Until its decline in 2004, Kazaa was the most popular file
sharing program despite bundled malware and legal battles in the Netherlands, Australia, and the United States. In
2002, a Tokyo district court ruling shut down File Rogue, and the Recording Industry Association of America
(RIAA) filed a lawsuit that effectively shut down Audiogalaxy.
From 2002 through 2003, a number of BitTorrent services were
established, including Suprnova.org, isoHunt, TorrentSpy, and The
Pirate Bay. In 2002, the RIAA was filing lawsuits against Kazaa users.
As a result of such lawsuits, many universities added file sharing
regulations in their school administrative codes (though some students
managed to circumvent them during after school hours). With the
shutdown of eDonkey in 2005, eMule became the dominant client of
the eDonkey network. In 2006, police raids took down the Razorback2
eDonkey server and temporarily took down The Pirate Bay. Demonstrators protesting The Pirate Bay raid,
2006.
In 2009, the Pirate Bay trial ended in a guilty verdict for the primary
founders of the tracker. The decision was appealed, leading to a second
guilty verdict in November 2010. In October 2010, Limewire was forced to shut down following a court order in
Arista Records LLC v. Lime Group LLC but the gnutella network remains active through open source clients like
Frostwire and gtk-gnutella. Furthermore, multi-protocol file sharing software such as MLDonkey and Shareaza
adapted in order to support all the major file sharing protocols, so users no longer had to install and configure
multiple file sharing programs.
On January 19, 2012, the United States Department of Justice shut down the popular domain of Megaupload
(established 2005). The file sharing site has claimed to have over 50,000,000 people a day.[] Kim Dotcom (formerly
Kim Schmitz) was arrested in New Zealand and is awaiting extradition.[5] The case involving the downfall of the
world's largest and most popular file sharing site was not well received, with hacker group Anonymous bringing
down several sites associated with the take-down.[] In the following days, other file sharing sites began to cease
services; Filesonic blocked public downloads on January 22, with Fileserve following suit on January 23.
Legality of file sharing

The legal debate surrounding file sharing has caused many lawsuits. In the United States, some of these lawsuits
have even reached the Supreme Court in MGM v. Grokster. In that particular lawsuit, the Supreme Court has ruled
that the creators of P2P networks can be held responsible if the intent of their program is clearly to infringe on
copyright laws.
On the other hand, file sharing is not necessarily illegal, even if the works being shared are covered by copyright. For
example, some artists may choose to support freeware, shareware, open source, or anti-copyright, and advocate the
use of file sharing as a free promotional tool. Nearly all freeware, and open source software may be shared, under the
rules specified in the license for that specific piece of software. Content in the public domain can also be freely
shared.
File sharing 222
Ethics of file sharing

In 2004 there were an estimated 70 million people participating in online file sharing.[6] According to a CBS News
poll in 2009, 58% of Americans who follow the file sharing issue, considered it acceptable "if a person owns the
music CD and shares it with a limited number of friends and acquaintances"; with 18 to 29 year olds this percentage
reached as much as 70%.[7]
Effects of file sharing

According to David Glenn, writing in The Chronicle of Higher Education, "A majority of economic studies have
concluded that file sharing hurts sales".[8] A literature review by Professor Peter Tschmuck found 22 independent
studies on the effects of music file sharing. "Of these 22 studies, 14 – roughly two-thirds – conclude that
unauthorized downloads have a 'negative or even highly negative impact' on recorded music sales. Three of the
studies found no significant impact while the remaining five found a positive impact."[9][10][11]
A study by economists Felix Oberholzer-Gee and Koleman Strumpf in 2004 concluded that music file sharing's
effect on sales was "statistically indistinguishable from zero".[12][13] This research was disputed by other economists,
most notably Stan Liebowitz, who said Oberholzer-Gee and Strumpf had made multiple assumptions about the
music industry "that are just not correct."[12][14][15] In June 2010, Billboard reported that Oberholzer-Gee and
Strumpf had "changed their minds", now finding "no more than 20% of the recent decline in sales is due to
sharing".[16] However, citing Nielsen SoundScan as their source, the co-authors maintained that illegal downloading
had not deterred people from being original. "In many creative industries, monetary incentives play a reduced role in
motivating authors to remain creative. Data on the supply of new works are consistent with the argument that file
sharing did not discourage authors and publishers. Since the advent of file sharing, the production of music, books,
and movies has increased sharply."[17] Glenn Peoples of Billboard disputed the underlying data, saying
"SoundScan's number for new releases in any given year represents new commercial titles, not necessarily new
creative works."[18] The RIAA likewise responded that "new releases" and "new creative works" are two separate
things. "[T]his figure includes re-releases, new compilations of existing songs, and new digital-only versions of
catalog albums. SoundScan has also steadily increased the number of retailers (especially non-traditional retailers) in
their sample over the years, better capturing the number of new releases brought to market. What Oberholzer and
Strumpf found was better ability to track new album releases, not greater incentive to create them."[19]
A 2006 study prepared by Birgitte Andersen and Marion Frenz, published by Industry Canada, was "unable to
discover any direct relationship between P2P file-sharing and CD purchases in Canada".[20] The results of this survey
were similarly criticized by academics and a subsequent revaluation of the same data by Dr. George R. Barker of the
Australian National University reached the opposite conclusion.[21] "In total, 75% of P2P downloaders responded
that if P2P were not available they would have purchased either through paid sites only (9%), CDs only (17%) or
through CDs and pay sites (49%). Only 25% of people say they would not have bought the music if it were not
available on P2P for free. This clearly suggests P2P network availability is reducing music demand of 75% of music
downloaders which is quite contrary to Andersen and Frenz's much published claim."[22]
File sharing 223
Market dominance
A paper in journal Management Science found that file sharing decreased the chance of survival for low ranked
albums on music charts and increased exposure to albums that were ranked high on the music charts, allowing
popular and well known artists to remain on the music charts more often. This had a negative impact for new and
less known artists while promoting the work of already popular artists and celebrities.[23]
A more recent study that examined pre-release file sharing of music albums, using BitTorrent software, also
discovered positive impacts for "established and popular artists but not newer and smaller artists." According to
Robert G. Hammond of North Carolina State University, an album that leaked one month early would see a modest
increase in sales. "This increase in sales is small relative to other factors that have been found to affect album sales."
"File-sharing proponents commonly argue that file sharing democratizes music consumption by 'leveling
the playing field' for new/small artists relative to established/popular artists, by allowing artists to have
their work heard by a wider audience, lessening the advantage held by established/popular artists in
terms of promotional and other support. My results suggest that the opposite is happening, which is
consistent with evidence on file-sharing behavior."[24]
Billboard cautioned that this research looked only at the pre-release period and not continuous file sharing following
a release date. "The problem in believing piracy helps sales is deciding where to draw the line between legal and
illegal. ... Implicit in the study is the fact that both buyers and sellers are required in order for pre-release file sharing
to have a positive impact on album sales. Without iTunes, Amazon and Best Buy, file-sharers would be just file
sharers rather than purchasers. If you carry out the 'file sharing should be legal' argument to its logical conclusion,
today's retailers will be tomorrow's file-sharing services that integrate with their respective cloud storage
services."[25]
Availability
Many argue that file-sharing has forced the owners of entertainment content to make it more widely available legally
through fee or advertising on demand on the internet, rather than remain static with TV, radio, DVD's, CD's, and the
theater. Content for purchase has been higher than illegal in North America aggregate internet traffic since at least
2009.[26]
References
[8] Glenn, David. Dispute Over the Economics of File Sharing Intensifies, Chronicle.com, July 17, 2008.
[9] Hart, Terry. More Evidence for Copyright Protection (http:/ / www. copyhype. com/ 2012/ 02/ more-evidence-for-copyright-protection/ ),
copyhype.com, February 1, 2012. "The literature review looked at a 23rd study but did not classify it here since the author presented a mixed
conclusion: the overall effect of unauthorized downloads is insignificant, but for unknown artists, there is a 'strongly negative' effect on
recorded music sales."
[10] AJ Sokolov, Daniel . Wissenschaftler: Studien über Tauschbörsen unbrauchbar (http:/ / www. heise. de/ ct/ meldung/
Wissenschaftler-Studien-ueber-Tauschboersen-unbrauchbar-1020532. html), c't magazine, June 11, 2010.
[11] Tschmuck, Peter. The Economics of Music File Sharing – A Literature Overview, Vienna Music Business Research Days, University of
Music and Performing Arts, Vienna, June 9-10, 2010.
[12] Levine, Robert. Free Ride: How the Internet Is Destroying the Culture Business and How the Culture Business Can Fight Back, Bodley
Head, February 2011.
[16] Peoples, Glenn. Researchers Change Tune, Now Say P2P Has Negative Impact (http:/ / www. billboard. biz/ bbbiz/ content_display/
industry/ e3i82a006de3290b1a63323f3e4ee910ca9) Billboard. June 22, 2010.
[17] Oberholzer & Strumpf. "File Sharing and Copyright" NBER Innovation Policy & the Economy, Vol. 10, No. 1, 2010. "Artists receive a
significant portion of their remuneration not in monetary form – many of them enjoy fame, admiration, social status, and free beer in bars –
suggesting a reduction in monetary incentives might possibly have a reduced impact on the quantity and quality of artistic production."
[18] Peoples, Glenn. Analysis: Are Musicians Losing the Incentive to Create? (http:/ / www. billboard. biz/ bbbiz/ content_display/ industry/
e3ic193b6eacf48409b52f1ab027d2d2b6c) Billboard. July 26, 2010.
[19] Friedlander, Joshua P. & Lamy, Jonathan. Illegal Downloading = Fewer Musicians (http:/ / www. ifpi. org/ content/ library/ view_35. pdf)
ifpi.org, July 19, 2010.
File sharing 224
[20] The Impact of Music Downloads and P2P File-Sharing on the Purchase of Music: A Study for Industry Canada (http:/ / strategis. ic. gc. ca/
epic/ site/ ippd-dppi. nsf/ en/ h_ip01456e. html), Birgitte Andersen and Marion Frenz
[21] Peoples, Glenn. A New Look at an Old Survey Finds P2P Hurts Music Purchases (http:/ / www. billboard. biz/ bbbiz/ industry/
digital-and-mobile/ business-matters-a-new-look-at-an-old-survey-1006083952. story), Billboard. February 2, 2012.
[22] Barker, George R. Evidence of the Effect of Free Music Downloads on the Purchase of Music CDs (http:/ / papers. ssrn. com/ sol3/ papers.
cfm?abstract_id=1990153) Social Science Research Network. January 23, 2012.
[23] Bhattacharjee, Sudip., Gopal, Ram D., Lertwachara, Kaveepan. Marsden, James R. & Telang, Rahul. The Effect of Digital Sharing
Technologies on Music Markets: A Survival Analysis of Albums on Ranking Charts (http:/ / mansci. journal. informs. org/ content/ 53/ 9/
1359. full. pdf+ html) Management Science 2007.
[24] Hammond. Robert G. " Profit Leak? Pre-Release File Sharing and the Music Industry (http:/ / www4. ncsu. edu/ ~rghammon/
Hammond_File_Sharing_Leak. pdf)" May 2012. File sharing benefits mainstream albums such as pop music but not albums in niche genres
such as indie music. ... Further, the finding that file sharing redistributes sales toward established/popular artists is inconsistent with claims
made by proponents of file sharing that file sharing democratizes music consumption."
[25] Peoples, Glenn. Business Matters: Pre-release File Sharing Helps Album Sales, Says a Study. So Why Not Replicate This Legally? (http:/ /
www. billboard. biz/ bbbiz/ industry/ record-labels/ business-matters-pre-release-file-sharing-1007125352. story) Billboard. May 22, 2012.
[26] Global Internet Phenomena Report - Spring 2011 (http:/ / www. wired. com/ images_blogs/ epicenter/ 2011/ 05/
SandvineGlobalInternetSpringReport2011. pdf) Sandvine Global Internet Waterloo, Ontario, Canada. May 12, 2011
Further reading
• Levine, Robert. Free Ride: How the Internet Is Destroying the Culture Business and How the Culture Business
Can Fight Back, Bodley Head, February 2011.
• Ghosemajumder, Shuman. Advanced Peer-Based Technology Business Models (http://shumans.com/
p2p-business-models.pdf). MIT Sloan School of Management, 2002
• Silverthorne, Sean. Music Downloads: Pirates- or Customers? (http://hbswk.hbs.edu/item.jhtml?id=4206&
t=innovation). Harvard Business School Working Knowledge, 2004.
• Ralf Steinmetz, Klaus Wehrle (Eds). Peer-to-Peer Systems and Applications (http://www.peer-to-peer.info/).
ISBN 3-540-29192-X, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Volume 3485, September 2005
• Stephanos Androutsellis-Theotokis and Diomidis Spinellis. A survey of peer-to-peer content distribution
technologies (http://www.spinellis.gr/pubs/jrnl/2004-ACMCS-p2p/html/AS04.html). ACM Computing
Surveys, 36(4):335–371, December 2004. doi: 10.1145/1041680.1041681 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/
1041680.1041681).
• Stefan Saroiu, P. Krishna Gummadi, and Steven D. Gribble. A Measurement Study of Peer-to-Peer File Sharing
Systems (http://www.cs.ucsb.edu/~almeroth/classes/F02.276/papers/p2p-measure.pdf). Technical Report #
UW-CSE-01-06-02. Department of Computer Science & Engineering. University of Washington. Seattle, WA,
USA.
• Selected Papers (http://www.cs.huji.ac.il/labs/danss/p2p/resources.html) — A collection of academic
papers.
Search 225
Search
A web search engine is a software system that is designed to search for information on the World Wide Web. The
search results are generally presented in a line of results often referred to as search engine results pages (SERPs).
The information may be a specialist in web pages, images, information and other types of files. Some search engines
also mine data available in databases or open directories. Unlike web directories, which are maintained only by
human editors, search engines also maintain real-time information by running an algorithm on a web crawler.
History
Timeline (full list)
Year Engine Current status
1993 W3Catalog Inactive
Aliweb Inactive
JumpStation Inactive
1994 WebCrawler Active, Aggregator
Go.com Active, Yahoo Search
Lycos Active
1995 AltaVista Inactive, redirected to Yahoo!
Daum Active
Magellan Inactive
Excite Active
SAPO Active
Yahoo! 2008 Active, Launched as a directory
1996 Dogpile Active, Aggregator
Inktomi Inactive, acquired by Yahoo!
HotBot Active (lycos.com)
Ask Jeeves Active (rebranded ask.com)
1997 Northern Light Inactive
Yandex Active
1998 Goto Inactive
Google Active
MSN Search Active as Bing
empas Inactive (merged with NATE)
1999 AlltheWeb Inactive (URL redirected to Yahoo!)
GenieKnows Active, rebranded Yellowee.com
Naver Active
Teoma Active
Vivisimo Inactive
Search 226
2000 Baidu Active
Exalead Active
Gigablast Active
2002 Inktomi Acquired by Yahoo!
2003 Info.com Active
Scroogle Inactive
2004 Yahoo! Search Active, Launched own web search

(see Yahoo! Directory, 1995)
A9.com Inactive
Sogou Active
2005 AOL Search Active
Ask.com Active
GoodSearch Active
SearchMe Inactive
2006 wikiseek Inactive
Quaero Active
Ask.com Active
Live Search Active as Bing, Launched as

rebranded MSN Search
ChaCha Active
Guruji.com Active as BeeMP3.com
2007 wikiseek Inactive
Sproose Inactive
Wikia Search Inactive
Blackle.com Active, Google Search
2008 Powerset Inactive (redirects to Bing)
Picollator Inactive
Viewzi Inactive
Boogami Inactive
LeapFish Inactive
Forestle Inactive (redirects to Ecosia)
DuckDuckGo Active
2009 Bing Active, Launched as

rebranded Live Search
Yebol Inactive
Mugurdy Inactive due to a lack of funding
Goby Active
NATE Active
Search 227
2010 Blekko Active
Cuil Inactive
Yandex Active, Launched global

(English) search
2011 YaCy Active, P2P web search engine
2012 Volunia Active
Cloud Kite Active,

formerly Open Drive cloud search
During early development of the web, there was a list of webservers edited by Tim Berners-Lee and hosted on the
CERN webserver. One historical snapshot of the list in 1992 remains,[1] but as more and more webservers went
online the central list could no longer keep up. On the NCSA site, new servers were announced under the title
"What's New!"[2]
The very first tool used for searching on the Internet was Archie.[3] The name stands for "archive" without the "v". It
was created in 1990 by Alan Emtage, Bill Heelan and J. Peter Deutsch, computer science students at McGill
University in Montreal. The program downloaded the directory listings of all the files located on public anonymous
FTP (File Transfer Protocol) sites, creating a searchable database of file names; however, Archie did not index the
contents of these sites since the amount of data was so limited it could be readily searched manually.
The rise of Gopher (created in 1991 by Mark McCahill at the University of Minnesota) led to two new search
programs, Veronica and Jughead. Like Archie, they searched the file names and titles stored in Gopher index
systems. Veronica (Very Easy Rodent-Oriented Net-wide Index to Computerized Archives) provided a keyword
search of most Gopher menu titles in the entire Gopher listings. Jughead (Jonzy's Universal Gopher Hierarchy
Excavation And Display) was a tool for obtaining menu information from specific Gopher servers. While the name
of the search engine "Archie" was not a reference to the Archie comic book series, "Veronica" and "Jughead" are
characters in the series, thus referencing their predecessor.
In the summer of 1993, no search engine existed for the web, though numerous specialized catalogues were
maintained by hand. Oscar Nierstrasz at the University of Geneva wrote a series of Perl scripts that periodically
mirrored these pages and rewrote them into a standard format. This formed the basis for W3Catalog, the web's first
primitive search engine, released on September 2, 1993.[]
In June 1993, Matthew Gray, then at MIT, produced what was probably the first web robot, the Perl-based World
Wide Web Wanderer, and used it to generate an index called 'Wandex'. The purpose of the Wanderer was to measure
the size of the World Wide Web, which it did until late 1995. The web's second search engine Aliweb appeared in
November 1993. Aliweb did not use a web robot, but instead depended on being notified by website administrators
of the existence at each site of an index file in a particular format.
JumpStation (released in December 1993[4]) used a web robot to find web pages and to build its index, and used a
web form as the interface to its query program. It was thus the first WWW resource-discovery tool to combine the
three essential features of a web search engine (crawling, indexing, and searching) as described below. Because of
the limited resources available on the platform it ran on, its indexing and hence searching were limited to the titles
and headings found in the web pages the crawler encountered.
One of the first "all text" crawler-based search engines was WebCrawler, which came out in 1994. Unlike its
predecessors, it allowed users to search for any word in any webpage, which has become the standard for all major
search engines since. It was also the first one widely known by the public. Also in 1994, Lycos (which started at
Carnegie Mellon University) was launched and became a major commercial endeavor.
Soon after, many search engines appeared and vied for popularity. These included Magellan, Excite, Infoseek,
Inktomi, Northern Light, and AltaVista. Yahoo! was among the most popular ways for people to find web pages of
Search 228
interest, but its search function operated on its web directory, rather than its full-text copies of web pages.
Information seekers could also browse the directory instead of doing a keyword-based search.
Google adopted the idea of selling search terms in 1998, from a small search engine company named goto.com. This
move had a significant effect on the SE business, which went from struggling to one of the most profitable
businesses in the internet.[5]
In 1996, Netscape was looking to give a single search engine an exclusive deal as the featured search engine on
Netscape's web browser. There was so much interest that instead Netscape struck deals with five of the major search
engines: for $5 million a year, each search engine would be in rotation on the Netscape search engine page. The five
engines were Yahoo!, Magellan, Lycos, Infoseek, and Excite.[6][7]
Search engines were also known as some of the brightest stars in the Internet investing frenzy that occurred in the
late 1990s.[8] Several companies entered the market spectacularly, receiving record gains during their initial public
offerings. Some have taken down their public search engine, and are marketing enterprise-only editions, such as
Northern Light. Many search engine companies were caught up in the dot-com bubble, a speculation-driven market
boom that peaked in 1999 and ended in 2001.
Around 2000, Google's search engine rose to prominence.[9] The company achieved better results for many searches
with an innovation called PageRank. This iterative algorithm ranks web pages based on the number and PageRank of
other web sites and pages that link there, on the premise that good or desirable pages are linked to more than others.
Google also maintained a minimalist interface to its search engine. In contrast, many of its competitors embedded a
search engine in a web portal.
By 2000, Yahoo! was providing search services based on Inktomi's search engine. Yahoo! acquired Inktomi in 2002,
and Overture (which owned AlltheWeb and AltaVista) in 2003. Yahoo! switched to Google's search engine until
2004, when it launched its own search engine based on the combined technologies of its acquisitions.
Microsoft first launched MSN Search in the fall of 1998 using search results from Inktomi. In early 1999 the site
began to display listings from Looksmart, blended with results from Inktomi. For a short time in 1999, MSN Search
used results from AltaVista were instead. In 2004, Microsoft began a transition to its own search technology,
powered by its own web crawler (called msnbot).
Microsoft's rebranded search engine, Bing, was launched on June 1, 2009. On July 29, 2009, Yahoo! and Microsoft
finalized a deal in which Yahoo! Search would be powered by Microsoft Bing technology.
In 2012, following the April 24 release of Google Drive, Google released the Beta version of Open Drive [10]
(available as a Chrome app [11]) to enable the search of files in the cloud . Open Drive has now been rebranded as
Cloud Kite. Cloud Kite is advertised as a "collective encyclopedia project based on Google Drive public files and on
the crowd sharing, crowd sourcing and crowd-solving principles". Cloud Kite will also return search results from
other cloud storage content services including Dropbox, SkyDrive, Evernote and Box.[12]
How web search engines work

A search engine operates in the following order:
1. Web crawling
2. Indexing
3. Searching[]
Web search engines work by storing information about many web pages, which they retrieve from the page's HTML.
These pages are retrieved by a Web crawler (sometimes also known as a spider) — an automated Web browser
which follows every link on the site. The site owner can make exclusions by using robots.txt. The contents of each
page are then analyzed to determine how it should be indexed (for example, words can be extracted from the titles,
page content, headings, or special fields called meta tags). Data about web pages are stored in an index database for
use in later queries. A query from a user can be a single word. The index helps find information relating to the query
Search 229
[]
as quickly as possible. Some search engines, such as Google, store all or part of the source page (referred to as a
cache) as well as information about the web pages, whereas others, such as AltaVista, store every word of every page
they find.[citation needed] This cached page always holds the actual search text since it is the one that was actually
indexed, so it can be very useful when the content of the current page has been updated and the search terms are no
[]
longer in it. This problem might be considered a mild form of linkrot, and Google's handling of it increases
usability by satisfying user expectations that the search terms will be on the returned webpage. This satisfies the
principle of least astonishment, since the user normally expects that the search terms will be on the returned pages.
Increased search relevance makes these cached pages very useful as they may contain data that may no longer be
available elsewhere.[citation needed]
When a user enters a query into a search engine (typically by using
keywords), the engine examines its index and provides a listing of
best-matching web pages according to its criteria, usually with a short
summary containing the document's title and sometimes parts of the
text. The index is built from the information stored with the data and
the method by which the information is indexed.[] From 2007 the
Google.com search engine has allowed one to search by date by
clicking 'Show search tools' in the leftmost column of the initial search
results page, and then selecting the desired date range.[citation needed]
Most search engines support the use of the boolean operators AND, High-level architecture of a standard Web crawler
OR and NOT to further specify the search query. Boolean operators are
for literal searches that allow the user to refine and extend the terms of the search. The engine looks for the words or
phrases exactly as entered. Some search engines provide an advanced feature called proximity search, which allows
users to define the distance between keywords.[] There is also concept-based searching where the research involves
using statistical analysis on pages containing the words or phrases you search for. As well, natural language queries
allow the user to type a question in the same form one would ask it to a human. A site like this would be
ask.com.[citation needed]
The usefulness of a search engine depends on the relevance of the result set it gives back. While there may be
millions of web pages that include a particular word or phrase, some pages may be more relevant, popular, or
authoritative than others. Most search engines employ methods to rank the results to provide the "best" results first.
How a search engine decides which pages are the best matches, and what order the results should be shown in, varies
widely from one engine to another.[] The methods also change over time as Internet usage changes and new
techniques evolve. There are two main types of search engine that have evolved: one is a system of predefined and
hierarchically ordered keywords that humans have programmed extensively. The other is a system that generates an
"inverted index" by analyzing texts it locates. This first form relies much more heavily on the computer itself to do
the bulk of the work.
Most Web search engines are commercial ventures supported by advertising revenue and thus some of them allow
advertisers to have their listings ranked higher in search results for a fee. Search engines that do not accept money
for their search results make money by running search related ads alongside the regular search engine results. The
search engines make money every time someone clicks on one of these ads.[13]
Search 230
Market share
Search engine Market share in May 2011 Market share in December 2010[14]
Google 82.80% 84.65%
Yahoo! 6.42% 6.69%
Baidu 4.89% 3.39%
Bing 3.91% 3.29%
Yandex 1.7% 1.3%
Ask 0.52% 0.56%
AOL 0.3% 0.42%
Google's worldwide market share peaked at 86.3% in April 2010.[15] Yahoo!, Bing and other search engines are
more popular in the US than in Europe.
According to Hitwise, market share in the USA for October 2011 was Google 65.38%, Bing-powered (Bing and
Yahoo!) 28.62%, and the remaining 66 search engines 6%. However, an Experian Hit wise report released in August
2011 gave the "success rate" of searches sampled in July. Over 80 percent of Yahoo! and Bing searches resulted in
the users visiting a web site, while Google's rate was just under 68 percent.[16][17]
In the People's Republic of China, Baidu held a 61.6% market share for web search in July 2009.[18] In Russian
Federation, Yandex holds around 60% of the market share as of April 2012.[19] In July 2013 Google controls 84%
Global & 88% US market share for web search.[20]
Search engine bias

Although search engines are programmed to rank websites based on their popularity and relevancy, empirical studies
indicate various political, economic, and social biases in the information they provide. [21] [] These biases can be a
direct result of economic and commercial processes (e.g., companies that advertise with a search engine can become
also more popular in its organic search results), and political processes (e.g., the removal of search results to comply
with local laws). [22]
Biases can also be a result of social processes, as search engine algorithms are frequently designed to exclude
non-normative viewpoints in favor of more "popular" results.[23] Indexing algorithms of major search engines skew
towards coverage of U.S.-based sites, rather than websites from non-U.S. countries.[] Major search engines' search
algorithms also privilege misinformation and pornographic portrayals of women, people of color, and members of
the LGBT community.[][]
Google Bombing is one example of an attempt to manipulate search results for political, social or commercial
reasons.
Customized results and filter bubbles

Many search engines such as Google and Bing provide customized results based on the user's activity history. This
leads to an effect that has been called a filter bubble. The term describes a phenomenon in which websites use
algorithms to selectively guess what information a user would like to see, based on information about the user (such
as location, past click behaviour and search history). As a result, websites tend to show only information that agrees
with the user's past viewpoint, effectively isolating the user in a bubble that tends to exclude contrary information.
Prime examples are Google's personalized search results and Facebook's personalized news stream. According to Eli
Pariser, who coined the term, users get less exposure to conflicting viewpoints and are isolated intellectually in their
own informational bubble. Pariser related an example in which one user searched Google for "BP" and got
Search 231
investment news about British Petroleum while another searcher got information about the Deepwater Horizon oil
[][][]
spill and that the two search results pages were "strikingly different." The bubble effect may have negative
implications for civic discourse, according to Pariser.[24]
Since this problem has been identified, competing search engines have emerged that seek to avoid this problem by
not tracking[] or "bubbling"[] users.
References
[3] "Internet History - Search Engines" (from Search Engine Watch), Universiteit Leiden, Netherlands, September 2001, web: LeidenU-Archie
(http:/ / www. internethistory. leidenuniv. nl/ index. php3?c=7).
[5] http:/ / www. udacity. com/ view#Course/ cs101/ CourseRev/ apr2012/ Unit/ 616074/ Nugget/ 671097
[10] http:/ / opendrive. mcommulticartes. com/ start
[11] https:/ / chrome. google. com/ webstore/ #detail/ open-drive/ biagdapeolcddppdgcocjkdjfhlodegf
[12] Open Drive
[17] Experian Hitwise reports Bing-powered share of searches at 29 percent in October 2011 (http:/ / www. hitwise. com/ us/ about-us/
press-center/ press-releases/ bing-powered-share-of-searches-at-29-percent), Experian Hitwise, November 16, 2011
[21] Segev, Elad (2010). Google and the Digital Divide: The Biases of Online Knowledge, Oxford: Chandos Publishing.
[22] Berkman Center for Internet & Society (2002), “Replacement of Google with Alternative Search Systems in China: Documentation and
Screen Shots” (http:/ / cyber. law. harvard. edu/ filtering/ china/ google-replacements/ ), Harvard Law School.
• GBMW: Reports of 30-day punishment, re: Car maker BMW had its German website bmw.de delisted from
Google, such as: Slashdot-BMW (http://slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=06/02/05/235218) (05-Feb-2006).
• INSIZ: Maximum size of webpages indexed by MSN/Google/Yahoo! ("100-kb limit"): Max Page-size (http://
www.sitepoint.com/article/indexing-limits-where-bots-stop) (28-Apr-2006).
• How does a search engine work?: General Audience Perspective (http://maomarketing.com/seo/searchengine/)
(14-Apr-2013).
Further reading
• For a more detailed history of early search engines, see Search Engine Birthdays (http://searchenginewatch.
com/showPage.html?page=3071951) (from Search Engine Watch), Chris Sherman, September 2003.
• Steve Lawrence; C. Lee Giles (1999). "Accessibility of information on the web". Nature 400 (6740): 107–9. doi:
10.1038/21987 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/21987). PMID 10428673 (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pubmed/10428673).
• Bing Liu (2007), Web Data Mining: Exploring Hyperlinks, Contents and Usage Data (http://www.cs.uic.edu/
~liub/WebMiningBook.html). Springer,ISBN 3-540-37881-2
• Bar-Ilan, J. (2004). The use of Web search engines in information science research. ARIST, 38, 231-288.
• Levene, Mark (2005). An Introduction to Search Engines and Web Navigation. Pearson.
• Hock, Randolph (2007). The Extreme Searcher's Handbook.ISBN 978-0-910965-76-7
• Javed Mostafa (February 2005). "Seeking Better Web Searches" (http://www.sciam.com/article.
cfm?articleID=0006304A-37F4-11E8-B7F483414B7F0000). Scientific American Magazine.Wikipedia:Link
rotWikipedia:Link rot
• Ross, Nancy; Wolfram, Dietmar (2000). "End user searching on the Internet: An analysis of term pair topics
submitted to the Excite search engine". Journal of the American Society for Information Science 51 (10):
949–958. doi: 10.1002/1097-4571(2000)51:10<949::AID-ASI70>3.0.CO;2-5 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/
1097-4571(2000)51:10<949::AID-ASI70>3.0.CO;2-5).
• Xie, M. et al. (1998). "Quality dimensions of Internet search engines". Journal of Information Science 24 (5):
365–372. doi: 10.1177/016555159802400509 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/016555159802400509).
• Information Retrieval: Implementing and Evaluating Search Engines (http://www.ir.uwaterloo.ca/book/).
MIT Press. 2010.
Search 232
External links
• Search Engines (http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Internet/Searching/Search_Engines//) at the Open
Directory Project
Blogging
Journalism
• News
• Writing style
• Ethics
• Objectivity
• Values
• Attribution
• Defamation
• Editorial independence
• Journalism school
• List of journalism articles
Areas
• Arts
• Business
• Data
• Entertainment
• Environment
• Fashion
• Medicine
• Politics
• Science
• Sports
• Technology
• Trade
• Traffic
• Weather
• World
Genres
• Advocacy
• Analytic
• Blogging
• Broadcast
• Citizen
• Civic
• Collaborative
• Comics-based
• Community
• Database
• Gonzo
• Immersion
• Investigative
Blogging 233
• Literary
• Muckraking
• Narrative
• "New Journalism"
• Non-profit
• Online
• Opinion
• Peace
• Photojournalism
• Scientific
• Visual
• Watchdog
Social impact
• Fourth Estate
• Freedom of the press
• Infotainment
• Media bias
• Public relations
• Press service
• Propaganda model
• Yellow journalism
News media
• Newspapers
• Magazines
• TV and radio
• Internet
• News agencies
• Alternative media
Roles
• Journalists (reporters)
• Columnist
• Blogger
• Editor
• Copy editor
• Meteorologist
• Presenter (news)
• Photographer
• Pundit / commentator
• Category: Journalism
A blog (a contraction of the words web log)[1] is a discussion or informational site published on the World Wide
Web and consisting of discrete entries ("posts") typically displayed in reverse chronological order (the most recent
post appears first). Until 2009 blogs were usually the work of a single individual, occasionally of a small group, and
often covered a single subject. More recently "multi-author blogs" (MABs) have developed, with posts written by
large numbers of authors and professionally edited. MABs from newspapers, other media outlets, universities, think
tanks, interest groups and similar institutions account for an increasing quantity of blog traffic. The rise of Twitter
and other "microblogging" systems helps integrate MABs and single-author blogs into societal newstreams. Blog can
also be used as a verb, meaning to maintain or add content to a blog.
Blogging 234
The emergence and growth of blogs in the late 1990s coincided with the advent of web publishing tools that
facilitated the posting of content by non-technical users. (Previously, a knowledge of such technologies as HTML
and FTP had been required to publish content on the Web.)
A majority are interactive, allowing visitors to leave comments and even message each other via GUI widgets on the
blogs, and it is this interactivity that distinguishes them from other static websites.[2] In that sense, blogging can be
seen as a form of social networking. Indeed, bloggers do not only produce content to post on their blogs, but also
build social relations with their readers and other bloggers.[3] There are high-readership blogs which do not allow
comments, such as Daring Fireball.
Many blogs provide commentary on a particular subject; others function as more personal online diaries; others
function more as online brand advertising of a particular individual or company. A typical blog combines text,
images, and links to other blogs, Web pages, and other media related to its topic. The ability of readers to leave
comments in an interactive format is an important contribution to the popularity of many blogs. Most blogs are
primarily textual, although some focus on art (art blogs), photographs (photoblogs), videos (video blogs or "vlogs"),
music (MP3 blogs), and audio (podcasts). Microblogging is another type of blogging, featuring very short posts. In
education, blogs can be used as instructional resources. These blogs are referred to as edublogs.
On 16 February 2011[4], there were over 156 million public blogs in existence.[5] On 13 October 2012, there were
around 77 million Tumblr[6] and 56.6 million WordPress[7] blogs in existence worldwide. According to critics and
other bloggers, Blogger is the most popular blogging service used today.[8][9]
History
The term "weblog" was coined by Jorn Barger[10] on 17 December
1997. The short form, "blog", was coined by Peter Merholz, who
jokingly broke the word weblog into the phrase we blog in the sidebar
of his blog Peterme.com in April or May 1999.[11][12][13] Shortly
thereafter, Evan Williams at Pyra Labs used "blog" as both a noun and
verb ("to blog", meaning "to edit one's weblog or to post to one's
weblog") and devised the term "blogger" in connection with Pyra Labs'
Blogger product, leading to the popularization of the terms.[14]
Origins
Before blogging became popular, digital communities took many Early example of a "diary" style blog consisting
forms, including Usenet, commercial online services such as GEnie, of text and images transmitted wirelessly in real
BiX and the early CompuServe, e-mail lists[15] and Bulletin Board time from a wearable computer with headup
display, 22 February 1995
Systems (BBS). In the 1990s, Internet forum software, created running
conversations with "threads". Threads are topical connections between
messages on a virtual "corkboard".
From 14 June 1993 Mosaic Communications Corporation maintained their "What’s New"[16] list of new websites,
updated daily and archived monthly. The page was accessible by a special "What's New" button in the Mosaic web
browser.
The modern blog evolved from the online diary, where people would keep a running account of their personal lives.
Most such writers called themselves diarists, journalists, or journalers. Justin Hall, who began personal blogging in
1994 while a student at Swarthmore College, is generally recognized as one of the earlier bloggers,[17] as is Jerry
Pournelle.[18] Dave Winer's Scripting News is also credited with being one of the older and longer running
weblogs.[19][20] The Australian Netguide magazine maintained the Daily Net News[21] on their web site from 1996.
Daily Net News ran links and daily reviews of new websites, mostly in Australia. Another early blog was Wearable
Blogging 235
Wireless Webcam, an online shared diary of a person's personal life combining text, video, and pictures transmitted
live from a wearable computer and EyeTap device to a web site in 1994. This practice of semi-automated blogging
with live video together with text was referred to as sousveillance, and such journals were also used as evidence in
legal matters.
Early blogs were simply manually updated components of common Web sites. However, the evolution of tools to
facilitate the production and maintenance of Web articles posted in reverse chronological order made the publishing
process feasible to a much larger, less technical, population. Ultimately, this resulted in the distinct class of online
publishing that produces blogs we recognize today. For instance, the use of some sort of browser-based software is
now a typical aspect of "blogging". Blogs can be hosted by dedicated blog hosting services, or they can be run using
blog software, or on regular web hosting services.
Some early bloggers, such as The Misanthropic Bitch, who began in 1997, actually referred to their online presence
as a zine, before the term blog entered common usage.
Rise in popularity
After a slow start, blogging rapidly gained in popularity. Blog usage spread during 1999 and the years following,
being further popularized by the near-simultaneous arrival of the first hosted blog tools:
• Bruce Ableson launched Open Diary in October 1998, which soon grew to thousands of online diaries. Open
Diary innovated the reader comment, becoming the first blog community where readers could add comments to
other writers' blog entries.
• Brad Fitzpatrick started LiveJournal in March 1999.
• Andrew Smales created Pitas.com in July 1999 as an easier alternative to maintaining a "news page" on a Web
site, followed by Diaryland in September 1999, focusing more on a personal diary community.[22]
• Evan Williams and Meg Hourihan (Pyra Labs) launched Blogger.com in August 1999 (purchased by Google in
February 2003)
Political impact
An early milestone in the rise in importance of blogs came in 2002, when many bloggers focused on comments by
U.S. Senate Majority Leader Trent Lott.[] Senator Lott, at a party honoring U.S. Senator Strom Thurmond, praised
Senator Thurmond by suggesting that the United States would have been better off had Thurmond been elected
president. Lott's critics saw these comments as a tacit approval of racial segregation, a policy advocated by
Thurmond's 1948 presidential campaign. This view was reinforced by documents and recorded interviews dug up by
bloggers. (See Josh Marshall's Talking Points Memo.) Though Lott's comments were made at a public event attended
by the media, no major media organizations reported on his controversial comments until after blogs broke the story.
Blogging helped to create a political crisis that forced Lott to step down as majority leader.
Similarly, blogs were among the driving forces behind the "Rathergate" scandal. To wit: (television journalist) Dan
Rather presented documents (on the CBS show 60 Minutes) that conflicted with accepted accounts of President
Bush's military service record. Bloggers declared the documents to be forgeries and presented evidence and
arguments in support of that view. Consequently, CBS apologized for what it said were inadequate reporting
techniques (see Little Green Footballs). Many bloggers view this scandal as the advent of blogs' acceptance by the
mass media, both as a news source and opinion and as means of applying political pressure.Wikipedia:No original
research
The impact of these stories gave greater credibility to blogs as a medium of news dissemination. Though often seen
as partisan gossips,[citation needed] bloggers sometimes lead the way in bringing key information to public light, with
mainstream media having to follow their lead. More often, however, news blogs tend to react to material already
published by the mainstream media. Meanwhile, an increasing number of experts blogged, making blogs a source of
in-depth analysis.Wikipedia:No original research
Blogging 236
In Russia, some political bloggers have started to challenge the dominance of official, overwhelmingly
pro-government media. Bloggers such as Rustem Adagamov and Alexei Navalny have many followers and the
latter's nickname for the ruling United Russia party as the "party of crooks and thieves" and been adopted by
anti-regime protesters.[23] This led to the Wall Street Journal calling Navalny "the man Vladimir Putin fears most" in
March 2012.[24]
Mainstream popularity
By 2004, the role of blogs became increasingly mainstream, as political consultants, news services, and candidates
began using them as tools for outreach and opinion forming. Blogging was established by politicians and political
candidates to express opinions on war and other issues and cemented blogs' role as a news source. (See Howard
Dean and Wesley Clark.) Even politicians not actively campaigning, such as the UK's Labour Party's MP Tom
Watson, began to blog to bond with constituents.
In January 2005, Fortune magazine listed eight bloggers whom business people "could not ignore": Peter Rojas,
Xeni Jardin, Ben Trott, Mena Trott, Jonathan Schwartz, Jason Goldman, Robert Scoble, and Jason Calacanis.[25]
Israel was among the first national governments to set up an official blog.[26] Under David Saranga, the Israeli
Ministry of Foreign Affairs became active in adopting Web 2.0 initiatives, including an official video blog[26] and a
political blog.[27] The Foreign Ministry also held a microblogging press conference via Twitter about its war with
Hamas, with Saranga answering questions from the public in common text-messaging abbreviations during a live
worldwide press conference.[28] The questions and answers were later posted on IsraelPolitik, the country's official
political blog.[29]
The impact of blogging upon the mainstream media has also been acknowledged by governments. In 2009, the
presence of the American journalism industry had declined to the point that several newspaper corporations were
filing for bankruptcy, resulting in less direct competition between newspapers within the same circulation area.
Discussion emerged as to whether the newspaper industry would benefit from a stimulus package by the federal
government. U.S. President Barack Obama acknowledged the emerging influence of blogging upon society by
saying "if the direction of the news is all blogosphere, all opinions, with no serious fact-checking, no serious
attempts to put stories in context, then what you will end up getting is people shouting at each other across the void
but not a lot of mutual understanding”.[30]
Types
There are many different types of blogs, differing not only in the type of content, but also in the way that content is
delivered or written.
Personal blogs
The personal blog is an ongoing diary or commentary written by an individual.
Microblogging
Microblogging is the practice of posting small pieces of digital content—which could be text, pictures, links,
short videos, or other media—on the Internet. Microblogging offers a portable communication mode that feels
organic and spontaneous to many and has captured the public imagination. Friends use it to keep in touch,
business associates use it to coordinate meetings or share useful resources, and celebrities and politicians (or
their publicists) microblog about concert dates, lectures, book releases, or tour schedules. A wide and growing
range of add-on tools enables sophisticated updates and interaction with other applications, and the resulting
profusion of functionality is helping to define new possibilities for this type of communication.[31] Examples
of these include Twitter, Facebook and Tumblr.
Corporate and organizational blogs
Blogging 237
A blog can be private, as in most cases, or it can be for business purposes. Blogs used internally to enhance the
communication and culture in a corporation or externally for marketing, branding or public relations purposes
are called corporate blogs. Similar blogs for clubs and societies are called club blogs, group blogs, or by
similar names; typical use is to inform members and other interested parties of club and member activities.
By genre
Some blogs focus on a particular subject, such as political blogs, health blogs, travel blogs (also known as
travelogs), gardening blogs, house blogs,[32][33] fashion blogs, project blogs, education blogs, niche blogs,
classical music blogs, quizzing blogs and legal blogs (often referred to as a blawgs) or dreamlogs. Two
common types of genre blogs are art blogs and music blogs. A blog featuring discussions especially about
home and family is not uncommonly called a mom blog and one made popular is by Erica Diamond who
created Womenonthefence.com which is syndicated to over two million readers monthly.[34][35][36][37][38][39]
While not a legitimate type of blog, one used for the sole purpose of spamming is known as a Splog.
By media type
A blog comprising videos is called a vlog, one comprising links is called a linklog, a site containing a portfolio
of sketches is called a sketchblog or one comprising photos is called a photoblog. Blogs with shorter posts and
mixed media types are called tumblelogs. Blogs that are written on typewriters and then scanned are called
typecast or typecast blogs; see typecasting (blogging).
A rare type of blog hosted on the Gopher Protocol is known as a Phlog.
By device
Blogs can also be defined by which type of device is used to compose it. A blog written by a mobile device
like a mobile phone or PDA could be called a moblog.[40] One early blog was Wearable Wireless Webcam, an
online shared diary of a person's personal life combining text, video, and pictures transmitted live from a
wearable computer and EyeTap device to a web site. This practice of semi-automated blogging with live video
together with text was referred to as sousveillance. Such journals have been used as evidence in legal
matters.[citation needed]
Reverse blog
A Reverse Blog is composed by its users rather than a single blogger. This system has the characteristics of a
blog, and the writing of several authors. These can be written by several contributing authors on a topic, or
opened up for anyone to write. There is typically some limit to the number of entries to keep it from operating
like a Web Forum.
Community and cataloging

The Blogosphere
The collective community of all blogs is known as the blogosphere. Since all blogs are on the internet by
definition, they may be seen as interconnected and socially networked, through blogrolls, comments, linkbacks
(refbacks, trackbacks or pingbacks) and backlinks. Discussions "in the blogosphere" are occasionally used by
the media as a gauge of public opinion on various issues. Because new, untapped communities of bloggers and
their readers can emerge in the space of a few years, Internet marketers pay close attention to "trends in the
blogosphere".[41]
Blog search engines
Several blog search engines are used to search blog contents, such as Bloglines, BlogScope, and Technorati.
Technorati, which is among the more popular blog search engines, provides current information on both
popular searches and tags used to categorize blog postings.[42] The research community is working on going
beyond simple keyword search, by inventing new ways to navigate through huge amounts of information
Blogging 238
present in the blogosphere, as demonstrated by projects like BlogScope.[citation needed]

Blogging communities and directories
Several online communities exist that connect people to blogs and bloggers to other bloggers, including
BlogCatalog and MyBlogLog.[] Interest-specific blogging platforms are also available. For instance, Blogster
has a sizable community of political bloggers among its members. Global Voices aggregates international
bloggers, "with emphasis on voices that are not ordinarily heard in international mainstream media."[43]
Blogging and advertising
It is common for blogs to feature advertisements either to financially benefit the blogger or to promote the
blogger's favorite causes. The popularity of blogs has also given rise to "fake blogs" in which a company will
create a fictional blog as a marketing tool to promote a product.[44]
Popularity
Researchers have analyzed the dynamics of how blogs become popular. There are essentially two measures of this:
popularity through citations, as well as popularity through affiliation (i.e., blogroll). The basic conclusion from
studies of the structure of blogs is that while it takes time for a blog to become popular through blogrolls, permalinks
can boost popularity more quickly, and are perhaps more indicative of popularity and authority than blogrolls, since
they denote that people are actually reading the blog's content and deem it valuable or noteworthy in specific
cases.[45]
The blogdex project was launched by researchers in the MIT Media Lab to crawl the Web and gather data from
thousands of blogs in order to investigate their social properties. It gathered this information for over 4 years, and
autonomously tracked the most contagious information spreading in the blog community, ranking it by recency and
popularity. It can thereforeWikipedia:No original research be considered the first instantiation of a memetracker. The
project was replaced by tailrank.com which in turn has been replaced by spinn3r.com [46].
Blogs are given rankings by Technorati based on the number of incoming links and Alexa Internet based on the Web
hits of Alexa Toolbar users. In August 2006, Technorati found that the most linked-to blog on the internet was that
of Chinese actress Xu Jinglei.[47] Chinese media Xinhua reported that this blog received more than 50 million page
views, claiming it to be the most popular blog in the world.[48] Technorati rated Boing Boing to be the most-read
group-written blog.[47]
Blurring with the mass media

Many bloggers, particularly those engaged in participatory journalism, differentiate themselves from the mainstream
media, while others are members of that media working through a different channel. Some institutions see blogging
as a means of "getting around the filter" and pushing messages directly to the public. Some critics worry that
bloggers respect neither copyright nor the role of the mass media in presenting society with credible news. Bloggers
and other contributors to user-generated content are behind Time magazine naming their 2006 person of the year as
"You".
Many mainstream journalists, meanwhile, write their own blogs — well over 300, according to CyberJournalist.net's
J-blog list.[citation needed] The first known use of a blog on a news site was in August 1998, when Jonathan Dube of
The Charlotte Observer published one chronicling Hurricane Bonnie.[49]
Some bloggers have moved over to other media. The following bloggers (and others) have appeared on radio and
television: Duncan Black (known widely by his pseudonym, Atrios), Glenn Reynolds (Instapundit), Markos
Moulitsas Zúniga (Daily Kos), Alex Steffen (Worldchanging), Ana Marie Cox (Wonkette), Nate Silver
(FiveThirtyEight.com), and Ezra Klein (Ezra Klein blog in The American Prospect, now in the Washington Post). In
counterpoint, Hugh Hewitt exemplifies a mass media personality who has moved in the other direction, adding to his
reach in "old media" by being an influential blogger. Similarly, it was Emergency Preparedness and Safety Tips On
Blogging 239
Air and Online blog articles that captured Surgeon General of the United States Richard Carmona's attention and
earned his kudos for the associated broadcasts by talk show host Lisa Tolliver and Westchester Emergency
Volunteer Reserves-Medical Reserve Corps Director Marianne Partridge.[50][51][52][53]
Blogs have also had an influence on minority languages, bringing together scattered speakers and learners; this is
particularly so with blogs in Gaelic languages. Minority language publishing (which may lack economic feasibility)
can find its audience through inexpensive blogging.
There are many examples of bloggers who have published books based on their blogs, e.g., Salam Pax, Ellen
Simonetti, Jessica Cutler, ScrappleFace. Blog-based books have been given the name blook. A prize for the best
blog-based book was initiated in 2005,[54] the Lulu Blooker Prize.[55] However, success has been elusive offline,
with many of these books not selling as well as their blogs. Only blogger Tucker Max made The New York Times
Best Seller list.[56] The book based on Julie Powell's blog "The Julie/Julia Project" was made into the film Julie &
Julia, apparently the first to do so.
Consumer-generated advertising in blogs

Consumer-generated advertising is a relatively new and controversial development and it has created a new model of
marketing communication from businesses to consumers. Among the various forms of advertising on blog, the most
controversial are the sponsored posts.[57] These are blog entries or posts and may be in the form of feedback,
reviews, opinion, videos, etc. and usually contain a link back to the desired site using a keyword/s.
Blogs have led to some disintermediation and a breakdown of the traditional advertising model where companies can
skip over the advertising agencies (previously the only interface with the customer) and contact the customers
directly themselves. On the other hand, new companies specialised in blog advertising have been established, to take
advantage of this new development as well.
However, there are many people who look negatively on this new development. Some believe that any form of
commercial activity on blogs will destroy the blogosphere’s credibility.[58]
Legal and social consequences

Blogging can result in a range of legal liabilities and other unforeseen consequences.[59]
Defamation or liability
Several cases have been brought before the national courts against bloggers concerning issues of defamation or
liability. U.S. payouts related to blogging totaled $17.4 million by 2009; in some cases these have been covered by
umbrella insurance.[60] The courts have returned with mixed verdicts. Internet Service Providers (ISPs), in general,
are immune from liability for information that originates with third parties (U.S. Communications Decency Act and
the EU Directive 2000/31/EC).
In Doe v. Cahill, the Delaware Supreme Court held that stringent standards had to be met to unmask the anonymous
bloggers, and also took the unusual step of dismissing the libel case itself (as unfounded under American libel law)
rather than referring it back to the trial court for reconsideration.[61] In a bizarre twist, the Cahills were able to obtain
the identity of John Doe, who turned out to be the person they suspected: the town's mayor, Councilman Cahill's
political rival. The Cahills amended their original complaint, and the mayor settled the case rather than going to trial.
In January 2007, two prominent Malaysian political bloggers, Jeff Ooi and Ahirudin Attan, were sued by a
pro-government newspaper, The New Straits Times Press (Malaysia) Berhad, Kalimullah bin Masheerul Hassan,
Hishamuddin bin Aun and Brenden John a/l John Pereira over an alleged defamation. The plaintiff was supported by
the Malaysian government.[62] Following the suit, the Malaysian government proposed to "register" all bloggers in
Malaysia in order to better control parties against their interest.[63] This is the first such legal case against bloggers in
the country.
Blogging 240
In the United States, blogger Aaron Wall was sued by Traffic Power for defamation and publication of trade secrets
in 2005.[64] According to Wired Magazine, Traffic Power had been "banned from Google for allegedly rigging
search engine results."[65] Wall and other "white hat" search engine optimization consultants had exposed Traffic
Power in what they claim was an effort to protect the public. The case addressed the murky legal question of who is
liable for comments posted on blogs.[66] The case was dismissed for lack of personal jurisdiction, and Traffic Power
failed to appeal within the allowed time.[67]
In 2009, a controversial and landmark decision by The Hon. Mr Justice Eady refused to grant an order to protect the
anonymity of Richard Horton. Horton was a police officer in the United Kingdom who blogged about his job under
the name "NightJack".[68]
In 2009, NDTV issued a legal notice to Indian blogger Kunte for a blog post criticizing their coverage of the
Mumbai attacks.[] The blogger unconditionally withdrew his post, which resulted in several Indian bloggers
criticizing NDTV for trying to silence critics.[69]
Employment
Employees who blog about elements of their place of employment can begin to affect the brand recognition of their
employer. In general, attempts by employee bloggers to protect themselves by maintaining anonymity have proved
ineffective.[70]
Delta Air Lines fired flight attendant Ellen Simonetti because she posted photographs of herself in uniform on an
airplane and because of comments posted on her blog "Queen of Sky: Diary of a Flight Attendant" which the
employer deemed inappropriate.[71][72] This case highlighted the issue of personal blogging and freedom of
expression versus employer rights and responsibilities, and so it received wide media attention. Simonetti took legal
action against the airline for "wrongful termination, defamation of character and lost future wages".[73] The suit was
postponed while Delta was in bankruptcy proceedings (court docket).[74]
In early 2006, Erik Ringmar, a tenured senior lecturer at the London School of Economics, was ordered by the
convenor of his department to "take down and destroy" his blog in which he discussed the quality of education at the
school.[75]
Mark Cuban, owner of the Dallas Mavericks, was fined during the 2006 NBA playoffs for criticizing NBA officials
on the court and in his blog.[76]
Mark Jen was terminated in 2005 after 10 days of employment as an Assistant Product Manager at Google for
discussing corporate secrets on his personal blog, then called 99zeros and hosted on the Google-owned Blogger
service.[77] He blogged about unreleased products and company finances a week before the company's earnings
announcement. He was fired two days after he complied with his employer's request to remove the sensitive material
from his blog.[78]
In India, blogger Gaurav Sabnis resigned from IBM after his posts questioned the claims of a management school
IIPM.[79]
Jessica Cutler, aka "The Washingtonienne",[80] blogged about her sex life while employed as a congressional
assistant. After the blog was discovered and she was fired,[81] she wrote a novel based on her experiences and blog:
The Washingtonienne: A Novel. Cutler is presently being sued by one of her former lovers in a case that could
establish the extent to which bloggers are obligated to protect the privacy of their real life associates.[82]
Catherine Sanderson, a.k.a. Petite Anglaise, lost her job in Paris at a British accountancy firm because of
blogging.[83] Although given in the blog in a fairly anonymous manner, some of the descriptions of the firm and
some of its people were less than flattering. Sanderson later won a compensation claim case against the British firm,
however.[84]
On the other hand, Penelope Trunk wrote an upbeat article in the Boston Globe back in 2006, entitled "Blogs
'essential' to a good career".[85] She was one of the first journalists to point out that a large portion of bloggers are
Blogging 241
professionals and that a well-written blog can help attract employers.
Political dangers
Blogging can sometimes have unforeseen consequences in politically sensitive areas. Blogs are much harder to
control than broadcast or even print media. As a result, totalitarian and authoritarian regimes often seek to suppress
blogs and/or to punish those who maintain them.
In Singapore, two ethnic Chinese were imprisoned under the country’s anti-sedition law for posting anti-Muslim
remarks in their blogs.[86]
Egyptian blogger Kareem Amer was charged with insulting the Egyptian president Hosni Mubarak and an Islamic
institution through his blog. It is the first time in the history of Egypt that a blogger was prosecuted. After a brief trial
session that took place in Alexandria, the blogger was found guilty and sentenced to prison terms of three years for
[87]
insulting Islam and inciting sedition, and one year for insulting Mubarak.
Egyptian blogger Abdel Monem Mahmoud was arrested in April 2007 for anti-government writings in his blog.[88]
Monem is a member of the then banned Muslim Brotherhood.
After the 2011 Egyptian revolution, the Egyptian blogger Maikel Nabil Sanad was charged with insulting the
military for an article he wrote on his personal blog and sentenced to 3 years.[89]
After expressing opinions in his personal blog about the state of the Sudanese armed forces, Jan Pronk, United
Nations Special Representative for the Sudan, was given three days notice to leave Sudan. The Sudanese army had
demanded his deportation.[90][91]
In Myanmar, Nay Phone Latt, a blogger, was sentenced to 20 years in jail for posting a cartoon critical of head of
state Than Shwe.[92]
Personal safety
One consequence of blogging is the possibility of attacks or threats against the blogger, sometimes without apparent
reason. Kathy Sierra, author of the innocuous blog "Creating Passionate Users",[93] was the target of such vicious
threats and misogynistic insults that she canceled her keynote speech at a technology conference in San Diego,
fearing for her safety.[94] While a blogger's anonymity is often tenuous, Internet trolls who would attack a blogger
with threats or insults can be emboldened by anonymity. Sierra and supporters initiated an online discussion aimed at
countering abusive online behavior[95] and developed a blogger's code of conduct.
Behavior
The Blogger's Code of Conduct is a proposal by Tim O'Reilly for bloggers to enforce civility on their blogs by
being civil themselves and moderating comments on their blog. The code was proposed due to threats made to
blogger Kathy Sierra.[96] The idea of the code was first reported by BBC News, who quoted O'Reilly saying, "I do
think we need some code of conduct around what is acceptable behaviour, I would hope that it doesn't come through
any kind of regulation it would come through self-regulation."[97]
O'Reilly and others came up with a list of seven proposed ideas:[98][99][100][101]
1. Take responsibility not just for your own words, but for the comments you allow on your blog.
2. Label your tolerance level for abusive comments.
3. Consider eliminating anonymous comments.
4. Ignore the trolls.
5. Take the conversation offline, and talk directly, or find an intermediary who can do so.
6. If you know someone who is behaving badly, tell them so.
7. Don't say anything online that you wouldn't say in person.
Blogging 242
References
[4] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Blog& action=edit
[14] Origins of "Blog" and "Blogger" (http:/ / listserv. linguistlist. org/ cgi-bin/ wa?A2=ind0804C& L=ADS-L& P=R16795& I=-3), American
Dialect Society Mailing List (Apr. 20, 2008).
[15] The term "e-log" has been used to describe journal entries sent out via e-mail since as early as March 1996.
[16] What's New! (http:/ / home. mcom. com/ home/ whats-new. html). Home.mcom.com. Retrieved on 2013-06-15.
[20] "...Dave Winer... whose Scripting News (scripting.com) is one of the oldest blogs."
[21] Australian Net Guide (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 19961112042649/ http:/ / netguide. aust. com/ daily/ index. html). Web.archive.org
(1996-11-12). Retrieved on 2013-06-15.
[22] Jensen, Mallory A Brief History of Weblogs (http:/ / cjrarchives. org/ issues/ 2003/ 5/ blog-jensen. asp?printerfriendly=yes)
[23] Daniel Sandford, BBC News: "Russians tire of corruption spectacle", http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ news/ world-europe-15972326
[25] (http:/ / www. fortune. com/ fortune/ technology/ articles/ 0,15114,1011763-1,00. html)
[26] Israel Video Blog aims to show the world 'the beautiful face of real Israel' (http:/ / www. ynetnews. com/ articles/ 0,7340,L-3220593,00.
html), Ynet, February 24, 2008.
[27] Latest PR venture of Israel's diplomatic mission in New York attracts large Arab audience (http:/ / www. ynetnews. com/ articles/
0,7340,L-3220593,00. html), Ynet, June 21, 2007.
[28] Battlefront Twitter (http:/ / fr. jpost. com/ servlet/ Satellite?cid=1230456533492& pagename=JPost/ JPArticle/ ShowFull), Haviv Rettig
Gur, The Jerusalem Post, December 30, 2008.
[29] The Toughest Q’s Answered in the Briefest Tweets (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2009/ 01/ 04/ weekinreview/ 04cohen. html), Noam Cohen,
The New York Times, January 3, 2009. Retrieved January 5, 2009.
[30] Journalists deserve subsidies too (http:/ / www. delawareonline. com/ article/ 20091103/ OPINION16/ 91102031/ 1004/ OPINION/
Journalists-deserve-subsidies-too), Robert W. Mcchesney and John Nichols, Delaware Online, November 3, 2009. Retrieved November 10,
2009.
[32] Stephan Metcalf, "Fixing a Hole", New York Times, March 2006
[33] Jennifer Saranow, "Blogwatch: This Old House", Wall Street Journal, September 2007
[34] Casserly, Meghan and Goudreau, Jenna. Top 100 Websites For Women 2011 (http:/ / www. forbes. com/ 2011/ 06/ 23/
100-best-web-sites-for-women-blogs-2011. html), Forbes, June 23, 2011
[41] See for instance:
[45] Marlow, C. Audience, structure and authority in the weblog community (http:/ / alumni. media. mit. edu/ ~cameron/ cv/ pubs/ 04-01. pdf).
Presented at the International Communication Association Conference, May, 2004, New Orleans, LA.
[46] http:/ / spinn3r. com
[47] Fickling, David, Internet killed the TV star (http:/ / blogs. guardian. co. uk/ news/ archives/ 2006/ 08/ 15/ internet_killed_the_tv_star. html),
The Guardian NewsBlog, 15 August 2006
[57] Mutum, Dilip and Wang, Qing (2010). “Consumer Generated Advertising in Blogs”. In Neal M. Burns, Terry Daugherty, Matthew S. Eastin
(Eds) Handbook of Research on Digital Media and Advertising: User Generated Content Consumption (Vol 1), IGI Global, 248-261.
[58] Techchrunch.com (http:/ / www. techcrunch. com/ 2006/ 06/ 30/ payperpostcom-offers-to-buy-your-soul/ ): Payperpost.com offers to sell
your soul, Kirkpatrick, M. (2006, June 30).
[60] McQueen MP. (2009). Bloggers, Beware: What You Write Can Get You Sued (http:/ / online. wsj. com/ article/ SB124287328648142113.
html). WSJ.
[61] Doe v. Cahill (http:/ / caselaw. lp. findlaw. com/ data2/ delawarestatecases/ 266-2005. pdf), 884 A.2d 451 (Del. 2005).
[65] Wired Magazine, Legal Showdown in Search Fracas (http:/ / www. wired. com/ culture/ lifestyle/ news/ 2005/ 09/ 68799), Sept 8, 2005
[68] Ruling on NightJack author Richard Horton kills blogger anonymity (http:/ / technology. timesonline. co. uk/ tol/ news/ tech_and_web/
the_web/ article6509677. ece)
[74] Deltadocket.com (http:/ / deltadocket. com/ delta_downloads/ delta_downloads_CourtFiledDocuments/ Twelfth_OmnibusClaimsObjection.
pdf)
[75] See also Forget the Footnotes (http:/ / ringmar. net/ forgethefootnotes/ )
[100] Code of Conduct: Lessons Learned So Far (http:/ / radar. oreilly. com/ 2007/ 04/ code-of-conduct-lessons-learne. html), by Tim O'Reilly
Blogging 243
Further reading
• Alavi, Nasrin. We Are Iran: The Persian Blogs, Soft Skull Press, New York, 2005. ISBN 1-933368-05-5.
• Bruns, Axel, and Joanne Jacobs, eds. Uses of Blogs, Peter Lang, New York, 2006. ISBN 0-8204-8124-6.
• Blood, Rebecca. "Weblogs: A History and Perspective" (http://www.rebeccablood.net/essays/weblog_history.
html). "Rebecca's Pocket".
• Kline, David; Burstein, Dan. Blog!: How the Newest Media Revolution is Changing Politics, Business, and
Culture, Squibnocket Partners, L.L.C., 2005. ISBN 1-59315-141-1.
• Michael Gorman. "Revenge of the Blog People!" (http://archive.is/20121208194324/http://www.
libraryjournal.com/article/CA502009.html). Library Journal.
• Ringmar, Erik. A Blogger's Manifesto: Free Speech and Censorship in the Age of the Internet (http://www.
archive.org/download/ABloggersManifestoFreeSpeechAndCensorshipInTheAgeOfTheInternet/
ErikRingmarABloggersManifesto.pdf) (London: Anthem Press, 2007).
• Rosenberg, Scott, Say Everything: how blogging Began, what it's becoming, and why it matters (http://books.
google.com/books?id=opmZQrBNPssC&printsec=frontcover), New York : Crown Publishers, 2009. ISBN
978-0-307-45136-1
External links
• Computer Law and Security Report Volume 22 Issue 2, Pages 127-136 (http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VB3-4JH47F6-5&_user=10&
_handle=V-WA-A-W-AB-MsSAYZW-UUA-U-AAVYYUUEZC-AAVZBYADZC-YBADCWEZW-AB-U&
_fmt=summary&_coverDate=12/31/2006&_rdoc=5&_orig=browse&
_srch=#toc#5915#2006#999779997#619171!&_cdi=5915&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&
;_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=3a78d26b9ff73d0a9c37060c8bed6dbc) blogs, Lies and the Doocing by
Sylvia Kierkegaard (2006)
• Legal Guide for bloggers (http://www.eff.org/bloggers/lg/) by the Electronic Frontier Foundation
• Law Library Legal Blawgs Web Archive (http://lcweb2.loc.gov/diglib/lcwa/html/lawlb/lawlb-overview.
html) from the U.S. Library of Congress
Microblogging 244
Microblogging
Microblogging is a broadcast medium in the form of blogging. A microblog differs from a traditional blog in that its
content is typically smaller in both actual and aggregate file size. Microblogs "allow users to exchange small
elements of content such as short sentences, individual images, or video links".[1] These small messages are
sometimes called microposts.[2][]
As with traditional blogging, microbloggers post about topics ranging from the simple, such as "what I'm doing right
now," to the thematic, such as "sports cars." Commercial microblogs also exist to promote websites, services and
products, and to promote collaboration within an organization.
Some microblogging services offer features such as privacy settings, which allow users to control who can read their
microblogs, or alternative ways of publishing entries besides the web-based interface. These may include text
messaging, instant messaging, E-mail, digital audio or digital video.
Services
The first microblogs were known as tumblelogs. The term was coined by why the lucky stiff in a blog post on
April 12, 2005, while describing Christian Neukirchen's Anarchaia.[3]
“
Blogging has mutated into simpler forms (specifically, link- and mob- and aud- and vid- variant), but I don’t think I’ve seen a blog like Chris
Neukirchen’s Anarchaia, which fudges together a bunch of disparate forms of citation (links, quotes, flickrings) into a very long and narrow
and distracted tumblelog. ”
Jason Kottke described tumblelogs on October 19, 2005:[4]
“
A tumblelog is a quick and dirty stream of consciousness, a bit like a remaindered links style linklog but with more than just links. They
remind me of an older style of blogging, back when people did sites by hand, before Movable Type made post titles all but mandatory, blog
entries turned into short magazine articles, and posts belonged to a conversation distributed throughout the entire blogosphere. Robot Wisdom
and Bifurcated Rivets are two older style weblogs that feel very much like these tumblelogs with minimal commentary, little cross-blog
chatter, the barest whiff of a finished published work, almost pure editing...really just a way to quickly publish the "stuff" that you run across
every day on the web ”
However, by 2006 and 2007, the term microblog was used more widely for such services as provided by Tumblr and
Twitter. In May 2007, 111 microblogging sites were counted internationally.[citation needed] Among the most notable
services are Twitter, Tumblr, FriendFeed, Cif2.net, Plurk, Jaiku and identi.ca. Varieties of services and software with
microblogging features have been developed. Plurk has a timeline view that integrates video and picture sharing.
Flipter uses microblogging as a platform for people to post topics and gather audience's opinions. Emote.in has a
concept of sharing emotions, built over microblogging, with a timeline.[citation needed] PingGadget is a location based
microblogging service. Pownce, developed by Digg founder Kevin Rose among others, integrates microblogging
with file sharing and event invitations.[citation needed] Pownce was merged into SixApart in December 2008.[5]
Other leading social networking websites Facebook, MySpace, LinkedIn, Diaspora*, JudgIt, Yahoo Pulse, Google
Buzz, Google+ and XING, also have their own microblogging feature, better known as "status updates".
Services such as Lifestream, SnapChat, and Profilactic will aggregate microblogs from multiple social networks into
a single list, while other services, such as Ping.fm, will send out your microblog to multiple social networks.[citation
needed]
Internet users in China are facing a different situation. Foreign microblogging services like Twitter, Facebook, Plurk,
and Google+ are censored in China. The users use Chinese weibo services such as Sina Weibo and Tencent Weibo.
Tailored to Chinese people, these weibos are like hybrids of Twitter and Facebook. They implement basic features of
Twitter and allow users to comment to others' posts, as well as post with graphical emoticons, attach an image, music
and video files.[citation needed]
Microblogging 245
Usage
Several studies, most notably by the Harvard Business School and Sysomos, have tried to analyze the user behaviour
on microblogging services.[][] Several of these studies show that for services such as Twitter, there is a small group
of active users contributing to most of the activity.[] Sysomos' Inside Twitter [] survey, based on more than 11 million
users, shows that 10% of Twitter users account for 86% of all activity.
Twitter, Facebook, and other microblogging services are also becoming a platform for marketing and public
relations,[6] with a sharp growth in the number of social media marketers. The Sysomos study shows that this
specific group of marketers on Twitter is much more active than the general user population, with 15% of marketers
following over 2,000 people and only .29% of the Twitter public following more than 2,000 people.[]
Microblogging has also emerged as an important source of real-time news updates for recent crisis situations, such as
the Mumbai terror attacks or Iran protests.[7][8] The short nature of updates allow users to post news items quickly,
reaching its audience in seconds.
Microblogging has noticeably revolutionized the way information is consumed. It has empowered citizens
themselves to act as sensors or sources of information that could lead to consequences and influence, or even cause,
media coverage. People now share what they observe in their surroundings, information about events, and their
opinions about topics from a wide range of fields. Moreover, these services store various metadata from these posts,
such as location and time. Aggregated analysis of this data includes different dimensions like space, time, theme,
sentiment, network structure etc., and gives researchers an opportunity to understand social perceptions of people in
the context of certain events of interest.[9] Microblogging also promotes authorship. On the microblogging platform
Tumblr, the reblogging feature links the post back to the original creator.
The findings of a study by Emily Pronin of Princeton University and Harvard University's Daniel Wegner have been
cited as a possible explanation for the rapid growth of microblogging. The study suggests a link between short bursts
of activity and feelings of elation, power and creativity.[10]
While the general appeal and influence of microblogging seem to be growing continuously, mobile microblogging is
still moving at a slower pace. Among the most popular activities carried out by mobile internet users on their devices
in 2012, mobile blogging or tweeting was last on the list, with only 27% of users engaging in it.[11]
Microblogging for organizational usage

Users and organizations can set up their own microblogging service: free and open source software is available for
this purpose.[12] Hosted microblogging platforms are also available for commercial and organizational use.
Microblogging has the potential to become a new, informal communication medium, especially for collaborative
work within organizations.[][] Over the last few years communication patterns have shifted primarily from
face-to-face to more online communication in email, IM, text messaging, and other tools. However, some argue that
email is now a slow and inefficient way to communicate.[13] For instance, time-consuming 'email chains' can
develop, whereby two or more people are involved in lengthy communications for simple matters, such as arranging
a meeting.[14] The 'one-to-many' broadcasting offered by microblogs is thought to increase productivity by
circumventing this.
Another implication of remote collaboration is that there are fewer opportunities for face-to-face informal
conversations. However, microblogging has the potential to support informal communication among coworkers.
Many individuals like sharing their whereabouts and status updates with microblogging.[citation needed]
Microblogging is therefore expected to improve the social and emotional welfare of the workforce, as well as
streamline the information flow within an organization.[] It can increase opportunities to share information,[][15] help
realize and utilize expertise within the workforce,[] and help build and maintain common ground between
coworkers.[] As microblogging use continues to grow every year, it is quickly becoming a core component of
Enterprise Social Software.
Microblogging 246
Issues with microblogging

Some issues with microblogging are privacy, security, and integration.[]
Privacy is arguably a major issue because users may broadcast sensitive personal information to anyone who views
their public feed. Microblog platform providers can also cause privacy issues through altering or presetting users'
privacy options in a way users feel compromises their personal information. An example would be Google’s Buzz
platform which incited controversy in 2010 by automatically publicizing users’ email contacts as ‘followers’.[16]
Google later amended these settings.
On centralized services, where all of the Microblog's information flows through one point (i.e. servers operated by
Twitter), privacy has been a concern in that user information has sometimes been exposed to governments and courts
without the prior consent of the user who generated such supposedly private information, usually through subpoenas
or court orders. Examples can be found in recent Wikileaks related Twitter subpoenas,[][][][17] as well as various
[18][19][20][21]
other cases.
Security concerns have been voiced within the business world, since there is potential for sensitive work information
to be publicized on microblogging sites such as Twitter.[22][] This includes information which may be subject to a
superinjunction.[23]
Integration could be the hardest issue to overcome, since it can be argued that corporate culture must change to
accommodate microblogging.[citation needed]
Related concepts
Live Blogging is a derivative of microblogging that generates a continuous feed on a specific web page.
Instant messaging and IRC display status, but generally only one of a few choices, such as: available, off-line, away.
Away messages (messages displayed when the user is away) form a kind of microblogging.
In the Finger protocol, the .project and .plan files are sometimes used for status updates similar to
microblogging.[citation needed]
References
[1] Kaplan Andreas M., Haenlein Michael (2011) The early bird catches the news: Nine things you should know about micro-blogging, Business
Horizons, 54(2).
[2] (http:/ / research. hypios. com/ msm2011/ )
[3] (http:/ / redhanded. hobix. com/ inspect/ tumbleloggingAssortedLarvae. html)
[4] Tumblelogs (kottke.org) (http:/ / www. kottke. org/ 05/ 10/ tumblelogs)
[5] Pownce website (http:/ / www. pownce. com/ )
[11] Statistics on the most popular activities for mobile internet users (http:/ / www. statista. com/ statistics/ 249761/
most-popular-activities-carried-out-on-mobile-internet-devices/ ), Accenture. October 2012.
{{cs:Blog#Mikroblogy}}
Social networking
A social networking service is a platform to build social networks or social relations among people who, for
example, share interests, activities, backgrounds, or real-life connections. A social network service consists of a
representation of each user (often a profile), his/her social links, and a variety of additional services. Most social
network services are web-based and provide means for users to interact over the Internet, such as e-mail and instant
messaging. Online community services are sometimes considered as a social network service, though in a broader
sense, social network service usually means an individual-centered service whereas online community services are
group-centered. Social networking sites allow users to share ideas, pictures, posts, activities, events, and interests
with people in their network.
The main types of social networking services are those that contain category places (such as former school year or
classmates), means to connect with friends (usually with self-description pages), and a recommendation system
linked to trust. Popular methods now combine many of these, with American-based services such as Facebook,
Google+, tumblr and Twitter widely used worldwide; Nexopia in Canada;[1] Badoo,[2] Bebo,[3] VKontakte, Delphi
(online service) (also called Delphi Forums), Draugiem.lv (mostly in Latvia), Hi5, Hyves (mostly in The
Netherlands), iWiW (mostly in Hungary), Nasza-Klasa, Soup (mostly in Poland), Glocals in Switzerland, Skyrock,
The Sphere, StudiVZ (mostly in Germany), Tagged, Tuenti (mostly in Spain), and XING[4] in parts of Europe;[5] Hi5
and Orkut in South America and Central America;[6] Mxit in Africa;[7] and Cyworld, Mixi, Orkut, renren, weibo and
Wretch in Asia and the Pacific Islands.
There have been attempts to standardize these services to avoid the need to duplicate entries of friends and interests
(see the FOAF standard and the Open Source InitiativeWikipedia:Please clarify). A 2011 survey found that 47% of
American adults use a social networking service.[8]
History
The potential for computer networking to facilitate newly improved forms of computer-mediated social interaction
was suggested early on.[9] Efforts to support social networks via computer-mediated communication were made in
many early online services, including Usenet,[10] ARPANET, LISTSERV, and bulletin board services (BBS). Many
prototypical features of social networking sites were also present in online services such as America Online, Prodigy,
CompuServe, ChatNet, and The WELL.[11] Early social networking on the World Wide Web began in the form of
generalized online communities such as Theglobe.com (1995),[12] Geocities (1994) and Tripod.com (1995). Many of
these early communities focused on bringing people together to interact with each other through chat rooms, and
encouraged users to share personal information and ideas via personal webpages by providing easy-to-use publishing
tools and free or inexpensive webspace. Some communities - such as Classmates.com - took a different approach by
simply having people link to each other via email addresses. In the late 1990s, user profiles became a central feature
of social networking sites, allowing users to compile lists of "friends" and search for other users with similar
interests. New social networking methods were developed by the end of the 1990s, and many sites began to develop
more advanced features for users to find and manage friends.[13] This newer generation of social networking sites
began to flourish with the emergence of SixDegrees.com in 1997,[14] followed by Makeoutclub in 2000,[15][16] Hub
Culture and Friendster in 2002,[17] and soon became part of the Internet mainstream. Friendster was followed by
MySpace and LinkedIn a year later, and eventually Bebo. Attesting to the rapid increase in social networking sites'
popularity, by 2005, it was reported that MySpace was getting more page views than Google. Facebook,[18] launched
in 2004, became the largest social networking site in the world[19] in early 2009.[20]
Social impact
Web-based social networking services make it possible to connect people who share interests and activities across
political, economic, and geographic borders.[21] Through e-mail and instant messaging, online communities are
created where a gift economy and reciprocal altruism are encouraged through cooperation. Information is
particularly suited to gift economy, as information is a nonrival good and can be gifted at practically no cost.[22][]
Facebook and other social networking tools are increasingly the object of scholarly research. Scholars in many fields
have begun to investigate the impact of social-networking sites, investigating how such sites may play into issues of
identity, privacy,[23] social capital, youth culture, and education.[24]
Several websites are beginning to tap into the power of the social networking model for philanthropy. Such models
provide a means for connecting otherwise fragmented industries and small organizations without the resources to
reach a broader audience with interested users.[25] Social networks are providing a different way for individuals to
communicate digitally. These communities of hypertexts allow for the sharing of information and ideas, an old
concept placed in a digital environment.
In 2011, HCL Technologies conducted research that showed that 50% of British employers had banned the use of
social networking sites/services during office hours.[26][27]
Features
Typical features
According to Boyd and Ellison's (2007) article, "Why Youth (Heart) Social Network Sites: The Role of Networked
Publics in Teenage Social Life", social networking sites share a variety of technical features that allow individuals
to: construct a public/semi-public profile, articulate a list of other users that they share a connection with, and view
their list of connections within the system. The most basic of these are visible profiles with a list of "friends" who are
also users of the site. In an article entitled "Social Network Sites: Definition, History, and Scholarship," Boyd and
Ellison adopt Sunden's (2003) description of profiles as unique pages where one can "type oneself into being."[28] A
profile is generated from answers to questions, such as age, location, interests, etc. Some sites allow users to upload
pictures, add multimedia content or modify the look and feel of the profile. Others, e.g., Facebook, allow users to
enhance their profile by adding modules or "Applications."[28] Many sites allow users to post blog entries, search for
others with similar interests and compile and share lists of contacts. User profiles often have a section dedicated to
comments from friends and other users. To protect user privacy, social networks typically have controls that allow
users to choose who can view their profile, contact them, add them to their list of contacts, and so on.
Additional features
Some social networks have additional features, such as the ability to create groups that share common interests or
affiliations, upload or stream live videos, and hold discussions in forums. Geosocial networking co-opts Internet
mapping services to organize user participation around geographic features and their attributes.
There is a trend towards more interoperability between social networks led by technologies such as OpenID and
OpenSocial. In most mobile communities, mobile phone users can now create their own profiles, make friends,
participate in chat rooms, create chat rooms, hold private conversations, share photos and videos, and share blogs by
using their mobile phone. Some companies provide wireless services that allow their customers to build their own
mobile community and brand it; one of the most popular wireless services for social networking in North America is
Facebook Mobile.
Emerging trends
“ ”
The things you share are things that make you look good, things which you are happy to tie into your identity.
[]
—Hilary Mason, chief data scientist, bitly, VentureBeat, 2012
While the popularity of social networking consistently rises,[29] new uses for the technology are frequently being
observed.
At the forefront of emerging trends in social networking sites is the concept of "real-time web" and "location-based."
Real-time allows users to contribute contents, which is then broadcast as it is being uploaded - the concept is
analogous to live radio and television broadcasts. Twitter set the trend for "real-time" services, wherein users can
broadcast to the world what they are doing, or what is on their minds within a 140-character limit. Facebook
followed suit with their "Live Feed" where users' activities are streamed as soon as it happens. While Twitter focuses
on words, Clixtr, another real-time service, focuses on group photo sharing wherein users can update their photo
streams with photos while at an event. Facebook, however, remains the largest photo sharing site - Facebook
application and photo aggregator Pixable estimates that Facebook will have 100 billion photos by Summer 2012 .[30]
In April, 2012, the image-based social media network Pinterest had become the third largest social network in the
United States.[31]
Companies have begun to merge business technologies and solutions, such as cloud computing, with social
networking concepts. Instead of connecting individuals based on social interest, companies are developing
interactive communities that connect individuals based on shared business needs or experiences. Many provide
specialized networking tools and applications that can be accessed via their websites, such as LinkedIn. Others
companies, such as Monster.com, have been steadily developing a more "socialized" feel to their career center sites
to harness some of the power of social networking sites. These more business related sites have their own
nomenclature for the most part but the most common naming conventions are "Vocational Networking Sites" or
"Vocational Media Networks", with the former more closely tied to individual networking relationships based on
social networking principles.
Foursquare gained popularity as it allowed for users to "check-in" to places that they are frequenting at that moment.
Gowalla is another such service that functions in much the same way that Foursquare does, leveraging the GPS in
phones to create a location-based user experience. Clixtr, though in the real-time space, is also a location-based
social networking site, since events created by users are automatically geotagged, and users can view events
occurring nearby through the Clixtr iPhone app. Recently, Yelp announced its entrance into the location-based social
networking space through check-ins with their mobile app; whether or not this becomes detrimental to Foursquare or
Gowalla is yet to be seen, as it is still considered a new space in the Internet technology industry.[32]
One popular use for this new technology is social networking between businesses. Companies have found that social
networking sites such as Facebook and Twitter are great ways to build their brand image. According to Jody Nimetz,
author of Marketing Jive,[33] there are five major uses for businesses and social media: to create brand awareness, as
an online reputation management tool, for recruiting, to learn about new technologies and competitors, and as a lead
generation tool to intercept potential prospects.[33] These companies are able to drive traffic to their own online sites
while encouraging their consumers and clients to have discussions on how to improve or change products or
services.
Social networking services have also become a mainstream topic of academic study in various disciplines. For
example, social networking services are highly relevant to technoself studies which focus on all aspects of human
identity in a technological society.
Social networks and science

One other use that is being discussed is the use of social networks in the science communities. Julia Porter
Liebeskind et al. have published a study on how new biotechnology firms are using social networking sites to share
[34]
exchanges in scientific knowledge. They state in their study that by sharing information and knowledge with one
another, they are able to "increase both their learning and their flexibility in ways that would not be possible within a
self-contained hierarchical organization." Social networking is allowing scientific groups to expand their knowledge
base and share ideas, and without these new means of communicating their theories might become "isolated and
irrelevant".
Social networks and education

The advent of social networking platforms may also be impacting the
way(s) in which learners engage with technology in general. For a
number of years, Prensky's (2001) dichotomy between Digital Natives
and Digital Immigrants has been considered a relatively accurate
representation of the ease with which people of a certain age range—in
particular those born before and after 1980—use technology. Prensky's
theory has been largely disproved, however, and not least on account
of the burgeoning popularity of social networking sites and other
metaphors such as White and Le Cornu's "Visitors" and "Residents" The European Southern Observatory uses social
networks to engage people in astronomical
(2011) are greater currency. [35]
observations.
The use of online social networks by school libraries is also

increasingly prevalent and they are being used to communicate with potential library users, as well as extending the
services provided by individual school libraries.
Social networks and their educational uses are of interest to many researchers. According to Livingstone and Brake
(2010), “Social networking sites, like much else on the internet, represent a moving target for researchers and policy
makers.”[] Recent trends indicate that 47% of American adults use a social network.[] A national survey in 2009
found that 73% of online teenagers use SNS, which is an increase from 55% three years earlier. (Lenhart, Purcell,
Smith, & Zickuhr, 2010)[] Recent studies have shown that social network services provide opportunities within
professional education, curriculum education, and learning. However, there are constraints in this area. Researches,
especially in Africa, have disclosed that the use of social networks among students have been known to negatively
affect their academic life. This is buttressed by the fact that their use constitutes distractions, as well as that the
students tend to invest a good deal of time in the use of such technologies.
Professional uses within education

Professional use of social networking services refers to the employment of a network site to connect with other
professionals within a given field of interest. SNSs like LinkedIn, a social networking website geared towards
companies and industry professionals looking to make new business contacts or keep in touch with previous
co-workers, affiliates, and clients. Other network sites are now being used in this manner, Twitter has become [a]
mainstay for professional development as well as promotion[] and online SNSs support both the maintenance of
existing social ties and the formation of new connections. Much of the early research on online communities assume
that individuals using these systems would be connecting with others outside their preexisting social group or
location, liberating them to form communities around shared interests, as opposed to shared geography.[] Other
researchers have suggested that the professional use of network sites produce “social capital.” For individuals, social
capital allows a person to draw on resources from other members of the networks to which he or she belongs. These
resources can take the form of useful information, personal relationships, or the capacity to organize groups. As well,
networks within these services also can be established or built by joining special interest groups that others have
made, or creating one and asking others to join.[]
Curriculum uses within education

According to Doering, Beach and O’Brien, a future English curriculum needs to recognize a major shift in how
adolescents are communicating with each other.[] Curriculum uses of social networking services also can include
sharing curriculum-related resources. Educators tap into user-generated content to find and discuss
curriculum-related content for students. Responding to the popularity of social networking services among many
students, teachers are increasingly using social networks to supplement teaching and learning in traditional
classroom environments as they can provide new opportunities for enriching existing curriculum through creative,
[]
authentic and/or flexible, non-linear learning experiences. Some social networks, such as English, baby! and
LiveMocha, are explicitly education-focused and couple instructional content with an educational peer
environment.[36] The new Web 2.0 technologies built into most social networking services promote conferencing,
interaction, creation, research on a global scale, enabling educators to share, remix, and repurpose curriculum
resources. In short, social networking services can become research networks as well as learning networks.[]
Learning uses within education

Educators and advocates of new digital literacies are confident that social networking encourages the development of
transferable, technical, and social skills of value in formal and informal learning.[37] In a formal learning
environment, goals or objectives are determined by an outside department or agency. Tweeting, instant messaging,
or blogging enhances student involvement. Students who would not normally participate in class are more apt to
partake through social network services. Networking allows participants the opportunity for just-in-time learning and
higher levels of engagement.[] The use of SNSs allow educators to enhance the prescribed curriculum. When
learning experiences are infused into a website, students utilize everyday for fun, students realize that learning can
and should be a part of everyday life. It does not have to be separate and unattached.[] Informal learning consists of
the learner setting the goals and objectives. It has been claimed that media no longer just influence our culture. They
are our culture.[] With such a high number of users between the ages of 13-18, a number of skills are developed.
Participants hone technical skills in choosing to navigate through social networking services. This includes
elementary items such as sending an instant message or updating a status. The development of new media skills are
paramount in helping youth navigate the digital world with confidence. Social networking services foster learning
through what Jenkins (2006) describes as a "Participatory Culture."[] A participatory culture consists of a space that
allows engagement, sharing, mentoring, and an opportunity for social interaction. Participants of social network
services avail of this opportunity. Informal learning, in the forms of participatory and social learning online, is an
excellent tool for teachers to sneak in material and ideas that students will identify with and therefore, in a secondary
manner, students will learn skills that would normally be taught in a formal setting in the more interesting and
engaging environment of social learning.[] Sites like Twitter provide students with the opportunity to converse and
collaborate with others in real time. Social networking services provide a virtual “space” for learners. James Gee
(2004) suggests that affinity spaces instantiate participation, collaboration, distribution, dispersion of expertise, and
relatedness.[] Registered users share and search for knowledge which contributes to informal learning.
Constraints of social networking services in education

In the past, social networking services were viewed as a distraction and offered no educational benefit. Blocking
these social networks was a form of protection for students against wasting time, bullying, and invasions of privacy.
In an educational setting, Facebook, for example, is seen by many instructors and educators as a frivolous,
time-wasting distraction from schoolwork, and it is not uncommon to be banned in junior high or high school
computer labs.[] Cyberbullying has become an issue of concern with social networking services. According to the
UK Children Go Online survey of 9-19 year olds, it was found that a third have received bullying comments online.[]
To avoid this problem, many school districts/boards have blocked access to social networking services such as
Facebook, MySpace, and Twitter within the school environment. Social networking services often include a lot of
personal information posted publicly, and many believe that sharing personal information is a window into privacy
theft. Schools have taken action to protect students from this. It is believed that this outpouring of identifiable
information and the easy communication vehicle that social networking services opens the door to sexual predators,
cyberbullying, and cyberstalking.[] In contrast, however, 70% of social media using teens and 85% of adults believe
that people are mostly kind to one another on social network sites[] Recent research suggests that there has been a
shift in blocking the use of social networking services. In many cases, the opposite is occurring as the potential of
online networking services is being realized. It has been suggested that if schools block them [social networking
services], they’re preventing students from learning the skills they need.[] Banning social networking […] is not only
inappropriate but also borderline irresponsible when it comes to providing the best educational experiences for
students.[] Schools and school districts have the option of educating safe media usage as well as incorporating digital
media into the classroom experience, thus preparing students for the literacy they will encounter in the future.
Social networks and grassroots organizing

Social networks are being used by activists as a means of low-cost grassroots organizing. Extensive use of an array
of social networking sites enabled organizers of the 2009 National Equality March to mobilize an estimated 200,000
participants to march on Washington with a cost savings of up to 85% per participant over previous methods.[] The
August 2011 England riots were similarly considered to have escalated and been fuelled by this type of grassroots
organization.
Social networks and employment

A final rise in social network use is being driven by college students using the services to network with professionals
for internship and job opportunities. Many studies have been done on the effectiveness of networking online in a
college setting, and one notable one is by Phipps Arabie and Yoram Wind published in Advances in Social Network
Analysis.[38]
Many schools have implemented online alumni directories which serve as makeshift social networks that current and
former students can turn to for career advice. However, these alumni directories tend to suffer from an oversupply of
advice-seekers and an undersupply of advice providers. One new social networking service, Ask-a-peer, aims to
solve this problem by enabling advice seekers to offer modest compensation to advisers for their time.
Social network hosting service

A social network hosting service is a web hosting service that specifically hosts the user creation of web-based social
networking services, alongside related applications. Such services are also known as vertical social networks due to
the creation of SNSes that cater to specific user interests and niches; like larger, interest-agnostic SNSes, such niche
networking services may also possess the ability to create increasingly niche groups of users. An example for this is
Ning.
Social trading networks

A social trading network is a service that allows traders of financial derivatives such as Contracts for Difference or
Foreign Exchange Contracts to share their trading activity via trading profiles online. Such services are created by
financial brokers. An example of this is FX Copy, a social trading network for the online trading platform
MetaTrader 4.
Business model
Few social networks charge money for membership. In part, this may be because social networking is a relatively
[citation needed]
new service, and the value of using them has not been firmly established in customers' minds.
Companies such as MySpace and Facebook sell online advertising on their site. Their business model is based upon
large membership count, and charging for membership would be counterproductive.[39] Some believe that the deeper
information that the sites have on each user will allow much better targeted advertising than any other site can
currently provide.[40]
Social networks operate under an autonomous business model, in which a social network's members serve dual roles
as both the suppliers and the consumers of content. This is in contrast to a traditional business model, where the
suppliers and consumers are distinct agents. Revenue is typically gained in the autonomous business model via
advertisements, but subscription-based revenue is possible when membership and content levels are sufficiently
high.[41]
Social Interaction
Put simply, social networking is a way for one person to meet up with other people on the internet. People use social
networking sites for meeting new friends, finding old friends, or locating people who have the same problems or
interests they have, called niche networking.
More and more relationships and friendships are being formed online and then carried to an offline setting.
Psychologist and University of Hamburg professor Erich H. Witte says that relationships which start online are much
more likely to succeed. Witte has said that in less than 10 years, online dating will be the predominant way for
people to start a relationship.[42] One online dating site claims that 2% of all marriages begin at its site, the
equivalent of 236 marriages a day. Other sites claim 1 in 5 relationships begin online.
Social networking sites play a vital role in this area as well. Being able to meet someone as a "friend" and see what
common interests you share and how you have built up your friend base and "likes" you can truly see a fuller picture
of the person you are talking with. Most sites are free instead of being pay based which allows younger people with
stricter budgets to enjoy some of the same features as those of adults who are more likely to be able to afford pay
based sites. While not the intended or original use for these social sites, a large area of their current function has
stemmed from people wanting to meet other people in person and with the extremely busy schedules of most people,
it is a fast, reliable and easy way in which to do so that costs you little time and money (if any). Users do not
necessarily share with others the content which is of most interest to them, but rather that which projects a good
impression of themselves.[]
Issues
Privacy
Privacy concerns with social networking services have been raised growing concerns amongst users on the dangers
of giving out too much personal information and the threat of sexual predators. Users of these services also need to
be aware of data theft or viruses. However, large services, such as MySpace and Netlog, often work with law
enforcement to try to prevent such incidents.[citation needed]
In addition, there is a perceived privacy threat in relation to placing too much personal information in the hands of
large corporations or governmental bodies, allowing a profile to be produced on an individual's behavior on which
decisions, detrimental to an individual, may be taken.
Furthermore, there is an issue over the control of data—information that was altered or removed by the user may in
fact be retained and/or passed to third parties. This danger was highlighted when the controversial social networking
site Quechup harvested e-mail addresses from users' e-mail accounts for use in a spamming operation.[43]
In medical and scientific research, asking subjects for information about their behaviors is normally strictly
scrutinized by institutional review boards, for example, to ensure that adolescents and their parents have informed
consent. It is not clear whether the same rules apply to researchers who collect data from social networking sites.
These sites often contain a great deal of data that is hard to obtain via traditional means. Even though the data are
public, republishing it in a research paper might be considered invasion of privacy.[44]
Privacy on social networking sites can be undermined by many factors. For example, users may disclose personal
information, sites may not take adequate steps to protect user privacy, and third parties frequently use information
posted on social networks for a variety of purposes. "For the Net generation, social networking sites have become the
preferred forum for social interactions, from posturing and role playing to simply sounding off. However, because
such forums are relatively easy to access, posted content can be reviewed by anyone with an interest in the users'
personal information".[45][46][47]
Following plans by the UK government to monitor traffic on social networks[48] schemes similar to E-mail jamming
have been proposed for networks such as Twitter and Facebook. These would involve "friending" and "following"
large numbers of random people to thwart attempts at network analysis.
Privacy concerns have been found to differ between users according to gender and personality. Women are less
likely to publish information that reveals methods of contacting them. Personality measures openness, extraversion
and conscientiousness were found to positively affect the willingness to disclose data, while neuroticism decreases
the willingness to disclose personal information. [49]
Data mining
Through data mining, companies are able to improve their sales and profitability. With this data, companies create
customer profiles that contain customer demographics and online behavior. A recent strategy has been the purchase
and production of "network analysis software". This software is able to sort out through the influx of social
networking data for any specific company.[50] Facebook has been especially important to marketing strategists.
Facebook's controversial and new "Social Ads" program gives companies access to the millions of profiles in order
to tailor their ads to a Facebook user's own interests and hobbies. However, rather than sell actual user information,
Facebook sells tracked "social actions". That is, they track the websites a user uses outside of Facebook through a
program called Facebook Beacon.[51]
Notifications on websites
There has been a trend for social networking sites to send out only 'positive' notifications to users. For example sites
such as Bebo, Facebook, and MySpace will not send notifications to users when they are removed from a person's
friends list. Likewise, Bebo will send out a notification if a user is moved to the top of another user's friends list but
no notification is sent if they are moved down the list.
This allows users to purge undesirables from their list extremely easily and often without confrontation since a user
will rarely notice if one person disappears from their friends list. It also enforces the general positive atmosphere of
the website without drawing attention to unpleasant happenings such as friends falling out, rejection and failed
relationships.
Access to information
Many social networking services, such as Facebook, provide the user with a choice of who can view their profile.
This prevents unauthorized user(s) from accessing their information.[52] Parents who want to access their child's
MySpace or Facebook account have become a big problem for teenagers who do not want their profile seen by their
parents. By making their profile private, teens can select who may see their page, allowing only people added as
"friends" to view their profile and preventing unwanted viewing of the profile by parents. Most teens are constantly
trying to create a structural barrier between their private life and their parents.[53]
To edit information on a certain social networking service account, the social networking sites require you to login or
provide a password. This prevents unauthorized user(s) from adding, changing, or removing personal information,
pictures, and/or other data.
See also: Unauthorized access in online social networks
Potential for misuse

The relative freedom afforded by social networking services has caused concern regarding the potential of its misuse
by individual patrons. In October 2006, a fake MySpace profile created in the name of Josh Evans by Lori Janine
Drew led to the suicide of Megan Meier.[54]Wikipedia:Verifiability[55] The event incited global concern regarding
the use of social networking services for bullying purposes.
In July 2008, a Briton, Grant Raphael, was ordered to pay a total of GBP £22,000 (about USD $44,000) for libel and
breach of privacy. Raphael had posted a fake page on Facebook purporting to be that of a former schoolfriend
Matthew Firsht, with whom Raphael had fallen out in 2000. The page falsely claimed that Firsht was homosexual
and that he was dishonest.[citation needed]
At the same time, genuine use of social networking services has been treated with suspicion on the ground of the
services' misuse. In September 2008, the profile of Australian Facebook user Elmo Keep was banned by the site's
administrators on the grounds that it violated the site's terms of use. Keep is one of several users of Facebook who
were banned from the site on the presumption that their names aren't real, as they bear resemblance to the names of
characters like Sesame Street's Elmo.[56]
Unauthorized access
There are different forms where user data in social networks are accessed and updated without a user's permission.
One study[] highlighted that the most common incidents included inappropriate comments posted on social
networking sites (43%), messages sent to contacts that were never authored (25%) and change of personal details
(24%). The most incidents[] are carried out by the victim's friends (36%) or partners (21%) and one in ten victims say
their ex-partner has logged into their account without prior consent.[][] The survey found that online social network
accounts had been subject to unauthorised access in 60 million cases in 2011.[]
Risk for child safety

Citizens and governments have been concerned with misuse by child and teenagers of social networking services, in
particular in relation to online sexual predators. Overuse of social networking may also make children more
susceptible to depression and anxiety.[57]
A certain number of actions have been engaged by governments to better understand the problem and find some
solutions.Wikipedia:Citing sources A 2008 panel concluded that technological fixes such as age verification and
scans are relatively ineffective means of apprehending online predators.[58] In May 2010, a child pornography social
networking site with hundreds of members was dismantled by law enforcement. It was deemed "the largest crimes
against children case brought anywhere by anyone."[59]
Social networking can also be a risk to child safety in another way; parents can get addicted to games and neglect
their children. One instance in South Korea resulted in the death of a child from starvation.[60]
Trolling
A common misuse of social networking sites such as Facebook is that it is occasionally used to emotionally abuse
individuals. Such actions are often referred to as trolling. It is not rare for confrontations in the real world to be
translated online. [citation needed] Trolling can occur in many different forms, such as (but not limited to) defacement
of deceased person(s) tribute pages, name calling, playing online pranks on volatile individuals and controversial
comments with the intention to cause anger and cause arguments. Trolling is not to be confused with cyber-bullying.
Online bullying
Online bullying, also called cyber-bullying, is a relatively common occurrence and it can often result in emotional
trauma for the victim. Depending on the networking outlet, up to 39% of users admit to being “cyber-bullied”.[61]
Danah Boyd, a researcher of social networks quotes a teenager in her article, Why Youth (Heart) Social Network
Sites. The teenager expresses frustration towards networking sites like MySpace because it causes drama and too
much emotional stress.[62] There are not many limitations as to what individuals can post when online. Individuals
are given the power to post offensive remarks or pictures that could potentially cause a great amount of emotional
pain for another individual.
Interpersonal communication
Interpersonal communication has been a growing issue as more and more people have turned to social networking as
a means of communication. "Benniger (1987) describes how mass media has gradually replaced interpersonal
communication as a socializing force. Further, social networking sites have become popular sites for youth culture to
explore themselves, relationships, and share cultural artifacts".[63] Many teens and social networking users may be
harming their interpersonal communication by using sites such as Facebook and MySpace. Stated by Baroness
Greenfield, an Oxford University Neuroscientist, "My fear is that these technologies are infantilizing the brain into
the state of small children who are attracted by buzzing noises and bright lights, who have a small attention span and
who live for the moment."[64] The convenience that social network sites give users to communicate with one another
can also damage their interpersonal communication. Sherry Turkle, the founder and director of the MIT Initiative on
Technology and Self, stated, “Networked, we are together, but so lessened are our expectations of each other that we
feel utterly alone. And there is the risk that we come to see others as objects to be accessed--and only for the parts
we find useful, comforting, or amusing.”[65] Furthermore, social network sites can create insincere friendships,
Turkle also noted, “They nurture friendships on social-networking sites and then wonder if they are among friends.
They become confused about companionship.”[66]
Psychological effects of social networking

As social networking sites have risen in popularity over the past years, people have been spending an excessive
amount of time on the Internet in general and social networking sites in specific. This has led researchers to debate
the establishment of Internet addiction as an actual clinical disorder.[67] Social networking can also affect the extent
to which a person feels lonely. In a Newsweek article, Johannah Cornblatt explains “Social-networking sites like
Facebook and MySpace may provide people with a false sense of connection that ultimately increases loneliness in
people who feel alone.” John T. Cacioppo, a neuroscientist at the University of Chicago, claims that social
networking can foster feelings of sensitivity to disconnection, which can lead to loneliness.[68] However some
scholars have expressed that concerns about social networking are often exaggerated and poorly researched .[69]
Patents
There has been rapid growth in the number
of US patent applications that cover new
technologies related to social networking.
The number of published applications has
been growing rapidly since 2003. There are
now over 3500 published applications. As
many as 7000 applications may be currently
on file including those that haven't been
published yet.[70] Only about 400[71] of
these applications have issued as patents,
however, due largely to the multi-year
backlog in examination of business method
patents and the difficulty in getting these
patent applications allowed.[72]
It has been reported that social networking Number of US social network patent applications published per year and patents
issued per year
patents are important for the establishment
of new start-up companies.[73] It has also
been reported, however, that social networking patents inhibit innovation.[74] On June 15, 2010, the United States
Patent and Trademark Office awarded Amazon.com a patent for a "Social Networking System" based on its
ownership of PlanetAll.[75] The patent describes a Social Networking System as
A networked computer system provides various services for assisting users in locating, and establishing
contact relationships with, other users. For example, in one embodiment, users can identify other users
based on their affiliations with particular schools or other organizations. The system also provides a
mechanism for a user to selectively establish contact relationships or connections with other users, and
to grant permissions for such other users to view personal information of the user. The system may also
include features for enabling users to identify contacts of their respective contacts. In addition, the
system may automatically notify users of personal information updates made by their respective
contacts.[76]
The patent has garnered attention due to its similarity to the popular social networking site Facebook.[77]
Worker's rights
What types of speech workers are protected from being fired for on social networking websites has been an issue for
American companies with over 100 complaints as of 2011 on this topic having been made to the National Labor
Relations Board (NLRB).[] The National Labor Relations Act protects workers from being fired for "protected
concerted activity," which prevents workers from being fired for collective action, while allowing companies the
right to fire workers for individual actions they take against the company.[] Companies are concerned with the
potential damage comments online can do to public image due to their visibility and accessibility, but despite over
100 cases being presented thus far to NLRB only 1 has led to a formal ruling, leaving uncertainty as to the
boundaries of what types of speech the NLRB will ultimately put in place.[]
Decentralized architecture
Most of the existing SNS sites use one or multiple dedicated data centers to serve all its users. Such
infrastructure-based systems faces over-provisioning during non-peak hours, while may encounter service outage
during peak hours, due to the highly dynamic of SNS users' activities. There are several proposals, leveraging a
decentralized architecture to ensure the scalability of SNS sites with low infrastructure cost. These proposals include
Fethr[] uaOSN ,[] and Cuckoo .[]
Virtual identity suicide

There is a growing number of social network users who decide to quit their user account by committing a so-called
virtual identity suicide or Web 2.0 suicide. A 2013 study in the journal CyberPsychology, Behavior, and Social
Networking investigated this phenomenon from the perspective of Facebook users. The number one reason for these
users was privacy concerns (48%), being followed by a general dissatisfaction with the social networking website
(14%), negative aspects regarding social network friends (13%) and the feeling of getting addicted to the social
networking website (6%). Facebook quitters were found to be more concerned about privacy, more addicted to the
Internet and more conscientious.[78]
Breaking up
Breaking-up with a significant other is never easy to do, and new technologies are starting to make the process
easier, but also less personal. Sites such as Facebook are becoming increasingly popular tools for methods of ending
relationships, proving that although new media is being used as a tool for connecting with individuals, it is now
creating new problems associated with disconnecting from others.[79] Instead of the traditional phone call or
face-to-face interaction between individuals, people are now starting to end relationships by simply changing their
relationship status, knowing full-well that their significant other will see it shortly. The problem with that is that you
are left with no closure and the entire online world now knows you are no longer in a relationship.[80] In a 2010
study conducted online, nearly one-quarter of the 1,000 individuals surveyed found out that their own relationship
was over by seeing it on Facebook.[] New media websites have made our private lives much more public, especially
when it comes to breaking up, since updates are able to be immediately viewed by everyone in our networks (which
tend to be more people than we would normally tell personally); for example, having friends comment on your
newly changed “single” relationship status, and having to explain what happened can be distressing.
This creates further problems, as it is even more crucial to ‘save face’ after one’s relationship has been broken when
one is connected to new media technologies. Erving Goffman argues that all social life boils down to face-to-face
interactions. These interpersonal interactions are mediated by what Goffman terms as “face-work,” which are the
actions undertaken to maintain consistency with one’s face, and to uphold the expressive order of social situations.
Individuals attempt to keep a positive image of the self when interacting with others, and in order to do so, they may
have to alter their appearance or manner in some way.[81] Such face-work can also be seen in new technologies,
especially social media websites such as Facebook. If someone breaks-up with you, you can actively choose what
‘face’ you want to present to your friends, including your ex. You can choose to either post sad updates, which is the
most natural thing you would want to do, or you can ‘save face’ by posting happy updates and pictures of you going
out with your friends. Even though you may be absolutely heart-broken within, Facebook allows you to hide your
true feelings from the online world, and from your ex, by manipulating your profile. New media is being utilized as a
tool for helping users present a desirable image of themselves, enabling them to save face in difficult situations.
Nearly 35% of respondents in a study admitted to using their Facebook status to make someone think that they had
plans, even if they didn’t.[]
Many people find that the only way to really move on from a past relationship is to cut the person out of their life
completely. Social media has made this process much more complicated and difficult. In a 2012 study, 48% of the
participants stated they had remained friends with their ex on Facebook, and of these people, 88% stated they
‘creeped’ their ex after the breakup.[] Keeping your ex on Facebook can cause much distress, as you are forced to see
what they are doing (and often, it can be with a new partner). Moreover, the fact that Facebook acts as a digital
archive can also make it difficult to move on after a breakup, as re-reading and over-analyzing old messages and wall
posts, and looking through tagged photos with an ex can be a major source of distress. This is due to the fact it often
causes one to remember the good parts of a relationship, leading to feelings of confusion about the breakup.[] These
digital social networking sites leave behind a trail of one’s interactions,[82] so deleting content it is an arduous
process, and it forces us to re-read the content, thus re-creating the memories. This is much more difficult than
simply burning or throwing away an entire box of letters, photos, and mementos.[83] Additionally, this content can
still remain online; for example, after you un-tag yourself from a photo, the photo may still remain in a mutual
friend’s photo album that is easily accessible. These digital traces make it extremely difficult to forget the
relationship and leave it behind. For those who do wish to remove their ex from Facebook without going through the
hassle of sifting through their content can turn to the Killswitch [84] application, which removes all traces of your
relationship with your ex for a fee. This does not ensure the complete removal of your ex from your life though, as
70% of those who deleted their ex still attempted to creep their page in other ways, such as through using a friend’s
account.[]
There are several proposed reasons behind why some individuals choose to keep their ex-partner as a friend on
Facebook, such as: it is hard to re-add them later, your ex could be offended, it could be socially awkward if you run
into them, it feels very final, you still may hear about your ex through friends, and concerns about what your mutual
friends will think.[]
In her 2012 study, Lukacs[] suggests there are multiple strategies one can use to cope with a breakup in the age of
social media:
• deleting/blocking one's ex
• unsubscribing from posts by one's ex
• deleting mutual friends
• using self-restraint
• purging old photos from Facebook
• not specifying an individual in one's relationship status
• removing one's relationship status altogether
• staying busy; minimizing computer usage
• changing one's password
• deactivating or deleting one's Facebook account
Investigations
Social networking services are increasingly being used in legal and criminal investigations. Information posted on
sites such as MySpace and Facebook has been used by police (forensic profiling), probation, and university officials
to prosecute users of said sites. In some situations, content posted on MySpace has been used in court.[85]
Facebook is increasingly being used by school administrations and law enforcement agencies as a source of evidence
against student users. This site being the number one online destination for college students, allows users to create
profile pages with personal details. These pages can be viewed by other registered users from the same school, which
often include resident assistants and campus police who have signed up for the service.[86] One UK police force has
sifted pictures from Facebook and arrested some people who had been photographed in a public place holding a
weapon such as a knife (having a weapon in a public place is illegal).[87]
Application domains
Government applications
Social networking is more recently being used by various government agencies. Social networking tools serve as a
quick and easy way for the government to get the opinion of the public and to keep the public updated on their
activity. The Centers for Disease Control demonstrated the importance of vaccinations on the popular children's site
Whyville and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration has a virtual island on Second Life where
people can explore underground caves or explore the effects of global warming.[88] Likewise, NASA has taken
advantage of a few social networking tools, including Twitter and Flickr. They are using these tools to aid the
Review of U.S. Human Space Flight Plans Committee, whose goal it is to ensure that the nation is on a vigorous and
sustainable path to achieving its boldest aspirations in space.[89]
Business applications
The use of social networking services in an enterprise context presents the potential of having a major impact on the
world of business and work (Fraser & Dutta 2008).
Social networks connect people at low cost; this can be beneficial for entrepreneurs and small businesses looking to
expand their contact bases. These networks often act as a customer relationship management tool for companies
selling products and services. Companies can also use social networks for advertising in the form of banners and text
ads. Since businesses operate globally, social networks can make it easier to keep in touch with contacts around the
world.
Two examples of social networking being used for business purposes are LinkedIn.com and
[90]
Youngblackprofessionals.org . LinkedIn aims to interconnect professionals. LinkedIn has over 200 million users
in over 200 countries.[91] Youngblackprofessionals.org or YBP aims to do the same thing, but is targeted toward
professional minorities. .[92]
Another is the use of physical spaces available to members of a social network such as Hub Culture, an
invitation-only social network for entrepreneurs, and other business influentials, with Pavilions in major cities such
as London, UK. Having a physical presence allows members to network in the real world, as well as the virtual,
adding extra business value.
Applications for social networking sites have extended toward businesses and brands are creating their own, high
functioning sites, a sector known as brand networking. It is the idea that a brand can build its consumer relationship
by connecting their consumers to the brand image on a platform that provides them relative content, elements of
participation, and a ranking or score system. Brand networking is a new way to capitalize on social trends as a
marketing tool.
The power of social networks it beginning to permeate into internal culture of businesses where they are finding uses
for collaboration, file sharing and knowledge transfer. The term Enterprise Social Software is becoming increasingly
popular for these types of applications.
Dating applications
Many social networks provide an online environment for people to communicate and exchange personal information
for dating purposes. Intentions can vary from looking for a one time date, short-term relationships, and long-term
relationships.[93]
Most of these social networks, just like online dating services, require users to give out certain pieces of information.
This usually includes a user's age, gender, location, interests, and perhaps a picture. Releasing very personal
information is usually discouraged for safety reasons.[94] This allows other users to search or be searched by some
sort of criteria, but at the same time people can maintain a degree of anonymity similar to most online dating
services. Online dating sites are similar to social networks in the sense that users create profiles to meet and
communicate with others, but their activities on such sites are for the sole purpose of finding a person of interest to
date. Social networks do not necessarily have to be for dating; many users simply use it for keeping in touch with
friends, and colleagues.[95]
However, an important difference between social networks and online dating services is the fact that online dating
sites usually require a fee, where social networks are free.[96] This difference is one of the reasons the online dating
industry is seeing a massive decrease in revenue due to many users opting to use social networking services instead.
Many popular online dating services such as Match.com, Yahoo Personals, and eHarmony.com are seeing a decrease
in users, where social networks like MySpace and Facebook are experiencing an increase in users.[97]
The number of Internet users in the U.S. that visit online dating sites has fallen from a peak of 21% in 2003 to 10%
in 2006.[98] Whether its the cost of the services, the variety of users with different intentions, or any other reason, it
is undeniable that social networking sites are quickly becoming the new way to find dates online.
Educational applications
The National School Boards Association reports that almost 60 percent of students who use social networking talk
about education topics online, and more than 50 percent talk specifically about schoolwork. Yet the vast majority of
school districts have stringent rules against nearly all forms of social networking during the school day — even
though students and parents report few problem behaviors online.
Social networks focused on supporting relationships between teachers and their students are now used for learning,
educator professional development, and content sharing. Ning for teachers, TermWiki, Learn Central,[99]
TeachStreet and other sites are being built to foster relationships that include educational blogs, eportfolios, formal
and ad hoc communities, as well as communication such as chats, discussion threads, and synchronous forums.
These sites also have content sharing and rating features.
Social networks are also emerging as online yearbooks, both public and private. One such service is MyYearbook,
which allows anyone from the general public to register and connect. A new trend emerging is private label
yearbooks accessible only by students, parents, and teachers of a particular school, similar to Facebook's beginning
within Harvard.[citation needed]
Finance applications
The use of virtual currency systems inside social networks create new opportunities for global finance. Hub Culture
operates a virtual currency Ven used for global transactions among members, product sales[100] and financial trades
in commodities and carbon credits.[101][102] In May 2010, Carbon pricing contracts were introduced to the weighted
basket of currencies and commodities that determine the floating exchange value of Ven. The introduction of carbon
to the calculation price of the currency made Ven the first and only currency that is linked to the environment.[103]
Medical and health applications

Social networks are beginning to be adopted by healthcare professionals as a means to manage institutional
knowledge, disseminate peer to peer knowledge and to highlight individual physicians and institutions. The
advantage of using a dedicated medical social networking site is that all the members are screened against the state
[104]
licensing board list of practitioners.
A new trend is emerging with social networks created to help its members with various physical and mental
ailments.[105] For people suffering from life altering diseases, PatientsLikeMe offers its members the chance to
connect with others dealing with similar issues and research patient data related to their condition. For alcoholics and
addicts, SoberCircle gives people in recovery the ability to communicate with one another and strengthen their
recovery through the encouragement of others who can relate to their situation. DailyStrength is also a website that
offers support groups for a wide array of topics and conditions, including the support topics offered by
PatientsLikeMe and SoberCircle.
Some social networks aim to encourage healthy lifestyles in their users. SparkPeople offers community and social
networking tools for peer support during weight loss. Fitocracy and QUENTIQ are focused on exercise, enabling
users to share their own workouts and comment on those of other users.
Social and political applications

Social networking sites have recently showed a value in social and political movements.[106] In the Egyptian
revolution, Facebook and Twitter both played a pivotal role in keeping people connected to the revolt. Egyptian
activists have credited social networking sites with providing a platform for planning protest and sharing news from
Tahrir Square in real time. By presenting a platform for thousands of people to instantaneously share videos of
mainly events featuring brutality, social networking proves to be a vital tool in revolutions.[]
Open source software

There are a number of projects that aim to develop free and open source software to use for social networking
services. The projects include Anahita Social Networking Engine,[107] Diaspora, Appleseed Project,[108]
OneSocialWeb,[109] Kune, StatusNet, and Tent. These technologies are often referred to as Social engine or Social
networking engine software.
Market share
According to ComScore, up to end of November 2011:[110]
Worldwide Unique Visitors
Facebook.com 792,999,000
Twitter.com 167,903,000
LinkedIn.com 94,823,000
Google+ 66,756,000
MySpace 61,037,000
Others 255,539,000
In the media
• In December 2010, Time Magazine named Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg as person of the year.
• Released in 2010, The Social Network is a film dramatizing the origin of Facebook.
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[18] Steve Rosenbush (2005). News Corp.'s Place in MySpace (http:/ / www. businessweek. com/ technology/ content/ jul2005/
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[33] Nimetz, Jody. "Jody Nimetz on Emerging Trends in B2B Social Networking" (http:/ / www. marketing-jive. com/ 2007/ 11/
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[41] Flor, Nick V. (2000). Web Business Engineering: Using Offline Activities to Drive Internet Strategies. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley.
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article. aspx?p=20882). InformIT, March 2, 2001. Accessed 26 October 2009. Description of the autonomous business model used in social
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[43] Social network launches worldwide spam campaign (http:/ / www. e-consultancy. com/ news-blog/ 364182/
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[49] Schaar, A. K., Valdez, A. C., & Ziefle, M. (2013). The Impact of User Diversity on the Willingness to Disclose Personal Information in
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[53] boyd, danah. "Why Youth (Heart) Social Network Sites: The Role of Networked Publics in Teenage Social Life"
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[61] Computer Science Illuminated
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[84] http:/ / www. killswitchapp. com
[85] "MySpace exposes sex predators" (http:/ / www. news. com. au/ heraldsun/ story/ 0,21985,,00. html), use of its content in the courtroom:
Herald and Weekly Times (Australia) website. Retrieved on January 19, 2008.
[86] "Getting booked by Facebook" (http:/ / www. jsonline. com/ story/ index. aspx?id=670380), courtesy of campus police: Milwaukee Journal
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[87] "Police use Facebook to identify weapon carriers" (http:/ / www. journal-online. co. uk/ article/
5410-police-use-facebook-to-identify-weapon-carriers) The Journal (Edinburgh) website. Retrieved on May 11, 2009
[90] http:/ / Youngblackprofessionals. org
[93] MySpace, Facebook Add Opportunity for Love, Trouble to Online Dating (http:/ / www. foxnews. com/ story/ 0,2933,396461,00. html),
FoxNews.com website.
[94] MySpace Adds a Security Monitor (http:/ / www. npr. org/ templates/ story/ story. php?storyId=5336688), NPR.com website.
[95] Online Dating: Can Social Networks Cut In? (http:/ / www. internetnews. com/ ec-news/ article. php/ 3659911), internetnews.com website.
[97] Social networks vs. dating sites Commentary: Fragmenting may save online dating sites (http:/ / www. marketwatch. com/ news/ story/
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[98] Seeking Love Around The Web (http:/ / www. forbes. com/ 2007/ 12/ 20/ online-dating-love-tech-personal-cx_wt_1221dating. html),
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[99] learncentral.org
[102] blog.americancarbonregistry.org (http:/ / blog. americancarbonregistry. org/ redd/
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[105] Comprehensive listing of medical applications using social networking (http:/ / www. doseofdigital. com/
healthcare-pharma-social-media-wiki/ ) via Dose of Digital
Further reading
• Alemán, Ana M. Martínez; Wartman, Katherine Lynk, "Online social networking on campus: understanding what
matters in student culture" (http://books.google.com/books?id=GH4KOM3MS-sC&printsec=frontcover),
New York and London : Routledge, 1st edition, 2009. ISBN 0-415-99019-X
• Barham, Nick, Disconnected: Why our kids are turning their backs on everything we thought we knew, 1st ed.,
Ebury Press, 2004. ISBN 0-09-189586-3
• Baron, Naomi S., Always on : language in an online and mobile world (http://books.google.com/
books?id=X8-gaJM6NUIC&printsec=frontcover), Oxford ; New York : Oxford University Press, 2008. ISBN
978-0-19-531305-5
• Cockrell, Cathy, "Plumbing the mysterious practices of 'digital youth': In first public report from a 'seminal' study,
UC Berkeley scholars shed light on kids' use of Web 2.0 tools" (http://www.berkeley.edu/news/media/
releases/2008/04/28_digitalyouth.shtml), UC Berkeley News, University of California, Berkeley, NewsCenter,
28 April 2008
• Kelsey, Todd (2010), Social Networking Spaces: From Facebook to Twitter and Everything In Between (http://
books.google.ca/books?id=1EgTu8fFMJgC&lpg=PP1&ots=HUuksBAE9m&dq=Social Networking Spaces:
From Facebook to Twitter and Everything In Between&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true), Springer-Verlag,
ISBN 978-1-4302-2596-6
• Davis, Donald Carrington, "MySpace Isn't Your Space: Expanding the Fair Credit Reporting Act to Ensure
Accountability and Fairness in Employer Searches of Online Social Networking Services" (http://www.law.ku.
edu/publications/journal/pdf/v16n2/davis.pdf), 16 Kan. J.L. & Pub. Pol'y 237 (2007).
• Else, Liz; Turkle, Sherry. "Living online: I'll have to ask my friends" (http://web.mit.edu/sturkle/www/
pdfsforstwebpage/ST_Living Online.pdf), New Scientist, issue 2569, 20 September 2006. (interview)
• Glaser, Mark, Your Guide to Social Networking Online (http://www.pbs.org/mediashift/2007/08/
digging_deeperyour_guide_to_so_1.html)," PBS MediaShift, August 2007
• Powers, William, Hamlet’s Blackberry : a practical philosophy for building a good life in the digital age, 1st ed.,
New York : Harper, 2010. ISBN 978-0-06-168716-7
• Video on the History of social networks by WikiLecture (http://wikilecture.org/Social_network_service)
• C. Infant Louis Richards , "Advanced Techniques to overcome privacy issues and SNS threats" (http://
rspublication.com/ijca/oct 11pdf/1.pdf) October, 2011
Remote access
Remote access may refer to:
• Connection to a data-processing system from a remote location, for example through a virtual private network
• Remote desktop software, refers to a software or an OS feature allowing applications to be run remotely on a
server while being graphically displayed locally
• Terminal emulation - when used to interface with a remote system. May use standard tools like:
• Telnet, software used to remotely control a computer system
• ssh, secure shell often used with remote applications
• Activation of features of a business telephone system from outside the business's premises
• RemoteAccess, a DOS-based bulletin board system
• Remote Database Access, a protocol standard for database access
Collaborative software
Collaborative software or groupware is application software designed to help people involved in a common task
achieve goals. One of the earliest definitions of collaborative software is 'intentional group processes plus software to
support them.'[]
The design intent of collaborative software is to transform the way documents and rich media are shared to enable
more effective team collaboration. Collaboration, with respect to information technology, seems to have several
definitions. Understanding the differences in human interactions is necessary to ensure that appropriate technologies
are employed to meet interaction needs.
Collaboration requires individuals working together in a coordinated fashion, towards a common goal.
Accomplishing the goal is the primary purpose for bringing the team together. Collaborative software helps facilitate
action-oriented teams working together over geographic distances by providing tools that aid communication,
collaboration and the process of problem solving. Additionally, collaborative software may support project
management functions, such as task assignments, time-managing deadlines, and shared calendars. The artefacts, the
tangible evidence of the problem solving process, and the final outcome of the collaborative effort, require
documentation and may involve archiving project plans, deadlines and deliverables.
Collaborative software is a broad concept that greatly overlaps with Computer-supported cooperative work (CSCW).
Some authors argue they are equivalent. Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words According to Carstensen and Schmidt
(1999)[1] groupware is part of CSCW. The authors claim that CSCW, and thereby groupware addresses "how
collaborative activities and their coordination can be supported by means of computer systems". Software products
such as email, calendaring, text chat, wiki, and bookmarking belong to this category, whenever used for group work,
whereas the more general term social software applies to systems used outside the workplace, for example, online
dating services and social networking sites like Twitter and Facebook. It has been suggested that Metcalfe's law —
the more people who use something, the more valuable it becomes — applies to these types of software.
The use of collaborative software in the workspace creates a collaborative working environment (CWE). A
collaborative working environment supports people in both their individual and cooperative work thus giving birth to
a new class of professionals, e-professionals, who can work together irrespective of their geographical location.
Finally collaborative software relates to the notion of collaborative work systems which are conceived as any form of
human organization that emerges any time that collaboration takes place, whether it is formal or informal, intentional
or unintentional.[2] Whereas the groupware or collaborative software pertains to the technological elements of
computer supported cooperative work, collaborative work systems become a useful analytical tool to understand the
behavioral and organizational variables that are associated to the broader concept of CSCW.[3]
Origins
Douglas Engelbart first envisioned collaborative computing in 1951. Doug Engelbart - Father of Groupware,
documented his vision in 1962,[4] with working prototypes in full operational use by his research team by the
mid-1960s,[5] and held the first public demonstration of his work in 1968 in what is now referred to as "The Mother
of All Demos."[6] The following year, Engelbart's lab was hooked into the ARPANET, the first computer network,
enabling them to extend services to a broader userbase. See also Intelligence Amplification Section 4: Douglas
Engelbart, ARPANET Section on ARPANET Deployed, and the Doug Engelbart Archive Collection [7].
Online collaborative gaming software began between early networked computer users. In 1975, Will Crowther
created Colossal Cave Adventure on a DEC PDP-10 computer. As internet connections grew, so did the numbers of
users and multi-user games. In 1978 Roy Trubshaw, a student at Essex University in the UK, created the game MUD
(Multi-User Dungeon). A number of other MUDs were created, but remained a computer science novelty until the
late 1980s, when personal computers with dial-up modems began to be more common in homes, largely through the
use of multi-line Bulletin Board Systems and online service providers.

Parallel to development of MUDs were applications for online chat, video sharing and voice over IP. These would be
essential for further development. Studies at MITRE showed the value of voice and text chat, and sharing pictures
for shared understanding.
[8]
The US Government began using truly collaborative applications in the early 1990s. One of the first robust
applications was the Navy's Common Operational Modeling, Planning and Simulation Strategy (COMPASS).[9] The
COMPASS system allowed up to 6 users created point-to-point connections with one another; the collaborative
session only remained while at least one user stayed active, and would have to be recreated if all six logged out.
MITRE improved on that model by hosting the collaborative session on a server that each user logged into. Called
the Collaborative Virtual Workstation (CVW), this allowed the session to be set up in a virtual file cabinet and
virtual rooms, and left as a persistent session that could be joined later.[10] In 1996, Pavel Curtis, who had built
MUDs at PARC, created PlaceWare, a server that simulated a one-to-many auditorium, with side chat between
"seat-mates", and the ability to invite a limited number of audience members to speak. In 1997, engineers at GTE
used the PlaceWare engine in a commercial version of MITRE's CVW, calling it InfoWorkSpace (IWS). In 1998,
IWS was chosen as the military standard for the standardized Air Operations Center.[11] The IWS product was sold
to General Dynamics and then later to Ezenia.[12]
Philosophical underpinnings
Technology has long been used to bring people together. However, as distance increases, rules and protocols need to
be implemented. One seminal book on the process of working together from a distance is Virtual Teams by Jessica
Lipnack and Jeffrey Stamps.[13]
Groupware
Collaborative software was originally designated as groupware and this term can be traced as far back as the late
1980s, when Richman and Slovak (1987)[14] wrote:
"Like an electronic sinew that binds teams together, the new groupware aims to place the computer squarely in
the middle of communications among managers, technicians, and anyone else who interacts in groups,
revolutionizing the way they work."
Even further back, in 1978 Peter and Trudy Johnson-Lenz coined the term groupware; their initial 1978 definition of
groupware was, “intentional group processes plus software to support them.” Later in their article they went on to
explain groupware as “computer-mediated culture... an embodiment of social organization in hyperspace."
Groupware integrates co-evolving human and tool systems, yet is simply a single system.[]
In the early 1990s the first groupware commercial products began delivering up to their promises, and big companies
such as Boeing and IBM started using electronic meeting systems to leverage key internal projects. Lotus Notes
appeared as a major example of that product category, allowing remote group collaboration when the Internet was
still in its infancy. Kirkpatrick and Losee (1992)[15] wrote then:
"If GROUPWARE really makes a difference in productivity long term, the very definition of an office may
change. You will be able to work efficiently as a member of a group wherever you have your computer. As
computers become smaller and more powerful, that will mean anywhere."
As collaborative software evolves and migrates into the Internet itself, it contributes to the development of the
so-called Web 2.0 bringing a host of collaborative features that were originally conceived for within the corporate
network. These include functionalities such as document sharing (including group editing), group calendar and
instant messaging, web conferencing, among others.
Groupware and organizations

The study of computer-supported collaboration includes the study of collaborative software and the social
phenomena associated with it. There is a wealth of research produced about the impact of groupware in
organizations and related social and psychological issues since the early eighties. Since 1984 the great majority of
this work has been organized and communicated within the boundaries of a specialized scientific event - the
Computer Supported Cooperative Work conferences - which are held by the Association for Computing Machinery
Special Interest Group in Computer-Human Interaction biannually.
Design and implementation issues

The complexity of groupware development is still an issue. One reason for this is the socio-technical dimension of
groupware. Groupware designers do not only have to address technical issues (as in traditional software
development) but also consider the social group processes that should be supported with the groupware application.
Some examples for issues in groupware development are:
• Persistence is needed in some sessions. Chat and voice communications are routinely non-persistent and
evaporate at the end of the session. Virtual room and online file cabinets can persist for years. The designer of the
collaborative space needs to consider the information duration needs and implement accordingly.
• Authentication has always been a problem with groupware. When connections are made point-to-point, or when
log-in registration is enforced, it's clear who is engaged in the session. However, audio and unmoderated sessions
carry the risk of unannounced 'lurkers' who observe but do not announce themselves or contribute.[16][17]
• Until recently, bandwidth issues at fixed location limited full use of the tools. These are exacerbated with mobile
devices.
• Multiple input and output streams bring concurrency issues into the groupware applications.
• Motivational issues are important, especially in settings where no pre-defined group process was in place.
• Closely related to the motivation aspect is the question of reciprocity. Ellis and others [18] have shown that the
distribution of efforts and benefits has to be carefully balanced in order to ensure that all required group members
really participate.
One approach for addressing these issues is the use of design patterns for groupware design.[19] The patterns identify
recurring groupware design issues and discuss design choices in a way that all stakeholders can participate in the
groupware development process.
Groupware and levels of collaboration

Groupware can be divided into three categories depending on the level of collaboration:[20]
1. Communication can be thought of as unstructured interchange of information. A phone call or an IM Chat
discussion are examples of this.
2. Conferencing (or collaboration level, as it is called in the academic papers that discuss these levels) refers to
interactive work toward a shared goal. Brainstorming or voting are examples of this.
3. Co-ordination refers to complex interdependent work toward a shared goal. A good metaphor for understanding
this is to think about a sports team; everyone has to contribute the right play at the right time as well as adjust
their play to the unfolding situation - but everyone is doing something different - in order for the team to win.
That is complex interdependent work toward a shared goal: collaborative management.
Electronic communication tools

Electronic communication tools send messages, files, data, or documents between people and hence facilitate the
sharing of information. Examples include:
• synchronous conferencing
• asynchronous conferencing
• e-mail
• faxing
• voice mail
• Wikis
• Web publishing
• revision control
Electronic conferencing tools

Electronic conferencing tools facilitate the sharing of information, but in a more interactive way. Examples include:
• Internet forums (also known as message boards or discussion boards) — a virtual discussion platform to facilitate
and manage online text messages
• Online chat — a virtual discussion platform to facilitate and manage real-time text messages
• Instant Messaging
• Telephony — telephones allow users to interact
• Videoconferencing — networked PCs share video and audio signals
• Data conferencing — networked PCs share a common whiteboard that each user can modify
• Application sharing — users can access a shared document or application from their respective computers
simultaneously in real time
• Electronic meeting systems (EMS) — originally these were described as "electronic meeting systems," and they
were built into meeting rooms. These special purpose rooms usually contained video projectors interlinked with
numerous PCs; however, electronic meeting systems have evolved into web-based, any time, any place systems
that will accommodate "distributed" meeting participants who may be dispersed in several locations.
Collaborative management (coordination) tools

Collaborative management tools facilitate and manage group activities. Examples include:
• electronic calendars (also called time management software) — schedule events and automatically notify and
remind group members
• project management systems — schedule, track, and chart the steps in a project as it is being completed
• online proofing — share, review, approve, and reject web proofs, artwork, photos, or videos between designers,
customers, and clients.
• workflow systems — collaborative management of tasks and documents within a knowledge-based business
process
• knowledge management systems — collect, organize, manage, and share various forms of information
• enterprise bookmarking — collaborative bookmarking engine to tag, organize, share, and search enterprise data
• prediction markets — let a group of people predict together the outcome of future events
• extranet systems (sometimes also known as 'project extranets') — collect, organize, manage and share information
associated with the delivery of a project (e.g.: the construction of a building)
• social software systems — organize social relations of groups
• online spreadsheets — collaborate and share structured data and information
Gathering applications
This functionality may be included in some wikis and blogs, e.g. Wetpaint. Primarily includes:
• surveys
• project management
• feedback
• time tracking.
Wikis
Either stand-alone (such as MediaWiki), part of a suite (such as TikiWiki) or web-based such as Wetpaint. A Wiki
might include:
• workflow management
• blogs
• image and file galleries
• chat
• calendaring
• surveys
Collaborative software and human interaction

The design intent of collaborative software (groupware) is to transform the way documents and rich media are shared
in order to enable more effective team collaboration.
Collaboration, with respect to information technology, seems to have several definitions. Some are defensible but
others are so broad they lose any meaningful application. Understanding the differences in human interactions is
necessary to ensure the appropriate technologies are employed to meet interaction needs.
There are three primary ways in which humans interact: conversations, transactions, and collaborations.[21]
Conversational interaction is an exchange of information between two or more participants where the primary
purpose of the interaction is discovery or relationship building. There is no central entity around which the
interaction revolves but is a free exchange of information with no defined constraints. Communication technology
such as telephones, instant messaging, and e-mail are generally sufficient for conversational interactions.
Transactional interaction involves the exchange of transaction entities where a major function of the transaction
entity is to alter the relationship between participants. The transaction entity is in a relatively stable form and
constrains or defines the new relationship. One participant exchanges money for goods and becomes a customer.
Transactional interactions are most effectively handled by transactional systems that manage state and commit
records for persistent storage.
In collaborative interactions the main function of the participants' relationship is to alter a collaboration entity (i.e.,
the converse of transactional). The collaboration entity is in a relatively unstable form. Examples include the
development of an idea, the creation of a design, the achievement of a shared goal. Therefore, real collaboration
technologies deliver the functionality for many participants to augment a common deliverable. Record or document
management, threaded discussions, audit history, and other mechanisms designed to capture the efforts of many into
a managed content environment are typical of collaboration technologies.
Collaboration in Education- two or more co-equal individuals voluntarily bring their knowledge and experiences
together by interacting toward a common goal in the best interest of students' needs for the betterment of their
educational success.
Collaboration requires individuals working together in a coordinated fashion, towards a common goal.
Accomplishing the goal is the primary purpose for bringing the team together. Collaborative software helps facilitate
the action-oriented team working together over geographic distances by providing tools that help communication,
collaboration and the process of problem solving by providing the team with a common means for communicating
ideas and brainstorming. Additionally, collaborative software may support project management functions, such as
task assignments, time-management with deadlines and shared calendars. The artifacts, the tangible evidence of the
problem solving process, including the final outcome of the collaborative effort, typically require documentation and
archiving of the process itself, and may involve archiving project plans, deadlines and deliverables.
Collaborative software should support the individuals that make up the team and the interactions between them
during the group decision making process. Many of today's teams are composed of members from around the globe,
with some members using their second or third language in communicating with the group. This situation provides
cultural as well as linguistic challenges for any software that supports the collaborative effort. The software may also
support team membership, roles and responsibilities. Additionally, collaborative support systems may offer the
ability to support ancillary systems, such as budgets and physical resources.
Brainstorming is considered to be a tenet of collaboration, with the rapid exchange of ideas facilitating the group
decision making process. Collaborative software provides areas that support multi-user editing, such as virtual
whiteboards and chat or other forms of communication. Better solutions record the process and provide revision
history. An emerging category of computer software, a collaboration platform is a unified electronic platform that
supports synchronous and asynchronous communication through a variety of devices and channels.
An extension of groupware is collaborative media, software that allows several concurrent users to create and
manage information in a website. Collaborative media models include wiki (Comparison of wiki software) and
Slashdot models. Some sites with publicly accessible content based on collaborative software are: WikiWikiWeb,
Wikipedia and Everything2. By method used we can divide them into:
• Web-based collaborative tools
• Software collaborative tools
Along with these, already traditional, methods recent expansion of corporate use of Second Life and other virtual
worlds led to development of a newer generation of software that takes advantage of a 3D data presentation. Some of
this software (3D Topicscape) works independently from virtual worlds and simply uses 3D to support user "in
concept creation, planning, organization, development and actualization". Other [22] designed specifically to assist
in collaboration when using virtual worlds as a business platform, while yet another type of software, Collaborative
Knowledge Management (cKM) [23], bridges the gap and can be used simultaneously in Second Life and on the web.
By area served we can divide collaborative software into:
• Knowledge management tools
• Knowledge creation tools
• Information sharing tools
• Collaborative project management tools
Collaborative project management tools

Collaborative project management tools (CPMT) are very similar to collaborative management tools (CMT)
except that CMT may only facilitate and manage a certain group activities for a part of a bigger project or task, while
CPMT covers all detailed aspects of collaboration activities and management of the overall project and its related
knowledge areas.
Another major difference is that CMT may include social software, Document Management System (DMS) and
Unified Communication (UC) while CPMT mostly considers business or corporate related goals with some kind of
social boundaries most commonly used for project management.
Background
During the mid-1990s project management started to evolve into collaborative project management; this was when
the process in which a project's inputs and outputs were carried out started to change with the evolution of the
internet. Since the geographical boundaries broadened the development teams increasingly became more remote
changing the dynamics of a project team thus changing the way a project was managed.
Former chairman of General Electric, Jack Welch, believed that you could not be successful if you went it alone in a
global economy.[citation needed] Therefore Welch became a driving force behind not only collaboration between
organizations, but also collaborative project management.
Classification
Collaborative project management tools (CPMT) Collaborative management tools (CMT)
CPMT facilitate and manage social or group project based activities. In addition to most CPMT examples, CMT also includes:
Examples include: • HR and equipment management
• Electronic calendars • Time and cost management
• Project management systems • Online chat
• Resource Management • Instant messaging
• Workflow systems • Telephony
• Knowledge management • Videoconferencing
• Prediction markets • Web conferencing
• Extranet systems • Data conferencing
• Social software • Application sharing
• Online spreadsheets • Electronic meeting systems (EMS)
• Online artwork proofing, feedback, review and approval tool • Synchronous conferencing
• E-mail
• Faxing
• voice mail
• Wikis
• Web publishing
• Revision control
• Charting
• Document versioning
• Document retention
• Document sharing
• Document repository
• Evaluation and survey
Dimensions
Different frameworks could be established based on a project needs
and requirements in order to find the best software. But the best
framework is the one in which the characteristics are so well defined
that they cover all the aspects of collaboration activities and
management of the overall project.
The challenge in determining which CPM software to use is having a
good understanding of the requirements and tools needed for project
development. There are many dynamics that make project management
challenging (coordination, collaboration, sharing of knowledge and
effectiveness of pm's to facilitate the process). Choosing the right CPM
software is essential to complementing these issues. According to a
survey conducted in 2008 to find out what project managers'
expectations and uses of project management software are, the features Dimensions diagram
most important to project managers with project management software

were:
• Ability to plan using and sequence activities using CPM/PDM/PERT or Gantt Chart method,
• Produce project master schedules based on project/task/work breakdown structures, with subordinate details,
• Critical path calculation.
Dimensions Descriptions / Examples
Resources Requirements • Human

• Equipment
• Time
• Cost
System Requirements • Platform: The operating system that the system can perform on (example Windows, Mac, Linux). Platform type
single and multiple.
• Hardware: physical requirements such as hard drive space and amount of memory.
• Installation/access: How and where the software is installed.
• Types of installations stand alone, server based, web portal.
Support Requirements • Email

• 24/7 or restricted schedules
• Online or web help
• Built-in Help i.e. MS Office
• On location assistance
• Training on-site/off-site
Collaboration • Group Size: The number of users that software supports

Requirements • Email list
• Revision Control
• Charting
• Document versioning
• Document retention
• Document sharing
• Document repository
Collaboration software and voting methods

Some collaboration software allows users to vote, rate, and rank choices, often for the purpose of extracting the
collective intelligence of the participants. The votes, ratings, and rankings can be used in various ways such as:
• Producing an average rating, such as 4 out of 5 stars.
• Calculating a popularity ranking, such as a "top 10" list.
• Guiding the creation and organization of documents, such as in Wikipedia where voting helps to guide the
creation of new pages.
• Making a recommendation that may assist in making a decision.
In the case of decision making, Condorcet voting can combine multiple perspectives in a way that reduces
intransitivity. Additional uses of collaborative voting, such as voting to determine the sequence of sections in a
Wikipedia article, remain unexplored. It's worth noting that no matter what voting method is implemented, Arrow's
Impossibility Theorem guarantees that an ideal voting system can never be attained if there are three or more
alternatives that are voted upon.
In addition to allowing participants to rank pre-existing choices, some collaboration software allows participants to
add new choices to the list of choices being ranked.[24]
Voting in collaboration software is related to recommendation systems that generate appreciated recommendations
based on ratings or rankings collected from many people.
References
[1] Carstensen, P.H.; Schmidt, K. (1999). Computer supported cooperative work: new challenges to systems design. http:/ / citeseer. ist. psu. edu/
carstensen99computer. html. Retrieved 2007-08-03
[2] Beyerlein, M; Freedman, S.; McGee, G.; Moran, L. (2002). Beyond Teams: Building the Collaborative Organization. The Collaborative
Work Systems series, Wiley.
[3] Wilson, P. (1991). Computer Supported Cooperative Work: An Introduction. Kluwer Academic Pub.
[4] Augmenting Human Intellect: A Conceptual Framework (http:/ / www. dougengelbart. org/ pubs/ augment-3906. html), Douglas C.
Engelbart, 1962]
[5] A Research Center for Augmenting Human Intellect (http:/ / www. dougengelbart. org/ pubs/ augment-3954. html), Douglas C. Engelbart and
William K. English, 1968.
[6] 1968 Demo Overview and Links to Video (http:/ / www. dougengelbart. org/ firsts/ dougs-1968-demo. html)
[7] http:/ / dougengelbart. org
[8] http:/ / portal. acm. org/ citation. cfm?id=99362& dl=GUIDE& coll=GUIDE& CFID=107391064& CFTOKEN=53017578
[9] https:/ / www. cwid. js. mil/ public/ CWIDFctShtSuccesses21Mar08. doc
[10] http:/ / www. inf. unisinos. br/ ~cazella/ dss/ aula7/ p51-maybury. pdf
[11] http:/ / www. ezenia. com/ news/ infoworkspace-saves-lives-in-iraq/
[12] http:/ / www. ezenia. com/ products/ products-infoworkspace/
[13] http:/ / www. netage. com/ virtualteams/ index. html
[14] Richman, Louis, S; Slovak, Julianne; (1987, June 8) SOFTWARE CATCHES THE TEAM SPIRIT New computer programs may soon
change the way groups of people work together -- and start delivering the long-awaited payoff from office
automation.fouttounehttp://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/1987/06/08/69109/index.htm
[15] Kirkpatrick, D.; Losee, S. (1992, March 23) HERE COMES THE PAYOFF FROM PCs New network software lets brainstormers around a
table all talk at once on their keyboards. The result: measurable productivity gains from desktop computing. http:/ / money. cnn. com/
magazines/ fortune/ fortune_archive/ 1992/ 03/ 23/ 76204/ index. htm
[16] http:/ / www. mitre. org/ news/ the_edge/ june_98/ transfer. html
[17] http:/ / www. mitre. org/ news/ the_edge/ june_98/ second. html
[18] Clarence A. Ellis, Simon J. Gibbs, and Gail Rein. 1991. Groupware: some issues and experiences. Commun. ACM 34, 1 (January 1991),
39-58. DOI=10.1145/99977.99987 http:/ / doi. acm. org/ 10. 1145/ 99977. 99987
[19] Till Schümmer and Stephan Lukosch. 2007. Patterns for Computer-Mediated Interaction (Wiley Software Patterns Series). John Wiley &
Sons.
[21] Collaboration Made Easy (http:/ / www. pinnadyne. com/ index. php?option=com_content& view=article& id=74& Itemid=80)
[22] http:/ / www. theseventhsun. com/ 1107_mindMap. htm
[23] http:/ / www. ahg. com/ Second_Life/ knowledge_management/ Enterprise_Knowledge_Management_and_Collaboration_Solution. htm
[24] Software negotiation tool (http:/ / www. negotiationtool. com)
• Lockwood, A. (2008). The Project Manager's Perspective on Project Management Software Packages. Avignon,
France. (http://www.pmi.org/PDF/Lockwood - PMI Survey Report.pdf) Retrieved February 24, 2009.
• Pedersen, A.A. (2008). Collaborative Project Management. (http://www.databasedesign-resource.com/
collaborative-project-management.html) Retrieved February 25, 2009.
• Pinnadyne, Collaboration Made Easy. (http://www.pinnadyne.com/index.php?option=com_content&
view=article&id=74&Itemid=80) Retrieved November 15, 2009.
• Romano, N.C., Jr., Nunamaker, J.F., Jr., Fang, C., & Briggs, R.O. (2003). A Collaborative Project Management
Architecture.[abstract] Retrieved February 25, 2009. System Sciences, 2003. Proceedings of the 36th Annual
Hawaii International Conference on Volume, Issue, 6-9 Jan. 2003 Page(s): 12 pp From http://ieeexplore.ieee.
org/Xplore/defdeny.jsp?url=/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=x&tp=x&arnumber=1173655&isnumber=26341&
code=21&code=21#
• M.Katerine (kit) Brown, Brenda Huetture, and Char James-Tanny (2007), Managing Virtual Teams, Worldware
Publishing, Plano.
External links
• Information and Collaboration Technologies (see Chapter 5): Managing Collective Intelligence, Toward a New
Corporate Governance (http://www.axiopole.com/pdf/Managing_collective_intelligence.pdf)
• Electronic Information Exchange System (EIES) Legacy (http://eies.net/wiki/index.php/EIES Legacy)
• Doug Engelbart (http://www.dougengelbart.org/firsts/groupware.html)
Internet phone
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) is a methodology and group of technologies for the delivery of voice
communications and multimedia sessions over Internet Protocol (IP) networks, such as the Internet. Other terms
commonly associated with VoIP are IP telephony, Internet telephony, voice over broadband (VoBB), broadband
telephony, IP communications, and broadband phone service.
The term Internet telephony specifically refers to the provisioning of communications services (voice, fax, SMS,
voice-messaging) over the public Internet, rather than via the public switched telephone network (PSTN). The steps
and principles involved in originating VoIP telephone calls are similar to traditional digital telephony, and involve
signaling, channel setup, digitization of the analog voice signals, and encoding. Instead of being transmitted over a
circuit-switched network, however, the digital information is packetized and transmission occurs as Internet Protocol
(IP) packets over a packet-switched network. Such transmission entails careful considerations about resource
management different from time-division multiplexing (TDM) networks.
Early providers of voice over IP services offered business models and technical solutions that mirrored the
architecture of the legacy telephone network. Second generation providers, such as Skype, have built closed
networks for private user bases, offering the benefit of free calls and convenience, while potentially charging for
access to other communication networks, such as the PSTN. This has limited the freedom of users to mix-and-match
third-party hardware and software. Third generation providers, such as Google Talk have adopted[1] the concept of
federated VoIP – which is a departure from the architecture of the legacy networks. These solutions typically allow
dynamic interconnection between users on any two domains on the Internet when a user wishes to place a call.
VoIP systems employ session control and signaling protocols to control the signaling, set-up, and tear-down of calls.
They transport audio streams over IP networks using special media delivery protocols that encode voice, audio,
video with audio codecs and video codecs as Digital audio by streaming media. Various codecs exist that optimize
the media stream based on application requirements and network bandwidth; some implementations rely on
narrowband and compressed speech, while others support high fidelity stereo codecs. Some popular codecs include
Internet phone 276
μ-law and a-law versions of G.711, G.722 which is a high-fidelity codec marketed as HD Voice by Polycom, a
popular open source voice codec known as iLBC, a codec that only uses 8 kbit/s each way called G.729, and many
others.
VoIP is available on many smartphones, personal computers, and on Internet access devices. Calls and SMS text
messages may be sent over 3G or Wi-Fi.[]
Protocols
Voice over IP has been implemented in various ways using both proprietary protocols, as well as protocols based on
open standards. Examples of the VoIP protocols are:
• H.323
• Media Gateway Control Protocol (MGCP)
• Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)
• Media Gateway Control or H.248 (Megaco)
• Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP)
• Real-time Transport Control Protocol (RTCP)
• Secure Real-time Transport Protocol (SRTP)
• Session Description Protocol (SDP)
• Inter-Asterisk eXchange (IAX)
• Jingle XMPP VoIP extensions
• Skype protocol
The H.323 protocol was one of the first VoIP protocols that found widespread implementation for long-distance
traffic, as well as local area network services. However, since the development of newer, less complex protocols
such as MGCP and SIP, H.323 deployments are increasingly limited to carrying existing long-haul network traffic.
In particular, the Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) has gained widespread VoIP market penetration.
These protocols can be used by special-purpose software, such as Jitsi, or integrated into a web page (web-based
VoIP), like Google Talk.
Adoption
Consumer market
A major development that started in 2004 was the introduction of
mass-market VoIP services that utilize existing broadband Internet
access, by which subscribers place and receive telephone calls in much
the same manner as they would via the public switched telephone
network (PSTN). Full-service VoIP phone companies provide inbound
and outbound service with direct inbound dialing. Many offer
unlimited domestic calling for a flat monthly subscription fee. This
sometimes includes international calls to certain countries. Phone calls
between subscribers of the same provider are usually free when flat-fee
service is not available A VoIP phone is necessary to connect to a
VoIP service provider. This can be implemented in several ways:
• Dedicated VoIP phones connect directly to the IP network using Example of residential network including VoIP
technologies such as wired Ethernet or wireless Wi-Fi. They are

typically designed in the style of traditional digital business telephones.
Internet phone 277
• An analog telephone adapter is a device that connects to the network and implements the electronics and firmware
to operate a conventional analog telephone attached through a modular phone jack. Some residential Internet
gateways and cablemodems have this function built in.
• A softphone is application software installed on a networked computer that is equipped with a microphone and
speaker, or headset. The application typically presents a dial pad and display field to the user to operate the
application by mouse clicks or keyboard input.
PSTN and mobile network providers

It is becoming increasingly common for telecommunications providers to use VoIP telephony over dedicated and
public IP networks to connect switching centres and to interconnect with other telephony network providers; this is
often referred to as "IP backhaul".[2][3]
Smartphones and Wi-Fi-enabled mobile phones may have SIP clients built into the firmware or available as an
application download.
Corporate use
Because of the bandwidth efficiency and low costs that VoIP technology can provide, businesses are migrating from
traditional copper-wire telephone systems to VoIP systems to reduce their monthly phone costs. In 2008, 80% of all
new PBX lines installed internationally were VoIP.[4]
VoIP solutions aimed at businesses have evolved into unified communications services that treat all
communications—phone calls, faxes, voice mail, e-mail, Web conferences and more—as discrete units that can all
be delivered via any means and to any handset, including cellphones. Two kinds of competitors are competing in this
space: one set is focused on VoIP for medium to large enterprises, while another is targeting the small-to-medium
business (SMB) market.[5]
VoIP allows both voice and data communications to be run over a single network, which can significantly reduce
infrastructure costs.[]
The prices of extensions on VoIP are lower than for PBX and key systems. VoIP switches may run on commodity
hardware, such as personal computers. Rather than closed architectures, these devices rely on standard interfaces.[]
VoIP devices have simple, intuitive user interfaces, so users can often make simple system configuration changes.
Dual-mode phones enable users to continue their conversations as they move between an outside cellular service and
an internal Wi-Fi network, so that it is no longer necessary to carry both a desktop phone and a cellphone.
Maintenance becomes simpler as there are fewer devices to oversee.[]
Skype, which originally marketed itself as a service among friends, has begun to cater to businesses, providing
free-of-charge connections between any users on the Skype network and connecting to and from ordinary PSTN
telephones for a charge.[6]
In the United States the Social Security Administration (SSA) is converting its field offices of 63,000 workers from
traditional phone installations to a VoIP infrastructure carried over its existing data network.[7][8]
Internet phone 278
Quality of service
Communication on the IP network is perceived less reliable in contrast to the circuit-switched public telephone
network, as it does not provide a network-based mechanism to ensure that data packets are not lost, and are delivered
in sequential order.[citation needed] It is a best-effort network without fundamental Quality of Service (QoS)
guarantees. Therefore, VoIP implementations may face problems mitigating latency, packet loss and jitter.[][9]
By default, network routers handle traffic on a first-come, first-served basis. Network routers on high volume traffic
links may introduce latency that exceeds permissible thresholds for VoIP. Fixed delays cannot be controlled, as they
are caused by the physical distance the packets travel; however, latency can be minimized by marking voice packets
as being delay-sensitive with methods such as DiffServ.[]
VoIP endpoints usually have to wait for completion of transmission of previous packets, before new data may be
sent. Although it is possible to preempt (abort) a less important packet in mid-transmission, this is not commonly
done, especially on high-speed links where transmission times are short even for maximum-sized packets.[] An
alternative to preemption on slower links, such as dialup and digital subscriber line (DSL), is to reduce the maximum
transmission time by reducing the maximum transmission unit. But every packet must contain protocol headers, so
this increases relative header overhead on every link traversed, not just the bottleneck (usually Internet access) link.[]
DSL modems provide Ethernet (or Ethernet over USB) connections to local equipment, but inside they are actually
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) modems. They use ATM Adaptation Layer 5 (AAL5) to segment each
Ethernet packet into a series of 53-byte ATM cells for transmission, reassembling them back into Ethernet frames at
the receiving end. A virtual circuit identifier (VCI) is part of the 5-byte header on every ATM cell, so the transmitter
can multiplex the active virtual circuits (VCs) in any arbitrary order. Cells from the same VC are always sent
sequentially.
However, a majority of DSL providers use only one VC for each customer, even those with bundled VoIP service.
Every Ethernet frame must be completely transmitted before another can begin. If a second VC were established,
given high priority and reserved for VoIP, then a low priority data packet could be suspended in mid-transmission
and a VoIP packet sent right away on the high priority VC. Then the link would pick up the low priority VC where it
left off. Because ATM links are multiplexed on a cell-by-cell basis, a high priority packet would have to wait at most
53 byte times to begin transmission. There would be no need to reduce the interface MTU and accept the resulting
increase in higher layer protocol overhead, and no need to abort a low priority packet and resend it later.
ATM has substantial header overhead: 5/53 = 9.4%, roughly twice the total header overhead of a 1500 byte Ethernet
frame. This "ATM tax" is incurred by every DSL user whether or not he takes advantage of multiple virtual
circuits - and few can.[]
ATM's potential for latency reduction is greatest on slow links, because worst-case latency decreases with increasing
link speed. A full-size (1500 byte) Ethernet frame takes 94 ms to transmit at 128 kbit/s but only 8 ms at 1.5 Mbit/s. If
this is the bottleneck link, this latency is probably small enough to ensure good VoIP performance without MTU
reductions or multiple ATM VCs. The latest generations of DSL, VDSL and VDSL2, carry Ethernet without
intermediate ATM/AAL5 layers, and they generally support IEEE 802.1p priority tagging so that VoIP can be
queued ahead of less time-critical traffic.[]
Voice, and all other data, travels in packets over IP networks with fixed maximum capacity. This system may be
more prone to congestion[citation needed] and DoS attacks[10] than traditional circuit switched systems; a circuit
switched system of insufficient capacity will refuse new connections while carrying the remainder without
impairment, while the quality of real-time data such as telephone conversations on packet-switched networks
degrades dramatically.[]
Fixed delays cannot be controlled as they are caused by the physical distance the packets travel. They are especially
problematic when satellite circuits are involved because of the long distance to a geostationary satellite and back;
delays of 400–600 ms are typical.
Internet phone 279
When the load on a link grows so quickly that its switches experience queue overflows, congestion results and data
packets are lost. This signals a transport protocol like TCP to reduce its transmission rate to alleviate the congestion.
But VoIP usually uses UDP not TCP because recovering from congestion through retransmission usually entails too
much latency.[] So QoS mechanisms can avoid the undesirable loss of VoIP packets by immediately transmitting
them ahead of any queued bulk traffic on the same link, even when that bulk traffic queue is overflowing.
The receiver must resequence IP packets that arrive out of order and recover gracefully when packets arrive too late
or not at all. Jitter results from the rapid and random (i.e. unpredictable) changes in queue lengths along a given
Internet path due to competition from other users for the same transmission links. VoIP receivers counter jitter by
storing incoming packets briefly in a "de-jitter" or "playout" buffer, deliberately increasing latency to improve the
chance that each packet will be on hand when it is time for the voice engine to play it. The added delay is thus a
compromise between excessive latency and excessive dropout, i.e. momentary audio interruptions.
Although jitter is a random variable, it is the sum of several other random variables that are at least somewhat
independent: the individual queuing delays of the routers along the Internet path in question. Thus according to the
central limit theorem, we can model jitter as a gaussian random variable. This suggests continually estimating the
mean delay and its standard deviation and setting the playout delay so that only packets delayed more than several
standard deviations above the mean will arrive too late to be useful. In practice, however, the variance in latency of
many Internet paths is dominated by a small number (often one) of relatively slow and congested "bottleneck" links.
Most Internet backbone links are now so fast (e.g. 10 Gbit/s) that their delays are dominated by the transmission
medium (e.g. optical fiber) and the routers driving them do not have enough buffering for queuing delays to be
significant.
It has been suggested to rely on the packetized nature of media in VoIP communications and transmit the stream of
packets from the source phone to the destination phone simultaneously across different routes (multi-path
routing).[11] In such a way, temporary failures have less impact on the communication quality. In capillary routing it
has been suggested to use at the packet level Fountain codes or particularly raptor codes for transmitting extra
redundant packets making the communication more reliable.[citation needed]
A number of protocols have been defined to support the reporting of quality of service (QoS) and quality of
experience (QoE) for VoIP calls. These include RTCP Extended Report (RFC 3611), SIP RTCP Summary Reports,
H.460.9 Annex B (for H.323), H.248.30 and MGCP extensions. The RFC 3611 VoIP Metrics block is generated by
an IP phone or gateway during a live call and contains information on packet loss rate, packet discard rate (because
of jitter), packet loss/discard burst metrics (burst length/density, gap length/density), network delay, end system
delay, signal / noise / echo level, Mean Opinion Scores (MOS) and R factors and configuration information related
to the jitter buffer.
RFC 3611 VoIP metrics reports are exchanged between IP endpoints on an occasional basis during a call, and an end
of call message sent via SIP RTCP Summary Report or one of the other signaling protocol extensions. RFC 3611
VoIP metrics reports are intended to support real time feedback related to QoS problems, the exchange of
information between the endpoints for improved call quality calculation and a variety of other applications.
Rural areas in particular are greatly hindered in their ability to choose a VoIP system over PBX. This is generally
down to the poor access to superfast broadband in rural country areas. With the release of 4G data, there is a
potential for corporate users based outside of populated areas to switch their internet connection to 4G data, which is
comparatively as fast as a regular superfast broadband connection. This greatly enhances the overall quality & user
experience of a VoIP system in these areas. This method was already trialled in rural Germany, surpassing all
expectations.[12]
Internet phone 280
Layer 2
A number of protocols that deal with the data link layer and physical layer include quality-of-service mechanisms
that can be used to ensure that applications like VoIP work well even in congested scenarios. Some examples
include:
• IEEE 802.11e is an approved amendment to the IEEE 802.11 standard that defines a set of quality-of-service
enhancements for wireless LAN applications through modifications to the Media Access Control (MAC) layer.
The standard is considered of critical importance for delay-sensitive applications, such as voice over wireless IP.
• IEEE 802.1p defines 8 different classes of service (including one dedicated to voice) for traffic on layer-2 wired
Ethernet.
• The ITU-T G.hn standard, which provides a way to create a high-speed (up to 1 gigabit per second) Local area
network using existing home wiring (power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables). G.hn provides QoS by means
of "Contention-Free Transmission Opportunities" (CFTXOPs) which are allocated to flows (such as a VoIP call)
which require QoS and which have negotiated a "contract" with the network controllers.
PSTN integration
The Media VoIP Gateway connects the digital media stream, so as to complete creating the path for voice as well as
data media. It includes the interface for connecting the standard PSTN networks with the ATM and Inter Protocol
networks. The Ethernet interfaces are also included in the modern systems, which are specially designed to link calls
that are passed via the VoIP.[13]
E.164 is a global FGFnumbering standard for both the PSTN and PLMN. Most VoIP implementations support E.164
to allow calls to be routed to and from VoIP subscribers and the PSTN/PLMN.[14] VoIP implementations can also
allow other identification techniques to be used. For example, Skype allows subscribers to choose "Skype names"[15]
(usernames) whereas SIP implementations can use URIs[16] similar to email addresses. Often VoIP implementations
employ methods of translating non-E.164 identifiers to E.164 numbers and vice-versa, such as the Skype-In service
provided by Skype[17] and the ENUM service in IMS and SIP.[18]
Echo can also be an issue for PSTN integration.[19] Common causes of echo include impedance mismatches in
analog circuitry and acoustic coupling of the transmit and receive signal at the receiving end.
Number portability
Local number portability (LNP) and Mobile number portability (MNP) also impact VoIP business. In November
2007, the Federal Communications Commission in the United States released an order extending number portability
obligations to interconnected VoIP providers and carriers that support VoIP providers.[20] Number portability is a
service that allows a subscriber to select a new telephone carrier without requiring a new number to be issued.
Typically, it is the responsibility of the former carrier to "map" the old number to the undisclosed number assigned
by the new carrier. This is achieved by maintaining a database of numbers. A dialed number is initially received by
the original carrier and quickly rerouted to the new carrier. Multiple porting references must be maintained even if
the subscriber returns to the original carrier. The FCC mandates carrier compliance with these consumer-protection
stipulations.
A voice call originating in the VoIP environment also faces challenges to reach its destination if the number is routed
to a mobile phone number on a traditional mobile carrier. VoIP has been identified in the past as a Least Cost
Routing (LCR) system, which is based on checking the destination of each telephone call as it is made, and then
sending the call via the network that will cost the customer the least.[21] This rating is subject to some debate given
the complexity of call routing created by number portability. With GSM number portability now in place, LCR
providers can no longer rely on using the network root prefix to determine how to route a call. Instead, they must
now determine the actual network of every number before routing the call.
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Therefore, VoIP solutions also need to handle MNP when routing a voice call. In countries without a central
database, like the UK, it might be necessary to query the GSM network about which home network a mobile phone
number belongs to. As the popularity of VoIP increases in the enterprise markets because of least cost routing
options, it needs to provide a certain level of reliability when handling calls.
MNP checks are important to assure that this quality of service is met. Handling MNP lookups before routing a call
provides some assurance that the voice call will actually work,
Emergency calls
A telephone connected to a land line has a direct relationship between a telephone number and a physical location,
which is maintained by the telephone company and available to emergency responders via the national emergency
response service centers in form of emergency subscriber lists. When an emergency call is received by a center the
location is automatically determined from its databases and displayed on the operator console.
In IP telephony, no such direct link between location and communications end point exists. Even a provider having
hardware infrastructure, such as a DSL provider, may only know the approximate location of the device, based on
the IP address allocated to the network router and the known service address. However, some ISPs do not track the
automatic assignment of IP addresses to customer equipment.[]
IP communication provides for device mobility. For example, a residential broadband connection may be used as a
link to a virtual private network of a corporate entity, in which case the IP address being used for customer
communications may belong to the enterprise, not being the network address of the residential ISP. Such off-premise
extensions may appear as part of an upstream IP PBX. On mobile devices, e.g., a 3G handset or USB wireless
broadband adapter, the IP address has no relationship with any physical location known to the telephony service
provider, since a mobile user could be anywhere in a region with network coverage, even roaming via another
cellular company.
At the VoIP level, a phone or gateway may identify itself with a Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) registrar by its
account credentials. In such cases, the Internet telephony service provider (ITSP) only knows that a particular user's
equipment is active. Service providers often provide emergency response services by agreement with the user who
registers a physical location and agrees that emergency services are only provided to that address if an emergency
number is called from the IP device.
Such emergency services are provided by VoIP vendors in the United States by a system called Enhanced 911
(E911), based on the Wireless Communications and Public Safety Act of 1999. The VoIP E911 emergency-calling
system associates a physical address with the calling party's telephone number. All VoIP providers that provide
access to the public switched telephone network are required to implement E911,[] a service for which the subscriber
may be charged. However, end-customer participation in E911 is not mandatory and customers may opt-out of the
service.[]
The VoIP E911 system is based on a static table lookup. Unlike in cellular phones, where the location of an E911
call can be traced using assisted GPS or other methods, the VoIP E911 information is only accurate so long as
subscribers, who have the legal responsibility, are diligent in keeping their emergency address information current.
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Fax support
Support for fax has been problematic in many VoIP implementations, as most voice digitization and compression
codecs are optimized for the representation of human voice and the proper timing of the modem signals cannot be
guaranteed in a packet-based, connection-less network. An alternative IP-based solution for delivering fax-over-IP
called T.38 is available. Sending faxes using VoIP is sometimes referred to as FoIP, or Fax over IP.[22]
The T.38 protocol is designed to compensate for the differences between traditional packet-less communications
over analog lines and packet-based transmissions which are the basis for IP communications. The fax machine could
be a traditional fax machine connected to the PSTN, or an ATA box (or similar). It could be a fax machine with an
[23]
RJ-45 connector plugged straight into an IP network, or it could be a computer pretending to be a fax machine.
Originally, T.38 was designed to use UDP and TCP transmission methods across an IP network. TCP is better suited
for use between two IP devices. However, older fax machines, connected to an analog system, benefit from UDP
near real-time characteristics due to the "no recovery rule" when a UDP packet is lost or an error occurs during
transmission.[24] UDP transmissions are preferred as they do not require testing for dropped packets and as such
since each T.38 packet transmission includes a majority of the data sent in the prior packet, a T.38 termination point
has a higher degree of success in re-assembling the fax transmission back into its original form for interpretation by
the end device. This in an attempt to overcome the obstacles of simulating real time transmissions using packet based
protocol.[25]
There have been updated versions of T.30 to resolve the fax over IP issues, which is the core fax protocol. Some
newer high end fax machines have T.38 built-in capabilities which allow the user to plug right into the network and
transmit/receive faxes in native T.38 like the Ricoh 4410NF Fax Machine.[26] A unique feature of T.38 is that each
packet contains a portion of the main data sent in the previous packet. With T.38, two successive lost packets are
needed to actually lose any data. The data you lose will only be a small piece, but with the right settings and error
correction mode, there is an increased likelihood that you will receive enough of the transmission to satisfy the
requirements of the fax machine for output of the sent document.
Power requirements
Telephones for traditional residential analog service are usually connected directly to telephone company phone lines
which provide direct current to power most basic analog handsets independently of locally available electrical
power.
IP Phones and VoIP telephone adapters connect to routers or cable modems which typically depend on the
availability of mains electricity or locally generated power.[27] Some VoIP service providers use customer premises
equipment (e.g., cablemodems) with battery-backed power supplies to assure uninterrupted service for up to several
hours in case of local power failures. Such battery-backed devices typically are designed for use with analog
handsets.
Some VoIP service providers implement services to route calls to other telephone services of the subscriber, such a
cellular phone, in the event that the customer's network device is inaccessible to terminate the call.
The susceptibility of phone service to power failures is a common problem even with traditional analog service in
areas where many customers purchase modern telephone units that operate with wireless handsets to a base station,
or that have other modern phone features, such as built-in voicemail or phone book features.
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Redundancy
The historical separation of IP networks and the PSTN provided redundancy when no portion of a call was routed
over IP network. An IP network outage would not necessarily mean that a voice communication outage would occur
simultaneously, allowing phone calls to be made during IP network outages. When telephone service relies on IP
network infrastructure such as the Internet, a network failure can isolate users from all telephony communication,
including Enhanced 911 and equivalent services in other locales.Wikipedia:No original research However, the
network design envisioned by DARPA in the early 1980s included a fault tolerant architecture under adverse
conditions.
Security
The security concerns of VoIP telephone systems are similar to those of any Internet-connected device. This means
that hackers who know about these vulnerabilities can institute denial-of-service attacks, harvest customer data,
record conversations and compromise voicemail messages.[28][29][30] Compromised VoIP user account or session
credentials may enable an attacker to incur substantial charges from third-party services, such as long-distance or
international telephone calling.
The technical details of many VoIP protocols create challenges in routing VoIP traffic through firewalls and network
address translators, used to interconnect to transit networks or the Internet. Private session border controllers are
often employed to enable VoIP calls to and from protected networks. For example, Skype uses a proprietary protocol
to route calls through other Skype peers on the network, enabling it to traverse symmetric NATs and firewalls. Other
methods to traverse NAT devices involve assistive protocols such as STUN and Interactive Connectivity
Establishment (ICE).
Many consumer VoIP solutions do not support encryption of the signaling path or the media, however securing a
VoIP phone is conceptually easier to implement than on traditional telephone circuits. A result of the lack of
encryption is a relative easy to eavesdrop on VoIP calls when access to the data network is possible.[31] Free
open-source solutions, such as Wireshark, facilitate capturing VoIP conversations.
Standards for securing VoIP are available in the Secure Real-time Transport Protocol (SRTP) and the ZRTP protocol
for analog telephony adapters as well as for some softphones. IPsec is available to secure point-to-point VoIP at the
transport level by using opportunistic encryption. In 2005, Skype invited a researcher, Tom Berson, to assess the
security of the Skype software, and his conclusions are available in a published report.[32]
Government and military organizations use various security measures to protect VoIP traffic, such as voice over
secure IP (VoSIP), secure voice over IP (SVoIP), and secure voice over secure IP (SVoSIP).[33] The distinction lies
in whether encryption is applied in the telephone or in the network[34] or both. Secure voice over secure IP is
accomplished by encrypting VoIP with protocols such as SRTP or ZRTP. Secure voice over IP is accomplished by
using Type 1 encryption on a classified network, like SIPRNet.[35][36][37][38][39] Public Secure VoIP is also available
with free GNU programs and in many popular commercial VoIP programs via libraries such as ZRTP.[40]
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Caller ID
Caller ID support among VoIP providers varies, but is provided by the majority of VoIP providers. Many VoIP
service providers allow callers to configure arbitrary caller ID information, thus permitting spoofing attacks.[41]
Business-grade VoIP equipment and software often makes it easy to modify caller ID information, providing many
businesses great flexibility.
The United States enacted the Truth in Caller ID Act of 2009 on December 22, 2010. This law makes it a crime to
"knowingly transmit misleading or inaccurate caller identification information with the intent to defraud, cause harm,
or wrongfully obtain anything of value ...".[42] Rules implementing the law were adopted by the Federal
Communications Commission on June 20, 2011.[43]
Compatibility with traditional analog telephone sets

Some analog telephone adapters do not decode pulse dialing that is generated by older analog telephones, supporting
only touch-tone signaling, but pulse-to-tone converter are commercially available.[44]
Support for other telephony devices

Another challenge for VoIP implementations is the proper handling of outgoing calls from other telephony devices
such as digital video recorders, satellite television receivers, alarm systems, conventional modems and other similar
devices that depend on access to a PSTN telephone line for some or all of their functionality.
These types of calls sometimes complete without any problems, but in other cases they fail. If VoIP and cellular
substitution becomes very popular, some ancillary equipment makers may be forced to redesign equipment, because
it would no longer be possible to assume a conventional PSTN telephone line would be available in consumer's
houses.
User and administrative interfaces

Voice over IP services typically take advantage of other Internet- or web-based facilities for operation and
administration. Websites provide customer interaction, account configuration, service statistics, and billing. In
addition, VoIP communication sessions may be launched directly from web-pages or software that issue requests to
web-based facilities.
Web-based VoIP uses this integration to conduct telephone sessions without the need for a telephone set, be it
conventional POTS- or IP-based. An example is the click-to-call service, in which a software agent running in the
web-browser permits users to click on a telephone number embedded in any web page to initiate a telephone call.
The service only requires a microphone and an audio head set connected to the user's computer.
Operational cost
VoIP can be a benefit for reducing communication and infrastructure costs. Examples include:
• Routing phone calls over existing data networks to avoid the need for separate voice and data networks.[45]
• The ability to transmit more than one telephone call over a single broadband connection.
• Secure calls using standardized protocols (such as Secure Real-time Transport Protocol). Most of the difficulties
of creating a secure telephone connection over traditional phone lines, such as digitizing and digital transmission,
are already in place with VoIP. It is only necessary to encrypt and authenticate the existing data stream.
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Legal issues
As the popularity of VoIP grows, governments are becoming more interested in regulating VoIP in a manner similar
to PSTN services.[46]
Throughout the developing world, countries where regulation is weak or captured by the dominant operator,
restrictions on the use of VoIP are imposed, including in Panama where VoIP is taxed, Guyana where VoIP is
prohibited and India where its retail commercial sales is allowed but only for long distance service.[47] In Ethiopia,
where the government is nationalising telecommunication service, it is a criminal offence to offer services using
VoIP. The country has installed firewalls to prevent international calls being made using VoIP. These measures were
taken after the popularity of VoIP reduced the income generated by the state owned telecommunication company.
European Union
In the European Union, the treatment of VoIP service providers is a decision for each national telecommunications
regulator, which must use competition law to define relevant national markets and then determine whether any
service provider on those national markets has "significant market power" (and so should be subject to certain
obligations). A general distinction is usually made between VoIP services that function over managed networks (via
broadband connections) and VoIP services that function over unmanaged networks (essentially, the Internet).
The relevant EU Directive is not clearly drafted concerning obligations which can exist independently of market
power (e.g., the obligation to offer access to emergency calls), and it is impossible to say definitively whether VoIP
service providers of either type are bound by them. A review of the EU Directive is under way and should be
complete by 2007.
India
In India, it is legal to use VoIP, but it is illegal to have VoIP gateways inside India.[citation needed] This effectively
means that people who have PCs can use them to make a VoIP call to any number, but if the remote side is a normal
phone, the gateway that converts the VoIP call to a POTS call is not permitted by law to be inside India.
In the interest of the Access Service Providers and International Long Distance Operators the Internet telephony was
permitted to the ISP with restrictions. Internet Telephony is considered to be different service in its scope, nature and
kind from real time voice as offered by other Access Service Providers and Long Distance Carriers. Hence the
following type of Internet Telephony are permitted in India : (a) PC to PC; within or outside India (b) PC / a device /
Adapter conforming to standard of any international agencies like- ITU or IETF etc. in India to PSTN/PLMN
abroad. (c) Any device / Adapter conforming to standards of International agencies like ITU, IETF etc. connected to
ISP node with static IP address to similar device / Adapter; within or outside India. (d) Except whatever is described
in condition (ii) above, no other form of Internet Telephony is permitted. (e) In India no Separate Numbering
Scheme is provided to the Internet Telephony. Presently the 10 digit Numbering allocation based on E.164 is
permitted to the Fixed Telephony, GSM, CDMA wireless service. For Internet Telephony the numbering scheme
shall only conform to IP addressing Scheme of Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA). Translation of E.164
number / private number to IP address allotted to any device and vice versa, by ISP to show compliance with IANA
numbering scheme is not permitted. (f) The Internet Service Licensee is not permitted to have PSTN/PLMN
connectivity. Voice communication to and from a telephone connected to PSTN/PLMN and following E.164
numbering is prohibited in India. [48]
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Middle East
In the UAE and Oman it is illegal to use any form of VoIP, to the extent that Web sites of Skype and Gizmo5 are
blocked. Providing or using VoIP services is illegal in Oman. Those who violate the law stand to be fined 50,000
Omani Rial (about 130,317 US dollars) or spend two years in jail or both. In 2009, police in Oman have raided 121
Internet cafes throughout the country and arrested 212 people for using/providing VoIP services.
South Korea
In South Korea, only providers registered with the government are authorized to offer VoIP services. Unlike many
VoIP providers, most of whom offer flat rates, Korean VoIP services are generally metered and charged at rates
similar to terrestrial calling. Foreign VoIP providers encounter high barriers to government registration. This issue
came to a head in 2006 when Internet service providers providing personal Internet services by contract to United
States Forces Korea members residing on USFK bases threatened to block off access to VoIP services used by
USFK members as an economical way to keep in contact with their families in the United States, on the grounds that
the service members' VoIP providers were not registered. A compromise was reached between USFK and Korean
telecommunications officials in January 2007, wherein USFK service members arriving in Korea before June 1,
2007, and subscribing to the ISP services provided on base may continue to use their US-based VoIP subscription,
but later arrivals must use a Korean-based VoIP provider, which by contract will offer pricing similar to the flat rates
offered by US VoIP providers.[49]
United States
In the United States, the Federal Communications Commission requires all interconnected VoIP service providers to
comply with requirements comparable to those for traditional telecommunications service providers. VoIP operators
in the US are required to support local number portability; make service accessible to people with disabilities; pay
regulatory fees, universal service contributions, and other mandated payments; and enable law enforcement
authorities to conduct surveillance pursuant to the Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act (CALEA).
"Interconnected" VoIP operators also must provide Enhanced 911 service, disclose any limitations on their E-911
functionality to their consumers, and obtain affirmative acknowledgements of these disclosures from all
consumers.[50] VoIP operators also receive the benefit of certain US telecommunications regulations, including an
entitlement to interconnection and exchange of traffic with incumbent local exchange carriers via wholesale carriers.
Providers of "nomadic" VoIP service—those who are unable to determine the location of their users—are exempt
from state telecommunications regulation.[51]
Another legal issue that the US Congress is debating concerns changes to the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act.
The issue in question is calls between Americans and foreigners. The National Security Agency (NSA) is not
authorized to tap Americans' conversations without a warrant—but the Internet, and specifically VoIP does not draw
as clear a line to the location of a caller or a call's recipient as the traditional phone system does. As VoIP's low cost
and flexibility convinces more and more organizations to adopt the technology, the surveillance for law enforcement
agencies becomes more difficult. VoIP technology has also increased security concerns because VoIP and similar
technologies have made it more difficult for the government to determine where a target is physically located when
communications are being intercepted, and that creates a whole set of new legal challenges.[]
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Pronunciation
The acronym VoIP has been pronounced variably since the inception of the term. Apart from spelling out the
acronym letter by letter, vē'ō'ī'pē (vee-oh-eye-pee), there are three likely possible pronunciations: vō'ī'pē[needs IPA]
(vo-eye-pee) and vō'ip[needs IPA] (vo-ipp), have been used, but generally, the single syllable vŏy'p[needs IPA] (voyp, as
in voice) may be the most common within the industry.[52]
Historical milestones
• 1973: Network Voice Protocol (NVP) developed by Danny Cohen and others to carry real time voice over
Arpanet[citation needed]
• 1974: The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) published a paper titled "A Protocol for Packet
Network Interconnection".[53]
• 1974: Network Voice Protocol (NVP) first tested over Arpanet in August 1974, carrying 16k CVSD encoded
voice – first implementation of Voice over IP
• 1977: Danny Cohen, Vint Cerf, Jon Postel agree to separate IP from TCP, and create UDP for carrying real time
traffic
• 1981: IPv4 is described in RFC 791.
• 1985: The National Science Foundation commissions the creation of NSFNET.[54]
• 1986: Proposals from various standards organizationsWikipedia:Citing sources for Voice over ATM, in addition
to commercial packet voice products from companies such as StrataCom
• 1991: First Voice Over IP application, Speak Freely, released as public domain. Originally written by John
Walker and further developed by Brian C. Wiles.[55]
• 1992: Voice over Frame Relay standards development within Frame Relay Forum
• 1994: MTALK, a freeware VoIP application for Linux[56]
• 1995: VocalTec releases the first commercial Internet phone software.[57][58]
• Beginning in 1995, Intel, Microsoft and Radvision initiated standardization activities for VoIP
communications system.[59]
• 1996:
• ITU-T begins development of standards for the transmission and signaling of voice communications over
Internet Protocol networks with the H.323 standard.[60]
• US telecommunication companies petition the US Congress to ban Internet phone technology.[61]
• 1997: Level 3 began development of its first softswitch, a term they coined in 1998.[]
• 1999:
• The Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) specification RFC 2543 is released.[62]
• Mark Spencer of Digium develops the first open source private branch exchange (PBX) software (Asterisk).[63]
• 2004: Commercial VoIP service providers proliferate.
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References
[10] VOIP – Vulnerability over Internet Protocol (http:/ / www. continuitycentral. com/ feature074. htm)
[11] IEEE Multipath routing with adaptive playback scheduling for Voice over IP in Service Overlay Networks (Abstract) (http:/ / ieeexplore.
ieee. org/ xpl/ freeabs_all. jsp?arnumber=4520089)
[12] New 4G technology set to bring benefits of VoIP to rural areas (http:/ / businessvoiplondon. com/ blog/
new-4g-technology-set-to-bring-benefits-of-voip-to-rural-areas/ )
[19] Packetcable Implementation P557 – Jeff Riddel – ISBN 1-58705-181-8 Google Books Preview (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=8CNBbrxytcAC& pg=PA557& lpg=PA557& dq=PSTN+ gateway+ VOIP+ impedance+ mismatch)
[20] Keeping your telephone number when you change your service provider – FCC (http:/ / www. fcc. gov/ cgb/ consumerfacts/ numbport.
html)
[21] VoIpservice.com (http:/ / www. voipservice. com/ sip-trunking)
[22] Voip-Info.org (http:/ / www. voip-info. org/ wiki/ view/ FoIP), "FoIP".
[23] Soft-Switch.org (http:/ / soft-switch. org/ foip. html), Faxing over IP networks
[24] Umass.edu (http:/ / www-net. cs. umass. edu/ kurose/ transport/ UDP. html), UMass Discussion on UDP transmission Characteristics.
[25] Faqs.org (http:/ / www. faqs. org/ rfcs/ rfc3362. html), RFC 3362-T.38
[26] FaxSuperstore.com (http:/ / www. faxsuperstore. com/ ricoh-4410nf. html), Ricoh 4410NF
[27] ICT Regulation Tool Kit – 4.4 VOIP – Regulatory Issues – Universal Service (http:/ / www. ictregulationtoolkit. org/ en/ Section. 3083.
html)
[32] Skype.com (http:/ / download. skype. com/ share/ security/ 2005-031 security evaluation. pdf), "Skype Security Evaluation", Tom
Berson/Anagram Laboratories
[33] Disa.mil (http:/ / iase. disa. mil/ stigs/ stig/ VoIP-STIG-V2R2. pdf), Internet Protocol Telephony & Voice over Internet Protocol Security
Technical Implementation Guide
[34] Secure Voice over IP (SVoIP) vs. Voice over Secure IP (VoSIP) Installations (http:/ / www. gdc4s. com/ Documents/ Products/
SecureVoiceData/ GD-SVOIP_FAQ-w. pdf) General Dynamics C4 Systems
[35] IJCSNS.org (http:/ / paper. ijcsns. org/ 07_book/ 200706/ 20070610. pdf), Secure Voice-over-IP
[36] Sans.org (http:/ / www. sans. org/ reading_room/ whitepapers/ voip/ secure_voice_over_ip_322), SANS Institute InfoSec Reading Room
[37] JHU.edu (http:/ / www. clsp. jhu. edu/ ~cwhite/ papers/ asilo_04_LossConceal_final. pdf), Packet Loss Concealment in a Secure Voice over
IP Environment
[38] GDC4S.com (http:/ / www. gdc4s. com/ documents/ D-VIPER-14-1007_p11. pdf), State-of-the-art voice over IP encryptor
[39] Networkworld.com (http:/ / www. networkworld. com/ news/ 2009/ 041609-cellcrypt-secure-voip-heading-to. html), Cellcrypt secure VOIP
heading to BlackBerry.
[40] Freesorftwaremagazine.com (http:/ / www. freesoftwaremagazine. com/ columns/ secure_voip_calling_free_software_right_to_privacy),
Secure VOIP calling, free software, and the right to privacy
[41] VOIPSA.org (http:/ / voipsa. org/ blog/ 2006/ 09/ 29/ hello-mom-im-a-fake/ ), Blog: "Hello Mom, I'm a Fake!" (Telespoof and Fakecaller).
[44] Oldphoneworks.com (http:/ / www. oldphoneworks. com/ antique-phone-parts/ parts-and-pieces/ pulse-to-tone-converters/ )
[45] FCC.gov (http:/ / www. fcc. gov/ voip/ ), What are some advantages of VOIP?
[48] (http:/ / www. scribd. com/ doc/ 101919043/
TECHNICAL-NOTE-ON-ILLEGAL-INTERNATIONAL-LONG-DISTANCE-TELEPHONE-EXCHANGE-IN-INDIA) by Harish Kumar
Gangwar , Technical Note on illegal ILD telephone Exchange in India
[49] Stripes.com (http:/ / www. stripes. com/ article. asp?section=104& article=41826& archive=true), Stars and Stripes: USFK deal keeps VoIP
access for troops
[50] GPO.gov (http:/ / www. access. gpo. gov/ nara/ cfr/ waisidx_07/ 47cfr9_07. html), 47 C.F.R. pt. 9 (2007)
[51] FCC.gov (http:/ / www. fcc. gov/ voip/ )
[52] Voip | Define Voip at Dictionary.com (http:/ / dictionary. reference. com/ browse/ voip). Dictionary.com. Retrieved 2011-07-15.
[53] Vinton G. Cerf, Robert E. Kahn, "A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication", IEEE Transactions on Communications, Vol. 22,
No. 5, May 1974, pp. 637–648.
[59] The free Library RADVision and Intel Target Compatibility Between RADVision's H.323/320 Videoconferencing Gateway And Intel's
Business Video Conferencing And TeamStation Products. (http:/ / www. thefreelibrary. com/ RADVision+ and+ Intel+ Target+
Compatibility+ Between+ RADVision's+ . . . -a019467970) June 2, 1997 VoiP Developer Solutions (http:/ / www. radvision. com/
Developer-Solutions/ )
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External links
• Voice over IP (http://www.dmoz.org/Business/Telecommunications/Services/VoIP/) at the Open Directory
Project
Internet radio
Internet radio (also web radio, net radio, streaming radio, e-radio,
online radio, webcasting) is an audio service transmitted via the
Internet. Music streaming on the Internet is usually referred to as
webcasting since it is not transmitted broadly through wireless means.
Internet radio involves streaming media, presenting listeners with a
continuous stream of audio that cannot be paused or replayed, much
like traditional broadcast media; in this respect, it is distinct from
on-demand file serving. Internet radio is also distinct from podcasting,
which involves downloading rather than streaming. Many Internet
An Internet radio receiver in retro-style
radio services are associated with a corresponding traditional
(terrestrial) radio station or radio network. Internet-only radio stations
are independent of such associations.
Internet radio services are usually accessible from anywhere in the

world—for example, one could listen to an Australian station from
Europe or America. Some major networks like CBS Radio and Citadel
Broadcasting (except for news/talk and sports stations) in the US, and
Chrysalis in the UK restrict listening to in-country because of music
licensing and advertising concerns.[citation needed] Internet radio remains
popular among expatriates and listeners with interests that are often not
adequately served by local radio stations (such as eurodance, An Internet radio studio
progressive rock, ambient music, folk music, classical music, and
stand-up comedy). Internet radio services offer news, sports, talk, and
various genres of music—every format that is available on traditional
radio stations.
Internet radio technology
Streaming
Streaming technology is used to distribute Internet radio, typically
using a lossy audio codec. Streaming audio formats include MP3, Ogg Transmitter for internet radio
Vorbis, Windows Media Audio, RealAudio, and HE-AAC (or

aacPlus).[] Today, distribution also takes place in uncompressed format (KEXP-Uncompressed, a Seattle-based
Internet radio station; http:/ / kexp. org/ about/ uncompressedstream. asp). Audio data is continuously transmitted
serially (streamed) over the local network or internet in TCP or UDP packets, then reassembled at the receiver and
played a second or two later. The delay is called lag, and is introduced at several stages of digital audio
broadcasting.[1]
Internet radio 290
Simulation
A local tuner simulation program includes all the online radios that can also be heard in the air in the city.
History
Internet radio was pioneered by Carl Malamud. In 1993, Malamud
launched "Internet Talk Radio" which was the "first computer-radio
[2][3]
talk show, each week interviewing a computer expert.". The first
Internet concert was broadcast on June 24, 1993 by the band Severe
Tire Damage[][4]
In November 1994, Rolling Stones concert was the "first major
cyberspace multicast concert." Mick Jagger opened the concert by
saying, "I want to say a special welcome to everyone that's, uh,
The original cabin housing the (now defunct)
climbed into the Internet tonight and, uh, has got into the M-bone. And
Internet radio station Whole Wheat Radio in I hope it doesn't all collapse."[]
Talkeetna, Alaska
On November 7, 1994, WXYC (89.3 FM Chapel Hill, NC USA)
became the first traditional radio station to announce broadcasting on
the Internet. WXYC used an FM radio connected to a system at SunSite, later known as Ibiblio, running Cornell's
CU-SeeMe software. WXYC had begun test broadcasts and bandwidth testing as early as August 1994.[5] WREK
(91.1 FM, Atlanta, GA USA) started streaming on the same day using their own custom software called
CyberRadio1. However, unlike WXYC, this was WREK's beta launch and the stream was not advertised until a later
date.[6]
In 1995, Progressive Networks released RealAudio as a free download. Time magazine said that RealAudio took
"advantage of the latest advances in digital compression" and delivered "AM radio-quality sound in so-called real
time."[] Eventually, companies such as Nullsoft and Microsoft released streaming audio players as free downloads.[]
As the software audio players became available, "many Web-based radio stations began springing up."[]
In 1996, Edward Lyman created Sonicwave.com, the first American internet radio station, legally licensed by both
ASCAP and BMI, to broadcast live, 24 hours a day on the internet.[citation needed]
In March 1996, Virgin Radio - London, became the first European radio station to broadcast its full program live on
the internet.[7] It broadcast its FM signal, live from the source, simultaneously on the Internet 24 hours a day.[8]
Internet radio attracted significant media and investor attention in the late 1990s. In 1998, the initial public stock
offering for Broadcast.com set a record at the time for the largest jump in price in stock offerings in the United
States. The offering price was US$18 and the company's shares opened at US$68 on the first day of trading.[] The
company was losing money at the time and indicated in a prospectus filed with the Securities Exchange Commission
that they expected the losses to continue indefinitely.[] Yahoo! purchased Broadcast.com on July 20, 1999[] for
US$5.7 billion.[9]
With the advent of streaming RealAudio over HTTP, streaming became more accessible to a number of radio shows.
One such show, TechEdge Radio in 1997 was broadcast in 3 formats - live on the radio, live from a RealAudio
server and streamed from the web over HTTP.
In 1998, the longest running internet radio show,[] "The Vinyl Lounge", commenced netcasting from Sydney,
Australia, from Australia's first Internet Radio Station, NetFM (www.netfm.net). In 1999, Australian Telco "Telstra"
launched The Basement Internet Radio Station but it was later shut down in 2003 as it was not a viable business for
the Telco.
From 2000 onwards, most Internet Radio Stations increased their stream quality as bandwidth became more
economical. Today, most stations stream between 64 kbit/s and 128 kbit/s providing near CD quality audio.
Internet radio 291
US royalty controversy
In October 1998, the US Congress passed the Digital Millennium
Copyright Act (DMCA). One result of the DMCA is that performance
royalties are to be paid for satellite radio and Internet radio broadcasts
in addition to publishing royalties. In contrast, traditional radio
broadcasters pay only publishing royalties and no performance
[10]
royalties.
A rancorous dispute ensued over how performance royalties should be

assessed for Internet broadcasters.[9][10][][11][12][13][] Some observers
said that royalty rates that were being proposed were overly
Internet radio configuration for Penistone FM
studio burdensome and intended to disadvantage independent Internet-only
stations[10]—that "while Internet giants like AOL may be able to afford
the new rates, many smaller Internet radio stations will have to shut down."[12] The Digital Media Association
(DiMA) said that even large companies, like Yahoo! Music, might fail due to the proposed rates.[13] Some observers
said that some U.S.-based Internet broadcasts might be moved to foreign jurisdictions where US royalties do not
apply.[11]
Many of these critics organized SaveNetRadio.org, "a coalition of listeners, artists, labels and webcasters"[] that
opposed the proposed royalty rates. To focus attention on the consequences of the impending rate hike, many US
Internet broadcasters participated in a "Day of Silence" on June 26, 2007. On that day, they shut off their audio
streams or streamed ambient sound, sometimes interspersed with brief public service announcements voiced, written
and produced by popular voiceover artist Dave Solomon.[14] Notable participants included Rhapsody, Live365,
MTV, Pandora, Digitally Imported and SHOUTcast.
Some broadcasters did not participate, such as Last.fm, that had just been purchased for US $280 million by CBS
Music Group.[15] According to a Last.fm employee, they were unable to participate because participation "may
compromise ongoing license negotiations."[16]
SoundExchange, representing supporters of the increase in royalty rates, pointed out the fact that the rates were flat
from 1998 through 2005 (see above), without even being increased to reflect cost-of-living increases. They also
declared that if internet radio is to build businesses from the product of recordings, the performers and owners of
those recordings should receive fair compensation.
On May 1, 2007, SoundExchange came to an agreement with certain large webcasters regarding the minimum fees
that were modified by the determination of the Copyright Royalty Board. While the CRB decision imposed a $500
per station or channel minimum fee for all webcasters, certain webcasters represented through DiMA negotiated a
$50,000 "cap" on those fees with SoundExchange.[17] However, DiMA and SoundExchange continue to negotiate
over the per song, per listener fees.
SoundExchange has also offered alternative rates and terms to certain eligible small webcasters, that allows them to
calculate their royalties as a percentage of their revenue or expenses, instead of at a per performance rate.[18] To be
eligible, a webcaster had to have revenues of less than US $1.25 million a year and stream less than 5 million
"listener hours" a month (or an average of 6830 concurrent listeners).[19] These restrictions would disqualify
independent webcasters like AccuRadio, Digitally Imported, Club977 and others from participating in the offer, and
therefore many small commercial webcasters continue to negotiate a settlement with SoundExchange.[20]
An August 16, 2008 Washington Post article reported that although Pandora was "one of the nation's most popular
Web radio services, with about 1 million listeners daily...the burgeoning company may be on the verge of collapse"
due to the structuring of performance royalty payment for webcasters. "Traditional radio, by contrast, pays no such
fee. Satellite radio pays a fee but at a less onerous rate, at least by some measures." The article indicated that "other
Web radio outfits" may be "doom[ed]" for the same reasons.[21]
Internet radio 292
On September 30, 2008, the United States Congress passed "a bill that would put into effect any changes to the
royalty rate to which [record labels and web casters] agree while lawmakers are out of session."[22] Although royalty
rates are expected to decrease, many webcasters nevertheless predict difficulties generating sufficient revenue to
cover their royalty payments.[22]
In January 2009, the US Copyright Royalty Board announced that "it will apply royalties to streaming net services
based on revenue."[23] Since then, websites like Pandora Radio, Mog, 8tracks and even recently Google Music have
changed the way people discover and listen to music.
Popularity
In 2003, revenue from online streaming music radio was US$49 million. By 2006, that figure rose to US$500
million.[13] A February 21, 2007 "survey of 3,000 Americans released by consultancy Bridge Ratings & Research"
found that "[a]s much as 19% of U.S. consumers 12 and older listen to Web-based radio stations." In other words,
there were "some 57 million weekly listeners of Internet radio programs. More people listen to online radio than to
satellite radio, high-definition radio, podcasts, or cell-phone-based radio combined."[13][24] An April 2008 Arbitron
survey[] showed that, in the US, more than one in seven persons aged 25–54 years old listen to online radio each
week.[] In 2008, 13 percent of the American population listened to the radio online, compared to 11 percent in 2007.
Internet radio functionality is also built into many dedicated Internet radio devices, which give an FM like receiver
user experience.
References
[1] Hoeg, p 43.
[4] Savetz, K., Randall, N., and Lepage, Y., " MBONE: Multicasting Tomorrow's Internet (http:/ / www. savetz. com/ mbone/ )" (in the Musical
Events (http:/ / www. savetz. com/ mbone/ ch6_4. html) section: "Severe Tire Damage was the first live band on the Internet. On June 24,
1993"), John Wiley, 1996, ISBN 1-56884-723-8
[5] WXYC's groundbreaking internet simulcast is now 10 years old (http:/ / wxyc. org/ about/ first/ ) November 12, 2004. WXYC Chapel Hill,
NC, 89.3 FM.
[6] We got here first. Sort of. (http:/ / www. wrek. org/ ?q=wreknet-first) WREK Atlanta, 91.1 FM.
[9] Doc Searls, (July 17, 2002) "Why Are So Many Internet Radio Stations Still on the Air?" (http:/ / www. linuxjournal. com/ article/ 6218)
Linux Journal. Retrieved 2010-03-14.
[10] Michael Roberts (May 2, 2002). "Digital Dilemma: Will new royalty fees kill Web radio?" (http:/ / www. westword. com/ 2002-05-02/
news/ digital-dilemma/ ). Westword. Retrieved 2010-03-14.
[11] Michael Geist (April 9, 2007). Web radio may stream north to Canada (http:/ / www. thestar. com/ sciencetech/ article/ 200867). The
Toronto Star.
[12] Gray, Hiawatha (March 14, 2007). Royalty hike could mute Internet radio: Smaller stations say rise will be too much (http:/ / www. boston.
com/ business/ technology/ articles/ 2007/ 03/ 14/ royalty_hike_could_mute_internet_radio/ ), The Boston Globe.
[13] Olga Kharif, The Last Days of Internet Radio? (http:/ / www. businessweek. com/ technology/ content/ mar2007/ tc20070307_534338. htm),
March 7, 2007. Retrieved on March 7, 2007.
[14] Official SaveNetRadio PSAs & Day Of Silence Network Audio (http:/ / www. wzfb. com/ savenetradio/ ). The Toronto Star.
[15] Duncan Riley (May 30, 2007). CBS Acquires Europe’s Last.FM for $280 million (http:/ / www. techcrunch. com/ 2007/ 05/ 30/
cbs-acquires-lastfm-for-280m/ ) Techcrunch. Retrieved 2010-03-14.
[16] Russ Garrett (June 25, 2007). Post by Russ on Last.fm Forum - Day of Silence, June 25, 2007 (http:/ / www. last. fm/ forum/ 23/ _/ 296674/
2#f4141933). Retrieved 2012-06-24.
[19] Rusty Hodge, (August 1, 2007) SoundExchange extends (not very good) offer to small webcasters (http:/ / somafm. com/ blogs/ rusty/
2007_08_01_archive. html). SomaFM. Retrieved 2010-03-14.
[20] David Oxenford (September 19, 2007) SoundExchange Announces 24 Agreements - But Not One a Settlement With Small Webcasters
(http:/ / www. broadcastlawblog. com/ archives/
internet-radio-soundexchange-announces-24-agreements-but-not-one-a-settlement-with-small-webcasters. html). Broadcast Law Blog.
[21] Peter Whoriskey (August 16, 2008) Giant Of Internet Nears Its 'Last Stand' (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ content/ article/
2008/ 08/ 15/ AR2008081503367. html). The Washington Post. Retrieved 2010-03-14.
[22] Miller, Cain Claire (Oct.27, 2008) Even If Royalties for Web Radio Fall, Revenue Remains Elusive (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 10/
27/ technology/ internet/ 27radio. html), The New York Times.
[23] Scott M. Fulton, III (January 29, 2009) Copyright Board begrudgingly adopts revenue-based streaming royalties (http:/ / www. betanews.
com/ article/ Copyright_Board_begrudgingly_adopts_revenuebased_streaming_royalties/ 1233268577). BetaNews.com. Retrieved
Internet radio 293
2010-03-14.
[24] The "HD" in "HD radio" actually stands for hybrid digital, not high-definition. It's hybrid because analog and digital signals are broadcast
together.
Further reading
• "VOA: First on the Internet," by Chris Kern (http://www.chriskern.net/history/voaFirstOnTheInternet.html)
(2006)
• Priestman, Chris (2001). Web Radio: Radio Production for Internet Streaming. Focal Press.
ISBN 978-0-240-51635-6.
Internet television
Internet television (or online television) is the digital distribution of television content via the Internet.
Web television is a similar term often used to characterize short programs or videos created by a wide variety of
companies and individuals, or Internet Protocol television (IPTV) - an emerging Internet technology standard for use
by television broadcasters. Some Internet television is known as catch-up TV. Internet television is a general term
that covers the delivery of television shows and other video content over the Internet by video streaming technology,
typically by major traditional television broadcasters. It does not describe a technology used to deliver content.
Internet television has become very popular through services such as RTÉ Player in Ireland; BBC iPlayer, 4oD, ITV
Player (also STV Player and UTV Player) and Demand Five in the United Kingdom; Hulu in the United States;
Nederland 24 in the Netherlands; ABC iview and Australia Live TV in Australia; Tivibu in Turkey; iWanTV! in the
Philippines. See List of Internet television providers.
Concept
Internet television allows the users to choose the content or the television show they want to watch from an archive
of content or from a channel directory. The two forms of viewing Internet television are streaming the content
directly to a media player or simply downloading the media to the user's computer. With the "TV on Demand"
market growing, these on-demand websites or applications are essential for major television broadcasters. For
example, the BBC iPlayer brings in users which stream more than one million videos per week, with one of the
BBC's headline shows The Apprentice taking over three percent to five percent of the UK's Internet traffic due to
people watching the first episode on the BBC iPlayer. Availability of online TV content continues to grow. As an
example, in Canada as of May 2011 there were more than 600 TV shows available for free streaming, including
several major titles like Survivor and The Daily Show with Jon Stewart.[1]
Every night the use of on-demand television peaks at around 10 pm.[2] Most providers of the service provide several
different formats and quality controls so that the service can be viewed on many different devices. Some services
now offer a HD service alongside their SD, streaming is the same but offers the quality of HD to the device being
used, as long as it is using a HD screen. During Peak times the BBC iPlayer transmits 12 GB (gigabytes) of
information per second.[3] Over the course of a month the iPlayer sends 7 PB (petabytes) of information.
Before 2006, most catch-up services used peer-to-peer (P2P) networking, in which users downloaded an application
and data would be shared between the users rather than the service provider giving the now more commonly used
streaming method. Now most service providers have moved away from the P2P systems and are now using the
streaming media. The old P2P service was selected because the existing infrastructure could not handle the
bandwidth necessary for centralized streaming distribution. Some consumers didn't like their upload bandwidth
being consumed by their video player, which partially motivated the rollout of centralized streaming distribution.[4]
Launching in March 2012 in New York City, Aereo streams network TV only to New York customers over the
Internet. Broadcasters filed lawsuits against Aereo which Aereo captured broadcast signals and streaming the content
to Aereo's customers without paying broadcasters. In mid-July 2012, a federal judge sided with the Aereo start-up.
Aereo planned to expand it to every major metropolitan area by the end of 2013.[5]
Market competitors
Many providers of Internet television services exist including conventional television stations that have taken
advantage of the Internet as a way to continue showing television shows after they have been broadcast often
advertised as "on-demand" and "catch-up" services. Today, almost every major broadcaster around the world is
operating an Internet television platform.[6] Examples include the BBC, which introduced the BBC iPlayer on 25
June 2008 as an extension to its "RadioPlayer" and already existing streamed video-clip content, and Channel 4 that
launched 4oD ("4 on Demand") in November 2006 allowing users to watch recently shown content. Most Internet
television services allow users to view content free of charge; however, some content is for a fee.
Control
Controlling content on the Internet presents a challenge for most providers; to try to ensure that a user is allowed to
view content such as content with age certificates, providers use methods such as parental controls that allows
restrictions to be placed upon the use and access of certificated material. The BBC iPlayer makes use of a parental
control system giving parents the option to "lock" content, meaning that a password would have to be used to access
it. Flagging systems can be used to warn a user that content may be certified or that it is intended for viewing
post-watershed. Honor systems are also used where users are asked for their dates of birth or age to verify if they are
able to view certain content.
Archives
An archive is a collection of information and media much like a library or interactive-storage facility. It is a
necessity for an on-demand media service to maintain archives so that users can watch content that has already been
aired on standard-broadcast television. However, these archives can vary from a few weeks to months to years,
depending on the curator and the type of content.
For example, the BBC iPlayer's shows are in general available for up to seven days after their original broadcast.[7]
This so-called "seven-day catch-up" model seems to become an industry standard for Internet television services in
many countries around the world.[8] However, some shows may only be available for shorter periods. Others, such as
the BBC's Panorama, may be available for an extended period because of the shows documentary nature or its
popularity.
In contrast, 4oD channel 4's on-demand service[9] offers many of its television shows that were originally aired years
ago. An example of this is the comedy The IT Crowd where users can view the full series on the Internet player. The
same is true for other hit channel 4 comedies such as The Inbetweeners and Black Books.
The benefit of large archives, is that they bring in far more users who, in turn, watch more media, leading to a wider
audience base and more advertising revenue. Large archives will also mean the user will spend more time on that
website rather than a competitors, leading to starvation of demand for the competitors.
Having an extensive archive, however, can bring problems along with benefits. Large archives are expensive to
maintain, server farms and mass storage is needed along with ample bandwidth to transmit it all. Vast archives can
be hard to catalogue and sort so that it is accessible to users.
Broadcasting rights
Broadcasting rights vary from country to country and even within provinces of countries. These rights govern the
distribution of copyrighted content and media and allow the sole distribution of that content at any one time.
An example of content only being aired in certain countries is BBC iPlayer. The BBC checks a user's IP address to
make sure that only users located in the UK can stream content from the BBC. The BBC only allows free use of their
product for users within the UK as those users have paid for a television license that funds part of the BBC. This IP
address check is not foolproof as the user may be accessing the BBC website through a VPN or Proxy Server.
Broadcasting rights can also be restricted to allowing a broadcaster rights to distribute that content for a limited time.
Channel 4's online service 4oD can only stream shows created in the US by companies such as HBO for thirty days
after they are aired on one of the Channel 4 group channels. This is to boost DVD sales for the companies who
produce that media.
Some companies pay very large amounts for broadcasting rights with sports and US sitcoms usually fetching the
highest price from UK-based broadcasters.
Profits and costs

With the exception of Internet-connectivity costs many online-television channels or sites are free. These sites
maintain this free-television policy through the use of video advertising, short commercials and banner
advertisements may show up before a video is played. An example of this is on the abc.com catch-up website; in
place of the advertisement breaks on normal television, a short thirty-second advertisement is played.
Technologies used for Internet television

The Hybrid Broadcast Broadband TV (HbbTV) consortium of industry companies (such as SES, Humax, Philips,
and ANT Software) is currently promoting and establishing an open European standard (called HbbTV) for hybrid
set-top boxes for the reception of broadcast and broadband digital television and multimedia applications with a
single-user interface.[10]
Current providers of Internet television use various technologies to provide a service such as peer-to-peer (P2P)
technologies, VoD systems, and live streaming. BBC iPlayer makes use of the Adobe Flash Player to provide
streaming-video clips and other software provided by Adobe for its download service. CNBC, Bloomberg Television
and Showtime use live-streaming services from BitGravity to stream live television to paid subscribers using a
standard http protocol. DRM (digital rights management) software is also incorporated into many Internet television
services. Sky Go has software that is provided by Microsoft to prevent content being copied. Internet television is
also cross platform, the Sky Player service has been expanded to the Xbox 360 on October 27Wikipedia:Manual of
Style/Dates and numbers#Chronological items and to Windows Media Center and then to Windows 7 PCs on
November 19Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers#Chronological items. The BBC iPlayer is also available
through Virgin Media's on-demand service and other platforms such as FetchTV and games consoles including the
Wii and the PlayStation 3. Other Internet-television platforms include mobile platforms such as the iPhone and iPod
Touch, Nokia N96, Sony Ericsson C905 and many other mobile devices.[11]
Samsung TV has also announced their plans to provide streaming options including 3D Video on Demand through
their Explore 3D service.[12]
Stream quality
Stream quality refers to the quality of the image and audio transferred from the servers of the distributor to the user's
home screen.
Higher-quality video such as video in high definition (720p+) requires higher bandwidth and faster connection
speeds. The generally accepted kbit/s download rate needed to stream high-definition video that has been encoded
with H.264 is 3500 kbit/s, whereas standard-definition television can range from 500 to 1500 kbit/s depending on the
resolution on screen.
In the UK, the BBC iPlayer deals with the largest amount of traffic yet it offers HD content along with SD content.
As more people get broadband connections which can deal with streaming HD video over the Internet, the BBC
iPlayer has tried to keep up with demand and pace. However, as streaming HD video takes around 1.5 gb of data per
hour of video the BBC has had to invest a lot of money collected from License Fee payers to implement this on such
[13]
a large scale.
For users which do not have the bandwidth to stream HD video or even high-SD video which requires 1500 kbit/s,
the BBC iPlayer offers lower bitrate streams which in turn lead to lower video quality. This makes use of an adaptive
bitrate stream so that if the user's bandwidth suddenly drops, iPlayer will lower its streaming rate to compensate.
This diagnostic tool offered on the BBC iPlayer site measures a user's streaming capabilities and bandwidth for
free.[14]
Although competitors in the UK such as 4oD, ITV Player and Demand Five have not yet offered HD streaming, the
technology to support it is fairly new and widespread HD streaming is not an impossibility. The availability of
Channel 4 and Five content on YouTube is predicted to prove incredibly popular as series such as Skins, Green
Wing, The X Factor and others become available in a simple, straightforward format on a website which already
attracts millions of people every day.
Overview of platforms and availability

Service Supporting Regional availability Website-based Windows Mac Linux iOS Android Console TV set Set Top Free
company/companies application application application application application application application Box
application
WhereverTV WhereverTV, North America, South Samsung, Google

Al-Iraqiya, Al America, Europe, Sony, TV,
Jazeera - English, Australia, Panasonic, AppleTV
Al Maghribia, Al Worldwide/International Philips, (via
Mayadeen, Al Vizio Airplay),
Qurann Al Kareem Boxee,
TV, Al Sunnah Al Roku, etc.
Nabawiyah TV,
Alalam News,
Canal Algerie, ERT
World, GO
TelecomTV,
iFilm-Arabic, Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes No
Jordan TV, Mega
Cosmos, 2M
Maroc, Oman TV,
Qatar TV, RIK Sat,
Saudi Arabia TV 1,
Skai TV, Star
International, Sudan
TV, Syria Drama,
Syria Satellite
Channel, TV
Tunisia 1, Yemen
TV
BBC iPlayer BBC UK Wii, PS3, Samsung, Virgin

Xbox 360 Sony, Media On
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes [15] Panasonic, Demand, Yes
Yes
Philips Freesat,
Roku
Tivibu Argela TR Argela Pending None Ttnet on

Yes Yes Yes Yes Android Demand No
Player
Sky Go Sky UK & Ireland Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Xbox 360 No
ITV Player ITV UK PS3 Virgin

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Media On Yes
Demand
ABC iview Australian Australia iPad PS3, Xbox Samsung,

Broadcasting Yes 360 Sony Yes
Corporation
4OD Channel 4 UK & Ireland PS3, Xbox Virgin

Yes Yes Yes Yes 360 Media On Yes
Demand
SeeSaw Arqiva UK Yes Yes Yes No
Hulu FOX, NBC US PS3, Samsung, Roku

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Universal, ABC,... XBOX360 Vizio
RTÉ Player RTÉ Ireland Yes Yes PS3 Yes
TG4 Beo TG4 Ireland and

Yes Yes
Worldwide/International
TV3 Catch TV3 Ireland

Yes Yes Yes
Up
Global Video Global Canada Yes Yes No

Global Video SBNTV1, The US PS3, Samsung,

Sumlin XBOX360 Vizio
Broadcasting Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Network, Classic
Soul Channel.....
References
[1] 'Streaming Guide' List of Online TV Shows in Canada (http:/ / www. streaming-guide. com/ ), 05/16/2011 'Streaming Guide' List of Online
TV Shows in Canada.
[2] BBC iPlayer 'risks overloading the Internet' (http:/ / technology. timesonline. co. uk/ tol/ news/ tech_and_web/ article3716781. ece), The
Sunday Times, 04/10/2008 News article regarding BBC iPlayer Internet traffic.
[3] BBC iPlayer – Stats and Facts (http:/ / www. bluestagstudio. co. uk/ blog-3-BBCiPlayer_StatsandFacts), 12/05/2009 Brief blog style entry on
BBC iPlayer traffic per month.
[4] iPlayer uncovered: What powers the BBC's epic creation? (http:/ / crave. cnet. co. uk/ software/ 0,39029471,49302215,00. htm), 08/05/2009
CNet interview with iPlayer boss Anthony Rose, mostly on iPlayer 3.0
[6] Internet television platforms around the world (http:/ / www. international-television. org/ itve/ ) International TV Explorer
[7] BBC iPlayer Help (http:/ / iplayerhelp. external. bbc. co. uk/ help/ prog_availability/ how_long) BBC iPlayer
[8] International TV Explorer (http:/ / www. international-television. org/ itve/ ) International Television Expert Group
[12] Samsung To Do 3D VOD Streaming (http:/ / www. twice. com/ article/ 468711-Samsung_To_Do_3D_VOD_Streaming. php), May 24,
2011
[13] BBC iPlayer goes HD, adds higher quality streams, releases iPlayer Desktop out of Labs (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ blogs/ bbcinternet/
2009/ 04/ bbc_iplayer_goes_hd_adds_highe. html), BBC Internet Blog, 20/04/2009
External links
• IPTV future (http://www.theregister.co.uk/2006/05/05/iptv_future/) The Register 2006-05-05
• As Internet TV Aims at Niche Audiences, the Slivercast Is Born (http://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/12/
business/yourmoney/12sliver.html?ex=1299819600en=b93a73a9426aeb16ei=5088partner=rssnytemc=rss&
pagewanted=all) New York Times 2006-03-12
• TV's future stars will come from the web (http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2008/sep/11/internet.
socialnetworking)The Guardian 2008-09-11
• Your top web TV (http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/3666961/Your-top-web-TV.html)The
Telegraph 2007-08-03
299
Social impact
Sociology of the Internet
Sociology
Outline
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Internet
Internet portal
The sociology of the Internet involves the application of sociological theory and method to the Internet as a source
of information and communication. Sociologists are concerned with the social implications of the technology; new
social networks, virtual communities and ways of interaction that have arisen, as well as issues related to cyber
crime.
The Internet—the newest in a series of major information breakthroughs—is of interest for sociologists in various
ways: as a tool for research, for example, in using online questionnaires instead of paper ones, as a discussion
platform, and as a research topic. The sociology of the Internet in the stricter sense concerns the analysis of online
communities (e.g. as found in newsgroups), virtual communities and virtual worlds, organizational change catalyzed
through new media such as the Internet, and social change at-large in the transformation from industrial to
informational society (or to information society). Online communities can be studied statistically through network
analysis and at the same time interpreted qualitatively, such as through virtual ethnography. Social change can be
studied through statistical demographics or through the interpretation of changing messages and symbols in online
media studies.
Emergence of the discipline

The Internet is a relatively new phenomenon. As Robert Darnton wrote, it is a revolutionary change that "took place
yesterday, or the day before, depending on how you measure it."[1] The Internet developed from the ARPANET,
dating back to 1969; as a term it was coined in 1974. The World Wide Web as we know it was shaped in the
mid-1990s, when graphical interface and services like email became popular and reached wider (non-scientific and
[1][2]
non-military) audiences and commerce. Internet Explorer was first released in 1995; Netscape a year earlier.
Google was founded in 1998.[1][2] Wikipedia was founded in 2001. Facebook, MySpace, and YouTube in the
mid-2000s. Web 2.0 is still emerging. Steadily, the amount of information available on the net and the number of
Internet users worldwide has continued to grow rapidly.[2] The term 'digital sociology' is now becoming increasingly
used to denote new directions in sociological research into digital technologies since Web 2.0.
Research trends
According to DiMaggio et al. (2001),[2] research tends to focus on the Internet's implications in five domains:
1. inequality (the issues of digital divide)
2. community and social capital (the issues of time displacement)
3. political participation (the issues of public sphere, deliberative democracy and civil society)
4. organizations and other economic institutions
5. cultural participation and cultural diversity
Early on, there were predictions that the Internet would change everything (or nothing); over time, however, a
consensus emerged that the Internet, at least in the current phase of development, complements rather than displaces
previously implemented media.[2] This has meant a rethinking of the 1990s ideas of "convergence of new and old
media". Further, the Internet offers a rare opportunity to study changes caused by the newly emerged - and likely,
still evolving - information and communication technology (ICT).[2]
Social impact
The Internet has created new forums of social interaction and social relations including social networking websites
such as Facebook and MySpace and sites such as meetup.com and Couchsurfing which facilitate offline interaction.
Though virtual communities were once thought to be composed of strictly virtual social ties, researchers often find
that even those social ties formed in virtual spaces are often maintained both online and offline [3][4]
There are ongoing debates about the impact of the Internet on strong and weak ties, whether the internet is creating
more or less social capital,[5][6] the internet's role in trends towards social isolation,[7] and whether it creates a more
or less diverse social environment.
It is often said the Internet is a new frontier, and there is a line of argument to the effect that social interaction,
cooperation and conflict among users resembles the anarchistic and violent American frontier of the early 19th
century.[8]
Political organization and censorship

The Internet has achieved new relevance as a political tool. The presidential campaign of Howard Dean in 2004 in
the United States became famous for its ability to generate donations via the Internet, and the 2008 campaign of
Barack Obama became even more so. Increasingly, social movements and other organizations use the Internet to
carry out both traditional and the new Internet activism.
Governments are also getting on-line. Some countries, such as those of Cuba, Iran, North Korea, Myanmar, the
People's Republic of China, and Saudi Arabia, use filtering and censoring software to restrict what people in their
countries can access on the Internet. With United Kingdom, they also use software to locate and arrest various
individuals they perceive as a threat. Other countries, including the United States, have enacted laws making the
possession or distribution of certain material, such as child pornography, illegal, but do not use filtering software. In
some countries Internet service providers have agreed to restrict access to sites listed by police.
Economics
While much has been written of the economic advantages of internet-enabled commerce, there is also evidence that
some aspects of the internet such as maps and location-aware services may serve to reinforce economic inequality
and the digital divide.[9] Electronic commerce may be responsible for consolidation and the decline of mom-and-pop,
brick and mortar businesses resulting in increases in income inequality.[10]
Philanthropy
The spread of low-cost internet access in developing countries has opened up new possibilities for peer-to-peer
charities, which allow individuals to contribute small amounts to charitable projects for other individuals. Websites
such as Donors Choose and Global Giving now allow small-scale donors to direct funds to individual projects of
their choice.
A popular twist on internet-based philanthropy is the use of peer-to-peer lending for charitable purposes. Kiva
pioneered this concept in 2005, offering the first web-based service to publish individual loan profiles for funding.
Kiva raises funds for local intermediary microfinance organizations which post stories and updates on behalf of the
borrowers. Lenders can contribute as little as $25 to loans of their choice, and receive their money back as borrowers
repay. Kiva falls short of being a pure peer-to-peer charity, in that loans are disbursed before being funded by lenders
and borrowers do not communicate with lenders themselves.[11][12] However, the recent spread of cheap internet
access in developing countries has made genuine peer-to-peer connections increasingly feasible. In 2009 the
US-based nonprofit Zidisha tapped into this trend to offer the first peer-to-peer microlending platform to link lenders
and borrowers across international borders without local intermediaries. Inspired by interactive websites such as
Facebook and eBay, Zidisha's microlending platform facilitates direct dialogue between lenders and borrowers and a
performance rating system for borrowers. Web users worldwide can fund loans for as little as a dollar.[13]
Leisure
The Internet has been a major source of leisure since before the World Wide Web, with entertaining social
experiments such as MUDs and MOOs being conducted on university servers, and humor-related Usenet groups
receiving much of the main traffic. Today, many Internet forums have sections devoted to games and funny videos;
short cartoons in the form of Flash movies are also popular. Over 6 million people use blogs or message boards as a
means of communication and for the sharing of ideas.
The pornography and gambling industries have both taken full advantage of the World Wide Web, and often provide
a significant source of advertising revenue for other websites. Although governments have made attempts to censor
internet porn, internet service providers have told governments that these plans are not feasible.[14] Also many
governments have attempted to put restrictions on both industries' use of the Internet, this has generally failed to stop
their widespread popularity.
One area of leisure on the Internet is online gaming. This form of leisure creates communities, bringing people of all
ages and origins to enjoy the fast-paced world of multiplayer games. These range from MMORPG to first-person
shooters, from role-playing video games to online gambling. This has revolutionized the way many people interact
and spend their free time on the Internet.
While online gaming has been around since the 1970s, modern modes of online gaming began with services such as
GameSpy and MPlayer, to which players of games would typically subscribe. Non-subscribers were limited to
certain types of gameplay or certain games.
Many use the Internet to access and download music, movies and other works for their enjoyment and relaxation. As
discussed above, there are paid and unpaid sources for all of these, using centralized servers and distributed
peer-to-peer technologies. Discretion is needed as some of these sources take more care over the original artists'
rights and over copyright laws than others.
Many use the World Wide Web to access news, weather and sports reports, to plan and book holidays and to find out
more about their random ideas and casual interests.
People use chat, messaging and e-mail to make and stay in touch with friends worldwide, sometimes in the same
way as some previously had pen pals. Social networking websites like MySpace, Facebook and many others like
them also put and keep people in contact for their enjoyment.
The Internet has seen a growing number of Web desktops, where users can access their files, folders, and settings via
the Internet.
Cyberslacking has become a serious drain on corporate resources; the average UK employee spends 57 minutes a
day surfing the Web at work, according to a study by Peninsula Business Services.[15]
Notes
[1] Robert Darnton, The Library in the New Age (http:/ / www. nybooks. com/ articles/ 21514), The New York Review of Books, Volume 55,
Number 10. June 12, 2008. Retrieved on 22 December 2009.
[2] Paul DiMaggio, Eszter Hargittai, W. Russell Neuman, and John P. Robinson, Social Implications of the Internet, Annual Review of
Sociology, Vol. 27: 307-336 (Volume publication date August 2001), (http:/ / arjournals. annualreviews. org/ doi/ abs/ 10. 1146/ annurev. soc.
27. 1. 307)
[3] Lauren F. Sessions, "How offline gatherings affect online community members: when virtual community members ‘meetup’.""Information,
Communication, and Society"13,3(April, 2010):375-395
[4] Bo Xie, B. ‘The mutual shaping of online and offline social relationships."Information Research, 1,3(2008):n.p.
[5] Lee Rainie, John Horrigan, Barry Wellman, and Jeffrey Boase. (2006)"The Strength of Internet Ties" Pew Internet and American Life
Project. Washington, D.C.
[6] Ellison, N. B., Steinfield, C., & Lampe, C. (2007). The benefits of Facebook "friends:" Social capital and college students' use of online social
network sites. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 12(4).
[7] Social Isolation and New Technology Pew Internet and American Life Report (http:/ / www. pewinternet. org/ Reports/ 2009/
18--Social-Isolation-and-New-Technology. aspx)
[8] Richard Jensen. "Military History on the Electronic Frontier: Wikipedia Fights the War of 1812," The Journal of Military History (October
2012) 76#4 pp 1165-82 online (http:/ / www. americanhistoryprojects. com/ downloads/ JMH1812. PDF)
[9] "How the Internet Reinforces Inequality in the Real World" (http:/ / www. theatlanticcities. com/ technology/ 2013/ 02/
how-internet-reinforces-inequality-real-world/ 4602/ ) The Atlantic February 6, 2013
[10] "E-commerce will make the shopping mall a retail wasteland" (http:/ / www. zdnet. com/
e-commerce-will-make-the-shopping-mall-a-retail-wasteland-7000009960/ ) ZDNet, January 17, 2013
[11] Kiva Is Not Quite What It Seems (http:/ / blogs. cgdev. org/ open_book/ 2009/ 10/ kiva-is-not-quite-what-it-seems. php), by David Roodman,
Center for Global Development, Oct. 2, 2009, as accessed Jan. 2 & 16, 2010
[12] Confusion on Where Money Lent via Kiva Goes (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2009/ 11/ 09/ business/ global/ 09kiva. html?_r=1& scp=1&
sq=Kiva& st=cse), by Stephanie Strom, in The New York Times, Nov. 8, 2009, as accessed Jan. 2 & 16, 2010
[13] "Zidisha Set to "Expand" in Peer-to-Peer Microfinance", Microfinance Focus, Feb 2010 (http:/ / www. microfinancefocus. com/ news/ 2010/
02/ 07/ zidisha-set-to-expand-in-peer-to-peer-microfinance-julia-kurnia/ )
[15] Scotsman.com News - Net abuse hits small city firms (http:/ / news. scotsman. com/ topics. cfm?tid=914& id=1001802003)
References
• John A. Bargh and Katelyn Y. A. McKenna, The Internet and Social Life, Annual Review of Psychology, Vol.
55: 573-590 (Volume publication date February 2004), doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.141922 (http://
dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.141922) (http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.
1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.141922?journalCode=psych)
• Allison Cavanagh, Sociology in the Age of the Internet, McGraw-Hill International, 2007, ISBN 0-335-21725-7
• Christine Hine, Virtual Methods: Issues in Social Research on the Internet, Berg Publishers, 2005, ISBN
1-84520-085-3
• Rob Kling, The Internet for Sociologists, Contemporary Sociology, Vol. 26, No. 4 (Jul., 1997), pp. 434–444
• Joan Ferrante-Wallace, Joan Ferrante, Sociology.net: Sociology on the Internet, Thomson Wadsworth, 1996,
ISBN 0-534-52756-6
• Daniel A. Menchik and Xiaoli Tian. (2008) "Putting Social Context into Text: The Semiotics of Email
Interaction." (http://menchik.com/Menchik_Tian_AJS.pdf) The American Journal of Sociology. 114:2
pp. 332–70.
• Carla G. Surratt, "The Internet and Social Change", McFarland, 2001, ISBN 0-786-41019-1
• D. R. Wilson, Researching Sociology on the Internet, Thomson/Wadsworth, 2004, ISBN 0-534-62437-5
External links
• Sociology and the Internet (http://www.sociology.org.uk/olinset.htm) (A short introduction, originally
put-together for delegates to the ATSS 2000 Conference.)
• Peculiarities of Cyberspace - Building Blocks for an Internet Sociology (http://www.sociosite.org/index_en.
php) (Articles the social structure and dynamic of internetcommunities. Presented by dr Albert Benschop,
University of Amsterdam.)
• Communication and Information Technologies Section of the American Sociological Association (http://citasa.
org/)
• The Impact of the Internet on Sociology: The Importance of the Communication and Information Technologies
Section of the American Sociological Association (http://www.allacademic.com/meta/
p_mla_apa_research_citation/1/0/4/1/6/p104169_index.html)
• Sociology and the Internet (http://camden-www.rutgers.edu/~wood/445syl.html) (course)
• Sociology of the Internet (http://web.archive.org/web/20091026213335/http://geocities.com/
ResearchTriangle/1214/) (link collection)
• Internet sociologist (http://www.vts.intute.ac.uk/he/tutorial/sociologist)
• The Sociology of the Internet (http://www-frd.fsl.noaa.gov/~moninger/NOAATech2002/Relaxation.html)
Internet censorship
Internet
Internet portal
Internet censorship is the control or suppression of what can be accessed, published, or viewed on the internet. It
may be carried out by governments, private organizations at the behest of government, regulators, or on their own
initiative. Individuals and organizations may engage in self-censorship for moral, religious, or business reasons, to
conform to societal norms, due to intimidation, or out of fear of legal or other consequences.
Opinions on the topic of Internet censorship vary, with arguments being made both for and against censorship.
Moreover, the extent of Internet censorship varies on a country-to-country basis. While most democratic countries
have moderate Internet censorship, other countries go as far as to limit the access of information such as news and
suppress discussion among citizens. Internet censorship also occurs in response to or in anticipation of events such as
elections, protests, and riots. An example is the increased censorship due to the events of the Arab Spring. Other
areas of censorship includes copyrights, defamation, harassment, and obscene material.
Overview
Many of the issues associated with Internet censorship are similar to those for offline censorship of more traditional
media such as newspapers, magazines, books, music, radio, television, and film. One difference is that national
borders are more permeable online: residents of a country that bans certain information can find it on websites
hosted outside the country. Thus censors must work to prevent access to information even though they lack physical
or legal control over the websites themselves. This in turn requires the use of technical censorship methods that are
unique to the Internet, such as site blocking and content filtering.[1]
Views about the feasibility and effectiveness of Internet censorship have evolved in parallel with the development of
the Internet and censorship technologies:
• A 1993 Time Magazine article quotes computer scientist John Gilmore, one of the founders of the Electronic
Frontier Foundation, as saying "The Net interprets censorship as damage and routes around it."[2]
• In November 2007, "Father of the Internet" Vint Cerf stated that he sees government control of the Internet failing
because the Web is almost entirely privately owned.[3]
• A report of research conducted in 2007 and published in 2009 by the Berkman Center for Internet & Society at
Harvard University stated that: "We are confident that the [ censorship circumvention ] tool developers will for
the most part keep ahead of the governments' blocking efforts", but also that "...we believe that less than two
percent of all filtered Internet users use circumvention tools".[4]
• In contrast, a 2011 report by researchers at the Oxford Internet Institute published by UNESCO concludes "... the
control of information on the Internet and Web is certainly feasible, and technological advances do not therefore
guarantee greater freedom of speech."[1]

Blocking and filtering can be based on relatively static blacklists or be determined more dynamically based on a
real-time examination of the information being exchanged. Blacklists may be produced manually or automatically
and are often not available to non-customers of the blocking software. Blocking or filtering can be done at a
centralized national level, at a decentralized sub-national level, or at an institutional level, for example in libraries,
[]
universities or Internet cafes. Blocking and filtering may also vary within a country across different ISPs. Countries
may filter sensitive content on an on-going basis and/or introduce temporary filtering during key time periods such
as elections. In some cases the censoring authorities may surreptitiously block content to mislead the public into
believing that censorship has not been applied. This is achieved by returning a fake "Not Found" error message when
an attempt is made to access a blocked web.[5]
Unless the censor has total control over all Internet-connected computers, such as in North Korea or Cuba, total
censorship of information is very difficult or impossible to achieve due to the underlying distributed technology of
the Internet. Pseudonymity and data havens (such as Freenet) protect free speech using technologies that guarantee
material cannot be removed and prevents the identification of authors. Technologically savvy users can often find
ways to access blocked content. Nevertheless, blocking remains an effective means of limiting access to sensitive
information for most users when censors, such as those in China, are able to devote significant resources to building
and maintaining a comprehensive censorship system.[1]
The term "splinternet" is sometimes used to describe the effects of national firewalls. The verb "rivercrab"
colloquially refers to censorship of the Internet, particularly in Asia.[]
Content suppression methods
Technical censorship
Approaches
Internet content is also subject to technical censorship methods, including:[1][6]
• Internet Protocol (IP) address blocking: Access to a certain IP address is denied. If the target Web site is hosted
in a shared hosting server, all websites on the same server will be blocked. This affects IP-based protocols such as
HTTP, FTP and POP. A typical circumvention method is to find proxies that have access to the target websites,
but proxies may be jammed or blocked, and some Web sites, such as Wikipedia (when editing), also block
proxies. Some large websites such as Google have allocated additional IP addresses to circumvent the block, but
later the block was extended to cover the new addresses.
• Domain name system (DNS) filtering and redirection: Blocked domain names are not resolved, or an incorrect
IP address is returned via DNS hijacking or other means. This affects all IP-based protocols such as HTTP, FTP
and POP. A typical circumvention method is to find an Alternative DNS root that resolves domain names
correctly, but domain name servers are subject to blockage as well, especially IP address blocking. Another
workaround is to bypass DNS if the IP address is obtainable from other sources and is not itself blocked.
Examples are modifying the Hosts file or typing the IP address instead of the domain name as part of a URL
given to a Web browser.
• Uniform Resource Locator filtering: URL strings are scanned for target keywords regardless of the domain
name specified in the URL. This affects the HTTP protocol. Typical circumvention methods are to use escaped
characters in the URL, or to use encrypted protocols such as VPN and TLS/SSL.[7]
• Packet filtering: Terminate TCP packet transmissions when a certain number of controversial keywords are
detected. This affects all TCP-based protocols such as HTTP, FTP and POP, but Search engine results pages are
more likely to be censored. Typical circumvention methods are to use encrypted connections – such as VPN and
TLS/SSL – to escape the HTML content, or by reducing the TCP/IP stack's MTU/MSS to reduce the amount of
text contained in a given packet.

• Connection reset: If a previous TCP connection is blocked by the filter, future connection attempts from both
sides can also be blocked for some variable amount of time. Depending on the location of the block, other users or
websites may also be blocked, if the communication is routed through the blocking location. A circumvention
method is to ignore the reset packet sent by the firewall.[8]
• Network disconnection: A technically simpler method of Internet censorship is to completely cut off all routers,
either by software or by hardware (turning off machines, pulling out cables). This appears to have been the case
on 27/28 January 2011 during the 2011 Egyptian protests, in what has been widely described as an
[][]
"unprecedented" internet block. About 3500 Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) routes to Egyptian networks were
shut down from about 22:10 to 22:35 UTC 27 January.[] This full block was implemented without cutting off
major intercontinental fibre-optic links, with Renesys stating on 27 January, "Critical European-Asian fiber-optic
routes through Egypt appear to be unaffected for now."[] Full blocks also occurred in Myanmar/Burma in 2007,[9]
Libya in 2011,[] and Syria during the Syrian civil war.
• Portal censorship and search result removal: Major portals, including search engines, may exclude web sites
that they would ordinarily include. This renders a site invisible to people who do not know where to find it. When
a major portal does this, it has a similar effect as censorship. Sometimes this exclusion is done to satisfy a legal or
other requirement, other times it is purely at the discretion of the portal. For example Google.de [10] and Google.fr
[11]
remove Neo-Nazi and other listings in compliance with German and French law.[12]
• Computer network attacks: Denial-of-service attacks and attacks that deface opposition websites can produce
the same result as other blocking techniques, preventing or limiting access to certain websites or other online
services, although only for a limited period of time. This technique might be used during the lead up to an election
or some other sensitive period. It is more frequently used by non-state actors seeking to disrupt services.[13]
See also Internet forum#Word censor and Anti-spam techniques#Detecting spam.
Over- and under-blocking

Technical censorship techniques are subject to both over- and under-blocking since it is often impossible to always
block exactly the targeted content without blocking other permissible material or allowing some access to targeted
material and so providing more or less protection than desired.[1] An example is that automatic censorship against
sexual words in matter for children, set to block the word "cunt", has been known to block the Lincolnshire
placename Scunthorpe.[14] Another example is blocking an IP-address of a server that hosts multiple websites, which
prevents access to all of the websites rather than just those that contain content deemed offensive.[15]
According to a report produced in 1997 by the gay rights group GLAAD, many 1990s-era Internet censorship
software products prevent access to non-pornographic LGBT-related material. GLAAD argued that this is
disempowering and dangerous for young LGBT people.[16]
Use of commercial filtering software
Writing in 2009 Ronald Deibert, professor of political science at the

University of Toronto and co-founder and one of the principal
investigators of the OpenNet Initiative, and, writing in 2011, Evgeny
Morzov, a visiting scholar at Stanford University and an Op-Ed
contributor to the New York Times, explain that companies in the
United States, Finland, France, Germany, Britain, Canada, and South
Africa are in part responsible for the increasing sophistication of online Screenshot of Websense blocking Facebook in an
content filtering worldwide. While the off-the-shelf filtering software organisation where it has been configured to
sold by Internet security companies are primarily marketed to block a category named "Personals and Dating"
businesses and individuals seeking to protect themselves and their employees and families, they are also used by
governments to block what they consider sensitive content.[][17]
Among the most popular filtering software programs is SmartFilter by Secure Computing in California, which was
bought by McAfee in 2008. SmartFilter has been used by Tunisia, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, the UAE, Kuwait, Bahrain,
Iran, and Oman, as well as the United States and the UK.[] Myanmar and Yemen have used filtering software from
Websense. The Canadian-made commercial filter Netsweeper[18] is used in Qatar, the UAE, and Yemen.[19]
On 12 March 2013 in a Special report on Internet Surveillance, Reporters Without Borders named five "Corporate
Enemies of the Internet": Amesys (France), Blue Coat Systems (U.S.), Gamma (UK and Germany), Hacking Team
(Italy), and Trovicor (Germany). The companies sell products that are liable to be used by governments to violate
human rights and freedom of information. RWB said that the list is not exhaustive and will be expanded in the
coming months.[]
In a U.S. lawsuit filed in May 2011, Cisco Systems is accused of helping the Chinese Government build a firewall,
known widely as the Golden Shield, to censor the Internet and keep tabs on dissidents. Cisco said it had made
nothing special for China. Cisco is also accused of aiding the Chinese government in monitoring and apprehending
members of the banned Falun Gong group.[20]
Many filtering programs allow blocking to be configured based on dozens of categories and sub-categories such as
these from Websense: "abortion" (pro-life, pro-choice), "adult material" (adult content, lingerie and swimsuit, nudity,
sex, sex education), "advocacy groups" (sites that promote change or reform in public policy, public opinion, social
practice, economic activities, and relationships), "drugs" (abused drugs, marijuana, prescribed medications,
supplements and unregulated compounds), "religion" (non-traditional religions occult and folklore, traditional
religions), ....[19] The blocking categories used by the filtering programs may contain errors leading to the unintended
blocking of websites.[] The blocking of DailyMotion in early 2007 by Tunisian authorities was, according to the
OpenNet Initiative, due to Secure Computing wrongly categorizing DailyMotion as pornography for its SmartFilter
filtering software. It was initially thought that Tunisia had blocked DailyMotion due to satirical videos about human
rights violations in Tunisia, but after Secure Computing corrected the mistake access to DailyMotion was gradually
restored in Tunisia.[21]
Organizations such as the Global Network Initiative, the Electronic Frontier Foundation, Amnesty International, and
the American Civil Liberties Union have successfully lobbied some vendors such as Websense to make changes to
their software, to refrain from doing business with repressive governments, and to educate schools who have
inadvertently reconfigured their filtering software too strictly.[22][23][24] Nevertheless, regulations and accountability
related to the use of commercial filters and services are often non-existent, and there is relatively little oversight from
civil society or other independent groups. Vendors often consider information about what sites and content is
blocked valuable intellectual property that is not made available outside the company, sometimes not even to the
organizations purchasing the filters. Thus by relying upon out-of-the-box filtering systems, the detailed task of
deciding what is or is not acceptable speech may be outsourced to the commercial vendors.[19]
Non-technical censorship
Internet content is subject to censorship methods similar to those used with more traditional media. For example:[1]
• Laws and regulations may prohibit various types of content and/or require that content be removed or blocked
either proactively or in response to requests.
• Publishers, authors, and ISPs may receive formal and informal requests to remove, alter, slant, or block access to
specific sites or content.
• Publishers and authors may accept bribes to include, withdraw, or slant the information they present.
• Publishers, authors, and ISPs may be subject to arrest, criminal prosecution, fines, and imprisonment.
• Publishers, authors, and ISPs may be subject to civil lawsuits.
• Equipment may be confiscated and/or destroyed.
• Publishers and ISPs may be closed or required licenses may be withheld or revoked.
• Publishers, authors, and ISPs may be subject to boycotts.
• Publishers, authors, and their families may be subject to threats, attacks, beatings, and even murder.[25]
• Publishers, authors, and their families may be threatened with or actually lose their jobs.
• Individuals may be paid to write articles and comments in support of particular positions or attacking opposition
positions, usually without acknowledging the payments to readers and viewers.[26][27]
• Censors may create their own online publications and Web sites to guide online opinion.[26]
• Access to the Internet may be limited due to restrictive licensing policies or high costs.
• Access to the Internet may be limited due to a lack of the necessary infrastructure, deliberate or not.
Circumvention
Internet censorship circumvention is the processes used by technologically savvy Internet users to bypass the
technical aspects of Internet filtering and gain access to otherwise censored material. Circumvention is an inherent
problem for those wishing to censor the Internet because filtering and blocking do not remove content from the
Internet, but instead block access to it. Therefore, as long as there is at least one publicly accessible uncensored
system, it will often be possible to gain access to otherwise censored material. However circumvention may not be
possible by non tech-savvy users, so blocking and filtering remain effective means of censoring the Internet access
of large numbers of users.[1]
Different techniques and resources are used to bypass Internet censorship, including proxy websites, virtual private
networks, sneakernets, and circumvention software tools. Solutions have differing ease of use, speed, security, and
risks. Most, however, rely on gaining access to an Internet connection that is not subject to filtering, often in a
different jurisdiction not subject to the same censorship laws.
There are risks to using circumvention software or other methods to bypass Internet censorship. In some countries
individuals that gain access to otherwise restricted content may be violating the law and if caught can be expelled,
fired, jailed, or subject to other punishments and loss of access.[28]
In June 2011 the New York Times reported that the U.S. is engaged in a "global effort to deploy 'shadow' Internet and
mobile phone systems that dissidents can use to undermine repressive governments that seek to silence them by
censoring or shutting down telecommunications networks."[29]
Major web portal official statements on site and content removal

Most major web service operators reserve to themselves broad rights to remove or pre-screen content, sometimes
without giving a specific list or only a vague general list of the reasons allowing the removal. The phrases "at our
sole discretion", "without prior notice", and "for other reasons" are common in Terms of Service agreements.
• Facebook: Among other things the Facebook Statement of Rights and Responsibilities says: "You will not post
content that: is hateful, threatening, or pornographic; incites violence; or contains nudity or graphic or gratuitous
violence", "You will not use Facebook to do anything unlawful, misleading, malicious, or discriminatory", "We
can remove any content or information you post on Facebook if we believe that it violates this Statement", and "If
you are located in a country embargoed by the United States, or are on the U.S. Treasury Department's list of
Specially Designated Nationals you will not engage in commercial activities on Facebook (such as advertising or
payments) or operate a Platform application or website".[30]
• Google: Google's general Terms of Service were updated on 1 March 2012 and state: "We may suspend or stop
providing our Services to you if you do not comply with our terms or policies or if we are investigating suspected
misconduct", "We may review content to determine whether it is illegal or violates our policies, and we may
remove or refuse to display content that we reasonably believe violates our policies or the law", and "We respond
to notices of alleged copyright infringement and terminate accounts of repeat infringers according to the process
set out in the U.S. Digital Millennium Copyright Act".[31]
• Google Search: Google's Webmaster Tools help includes the following statement: "Google may temporarily or
permanently remove sites from its index and search results if it believes it is obligated to do so by law, if the sites
do not meet Google's quality guidelines, or for other reasons, such as if the sites detract from users' ability to
locate relevant information."[32]
• Twitter: The Twitter Terms of Service state: "We reserve the right at all times (but will not have an obligation) to
remove or refuse to distribute any Content on the Services and to terminate users or reclaim usernames" and "We
reserve the right to remove Content alleged to be [copyright] infringing without prior notice and at our sole
discretion".[33]
• YouTube: The YouTube Terms of Service include the statements: "YouTube reserves the right to decide whether
Content violates these Terms of Service for reasons other than copyright infringement, such as, but not limited to,
pornography, obscenity, or excessive length. YouTube may at any time, without prior notice and in its sole
discretion, remove such Content and/or terminate a user's account for submitting such material in violation of
these Terms of Service", "YouTube will remove all Content if properly notified that such Content infringes on
another's intellectual property rights", and "YouTube reserves the right to remove Content without prior
notice".[34]
• Wikipedia: Content within a Wikipedia article may be modified or deleted by any editor as part of the normal
process of editing and updating articles. All editing decisions are open to discussion and review. The Wikipedia
Deletion policy outlines the circumstances in which entire articles can be deleted. Any editor who believes a page
doesn't belong in an encyclopedia can propose its deletion. Such a page can be deleted by any administrator if,
after seven days, no one objects to the proposed deletion. Speedy deletion allows for the deletion of articles
without discussion and is used to remove pages that are so obviously inappropriate for Wikipedia that they have
no chance of surviving a deletion discussion. All deletion decisions may be reviewed, either informally or
formally.[35] For more information see, Wikipedia:Censorship issue.
• Yahoo!: Yahoo!'s Terms of Service (TOS) state: "You acknowledge that Yahoo! may or may not pre-screen
Content, but that Yahoo! and its designees shall have the right (but not the obligation) in their sole discretion to
pre-screen, refuse, or remove any Content that is available via the Yahoo! Services. Without limiting the
foregoing, Yahoo! and its designees shall have the right to remove any Content that violates the TOS or is
otherwise objectionable."[36]
Common targets
There are several motives or rationales for Internet filtering: politics and power, social norms and morals, and
security concerns. Protecting existing economic interests is an additional emergent motive for Internet filtering. In
addition, networking tools and applications that allow the sharing of information related to these motives are
themselves subjected to filtering and blocking. And while there is considerable variation from country to country, the
blocking of web sites in a local language is roughly twice that of web sites available only in English or other
international languages.[5]
Politics and power

Censorship directed at political opposition to the ruling government is common in authoritarian and repressive
regimes. Some countries block web sites related to religion and minority groups, often when these movements
represent a threat to the ruling regimes.[5]
Examples include:
• Political blogs and web sites[37]
• Lèse majesté sites, sites with content that offends the dignity of or challenges the authority of a reigning sovereign
or of a state
• Falun Gong and Tibetan exile group sites in China or Buddhist, Cao Dai faith, and indigenous hill tribes sites in
Vietnam
• Sites aimed at religious conversion from Islam to Christianity[5]
Social norms and morals

Social filtering is censorship of topics that are held to be antithetical to accepted societal norms.[5] In particular
censorship of child pornography and to protect children enjoys very widespread public support and such content is
subject to censorship and other restrictions in most countries.
Examples include:
• Sites that include hate speech inciting racism, sexism, homophobia, or other forms of hatred
• Sites seen as promoting illegal drug use (Erowid)[38]
• Sex and erotic, fetishism, prostitution, and pornographic sites
• Child pornography and pedophile related sites (see also CIRCAMP)
• Gambling sites
• Sites encouraging or inciting violence
• Sites promoting criminal activity
• Nazi and similar websites – particularly in France and Germany[39]
• Sites that contain blasphemous content, particularly when directed at a majority or state supported religion
• Sites that contain defamatory, slanderous, or libelous content
• Sites that include political satire
Security concerns
Many organizations implement filtering as part of a defence in depth strategy to protect their environments from
malware,[40] and to protect their reputations in the event of their networks being used, for example, to carry out
sexual harassment.
Internet filtering related to threats to national security that targets the Web sites of insurgents, extremists, and
terrorists often enjoys wide public support.[5]
Examples include:
• Blocking of pro–North Korean sites by South Korea[41]
• Blocking sites of groups that foment domestic conflict in India
• Blocking of sites of the Muslim Brotherhood in some countries in the Middle East
• Blocking Wikileaks[42]
• Blocking sites such as 4chan thought to be related to the group Anonymous[43]
Protection of existing economic interests

The protection of existing economic interests is sometimes the motivation for blocking new Internet services such as
low-cost telephone services that use Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP). These services can reduce the customer
base of telecommunications companies, many of which enjoy entrenched monopoly positions and some of which are
government sponsored or controlled.[5]
Self-described pirates Christian Engström, Rick Falkvinge and Oscar Swartz have alleged that censorship of child
pornography is being used as a pretext by copyright lobby organizations to get politicians to implement similar site
blocking legislation against copyright-related piracy.[44][45]
Examples include:
• Filesharing and Peer-to-peer (P2P) related websites such as The Pirate Bay
• Skype
• Sites that sell or distribute music, but are not 'approved' by rights holders, such as allofmp3
Network tools
Blocking the intermediate tools and applications of the Internet that can be used to assist users in accessing and
sharing sensitive material is common in many countries.[5]
Examples include:
• Media sharing websites (e.g. Flickr and YouTube)[46]
• Social networks (e.g. Facebook and MySpace)
• Translation sites and tools
• E-mail providers
• Web hosting sites
• Blog hosting sites such as Blogspot
• Microblogging sites such as Twitter and Weibo[47]
• Wikipedia
• Censorship circumvention sites
• Anonymizers
• Proxy avoidance sites
• Search engines such as Bing[48] and Google[49][50] – particularly in Mainland China and Cuba[51]
Around the world

As more people in more places begin
using the Internet for important
activities, there is an increase in online
censorship, using increasingly
sophisticated techniques. The motives,
scope, and effectiveness of Internet
censorship vary widely from country to
country. The countries engaged in
state-mandated filtering are clustered
in three main regions of the world: east
Asia, central Asia, and the Middle
East/North Africa.
Internet censorship by countryOpenNet Initiative "Summarized global Internet filtering
Countries in other regions also practice data spreadsheet", 8 November 2011 and "Country Profiles", the OpenNet Initiative is a
certain forms of filtering. In the United
University of Toronto; the Berkman Center for Internet & Society at Harvard University;
States state-mandated Internet filtering and the SecDev Group, OttawaDue to legal concerns the OpenNet Initiative does not
occurs on some computers in libraries check for filtering of child pornography and because their classifications focus on
and K-12 schools. Content related to technical filtering, they do not include other types of censorship. Internet Enemies,
Reporters Without Borders (Paris), 12 March 2012
Nazism or Holocaust denial is blocked
in France and Germany. Child
pornography and hate speech are blocked in many countries throughout the world.[55] In fact, many countries
throughout the world, including some democracies with long traditions of strong support for freedom of expression
and freedom of the press, are engaged in some amount of online censorship, often with substantial public support.[56]
Internet censorship in China is among the most stringent in the world. The government blocks Web sites that discuss
the Dalai Lama, the 1989 crackdown on Tiananmen Square protesters, the banned spiritual practice Falun Gong, as
well as many general Internet sites.[57] The government requires Internet search firms and state media to censor
issues deemed officially “sensitive,” and blocks access to foreign websites including Facebook, Twitter, and
YouTube.[58]
There are international bodies that oppose internet censorship, for example "Internet censorship is open to challenge
at the World Trade Organization (WTO) as it can restrict trade in online services, a forthcoming study
argues".[59]WP:NOTRS
Reports, ratings, and trends

Detailed country by country information on Internet censorship is provided by the OpenNet Initiative, Reporters
Without Borders, Freedom House, and in the U.S. State Department Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and
Labor's Human Rights Reports.[60] The ratings produced by several of these organizations are summarized in the
Internet censorship by country and the Censorship by country articles.
OpenNet Initiative reports

Through 2010 the OpenNet Initiative had documented Internet filtering by governments in over forty countries
worldwide.[19] The level of filtering in 26 countries in 2007 and in 25 countries in 2009 was classified in the
political, social, and security areas. Of the 41 separate countries classified, seven were found to show no evidence of
filtering in all three areas (Egypt, France, Germany, India, Ukraine, United Kingdom, and United States), while one
was found to engage in pervasive filtering in all three areas (China), 13 were found to engage in pervasive filtering in
one or more areas, and 34 were found to engage in some level of filtering in one or more areas. Of the 10 countries
classified in both 2007 and 2009, one reduced its level of filtering (Pakistan), five increased their level of filtering
(Azerbaijan, Belarus, Kazakhstan, South Korea, and Uzbekistan), and four maintained the same level of filtering
(China, Iran, Myanmar, and Tajikistan).[1][53]
Freedom on the Net reports

In the 2011 edition of Freedom House's report Freedom on the Net, of the 37 countries surveyed, 8 were rated as
"free" (22%), 18 as "partly free" (49%), and 11 as "not free" (30%).[61] In their 2009 report, of the 15 countries
surveyed, 4 were rated as "free" (27%), 7 as "partly free" (47%), and 4 as "not free" (27%).[62] And of the 15
countries surveyed in both 2009 and 2011, 5 were seen to be moving in the direction of more network freedom
(33%), 9 moved toward less freedom (60%), and one was unchanged (7%).
Reporters Without Borders (RWB)
RWB "Internet enemies" and "countries under surveillance" lists

In 2006, Reporters without Borders (Reporters sans frontières, RSF), a Paris-based international non-governmental
organization that advocates freedom of the press, started publishing a list of "Enemies of the Internet".[63] The
organization classifies a country as an enemy of the internet because "all of these countries mark themselves out not
just for their capacity to censor news and information online but also for their almost systematic repression of
Internet users."[64] In 2007 a second list of countries "Under Surveillance" (originally "Under Watch") was added.
Both lists are updated annually.[65]
[54] • North Korea [54] • Russia

Enemies of the Internet: Countries Under Surveillance:
• Saudi Arabia • South Korea
• Bahrain • Australia
• Syria • Sri Lanka
• Belarus • Egypt
• Turkmenistan • Thailand
• Burma • Eritrea
• Uzbekistan • Tunisia
• China • France
• Vietnam • Turkey
• Cuba • India • United Arab Emirates
• Iran • Kazakhstan
• Malaysia
When the "Enemies of the Internet" list was introduced in 2006, it listed 13 countries. From 2006 to 2012 the number
of countries listed fell to 10 and then rose to 12. Belarus, Egypt, and Tunisia moved to the "Countries under
surveillance" list in 2009, 2011, and 2011 respectively. Belarus moved back and Bahrain was added to the list in
2012.
When the "Countries under surveillance" list was introduced in 2008, it listed 10 countries. Between 2008 and 2012
the number of countries listed grew to 16 and then fell to 14. In addition to the moves to and from the "Enemies of
the Internet" list noted earlier, Jordan in 2009, Tajikistan in 2009, and Yemen in 2010 were dropped from the list and
Australia in 2009, France in 2011, Russia in 2010, South Korea in 2009, Turkey in 2010 were added. Bahrain,
Eritrea, Malaysia, and Sri Lanka dropped from the list in 2010, but were added again in 2011. Libya dropped from
the list in 2009, added again in 2011, and then dropped in 2012. Venezuela was added in 2011 and then dropped in
2012.
RWB Special report on Internet Surveillance

[66]
On 12 March 2013 Reporters Without Borders published a Special report on Internet Surveillance. The report
includes two new lists:
• a list of "State Enemies of the Internet", countries whose governments are involved in active, intrusive
surveillance of news providers, resulting in grave violations of freedom of information and human rights; and
• a list of "Corporate Enemies of the Internet", companies that sell products that are liable to be used by
governments to violate human rights and freedom of information.
The five "State Enemies of the Internet" named in March 2013 are: Bahrain, China, Iran, Syria, and Vietnam.[66]
The five "Corporate Enemies of the Internet" named in March 2013 are: Amesys (France), Blue Coat Systems
(U.S.), Gamma (UK and Germany), Hacking Team (Italy), and Trovicor (Germany), but the list is not exhaustive
and will be expanded in the coming months.[66]
BBC World Service global public opinion poll

A poll of 27,973 adults in 26 countries, including 14,306 Internet users,[67] was conducted for the BBC World
Service by the international polling firm GlobeScan using telephone and in-person interviews between 30 November
2009 and 7 February 2010. GlobeScan Chairman Doug Miller felt, overall, that the poll showed that:
Despite worries about privacy and fraud, people around the world see access to the internet as their
fundamental right. They think the web is a force for good, and most don’t want governments to regulate it.[68]
Findings from the poll include:[68]
• Nearly four in five (78%) Internet users felt that the Internet had brought them greater freedom.
• Most Internet users (53%) felt that "the internet should never be regulated by any level of government anywhere".
• Opinion was evenly split between Internet users who felt that “the internet is a safe place to express my opinions”
(48%) and those who disagreed (49%). Somewhat surprisingly users in Germany and France agreed the least,
followed by users in highly filtered countries such as the People's Republic of China and South Korea, while users
in Egypt, India and Kenya agreed more strongly.[1]
• The aspects of the Internet that cause the most concern include: fraud (32%), violent and explicit content (27%),
threats to privacy (20%), state censorship of content (6%), and the extent of corporate presence (3%).
• Almost four in five Internet users and non-users around the world felt that access to the Internet was a
fundamental right (50% strongly agreed, 29% somewhat agreed, 9% somewhat disagreed, 6% strongly disagreed,
and 6% gave no opinion).[69] And while there is strong support for this right in all of the countries surveyed, it is
surprising that the United States and Canada were among the top five countries where people most strongly
disagreed that access to the Internet was a fundamental right of all people (13% in Japan, 11% in the U.S., 11% in
Kenya, 11% in Pakistan, and 10% in Canada strongly disagree).[1]
Internet Society's Global Internet User Survey

In July and August 2012 the Internet Society conducted online interviews of more than 10,000 Internet users in 20
countries. Some of the results relevant to Internet censorship are summarized below.[70]
Question No. of [71]

Responses
Responses
Access to the Internet should be considered a basic human right. 10,789 83% somewhat or strongly agree,
14% somewhat or strongly
disagree,
3% don't know
Freedom of expression should be guaranteed on the Internet. 10,789 86% somewhat or strongly agree,
disagree,
2% don't know
The Internet should be governed in some form to protect the community from harm. 10,789 82% somewhat or strongly agree,
disagree,
3% don't know / not applicable
Censorship should exist in some form on the Internet. 10,789 71% somewhat or strongly agree,
disagree,
Each individual country has the right to govern the Internet the way they see fit. 10,789 67% somewhat or strongly agree,
disagree,
4% don't know /not applicable
The Internet does more to help society than it does to hurt it. 10,789 83% somewhat or strongly agree,
disagree,
How often do you read the privacy policies of websites or services that you share personal 10,789 16% all the time,
information with? 31% most of the time,
41% sometimes,
12% never
When you are logged in to a service or application do you use privacy protections? 10,789 27% all the time,
36% most of the time,
29% sometimes,
9% never
Do you use “anonymization” services, for example, the “anonymize” feature in your web 10,789 16% yes,
browser, specialized software like Tor, third - party redirection services like duckduckgo.com? 38% no,
43% don't know / not aware of
these types of services,
3% would like to use them but I
am not able to
Increased government control of the Internet would put limits on the content I can access. 9,717 77% somewhat or strongly agree,
disagree,
Increased government control of the Internet would limit my freedom of expression. 9,717 74% somewhat or strongly agree,
disagree,
Increased government control of the Internet would improve the content on the Internet. 9,717 49% somewhat or strongly agree,
disagree,
Increased government control of the Internet would make the Internet safe for everyone to use. 9,717 58% somewhat or strongly agree,
disagree,
Increased government control of the Internet would have no effect. 9,717 31% somewhat or strongly agree,
disagree,
To what degree would you accept increased control or monitoring of the Internet if you gained 10,789 61% a lot or somewhat,
increased safety? 23% not very much or not at all
Transparency of filtering or blocking activities

Among the countries that filter or block online content, few openly admit to or fully disclose their filtering and
blocking activities. States are frequently opaque and/or deceptive about the blocking of access to political
information.[] For example:
• Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) are among the few states that publish detailed information
about their filtering practices and display a notification to the user when attempting to access a blocked website.
• In contrast, countries such as China and Tunisia send users a false error indication. China blocks requests by users
for a banned website at the router level and a connection error is returned, effectively preventing the user's IP
address from making further HTTP requests for a varying time, which appears to the user as "time-out" error with
no explanation. Tunisia has altered the block page functionality of SmartFilter, the commercial filtering software
it uses, so that users attempting to access blocked websites receive a fake "File not found" error page.
• In Uzbekistan users are frequently sent block pages stating that the website is blocked because of pornography,
even when the page contains no pornography. Uzbeki ISPs may also redirect users' request for blocked websites
to unrelated websites, or sites similar to the banned websites, but with different information.[72]
Arab Spring
See also: Internet Censorship in the Arab Spring, 2011 Egyptian Internet shutdown, and Free speech in the
media during the Libyan civil war
During the Arab Spring of 2011, media jihad (media struggle) was extensive. Internet and mobile technologies,
particularly social networks such as Facebook and Twitter, played and are playing important new and unique roles in
organizing and spreading the protests and making them visible to the rest of the world. An activist in Egypt tweeted,
“we use Facebook to schedule the protests, Twitter to coordinate, and YouTube to tell the world”.[73]
This successful use of digital media in turn led to increased censorship including the complete loss of Internet access
for periods of time in Egypt[74][][] and Libya in 2011.[][] In Syria, the Syrian Electronic Army (SEA), an organization
that operates with at least tacit support of the government, claims responsibility for defacing or otherwise
compromising scores of websites that it contends spread news hostile to the Syrian regime. SEA disseminates denial
of service (DoS) software designed to target media websites including those of Al Jazeera, BBC News, Syrian
satellite broadcaster Orient TV, and Dubai-based al-Arabia TV.[75]
In response to the greater freedom of expression brought about by the Arab Spring revolutions in countries that were
previously subject to very strict censorship, in March 2011, Reporters Without Borders moved Tunisia and Egypt
from its "Internet enemies" list to its list of countries "under surveillance"[76] and in 2012 dropped Libya from the list
entirely.[54] At the same time, there were warnings that Internet censorship might increase in other countries
following the events of the Arab Spring.[77][78]
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2008
[56] "Internet Filtering: The Politics and Mechanisms of Control" (http:/ / opennet. net/ sites/ opennet. net/ files/ Deibert_03_Ch02_029-056.
pdf), Jonathan Zittrain and John Palfrey, in Access Denied: The Practice and Policy of Global Internet Filtering (http:/ / mitpress. mit. edu/
catalog/ item/ default. asp?ttype=2& tid=11329), Ronald Deibert, John Palfrey, Rafal Rohozinski, and Jonathan Zittrain, eds., MIT Press
(Cambridge), 2008
[59] (http:/ / search. proquest. com. proxy. lib. umich. edu/ docview/ 217137198) , Proquest, 6 January 2010. Retrieved 11 February 2013
[60] "2010 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices" (http:/ / www. state. gov/ g/ drl/ rls/ hrrpt/ 2010/ index. htm), Bureau of Democracy,
Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State, 8 April 2011
[61] Freedom on the Net 2011 (http:/ / www. freedomhouse. org/ template. cfm?page=664), Freedom House. Retrieved 1 September 2011
[62] Freedom on the Net 2009 (http:/ / freedomhouse. org/ template. cfm?page=383& report=79), Freedom House. Retrieved 1 September 2011
[63] List of the 13 Internet enemies (http:/ / en. rsf. org/ list-of-the-13-internet-enemies-07-11-2006,19603) Reporters Without Borders (Paris),
11 July 2006.
[64] "Internet enemies" (http:/ / www. rsf. org/ IMG/ pdf/ Internet_enemies_2009_2_. pdf), Reporters Without Borders (Paris), 12 March 2009.
[65] Web 2.0 versus Control 2.0. (http:/ / www. rsf. org/ ennemis. html) Reporters Without Borders (Paris), 18 March 2010.
[66] The Enemies of the Internet Special Edition : Surveillance (http:/ / surveillance. rsf. org/ en/ ), Reporters Without Borders, 12 March 2013
[70] "Global Internet User Survey 2012" (https:/ / www. internetsociety. org/ sites/ default/ files/ GIUS2012-GlobalData-Table-20121120_0.
pdf), Internet Society, 20 November 2012
[71] Note: Responses may not add up to 100% due to rounding in the original report.
[73] "The Arab Spring’s Cascading Effects" (http:/ / www. miller-mccune. com/ politics/ the-cascading-effects-of-the-arab-spring-28575/ ),
Philip N. Howard, Miller-McCune, 23 February 2011
[74] "Middle East Political Protest And Internet Traffic Report: February 12–20, 2011" (http:/ / monkey. org/ ~labovit/ blog/ / viewpage.
php?page=middle_east_scorecard_feb20), Craig Labovitz, Arbor Networks
[75] "Syrian Electronic Army: Disruptive Attacks and Hyped Targets" (http:/ / opennet. net/
syrian-electronic-army-disruptive-attacks-and-hyped-targets), OpenNet Initiative, 25 June 2011
[76] "Countries under surveillance: Egypt" (http:/ / en. rsf. org/ surveillance-egypt,39740. html), Reporters Without Borders, March 2011
[77] "Censorship fallout from the Arab Spring?" (http:/ / www. future500. org/ blog/ censorship-fallout-from-the-arab-spring/ ), Juliette Terzieff,
The Future 500, 29 June 2011
[78] "Insight: Social media – a political tool for good or evil?" (http:/ / ca. reuters. com/ article/ technologyNews/
idCATRE78R3CM20110928?pageNumber=1& virtualBrandChannel=0), Peter Apps, Reuters Canada, 28 September 2011
[79] http:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by/ 3. 0/ us/
[80] Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported license (http:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by/ 3. 0/ deed. en), see the lower right corner
of pages at the OpenNet Initiative web site (http:/ / opennet. net/ )
External links
• Censorship Wikia (http://censorship.wikia.com/), an anti-censorship site that catalogs past and present
censored works, using verifiable sources, and a forum to discuss organizing against and circumventing
censorship.
• "Index on Censorship" (http://indexoncensorship.org), web site for the London based organization and
magazine that promotes freedom of expression.
• Internet censorship wiki (http://en.cship.org/wiki/Main_Page), provides information about different methods
of access filtering and ways to bypass them.
• "Online Survival Kit" (https://www.wefightcensorship.org/online-survival-kithtml.html), We Fight
Censorship project of Reporters Without Borders
Freedom of the Media, Vienna, 2004.
• Discussion (http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/interactive/events/2008/03/access_denied) of global net filtering,
Berkman Center for Internet & Society, Harvard, March 2008
• Global survey (http://web20summit.blip.tv/file/1450774) of Web filtering & blocking: Rebecca MacKinnon at
Web 2.0 Summit, November 2008
• How to Bypass Internet Censorship (http://www.howtobypassinternetcensorship.org/), also known by the
titles: Bypassing Internet Censorship or Circumvention Tools, a FLOSS Manual, 10 March 2011, 240 pp.
• "Free Speech in the Age of YouTube" (http://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/23/sunday-review/
free-speech-in-the-age-of-youtube.html) in the New York Times, 22 September 2012
Internet censorship circumvention

Internet censorship circumvention is the process used by technologically savvy Internet users to bypass the
technical aspects of Internet filtering and gain access to otherwise censored material.
Circumvention is an inherent problem for those wishing to censor the Internet, because filtering and blocking do not
remove content from the Internet and as long as there is at least one publicly accessible uncensored system, it will
often be possible to gain access to otherwise censored material. However, circumvention may not be very useful to
non-tech-savvy users and so blocking and filtering remain effective means of censoring the Internet for many
users.[1]
Different techniques and resources are used to bypass Internet censorship, including cached web pages, mirror and
archive sites, alternate DNS servers, proxy websites, virtual private networks, sneakernets, and circumvention
software tools. Solutions have differing ease of use, speed, security, and risks. Most, however, rely on gaining access
to an Internet connection that is not subject to filtering, often in a different jurisdiction not subject to the same
censorship laws.[2]
There are risks to using circumvention software or other methods to bypass Internet censorship. In some countries
individuals that gain access to otherwise restricted content may be violating the law, and if caught can be expelled
from school, fired from jobs, jailed, or subject to other punishments and loss of access.[3]
Circumvention, anonymity, risks, and trust

Circumvention and anonymity are different. Circumvention systems are designed to bypass blocking, but they do not
usually protect identities. Anonymous systems protect a user's identity. And while they can contribute to
circumvention, that is not their primary function. It is important to understand that open public proxy sites do not
provide anonymity and can view and record the location of computers making requests as well as the websites
accessed.[4]
In many jurisdictions accessing blocked content is a serious crime, particularly content that is considered child
pornography, a threat to national security, or an incitement of violence. Thus it is important to understand the
circumvention technologies and the protections they do or do not provide and to use only tools that are appropriate in
a particular context. Great care must be taken to install, configure, and use circumvention tools properly. Individuals
associated with high profile rights organizations, dissident, protest, or reform groups should take extra precautions to
protect their online identities.[4]
Circumvention sites and tools should be provided and operated by trusted third parties located outside the censoring
jurisdiction that do not collect identities and other personal information. Best are trusted family and friends
personally known to the circumventor, but when family and friends are not available, sites and tools provided by
individuals or organizations that are only known by their reputations or through the recommendations and
endorsement of others may need to be used. Commercial circumvention services may provide anonymity while
surfing the Internet, but could be compelled by law to make their records and users' personal information available to
law enforcement.[4]
Methods
There are many methods available that may allow the circumvention of Internet filtering. They range from the
simple to the complex and from the trivial to the difficult in terms of implementation. Of course, not all methods will
work to bypass all filters. And censorship tools and sites are themselves subject to censorship and monitoring.
Circumventing censorship using proxies gives access to international content, but doesn’t address domestic
censorship and access to more local content. Nor does it offer a defense against DDoS or other attacks that target a
publisher.[4][5]
Cached Pages
Some search engines keep cached pages, copies of previously indexed Web pages, and these pages are not always
blocked. Cached pages may be identified with a small link labeled "cached" in a list of search results. Google allows
the retrieval of cached pages by entering "cache:some-blocked-url" as a search request.
Mirror and archive sites

Copies of web sites or pages may be available at mirror or archive sites such as www.archive.org [6] and the alternate
sites may not be blocked.
Web to E-mail services

Web to e-mail services such as www.web2mail.com [7] will return the contents of web pages with or without images
as an e-mail message and such access may not be blocked.
RSS aggregators
RSS aggregators such as Google Reader and Bloglines may be able to receive and pass on RSS feeds that are
blocked when accessed directly.
IP addresses and domain names

Alternative domain names may not be blocked. For example the following domain names all refer to the same web
site: http:/ / wikimedia. org, http:/ / www. wikimedia. org, http:/ / text. wikimedia. org, and http:/ / text. pmtpa.
wikimedia.org.
Or alternative URLs may not be blocked. For example: www.blocked.com vs. www.blocked.com/, blocked.com,
blocked.com/, www.blocked.com/index.htm, and www.blocked.com/index.html.
Entering an IP address rather than a domain name (http:/ / 208. 80. 152. 2) or a domain name rather than an IP
address (http://wikimedia.org) will sometimes allow access to a blocked site.
Specifying an IP address in a base other than 10 may bypass some filters. The following URLs all access the same
site, although not all browsers will recognize all forms: http:/ / 208. 80. 152. 2 (dotted decimal), http:/ / 3494942722
(decimal), http:/ / 0320. 0120. 0230. 02 (dotted octal), http:/ / 0xd0509802 (hexadecimal), and http:/ / 0xd0. 0x50.
0x98.0x2 (dotted hexadecimal).
Alternative DNS Servers

Using DNS servers other than those supplied by default by an ISP may bypass DNS based blocking. OpenDNS and
Google [8] offer DNS services or see List of Publicly Available and Completely Free DNS Servers [9].
Proxy websites
Proxy websites are often the simplest and fastest way to access banned websites in censored nations. Such websites
work by being themselves un-blocked, but capable of displaying the blocked material. This is usually accomplished
by entering a URL which the proxy website will fetch and display. Using the https protocol is recommended since it
is encrypted and harder to block. A list of web proxies is available from web sites such as http:/ / www. proxy. org/
or by searching for "free web proxy". Most modern web browsers have preferences or allow plug-ins to enable
proxies.
Translation services such as babelfish.yahoo.com [10] and translate.google.com [11] are a specific type of proxy
website and can sometimes be used to display blocked pages even when no translation is needed by asking for a
translation into the same language that is used on the original site or by asking for a translation from a language that
does not appear on the original site.
The mobile Opera Mini browser uses a proxy-based approach employing encryption and compression in order to
speed up downloads. This has the side effect of allowing it to circumvent several approaches to Internet censorship.
In 2009 this led the government of China to ban all but a special Chinese version of the browser.[12]
Reverse Proxy
A reverse proxy is (usually) an Internet-facing proxy used as a front-end to control and protect access to a server on a
private network, commonly also performing tasks such as load-balancing, authentication, decryption or caching.
Websites could use reverse proxy to reroute traffic to avoid censorship.[13]
Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)

Using Virtual Private Networks, a user who experiences internet censorship can create a secure connection to a more
permissive country, and browse the internet as if they were situated in that country. Some services are offered for a
monthly fee, others are ad-supported.
Sneakernets
The Sneakernet is the transfer of electronic information, especially computer files, by physically carrying data on
storage media from one place to another. A sneakernet can move data regardless of network restrictions simply by
not using the network at all.[14]
Software
Types:
CGI proxies use a script running on a web server to perform the proxying function. A CGI proxy client sends the
requested url embedded within the data portion of an HTTP request to the CGI proxy server. The CGI proxy server
pulls the ultimate destination information from the data embedded in the HTTP request, sends out its own HTTP
request to the ultimate destination, and then returns the result to the proxy client. A CGI proxy tool's security can be
trusted as far as the operator of the proxy server can be trusted. CGI proxy tools require no manual configuration of
the browser or client software installation, but they do require that the user use an alternative, potentially confusing
browser interface within the existing browser.
HTTP proxies send HTTP requests through an intermediate proxying server. A client connecting through an HTTP
proxy sends exactly the same HTTP request to the proxy as it would send to the destination server unproxied. The
HTTP proxy parses the HTTP request; sends its own HTTP request to the ultimate destination server; and then
returns the response back to the proxy client. An HTTP proxy tool's security can be trusted as far as the operator of
the proxy server can be trusted. HTTP proxy tools require either manual configuration of the browser or client side
software that can configure the browser for the user. Once configured, an HTTP proxy tool allows the user
transparently to use his normal browser interface.
Application proxies are similar to HTTP proxies, but support a wider range of online applications.
Peer-to-peer systems store content across a range of participating volunteer servers combined with technical
techniques such as re-routing to reduce the amount of trust placed on volunteer servers or on social networks to
establish trust relationships between server and client users. Peer-to-peer system can be trusted as far as the operators
of the various servers can be trusted or to the extent that the architecture of the peer-to-peer system limits the amount
of information available to any single server and the server operators can be trusted not to cooperate to combine the
information they hold.
Re-routing systems send requests and responses through a series of proxying servers, encrypting the data again at
each proxy, so that a given proxy knows at most either where the data came from or is going to, but not both. This
decreases the amount of trust required of the individual proxy hosts.
Name Type Developer Cost Web site Notes
[15] HTTP proxy Yemeni journalist free [16] Uses 'split-tunneling' to only redirect to
alkasir www.alkasir.com
Walid al-Saqaf proxy servers when blocking is
encountered. Is not a general
circumvention solution and only allows
access to certain blocked websites. In
particular it does not allow access to
blocked websites that contain
pornography, nudity or similar adult
content.
[17] HTTP proxy Anonymizer, Inc. paid [18] Transparently tunnels traffic through
Anonymizer www.anonymizer.com/
Anonymizer.
[19] Application BarbaTunnel free [20] Retunnel and remove fingerprint of other
BarbaTunnel barbatunnel.codeplex.com/
proxy Project. VPN & proxies with HTTP, TCP or UDP
tunnel.
[21] HTTP proxy James Marshall free [22] Turn a computer into a personal,
CGIProxy www.jmarshall.com/
encrypted proxy server capable of
retrieving and displaying web pages to
users of the server. CGIProxy is the engine
used by many other circumvention
systems.
[23] CGI proxy Peacefire free [24] Turns a regular home computer into a
Circumventor peacefire.org/
personal, encrypted server capable of
retrieving and displaying web pages for
others.
[25] HTTP proxy Stanford free Uses ephemeral browser-based proxy

Flash proxy crypto.stanford.edu/flashproxy/
University [26] relays to connect to the Tor network.
[27] HTTP proxy Dynamic Internet free [28] Uses a range of open proxies to access
Freegate www.dit-inc.us
Technology, Inc. blocked web sites via DIT's DynaWeb
anti-censorship network.
[29] peer-to-peer Ian Clarke free [30] A decentralized, distributed data store
Freenet freenetproject.org
using contributed bandwidth and storage
space of member computers to provide
strong anonymity protection.
[31] HTTP proxy Tenebril, Inc. paid [32] Provides a secure and anonymous Internet
Ghost Surf www.tenebril.com
connection.
[33] Application World's Gate, Inc. free [34] Supports multiple applications, including
GPass gpass1.com/
proxy Web browsers, multimedia players, email,
instant messengers, and download
managers.
[35] Application HTTP-Tunnel free [36] A SOCKS server, managing all data
HTTP Tunnel www.http-tunnel.com
proxy Corporation or transmissions between the computer and
paid the network. Supports multiple
applications.
[37] re-routing I2P Project free [38] Uses a pseudonymous overlay network to
I2P www.i2p2.de/
(originally Invisible allow anonymous web browsing, chatting,
Internet Project) file transfers, amongst other features.
[39] re-routing Jondos GmbH free Uses the underlying anonymity service
Java Anon Proxy anonymous-proxy-servers.net
(fixed) or [40] AN.ON to allow browsing with revocable
(also known as JAP or
JonDonym) paid pseudonymity. Originally developed as
part of a project of the Technische
Universität Dresden, the Universität
Regensburg, and the Privacy
Commissioner of Schleswig-Holstein.
[41][42] CGI proxy Psiphon, Inc. free [43] A simple-to-administer Internet censorship
Psiphon psiphon.ca
circumvention system that can be scaled
for use by a home user serving a few
friends to a cloud-based infrastructure
serving thousands.
[44] HTTP proxy UpsideOut, Inc. free [45] An encrypted, public, web-based
Proxify proxify.com/
or circumvention system. Because the site is
paid public, it is blocked in many countries and
by most filtering applications.
[46] Application Trygghetsbolaget i paid Uses an encrypted VPN tunnel to access

Relakks stupidcensorship.com/
proxy Lund AB [47] the Relakks servers in Sweden.
www.relakks.com
[48] HTTP proxy Peacefire free [49]

StupidCensorship stupidcensorship.com/ An encrypted, public, web-based
circumvention system. Because the site is
public, it is blocked in many countries and
by most filtering applications.
[50]
mousematrix.com is a similar site
based on the same software.
[51] re-routing The Tor Project free [52] Allows users to bypass Internet censorship
Tor www.torproject.org
(randomized) while providing strong anonymity.
[53] HTTP proxy Ultrareach Internet free [54] Anti-censorship product that allows users
Ultrasurf www.ultrasurf.us/
Corporation in countries with heavy internet censorship
to protect their internet privacy and
security.
[55] HTTP proxy OpenSource free Simple unobtrusive proxy. Uses RSA to
scotty www.scotty-transporter.org/
[56] encrypt the requests, transports via normal
HTTP connections. For the gateway, a
machine with uncensored internet access,
is required.
Shadow Internet and cell phone networks

In June 2011 the New York Times reported that the U.S. is engaged in a "global effort to deploy 'shadow' Internet and
mobile phone systems that dissidents can use to undermine repressive governments that seek to silence them by
censoring or shutting down telecommunications networks."[57]
Summary
The Berkman Center for Internet & Society's 2007 Circumvention Landscape Report included the following
observations:[58]
We were reassured to discover that most [circumvention] tools function as intended. They allow users to
circumvent Internet censorship, even in countries like China and Vietnam, which use sophisticated technology
to filter. However, we discovered that all tools slow down access to the Internet, that most tools featured
serious security holes [some of which were patched during or shortly after the study], and that some tools were
extremely difficult for a novice Internet user to use.
...we guess that the number of people using circumvention tools is around two to five million users worldwide.
This number is quite high in absolute terms but quite low relative to the total number of filtered Internet users
(China alone has over two hundred million Internet users). Even accepting likely high end estimates of the
project developers, we believe that less than two percent of all filtered Internet users use circumvention tools.
... we now think it likely that simple web proxies represent at least as great if not greater proportion of
circumvention tool usage as do the more sophisticated tools included in this report. An assumption of this
report was that only users at the margins would rely on simple proxies because of the trouble of constantly
finding new proxies as old ones were blocked by countries. We now have some evidence that that assumption
is false (both that users are not using the simple proxies and that filtering countries are blocking simple proxies
quickly).
It’s worth nothing that none of the developers we spoke to, individually and at our convening, foresaw a “silver
bullet” that would “solve” the problem of filtering circumvention. All the tools rely, to a certain degree, on
providing more proxies than the authorities can block and continuing to create new proxies as old ones are
blocked. The preferred technical term for this strategy is “Whack a Mole,” a reference to an American
fairground game, and while none of the developers are thrilled about an ongoing arms race with censors, some
are taking complex steps to ensure they’ll have many more proxies than the government can shut down. We
are confident that the tool developers will for the most part keep ahead of the governments' blocking efforts.
References
[2] New Technologies Battle and Defeat Internet Censorship (http:/ / www. internetfreedom. org/ files/ WhitePaper/
TechnologiesBattleAndDefeatInternetCensorship70920. pdf), Global Internet Freedom Consortium, 20 September 2007
[3] "Risks" (http:/ / en. cship. org/ wiki/ Risks), Internet censorship wiki, accessed 2 September 2011
[4] Everyone's Guide to By-passing Internet Censorship (http:/ / www. nartv. org/ mirror/ circ_guide. pdf), The Citizen Lab, University of
Toronto, September 2007
[5] "Circumventing Network Filters Or Internet Censorship Using Simple Methods, VPNs, And Proxies" (http:/ / www. notascoolasitseems. com/
review/ circumventing-network-filters-or-internet-censorship-using-simple-methods-vpns-and-proxies), Not As Cool As It Seems, 16
December 2009, accessed 16 September 2011
[6] http:/ / www. archive. org/
[7] http:/ / www. web2mail. com
[8] http:/ / code. google. com/ speed/ public-dns/
[9] http:/ / pcsupport. about. com/ od/ tipstricks/ a/ free-public-dns-servers. htm

[10] http:/ / babelfish. yahoo. com/
[11] http:/ / translate. google. com
[14] Sullivan, Bob (13 April 2006) Military Thumb Drives Expose Larger Problem (http:/ / redtape. msnbc. com/ 2006/ 04/ military_thumb_.
html) MSNBC Retrieved on 25 January 2007.
[15] "About alkasir" (https:/ / www. alkasir. com/ about), alkasir.com, accessed 16 September 2011
[16] https:/ / www. alkasir. com
[17] www.anonymizer.com/ (http:/ / www. anonymizer. com/ ), Anonymizer, Inc., accessed 16 September 2011
[18] http:/ / www. anonymizer. com/
[19] barbatunnel.codeplex.com/ (http:/ / barbatunnel. codeplex. com/ ), BarbaTunnel Project, accessed 2 December 2011
[20] http:/ / barbatunnel. codeplex. com/
[21] CGIProxy" (http:/ / www. jmarshall. com/ tools/ cgiproxy/ ), James Marshall, accessed 17 September 2011
[22] http:/ / www. jmarshall. com/
[23] "How to install the Circumventor program, which gets around all Web-blocking software" (http:/ / www. peacefire. org/ circumventor/
simple-circumventor-instructions. html), Bennett Haselton, accessed 17 September 2011
[24] http:/ / peacefire. org/
[25] "Flash proxies" (https:/ / crypto. stanford. edu/ flashproxy/ ), Applied Crypto Group in the Computer Science Department at Stanford
University, accessed 21 March 2013
[26] https:/ / crypto. stanford. edu/ flashproxy/
[27] "About D.I.T." (http:/ / www. dit-inc. us/ about_us), Dynamic Internet Technology, accessed 16 September 2011
[28] http:/ / www. dit-inc. us
[29] "What is Freenet?" (https:/ / freenetproject. org/ whatis. html), The Freenet Project, accessed 16 September 2011
[30] https:/ / freenetproject. org
[31] "Ghost Surf Overview" (http:/ / www. tenebril. com/ v2009/ consumer/ consumergs. php), Tenebril, Inc., accessed 16 September 2011
[32] http:/ / www. tenebril. com
[33] "GPass Home" (http:/ / gpass1. com/ gpass/ ), World's Gate, Inc., accessed 22 September 2011
[34] http:/ / gpass1. com/ gpass/
[35] "HTTP Tunnel Client" (http:/ / www. http-tunnel. com/ html/ solutions/ http_tunnel/ client. asp), HTTP-Tunnel Corporation, accessed 22
September 2011
[36] http:/ / www. http-tunnel. com
[37] "I2P Anonymous Network" (http:/ / www. i2p2. de/ ), I2P Project, accessed 16 September 2011
[38] http:/ / www. i2p2. de/
[39] "Revocable Anonymity" (http:/ / anon. inf. tu-dresden. de/ publications/ KWF2006ETRICSRevocableAnonymity. pdf), Stefan Köpsell, Rolf
Wendolsky, Hannes Federrath, in Proc. Emerging Trends in Information and Communication Security: International Conference, Günter
Müller (Ed.), ETRICS 2006, Freiburg, Germany, 6–9 June 2006, LNCS 3995, Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg 2006, pp.206-220
[40] https:/ / anonymous-proxy-servers. net/ en/
[41] "About Psiphon" (http:/ / psiphon. ca/ ?page_id=94), Psiphon, Inc., 4 April 2011
[42] "Psiphon Content Delivery Software" (https:/ / launchpad. net/ psiphon), Launchpad, accessed 16 September 2011
[43] http:/ / psiphon. ca
[44] "About Proxify" (https:/ / proxify. com/ about. shtml), UpsideOut, Inc., accessed 17 September 2011
[45] https:/ / proxify. com/
[46] Relakks: How it works (https:/ / www. relakks. com/ faq/ security/ ), Trygghetsbolaget i Lund AB, accessed 22 September 2011
[47] https:/ / www. relakks. com
[48] About StupidCensorship.com (http:/ / www. aboutus. org/ StupidCensorship. com), Peacefire, accessed 17 September 2011
[49] https:/ / stupidcensorship. com/
[50] http:/ / www. mousematrix. com/
[51] "Tor: Overview" (https:/ / www. torproject. org/ about/ overview. html. en), The Tor Project, Inc., accessed 16 September 2011
[52] https:/ / www. torproject. org
[53] "About UltraReach" (http:/ / www. ultrasurf. us/ about. html), Ultrareach Internet Corp., accessed 16 September 2011
[54] http:/ / www. ultrasurf. us/
[55] "About scotty" (http:/ / www. scotty-transporter. org)
[56] http:/ / www. scotty-transporter. org/
[57] "U.S. Underwrites Internet Detour Around Censors" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2011/ 06/ 12/ world/ 12internet. html?pagewanted=all),
James Glanz and John Markoff, New York Times, 12 June 2011
[58] 2007 Circumvention Landscape Report: Methods, Uses, and Tools (http:/ / cyber. law. harvard. edu/ sites/ cyber. law. harvard. edu/ files/
2007_Circumvention_Landscape. pdf), Hal Roberts, Ethan Zuckerman, and John Palfrey, Beckman Center for Internet & Society at Harvard
University, March 2009
External links
• Casting A Wider Net: Lessons Learned in Delivering BBC Content on the Censored Internet (http://uoft.me/
casting), Ronald Deibert, Canada Centre for Global Security Studies and Citizen Lab, Munk School of Global
Affairs, University of Toronto, 11 October 2011
• Censorship Wikia (http://censorship.wikia.com/), an anti-censorship site that catalogs past and present
censored works, using verifiable sources, and a forum to discuss organizing against and circumventing censorship
• "Circumvention Tool Evaluation: 2011" (http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/publications/2011/
2011_Circumvention_Tool_Evaluation), Hal Roberts, Ethan Zuckerman, and John Palfrey, Berkman Centre for
Internet & Society, 18 August 2011
• "Circumvention Tool Usage Report: 2010" (http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/publications/2010/
Circumvention_Tool_Usage), Hal Roberts, Ethan Zuckerman, Jillian York, Robert Faris, and John Palfrey,
Berkman Centre for Internet & Society, 14 October 2010
• Digital Security and Privacy for Human Rights Defenders (http://www.frontlinedefenders.org/manuals/en/
esecman/), by Dmitri Vitaliev, Published by Front Line - The International Foundation for the Protection of
Human Rights Defenders
• "Digital Tools to Curb Snooping" (http://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/18/technology/personaltech/
digital-tools-to-help-curb-online-eavesdropping.html), New York Times, 17 July 2013
• "DNS Nameserver Swapping" (http://www.ab9il.net/crypto/dns-swapping.html), Methods and Scripts useful
for evading censorship through DNS filtering
• How to Bypass Internet Censorship (http://www.howtobypassinternetcensorship.org/), also known by the
titles: Bypassing Internet Censorship or Circumvention Tools, a FLOSS Manual, 10 March 2011, 240 pp.
Translations have been published in Arabic (http://en.flossmanuals.net/bypassing-ar), Burmese (http://en.
flossmanuals.net/circumvention-tools-mn), Chinese (http://en.flossmanuals.net/circumvention-tools-zh), Farsi
(http://en.flossmanuals.net/bypassing-fa), Russian (http://en.flossmanuals.net/bypassing-ru), Spanish (http:/
/en.flossmanuals.net/bypassing-es), and Vietnamese (http://en.flossmanuals.net/bypassing-vi)
• Internet censorship wiki (http://en.cship.org/wiki/Main_Page), provides information about different methods
of access filtering and ways to bypass them
• "Leaping over the Firewall: A Review of Censorship Circumvention Tools" (http://freedomhouse.org/uploads/
special_report/97.pdf), by Cormac Callanan (Ireland), Hein Dries-Ziekenheiner (Netherlands), Alberto
Escudero-Pascual (Sweden), and Robert Guerra (Canada), Freedom House, April 2011
Freedom of the Media, Vienna, 2004
• "Online Survival Kit" (https://www.wefightcensorship.org/online-survival-kithtml.html), We Fight
Censorship project of Reporters Without Borders
• "Selected Papers in Anonymity" (http://freehaven.net/anonbib/topic.html), Free Haven Project, accessed 16
September 2011
• "Ten Things to Look for in a Circumvention Tool" (https://www.torproject.org/press/presskit/
2010-09-16-circumvention-features.pdf), Roger Dingledine, The Tor Project, September 2010
Internet censorship by country

Internet censorship by country provides information on the types and levels of Internet censorship or filtering that
is occurring in countries around the world.
Classifications
Detailed country by country
information on Internet censorship is
provided by the OpenNet Initiative,
Reporters Without Borders, Freedom
House, and in the U.S. State
Department Bureau of Democracy,
Human Rights, and Labor's Human
Rights Reports.[4] The ratings produced
by several of these organizations are
summarized below as well as in the
Censorship by country article. Internet censorship by countryOpenNet Initiative "Summarized global Internet filtering
data spreadsheet", 29 October 2012 and "Country Profiles", the OpenNet Initiative is a
OpenNet Initiative University of Toronto; the Berkman Center for Internet & Society at Harvard University;
and the SecDev Group, Ottawa Internet Enemies, Reporters Without Borders (Paris),
The OpenNet Initiative (ONI) 12 March 2012Due to legal concerns the OpenNet Initiative does not check for filtering
classifies the magnitude of censorship of child pornography and because their classifications focus on technical filtering, they do
not include other types of censorship.
or filtering occurring in a country in
four areas of activity.[5]
The magnitude or level of censorship is classified as follows:
Pervasive: A large portion of content in several categories is blocked.
Substantial: A number of categories are subject to a medium level of filtering or many categories are subject
to a low level of filtering.
Selective: A small number of specific sites are blocked or filtering targets a small number of categories or
issues.
Suspected: It is suspected, but not confirmed, that Web sites are being blocked.
No evidence: No evidence of blocked Web sites, although other forms of controls may exist.
The classifications are done for the following areas of activity:
Political: Views and information in opposition to those of the current government or related to human rights,
freedom of expression, minority rights, and religious movements.
Social: Views and information perceived as offensive or as socially sensitive, often related to sexuality,
gambling, or illegal drugs and alcohol.
Conflict/security: Views and information related to armed conflicts, border disputes, separatist movements,
and militant groups.
Internet tools: e-mail, Internet hosting, search, translation, and Voice-over Internet Protocol (VoIP) services,
and censorship or filtering circumvention methods.
Due to legal concerns the OpenNet Initiative does not check for filtering of child pornography and because their
classifications focus on technical filtering, they do not include other types of censorship.
Through 2010 the OpenNet Initiative had documented Internet filtering by governments in over forty countries
worldwide.[6] The level of filtering was classified in 26 countries in 2007 and in 25 countries in 2009. Of the 41
separate countries classified in these two years, seven were found to show no evidence of filtering (Egypt, France,
Germany, India, the Ukraine, the United Kingdom, and the United States), while one was found to engage in
pervasive filtering in all areas (China), 13 were found to engage in pervasive filtering in one or more areas, and 34
were found to engage in some level of filtering in one or more areas. Of the 10 countries classified in both 2007 and
2009, one reduced its level of filtering (Pakistan), five increased their level of filtering (Azerbaijan, Belarus,
Kazakhstan, South Korea, and Uzbekistan), and four maintained the same level of filtering (China, Iran, Myanmar,
and Tajikistan).[7]
Reporters Without Borders
RWB Enemies of the Internet and Countries under Surveillance lists

In 2006, Reporters without Borders (Reporters sans frontières, RSF), a Paris-based international non-governmental
organization that advocates freedom of the press, started publishing a list of "Enemies of the Internet".[8] The
organization classifies a country as an enemy of the internet because "all of these countries mark themselves out not
just for their capacity to censor news and information online but also for their almost systematic repression of
Internet users."[9] In 2007 a second list of countries "Under Surveillance" (originally "Under Watch") was added.
Both lists are updated annually.[10]
[2] • North Korea [2] • Russia

Enemies of the Internet: Countries Under Surveillance:
• Saudi Arabia • South Korea
• Bahrain • Australia
• Syria • Sri Lanka
• Belarus • Egypt
• Turkmenistan • Thailand
• Burma • Eritrea
• Uzbekistan • Tunisia
• China • France
• Vietnam • Turkey
• Cuba • India • United Arab Emirates
• Iran • Kazakhstan
• Malaysia
When the "Enemies of the Internet" list was introduced in 2006, it listed 13 countries. From 2006 to 2012 the number
of countries listed fell to 10 and then rose to 12. Belarus, Egypt, and Tunisia moved to the "Countries under
surveillance" list in 2009, 2011, and 2011 respectively. Belarus moved back and Bahrain was added to the list in
2012.
When the "Countries under surveillance" list was introduced in 2008, it listed 10 countries. Between 2008 and 2012
the number of countries listed grew to 16 and then fell to 14. In addition to the moves to and from the "Enemies of
the Internet" list noted earlier, Jordan in 2009, Tajikistan in 2009, and Yemen in 2010 were dropped from the list and
Australia in 2009, France in 2011, Russia in 2010, South Korea in 2009, Turkey in 2010 were added. Bahrain,
Eritrea, Malaysia, and Sri Lanka dropped from the list in 2010, but were added again in 2011. Libya dropped from
the list in 2009, added again in 2011, and then dropped in 2012. Venezuela was added in 2011 and then dropped in
2012.
RWB Special report on Internet Surveillance

[11]
On 12 March 2013 Reporters Without Borders published a Special report on Internet Surveillance. The report
includes two new lists:
• a list of "State Enemies of the Internet", countries whose governments are involved in active, intrusive
surveillance of news providers, resulting in grave violations of freedom of information and human rights; and
• a list of "Corporate Enemies of the Internet", companies that sell products that are liable to be used by
governments to violate human rights and freedom of information.
The five "State Enemies of the Internet" named in March 2013 are: Bahrain, China, Iran, Syria, and Vietnam.[11]
The five "Corporate Enemies of the Internet" named in March 2013 are: Amesys (France), Blue Coat Systems
(U.S.), Gamma (UK and Germany), Hacking Team (Italy), and Trovicor (Germany), but the list is not exhaustive
and will be expanded in the coming months.[11]
Freedom on the Net reports

Freedom House has produced three editions of its report Freedom on the Net, the first in 2009 surveyed 15
countries,[12] the second in 2011 surveyed 37 countries,[12] and the third in 2012 surveyed 47 countries.[12]
Freedom on the Net Survey Results

[12] [12] [12]
2009 2011 2012
Countries 15 37 47
Free 4 (27%) 8 (22%) 14 (30%)
Partly free 7 (47%) 18 (49%) 20 (43%)
Not free 4 (27%) 11 (30%) 13 (28%)
Improved n/a 5 (33%) 11 (31%)
Declined n/a 9 (60%) 17 (47%)
No change n/a 1 (7%) 8 (22%)
In addition the 2012 report identified seven countries that were at particular risk of suffering setbacks related to
Internet freedom in late 2012 and in 2013: Azerbaijan, Libya, Malaysia, Pakistan, Rwanda, Russia, and Sri Lanka. In
most of these countries the Internet is currently a relatively open and unconstrained space for free expression, but the
countries also typically feature a repressive environment for traditional media and have recently considered or
introduced legislation that would negatively affect Internet freedom.[12]
Country classifications
The level of censorship in a country is classified in one of the five categories: pervasive, substantial, selective,
changing situation, and little or no censorship. The classifications are based on the classifications and ratings from
both the OpenNet Initiative (ONI) and the Reporters Without Borders (RWB) or when a country has not been
classified by ONI or RWB, the reports from Freedom House and in the U.S. State Department Bureau of
Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor's Human Rights Reports are used.
Pervasive censorship
While there is no universally agreed upon definition of what constitutes "pervasive censorship", a country is included
in this classification when it is included on the "Internet enemies" list maintained by Reporters Without Borders,[8] or
when the OpenNet Initiative categorizes the level of Internet filtering as pervasive in any of the four areas (political,
social, conflict/security, and Internet tools) for which they test. Such nations often censor political, social, and other
content and may retaliate against citizens who violate the censorship with imprisonment or other sanctions.
Bahrain
• Listed as pervasive in the political and social areas, as substantial in Internet tools, and as selective in
conflict/security by ONI in August 2009.[5]
• Listed as an Enemy of the Internet by RWB in 2012.[2]
• Listed as a State Enemy of the Internet by RWB in 2013 for involvement in active, intrusive surveillance of news
providers, resulting in grave violations of freedom of information and human rights.[11]
Bahrain enforces an effective news blackout using an array of repressive measures, including keeping the
international media away, harassing human rights activists, arresting bloggers and other online activists (one of
whom died in detention), prosecuting free speech activists, and disrupting communications, especially during major
demonstrations.[2]
On 5 January 2009 the Ministry of Culture and Information issued an order (Resolution No 1 of 2009)[13] pursuant to
the Telecommunications Law and Press and Publications Law of Bahrain that regulates the blocking and unblocking
of websites. This resolution requires all ISPs – among other things – to procure and install a website blocking
software solution chosen by the Ministry. The Telecommunications Regulatory Authority ("TRA") assisted the
Ministry of Culture and Information in the execution of the said Resolution by coordinating the procurement of the
unified website blocking software solution. This software solution is operated solely by the Ministry of Information
and Culture and neither the TRA nor ISPs have any control over sites that are blocked or unblocked.
Belarus
• Listed as selective in the political, social, conflict/security and Internet tools areas by ONI in November 2010.[5]
• Listed as an Internet enemy by RWB in 2012.[2]
The Internet in Belarus, as a space used for circulating information and mobilizing protests, has been hard hit as the
authorities increased the list of blocked websites and partially blocked the Internet during protests. As a way to limit
coverage of demonstrations some Internet users and bloggers have been arrested and others have been invited to
“preventive conversations” with the police. Law No. 317-3, which took effect on 6 January 2012, reinforced Internet
surveillance and control measures.[2]
The Belarus government has moved to second- and third-generation controls to manage its national information
space. Control over the Internet is centralized with the government-owned Beltelecom managing the country’s
Internet gateway. Regulation is heavy with strong state involvement in the telecommunications and media market.
Most users who post online media practice a degree of self-censorship prompted by fears of regulatory prosecution.
The president has established a strong and elaborate information security policy and has declared his intention to
exercise strict control over the Internet under the pretext of national security. The political climate is repressive and
opposition leaders and independent journalists are frequently detained and prosecuted.[14]
Burma
• Listed as selective in the political and Internet tools areas, as substantial in social, and as no evidence of filtering
in conflict/security by ONI in August 2012.[1][15]
Beginning in September 2012, after years spent as one of the world’s most strictly controlled information
environments, the government of Burma (Myanmar) began to open up access to previously censored online content.
Independent and foreign news sites, oppositional political content, and sites with content relating to human rights
and political reform—all previously blocked—became accessible. In August 2012, the Burmese Press Scrutiny and
Registration Department announced that all pre-publication censorship of the press was to be discontinued, such that
articles dealing with religion and politics would no longer require review by the government before publication.[16]
Restrictions on content deemed harmful to state security remain in place. Pornography is still widely blocked, as is
content relating to alcohol and drugs, gambling websites, online dating sites, sex education, gay and lesbian content,
and web censorship circumvention tools. In 2012 almost all of the previously blocked websites of opposition
political parties, critical political content, and independent news sites were accessible, with only 5 of 541 tested
URLs categorized as political content blocked.[16]
China
• Listed as pervasive in the political and conflict/security areas and as substantial in social and Internet tools by
ONI in June 2009.[5]
Internet censorship in China is among the most stringent in the world. The government blocks Web sites that discuss
Tibetan independence and the Dalai Lama, Taiwan independence, police brutality, the Tiananmen Square protests of
1989, freedom of speech, pornography, some international news sources and propaganda outlets (such as the VOA),
certain religious movements (such as Falun Gong), and many blogging websites.[17] At the end of 2007 51 cyber
dissidents were reportedly imprisoned in China for their online postings.[18] According to Human Rights Watch, in
China the government also continues to violate domestic and international legal guarantees of freedom of press and
expression by restricting bloggers, journalists, and an estimated more than 500 million Internet users. The
government requires Internet search firms and state media to censor issues deemed officially “sensitive,” and blocks
access to foreign websites including Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube. However, the rise of Chinese online social
networks—in particularly Sina’s Weibo, which has 200 million users—has created a new platform for citizens to
express opinions and to challenge official limitations on freedom of speech despite intense scrutiny by China’s
censors.[19]
Cuba
• Not categorized by ONI due to lack of data.
Cuba has the lowest ratio of computers per inhabitant in Latin America, and the lowest internet access ratio of all the
Western hemisphere.[20] Citizens have to use government controlled "access points", where their activity is
monitored through IP blocking, keyword filtering and browsing history checking. The government cites its citizens'
access to internet services are limited due to high costs and the American embargo, but there are reports concerning
the will of the government to control access to uncensored information both from and to the outer world.[21] The
Cuban government continues to imprison independent journalists for contributing reports through the Internet to web
sites outside of Cuba.[22]
Even with the lack of precise figures due to the secretive nature of the regime, testimonials from independent
bloggers, activists, and international watchers support the view that it is difficult for most people to access the web
[23][24]
and that harsh punishments for individuals that do not follow government policies are the norm. The
[]
Committee to Protect Journalists has pointed to Cuba as one of the ten most censored countries around the world.
Ethiopia
• Listed as pervasive in the political, as no evidence in social, and selective in the conflict/security and Internet
tools areas by ONI in October 2012.[1]
Ethiopia remains a highly restrictive environment in which to express political dissent online. The government of
Ethiopia has long filtered critical and oppositional political content. Anti-terrorism legislation is frequently used to
target online speech, including in the recent conviction of a dozen individuals, many of whom were tried based on
their online writings. OpenNet Initiative (ONI) testing conducted in Ethiopia in September 2012 found that online
political and news content continues to be blocked, including the blogs and websites of a number of recently
convicted individuals.[25]
Ethiopia has implemented a largely political filtering regime that blocks access to popular blogs and the Web sites of
many news organizations, dissident political parties, and human rights groups. However, much of the media content
that the government is attempting to censor can be found on sites that are not banned. The authors of the blocked
blogs have in many cases continued to write for an international audience, apparently without sanction. However,
Ethiopia is increasingly jailing journalists, and the government has shown a growing propensity toward repressive
behavior both off- and online. Censorship is likely to become more extensive as Internet access expands across the
country.[26]
Iran
• Listed as pervasive in the political, social, and Internet tools areas and as substantial in conflict/security by ONI in
June 2009.[5]
The Islamic Republic of Iran continues to expand and consolidate its technical filtering system, which is among the
most extensive in the world. A centralized system for Internet filtering has been implemented that augments the
filtering conducted at the Internet service provider (ISP) level.[27] Filtering targets content critical of the government,
religion, pornographic websites, political blogs, and women's rights websites, weblogs, and online magazines.[][28]
Bloggers in Iran have been imprisoned for their Internet activities.[29] The Iranian government temporarily blocked
access, between 12 May 2006 and January 2009, to video-upload sites such as YouTube.com.[30] Flickr, which was
blocked for almost the same amount of time was opened in February 2009. But after 2009 election protests
YouTube, Flickr, Twitter, Facebook and many more websites were blocked again.[31]
Kuwait
• Listed as pervasive in the social and Internet tools areas and as selective in political and conflict/security by ONI
in June 2009.[5]
The primary target of Internet filtering is pornography and, to a lesser extent, gay and lesbian content. Secular
content and Web sites that are critical of Islam are also censored. Some Web sites that are related to religions other
than Islam are blocked even though they are not necessarily critical of Islam.[32]
The Kuwait Ministry of Communication regulates ISPs, forcing them to block pornography, anti-religion,
anti-tradition, and anti-security websites to "protect the public by maintaining both public order and morality".[33]
Both private ISPs and the government take actions to filter the Internet.[34][35]
The Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR) operates the Domain Name System in Kuwait and does not
register domain names which are "injurious to public order or to public sensibilities or otherwise do not comply with
[36] [37]
the laws of Kuwait". Voice over Internet Protocol is illegal in Kuwait. Not only have many VoIP Web sites
been blocked by the MOC, but expatriates have been deported for using or running VOIP services.[38]
Myanmar
See Burma.
North Korea
• Not categorized by ONI due to lack of data.[39]
North Korea is cut off from the Internet, much as it is from other areas with respect to the world. Only a few hundred
thousand citizens in North Korea, representing about 4% of the total population, have access to the Internet, which is
heavily censored by the national government.[40] According to the RWB, North Korea is a prime example where all
mediums of communication are controlled by the government. According to the RWB, the Internet is used by the
North Korean government primarily to spread propaganda. The North Korean network is monitored heavily. All
websites are under government control, as is all other media in North Korea.[41]
Oman
• Listed as pervasive in the social area, as substantial in Internet tools, selective in political, and as no evidence in
Oman engages in extensive filtering of pornographic Web sites, gay and lesbian content, content that is critical of
Islam, content about illegal drugs, and anonymizer sites used to circumvent blocking. There is no evidence of
technical filtering of political content, but laws and regulations restrict free expression online and encourage
self-censorship.[42]
Qatar
• Listed as pervasive in the social and Internet tools areas and selective in political and conflict/security by ONI in
August 2009.[5]
Qatar is the second most connected country in the Arab region, but Internet users have heavily censored access to the
Internet. Qatar filters pornography, political criticism of Gulf countries, gay and lesbian content, sexual health
resources, dating and escort services, and privacy and circumvention tools. Political filtering is highly selective, but
journalists self-censor on sensitive issues such as government policies, Islam, and the ruling family.[43]
Saudi Arabia
• Listed as pervasive in the social and Internet tools areas, as substantial in political, and as selective in
Saudi Arabia directs all international Internet traffic through a proxy run by the CITC. Content filtering is
implemented there using software by Secure Computing.[44] Additionally, a number of sites are blocked according to
two lists maintained by the Internet Services Unit (ISU):[45] one containing "immoral" (mostly pornographic) sites,
the other based on directions from a security committee run by the Ministry of Interior (including sites critical of the
Saudi government). Citizens are encouraged to actively report "immoral" sites for blocking, using a provided Web
form. Many Wikipedia articles in different languages have been included in the censorship of "immoral" content in
Saudi Arabia. The legal basis for content-filtering is the resolution by Council of Ministers dated 12 February
2001.[46] According to a study carried out in 2004 by the OpenNet Initiative: "The most aggressive censorship
focused on pornography, drug use, gambling, religious conversion of Muslims, and filtering circumvention tools."[44]
South Korea
• Listed as pervasive in the conflict/security area, as selective in social, and as no evidence in political and Internet
tools by ONI in 2011.[1][5]
• Listed as Under Surveillance by RWB in 2011.[2]
South Korea is a world leader in Internet and broadband penetration, but its citizens do not have access to a free and
unfiltered Internet. South Korea’s government maintains a wide-ranging approach toward the regulation of specific
online content and imposes a substantial level of censorship on elections-related discourse and on a large number of
Web sites that the government deems subversive or socially harmful.[47] The policies are particularly strong toward
suppressing anonymity in the Korean internet.
In 2007, numerous bloggers were censored and their posts deleted by police for expressing criticism of, or even
support for, presidential candidates. This even lead to some bloggers being arrested by the police.[48]
South Korea uses IP address blocking to ban web sites considered sympathetic to North Korea.[][] Illegal websites,
such as those offering unrated games, pornography, and gambling, are also blocked.
Syria
• Listed as pervasive in the political and Internet tools areas, and as selective in social and conflict/security by ONI
in August 2009.[5]
Syria has banned websites for political reasons and arrested people accessing them. In addition to filtering a wide
range of Web content, the Syrian government monitors Internet use very closely and has detained citizens "for
expressing their opinions or reporting information online." Vague and broadly worded laws invite government abuse
and have prompted Internet users to engage in self-censoring and self-monitoring to avoid the state's ambiguous
grounds for arrest.[][49]
During the Syrian civil war Internet connectivity between Syria and the outside world shut down in late November
2011[] and again in early May 2013.[50]
Turkmenistan
• Listed as pervasive in the political area and as selective in social, conflict/security, and Internet tools by ONI in
December 2010.[5]
Internet usage in Turkmenistan is under tight control of the government. Turkmen got their news through satellite
television until 2008 when the government decided to get rid of satellites, leaving Internet as the only medium where
information could be gathered. The Internet is monitored thoroughly by the government and websites run by human
rights organizations and news agencies are blocked. Attempts to get around this censorship can lead to grave
consequences.[51]
United Arab Emirates

• Listed as pervasive in the social and Internet tools areas, as substantial in political, and as selective in
The United Arab Emirates forcibly censors the Internet using Secure Computing's solution. The nation's ISPs Etisalat
and du (telco) ban pornography, politically sensitive material, all Israeli domains,[52] and anything against the
perceived moral values of the UAE. All or most VoIP services are blocked. The Emirates Discussion Forum (Arabic:
‫)ﻣﻨﺘﺪﻯ ﺍﻟﺤﻮﺍﺭ ﺍﻹﻣﺎﺭﺍﺗﻲ‬, or simply uaehewar.net, has been subjected to multiple censorship actions by UAE authorities.[53]
Uzbekistan
• Classified by ONI as pervasive in the political and as selective in the social, conflict/security, and Internet tools
areas in 2008.[1][5]
Uzbekistan prevents access to websites regarding banned Islamic movements, independent media, NGOs, and
material critical of the government's human rights violations.[] Some Internet cafes in the capital have posted
warnings that users will be fined for viewing pornographic websites or website containing banned political
material.[54] The main VoIP protocols SIP and IAX used to be blocked for individual users; however, as of July
2010, blocks were no longer in place. Facebook was blocked for few days in 2010.[55]
Vietnam
• Classified by ONI as pervasive in the political, as substantial in the Internet tools, and as selective in the social
and conflict/security areas in 2011.[1][5]
The main networks in Vietnam prevent access to websites critical of the Vietnamese government, expatriate political
parties, and international human rights organizations, among others.[] Online police reportedly monitor Internet cafes
and cyber dissidents have been imprisoned for advocating democracy.[56]
Yemen
• Listed as pervasive in the social area, as substantial in political and Internet tools, and as selective in the
conflict/security area by ONI in October 2012.[1]
• Listed as Under Surveillance by RWB in 2008 and 2009, but not in 2010 or 2011.[2]
Yemen censors pornography, nudity, gay and lesbian content, escort and dating services, sites displaying provocative
attire, Web sites which present critical reviews of Islam and/or attempt to convert Muslims to other religions, or
content related to alcohol, gambling, and drugs.[57]
Yemen’s Ministry of Information declared in April 2008 that the penal code will be used to prosecute writers who
publish Internet content that "incites hatred" or "harms national interests".[58] Yemen's two ISPs, YemenNet and
TeleYemen, block access to gambling, adult, sex education, and some religious content.[] The ISP TeleYemen (aka
Y.Net) prohibits "sending any message which is offensive on moral, religious, communal, or political grounds" and
will report "any use or attempted use of the Y.Net service which contravenes any applicable Law of the Republic of
Yemen". TeleYemen reserves the right to control access to data stored in its system “in any manner deemed
appropriate by TeleYemen.”[59]
In Yemen closed rooms or curtains that might obstruct views of the monitors are not allowed in Internet cafés,
computer screens in Internet cafés must be visible to the floor supervisor, police have ordered some Internet cafés to
close at midnight, and demanded that users show their identification cards to the café operator.[60]
Substantial censorship
Countries included in this classification were found to practice substantial Internet filtering in at least one of the four
areas (political, social, conflict/security, and Internet tools) for which ONI tests, but which were not already included
in the pervasive censorship classification. This includes countries where a number of categories are subject to a
medium level of filtering or many categories are subject to a low level of filtering.
Armenia
• Listed as substantial in the political area and as selective in social, conflict/security, and Internet tools by ONI in
November 2010.[5]
Access to the Internet in Armenia is largely unfettered, although evidence of second- and third-generation filtering is
mounting. Armenia’s political climate is volatile and largely unpredictable. In times of political unrest, the
government has not hesitated to put in place restrictions on the Internet as a means to curtail public protest and
discontent.[61]
Gaza and the West Bank

• Listed as substantial in the social area and as no evidence in political, conflict/security, and Internet tools by ONI
in August 2009.[5]
Access to Internet in the Palestinian territories remains relatively open, although social filtering of sexually explicit
content has been implemented in Gaza. Internet in the West Bank remains almost entirely unfiltered, save for a
single news Web site that was banned for roughly six months starting in late 2008. Media freedom is constrained in
Gaza and the West Bank by the political upheaval and internal conflict as well as by the Israeli forces.[62]
Indonesia
• Listed as substantial in the social area, as selective in the political and Internet tools areas, and as no evidence of
filtering in the conflict/security area by ONI in 2011 based on testing done during 2009 and 2010. Testing also
showed that Internet filtering in Indonesia is unsystematic and inconsistent, illustrated by the differences found in
the level of filtering between ISPs.[63]
• Indonesia was rated "partly free" in Freedom on the Net 2011 with a score of 46, midway between the end of the
"free" range at 30 and the start of the "not free" range at 60.[64]
Although the government of Indonesia holds a positive view about the Internet as a means for economic
development, it has become increasingly concerned over the impact of access to information and has demonstrated
an interest in increasing its control over offensive online content, particularly pornographic and anti-Islamic online
content. The government regulates such content through legal and regulatory frameworks and through partnerships
with ISPs and Internet cafés.[63]
Pakistan
• Listed as substantial in the conflict/security and as selective in the political, social, and Internet tools areas by
ONI in 2011.[1][5]
Pakistanis currently have free access to a wide range of Internet content, including most sexual, political, social, and
religious sites on the Internet. Internet filtering remains both inconsistent and intermittent. Although the majority of
filtering in Pakistan is intermittent—such as the occasional block on a major Web site like Blogspot or
YouTube—the Pakistan Telecommunication Authority (PTA) continues to block sites containing content it considers
to be blasphemous, anti-Islamic, or threatening to internal security. Pakistan has blocked access to websites critical
of the government.[65]
Sudan
• Listed as substantial in the social and Internet tools areas and as selective in political, and as no evidence in
Sudan openly acknowledges filtering content that transgresses public morality and ethics or threatens order. The
state's regulatory authority has established a special unit to monitor and implement filtration; this primarily targets
pornography and, to a lesser extent, gay and lesbian content, dating sites, provocative attire, and many anonymizer
and proxy Web sites.[66]
Selective censorship
Countries included in this classification were found to practice selective Internet filtering in at least one of the four
areas (political, social, conflict/security, and Internet tools) for which ONI tests, but which were not already included
in the pervasive or substantial censorship classifications. This classification includes countries where a small number
of specific sites are blocked or filtering targets a small number of categories or issues.
Azerbaijan
• Listed as selective in the political and social areas and as no evidence in conflict/security and Internet tools by
ONI in November 2009.[5]
The Internet in Azerbaijan remains largely free from direct censorship, although there is evidence of second- and
third-generation controls.[67]
Gambia
• Not individually classified by ONI,[5] but classified as selective based on the limited descriptions in the ONI
profile for the sub-Saharan Africa region.[68]
Gambia is a particularly egregious offender of the right to freedom of expression: in 2007 a Gambian journalist
living in the US was convicted of sedition for an article published online; she was fined USD12,000;[69] in 2006 the
Gambian police ordered all subscribers to an online independent newspaper to report to the police or face arrest.[70]
Georgia
• Listed as selective in the political and conflict/security areas and as no evidence in social and Internet tools by
ONI in November 2010.[5]
Access to Internet content in Georgia is largely unrestricted as the legal constitutional framework, developed after
the 2003 Rose Revolution, established a series of provisions that should, in theory, curtail any attempts by the state
to censor the Internet. At the same time, these legal instruments have not been sufficient to prevent limited filtering
on corporate and educational networks. Georgia’s dependence on international connectivity makes it vulnerable to
upstream filtering, evident in the March 2008 blocking of YouTube by Turk Telecom.[71]
Georgia blocked all websites with addresses ending in .ru (top-level domain for Russian Federation) after South
Ossetia War in 2008.[72]
India
• Listed as "Partly Free" in Freedom on the Net 2011.[73]
• Listed as selective in all areas by ONI in 2011.[3][5]
Since the Mumbai bombings of 2008, the Indian authorities have stepped up Internet surveillance and pressure on
technical service providers, while publicly rejecting accusations of censorship.[2]
ONI describes India as:[5]
A stable democracy with a strong tradition of press freedom, [that] nevertheless continues its regime of
Internet filtering. However, India’s selective censorship of blogs and other content, often under the guise of
security, has also been met with significant opposition.
Indian ISPs continue to selectively filter Web sites identified by authorities. However, government attempts at
filtering have not been entirely effective because blocked content has quickly migrated to other Web sites and
users have found ways to circumvent filtering. The government has also been criticized for a poor
understanding of the technical feasibility of censorship and for haphazardly choosing which Web sites to
block.
Italy
• Listed as selective in the social area and as no evidence in political, conflict/security, and Internet tools by ONI in
December 2010.[5]
Internet filtering in Italy is applied against child pornography,[][74] gambling, and some P2P web-sites.[75][76] The
Pirate Bay website and IP Address are unreachable from Italy,[77] blocked directly by Internet Service Providers. A
controversial verdict issued by the Court of Bergamo and later confirmed by the Supreme Court, allowed the
blocking, stating that it was useful in order to prevent copyright infringement. Pervasive filtering is applied to
gambling websites that do not have a local license to operate in Italy.[78][79][80] An anti-terrorism law, amended in
2005 by then-Minister of the Interior Giuseppe Pisanu after the terrorists attacks in Madrid and London,[] restricts the
opening of new Wi-Fi Hotspots.[]
Jordan
• Listed as selective in the political area and as no evidence in social, conflict/security, and Internet tools by ONI in
August 2009.[5]
Censorship in Jordan is relatively light, with filtering selectively applied to only a small number of sites. However,
media laws and regulations encourage some measure of self-censorship in cyberspace, and citizens have reportedly
been questioned and arrested for Web content they have authored. Censorship in Jordan is mainly focused on
political issues that might be seen as a threat to national security due to the nation's close proximity to regional
hotspots like Israel, Iraq, Lebanon, and the Palestinian territories.[81]
In 2013 the Press and Publications Department initiated a ban on Jordanian news websites which had not registered
and been licensed by government agency. The order issued to Telecommunication Regulatory Commission
contained a list of over 300 websites to be blocked. The new law, which enforced registration of websites, would
also hold online news sites accountable for the comments left by their readers. They would also be required to
archive all comments for at least six months.[82]
Kazakhstan
ONI in December 2010.[5]
In 2011 the government responded to an oil workers strike, a major riot, a wave of bombings, and the president’s
ailing health by imposing new, repressive Internet regulations, greater control of information, especially online
information, blocking of news websites, and cutting communications with the city of Zhanaozen during the riot.[2]
Kazakhstan uses its significant regulatory authority to ensure that all Internet traffic passes through infrastructure
controlled by the dominant telecommunications provider KazakhTelecom. Selective content filtering is widely used,
and second- and third-generation control strategies are evident. Independent media and bloggers reportedly practice
self-censorship for fear of government reprisal. The technical sophistication of the Kazakhstan Internet environment
is evolving and the government’s tendency toward stricter online controls warrant closer examination and
monitoring.[83]
Kyrgyzstan
Access to the Internet in Kyrgyzstan has deteriorated as heightened political tensions have led to more frequent
instances of second- and third-generation controls. The government has become more sensitive to the Internet’s
influence on domestic politics and enacted laws that increase its authority to regulate the sector.[83]
Liberalization of the telecommunications market in Kyrgyzstan has made the Internet affordable for the majority of
the population. However, Kyrgyzstan is an effectively cyberlocked country dependent on purchasing bandwidth
from Kazakhstan and Russia. The increasingly authoritarian regime in Kazakhstan is shifting toward more restrictive
Internet controls, which is leading to instances of ‘‘upstream filtering’’ affecting ISPs in Kyrgyzstan.[83]
Libya
August 2009.[5]
• Ranked 22nd out of 77 countries and listed as "Partly Free" in Freedom on the Net 2012 by Freedom House.[12]
• Identified by Freedom House as one of seven countries seen as particularly vulnerable to deterioration in their
online freedoms during 2012 and 2013.[84]
The overthrow of the Gaddafi regime in August 2011 ended an era of censorship. The Constitutional Declaration
under the interim governments provides for freedom of opinion, expression, and the press. There are no government
restrictions on access to the Internet, but there are credible reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet
communication. Social media applications, such as YouTube, Facebook, and Twitter, were freely accessible. Internet
content is not filtered, but service is often unreliable or nonexistent outside major cities.[85]
Before his removal and death, Col. Gaddafi had tried to impose a news blackout by cutting access to the Internet.[2]
Prior to this, Internet filtering under the Gaddafi regime had become more selective, focusing on a few political
opposition Web sites. This relatively lenient filtering policy coincided with what was arguably a trend toward greater
openness and increasing freedom of the press. However, the legal and political climate continued to encourage
self-censorship in online media.[83]
In 2006 Reporters Without Borders removed Libya from their list of Internet enemies after a fact-finding visit found
no evidence of Internet censorship.[8] ONI’s 2007–2008 technical test results contradicted that conclusion,
however.[83] And in 2012 RWB removed Libya from its list of countries under surveillance.[2]
Mauritania
• Classified by ONI as selective in the political and as no evidence in the social, security/conflict, and Internet tools
[1]
areas in 2009. There is no individual ONI country profile for Mauritania, but it is included in the ONI regional
overview for the Middle East and North Africa.[68]
There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitored email or
Internet chat rooms in 2010. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the
Internet, including by e-mail. There is a law prohibiting child pornography with penalties of two months to one year
imprisonment and a 160,000 to 300,000 ouguiya ($550 to $1,034) fine.[86]
Between 16 March and 19 March 2009 and again on 25 June 2009 the news Web site Taqadoumy was
blocked.[68][86] On 26 February 2010, Hanevy Ould Dehah, director of Taqadoumy, received a presidential pardon
after being detained since December 2009 despite having served his sentence for crimes against Islam and paying all
imposed fines and legal fees. Dehah, who was originally arrested in June 2009 on charges of defamation of
presidential candidate Ibrahima Sarr for publishing an article stating that Sarr bought a house with campaign money
from General Aziz. Dehah, was sentenced in August 2009 to six months in prison and fined 30,000 ouguiya ($111)
for committing acts contrary to Islam and decency. The sentencing judge accused Dehah of creating a space allowing
individuals to express anti-Islamic and indecent views, based on a female reader's comments made on the
Taqadoumy site calling for increased sexual freedom.[86]
Moldova
December 2010.[5]
While State authorities have interfered with mobile and Internet connections in an attempt to silence protestors and
influence the results of elections, Internet users in Moldova enjoy largely unfettered access despite the government’s
restrictive and increasingly authoritarian tendencies. Evidence of second- and third-generation controls is mounting.
Although filtering does not occur at the backbone level, the majority of filtering and surveillance takes place at the
sites where most Moldovans access the Internet: Internet cafe´ s and workplaces. Moldovan security forces have
developed the capacity to monitor the Internet, and national legislation concerning ‘‘illegal activities’’ is strict.[87]
Morocco
• Listed as selective in the social, conflict/security, and Internet tools areas and as no evidence in political by ONI
in August 2009.[5]
Internet access in Morocco is, for the most part, open and unrestricted. Morocco’s Internet filtration regime is
relatively light and focuses on a few blog sites, a few highly visible anonymizers, and for a brief period in May 2007,
the video sharing Web site YouTube.[88] ONI testing revealed that Morocco no longer filters a majority of sites in
favor of independence of the Western Sahara, which were previously blocked. The filtration regime is not
comprehensive, that is to say, similar content can be found on other Web sites that are not blocked. On the other
hand, Morocco has started to prosecute Internet users and bloggers for their online activities and writings.[89]
Russia
• Listed as under surveillance by RWB in 2011.[2]
The absence of overt state-mandated Internet filtering in Russia before 2012 had led some observers to conclude that
the Russian Internet represents an open and uncontested space. In fact, the Russian government actively competes in
Russian cyberspace employing second- and third-generation strategies as a means to shape the national information
space and promote pro-government political messages and strategies. This approach is consistent with the
government’s strategic view of cyberspace that is articulated in strategies such as the doctrine of information
security. The DoS attacks against Estonia (May 2007) and Georgia (August 2008) may be an indication of the
government’s active interest in mobilizing and shaping activities in Russian cyberspace.[90]
In July 2012, the Russian State Duma passed the Bill 89417-6 which created a blacklist of Internet sites containing
alleged child pornography, drug-related material, extremist material, and other content illegal in Russia.[91][92] The
Russian Internet blacklist was officially launched in November 2012, despite criticism by major websites and
NGOs.[]
Singapore
• Listed as selective in the social area and as no evidence in political, conflict/security, and Internet tools by ONI in
May 2007.[5]
The Republic of Singapore engages in minimal Internet filtering, blocking only a small set of pornographic Web
sites. However, the state employs a combination of licensing controls and legal pressures to regulate Internet access
and to limit the presence of objectionable content and conduct online.[93]
In 2005 and 2006 three people were arrested and charged with sedition for posting racist comments on the Internet,
of which two have been sentenced to imprisonment.[94] Some ISPs also block internet content related to recreational
drug use. Singapore's government-run Media Development Authority maintains a confidential list of blocked
websites that are inaccessible within the country. The Media Development Authority exerts control over Singapore's
three ISPs to ensure that blocked content is entirely inaccessible.
Tajikistan
• Listed as selective in the political area and as no evidence as in social, conflict/security, and Internet tools by ONI
in December 2010.[5]
Internet penetration remains low in Tajikistan because of widespread poverty and the relatively high cost of Internet
access. Internet access remains largely unrestricted, but emerging second-generation controls have threatened to
erode these freedoms just as Internet penetration is starting to have an impact on political life in the country. In the
run-up to the 2006 presidential elections, ISPs were asked to voluntarily censor access to an opposition Web site, and
other second-generation controls have begun to emerge.[95]
Thailand
• Listed as selective in political, social, and Internet tools and as no evidence in conflict/security by ONI in
2011.[1][5]
• Listed as "Not Free" in the Freedom on the Net 2011 report by Freedom House, which cites substantial political
censorship and the arrest of bloggers and other online users.[96]
Prior to the September 2006 military coup d'état most Internet censorship in Thailand was focused on blocking
pornographic websites. The following years have seen a constant stream of sometimes violent protests, regional
unrest,[97] emergency decrees,[98] a new cybercrimes law,[99] and an updated Internal Security Act.[100] And year by
year Internet censorship has grown, with its focus shifting to lèse majesté, national security, and political issues.
Estimates put the number of websites blocked at over 110,000 and growing in 2010.[101]
Reasons for blocking:
Prior to
[102] [103]
2006 2010 Reason
11% 77% lèse majesté content (content that defames, insults, threatens, or is unflattering to the King, includes national security and
some political issues)
60% 22% pornographic content
2% <1% content related to gambling
27% <1% copyright infringement, illegal products and services, illegal drugs, sales of sex equipment, prostitution, …
According to the Associated Press, the Computer Crime Act has contributed to a sharp increase in the number of lèse
majesté cases tried each year in Thailand.[] While between 1990 and 2005, roughly five cases were tried in Thai
courts each year, since that time about 400 cases have come to trial—a 1,500 percent increase.[]
Turkey
• Listed as selective in the political, social, and Internet tools areas and as no evidence as in conflict/security by
The Turkish government has implemented legal and institutional reforms driven by the country’s ambitions to
become a European Union member state, while at the same time demonstrating its high sensitivity to defamation and
other ‘‘inappropriate’’ online content, which has resulted in the closure of a number of local and international Web
sites. All Internet traffic passes through Turk Telecom’s infrastructure, allowing centralized control over online
content and facilitating the implementation of shutdown decisions.[83]
Many minor and major websites in Turkey have been subject to censorship. As of June 2010 more than 8000 major
and minor websites were banned, most of them pornographic and mp3 sharing sites.[104] Other Among the web sites
banned are the prominent sites Youporn, Megaupload, Deezer, Tagged, Slide, and ShoutCast. However, blocked
sites are often available using proxies or by changing DNS servers. The Internet Movie Database escaped being
blocked due to a misspelling of its domain name, resulting in a futile ban on www.imbd.com [105].[106]
In October 2010, the ban of YouTube was lifted. But a range of IP addresses used by Google remained blocked, thus
access to Google Apps hosted sites, including all Google App Engine powered sites and some of the Google
services, remained blocked.
Under new regulations announced on 22 February 2011 and scheduled to go into effect on 22 August 2011, the
Information Technologies Board (BTK), an offshoot of the prime minister’s office, will require that all computers
select one of four levels of content filtering (family, children, domestic, or standard) in order to gain access to the
Internet.[107]
Changing situation
Countries in this category are on the RWB "Under Surveillance" list, but are not already included in the pervasive,
substantial, or selective censorship classifications. Included are countries in which changes are underway or are
being considered that give cause for concern about the possibility of increased Internet censorship.
Australia
• No evidence of filtering found by ONI in 2009.[1] There is no individual ONI country profile for Australia, but it
is included in the regional overview for Australia and New Zealand.[68]
Australia does not allow content that would be classified "RC" (Refused Classification or banned) or "X18+"
(hardcore non-violent pornography or very hardcore shock value) to be hosted within Australia and considers such
content "prohibited"/"potentially prohibited" outside Australia; it also requires most other age-restricted content sites
to verify a user's age before allowing access. Since January 2008 material that would be likely to be classified
"R18+" or "MA15+" and which is not behind such an age verification service (and, for MA15+, which also meets
other criteria such as provided for profit, or contains certain media types) also fits the category of "prohibited" or
"potentially prohibited". The regulator ACMA can order local sites which do not comply taken down, and overseas
sites added to a blacklist provided to makers of PC-based filtering software.
Australia is classified as "under surveillance" by Reporters Without Borders due to the internet filtering legislation
proposed by Minister Stephen Conroy. Regardless, as of August 2010 and the outcome of the 2010 election, it would
be highly unlikely for the filter to pass the Senate if proposed due to the close numbers of seats held by Labor and
the Coalition, who Joe Hockey says do not support it.[108]
In June 2011 two Australian ISPs, Telstra and Optus, confirmed they would voluntary block access to a list of child
abuse websites provided by the Australian Communications and Media Authority and more websites on a list
compiled by unnamed international organizations from mid-year.[109]
In May 2013, Senator Scott Ludlam questioned the Department and Minister for Communications - and 3 agencies
were identified as using section 313 powers within Australian legislation to block websites, two of which being The
Australian Federal Police and the Australian Securities and Investments Commission.[110]
Egypt
• In August 2009 ONI found no evidence of Internet filtering in any of the four areas (political, social,
conflict/security, and Internet tools).[5]
• Listed as Under Surveillance by RWB in 2011 and 2012.[2]
The Internet in Egypt was not directly censored under President Hosni Mubarak, but his regime kept watch on the
most critical bloggers and regularly arrested them. At the height of the uprising against the dictatorship, in late
January 2011, the authorities first filtered pictures of the repression and then cut off Internet access entirely in a bid
to stop the revolt spreading. The success of the 2011 Egyptian revolution offers a chance to establish greater freedom
of expression in Egypt, especially online. In response to these dramatic events and opportunities, in March 2011,
Reporters Without Borders moved Egypt from its "Internet enemies" list to its list of countries "under
surveillance".[111]
In March 2012 Reporters Without Borders reported:[112]
The first anniversary of Egypt’s revolution was celebrated in a climate of uncertainty and tension between a
contested military power, a protest movement attempting to get its second wind, and triumphant Islamists.
Bloggers and netizens critical of the army have been harassed, threatened, and sometimes arrested.
The Supreme Council of the Armed Forces (SCAF), which has been leading the country since February 2011,
has not only perpetuated Hosni Mubarak’s ways of controlling information, but has strengthened them.
Eritrea
Eritrea has not set up a widespread automatic Internet filtering system, but it does not hesitate to order blocking of
several diaspora websites critical of the regime. Access to these sites is blocked by two of the Internet service
providers, Erson and Ewan, as are pornographic websites and YouTube. Self-censorship is said to be
widespread.[113]
France
• Listed as no evidence in the political, social, conflict/security, and Internet tools areas by ONI in November
2010.[5]
France continues to promote freedom of the press and speech online by allowing unfiltered access to most content,
apart from limited filtering of child pornography and web sites that promote terrorism, or racial violence and hatred.
The French government has undertaken numerous measures to protect the rights of Internet users, including the
passage of the Loi pour la Confiance dans l’Économie Numérique (LCEN, Law for Trust in the Digital Economy) in
2004. However, the passage of a new copyright law threatening to ban users from the Internet upon their third
violation has drawn much criticism from privacy advocates as well as the European Union (EU) parliament.[83]
With the implementation of the "three-strikes" legislation and a law providing for the administrative filtering of the
web and the defense of a "civilized" Internet, 2010 was a difficult year for Internet freedom in France. The offices of
several online media firms and their journalists were targeted for break-ins and court summons and pressured to
identify their sources. As a result, France has been added to the Reporters Without Borders list of "Countries Under
Surveillance".[114]
A June 2011 draft executive order implementing Article 18[115] of the Law for Trust in the Digital Economy (LCEN)
would give several French government ministries[116] the power to restrict online content “in case of violation, or
where there is a serious risk of violation, of the maintenance of public order, the protection of minors, the protection
of public health, the preservation of interests of the national defense, or the protection of physical persons.”[63]
According to Félix Tréguer, a Policy and Legal Analyst for the digital rights advocacy group La Quadrature du Net,
this is "a censorship power over the Internet that is probably unrivaled in the democratic world."[117] In response to
criticism, on 23 June 2011 the minister for the Industry and the Digital economy, Éric Besson, announced that the
Government would rewrite the order, possibly calling for a judge to review the legality of the content and the
proportionality of the measures to be taken. Any executive order has to be approved by the French Council of State,
which will have to decide whether Internet censorship authorization can be extended to such an extent by a mere
executive order. It has also been suggested that, because e-commerce legislation is to be harmonized within the
European Union, the draft should be reviewed by the European Commission.
Malaysia
• Listed as no evidence in the political, social, conflict/security, and Internet tools areas by ONI in May 2007.[5]
There have been mixed messages and confusion regarding Internet censorship in Malaysia. Internet content is
officially uncensored, and civil liberties assured, though on numerous occasions the government has been accused of
filtering politically sensitive sites. Any act that curbs internet freedom is theoretically contrary to the Multimedia Act
signed by the government of Malaysia in the 1990s. However, pervasive state controls on traditional media spill over
to the Internet at times, leading to self-censorship and reports that the state investigates and harasses bloggers and
cyber-dissidents.[63]
In April 2011, prime minister Najib Razak repeated promises that Malaysia will never censor the Internet.[118]
On June 11, however, the Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission (MCMC) ordered ISPs to block
[119]
10 websites for violating the Copyright Act. This led to the creation of a new Facebook page, "1M Malaysians
Don't Want SKMM Block File Sharing Website".[120]
In May 2013, leading up to the 13th Malaysian General Election, there were reports of access to YouTube videos
critical of the Barisan National Government and to pages of Pakatan Rakyat political leaders in Facebook being
blocked. Analysis of the network traffic showed that ISPs were scanning the headers and actively blocking requests
for the videos and Facebook pages.[121] Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources [122]
Sri Lanka
• Classified by ONI as no evidence of filtering in 2009.[1] There is no individual ONI country profile for Sri Lanka,
but it is included in the regional overview for Asia.[68]
Several political and news websites, including tamilnet.com and lankanewsweb.com have been blocked within the
country.[123] The Sri Lanka courts have ordered hundreds of adult sites blocked to "protect women and
children".[124][125]
In October and November 2011 the Sri Lankan Telecommunication Regulatory Commission blocked the five
websites, www.lankaenews.com, srilankamirror.com, srilankaguardian.com, paparacigossip9.com, and
www.lankawaynews.com, for what the government alleges as publishing reports that amount to "character
assassination and violating individual privacy" and damaging the character of President Mahinda Rajapaksa,
ministers and senior government officials. The five sites have published material critical of the government and
alleged corruption and malfeasance by politicians.[126]
Tunisia
• Listed as no evidence in the political, social, conflict/security, and Internet tools areas by ONI in 2012.[1]
Internet censorship in Tunisia significantly decreased in January 2011, following the ouster of President Zine El
Abidine Ben Ali, as the new acting government:[127][]
• proclaimed complete freedom of information and expression as a fundamental principle,
• abolished the information ministry, and
• removed filters on social networking sites such as Facebook and YouTube.
Some Internet censorship reemerged when in May 2011:
• the Permanent Military Tribunal of Tunis ordered four Facebook pages blocked for attempting "to damage the
reputation of the military institution and, its leaders, by the publishing of video clips and, the circulation of
comments and, articles that aim to destabilize the trust of citizens in the national army, and spread disorder and
chaos in the country",[128][129] and
• a court ordered the Tunisian Internet Agency (ATI) to block porn sites on the grounds that they posed a threat to
minors and Muslim values.[130]
Prior to January 2011 the Ben Ali regime had blocked thousands of websites (such as pornography, mail, search
engine cached pages, online documents conversion and translation services) and peer-to-peer and FTP transfer using
a transparent proxy and port blocking. Cyber dissidents including pro-democracy lawyer Mohammed Abbou were
jailed by the Tunisian government for their online activities.[131]
Little or no censorship
This classification includes countries that are not listed as "Enemies of the Internet" or "Under Surveillance" by
Reporters Without Borders, and for which no evidence of Internet filtering was found by the OpenNet Initiative,
although other controls such as voluntary filtering, self-censorship, and other types of public or private action to limit
child pornography, hate speech, defamation, or theft of intellectual property often exist.
Afghanistan
• Listed as no evidence in all four areas (political, social, conflict/security, and Internet tools) by ONI in May
2007.[5]
Only about 1/10 of 1 percent of Afghans are online, thus limiting the Internet as a means of expression. Freedom of
expression is inviolable under the Afghanistan Constitution, and every Afghan has the right to print or publish topics
without prior submission to state authorities. However, the limits of the law are clear: under the Constitution no law
can be contrary to the beliefs and provisions of the sacred religion of Islam. The December 2005 Media Law
includes bans on four broad content categories: the publication of news contrary to Islam and other religions;
slanderous or insulting materials concerning individuals; matters contrary to the Afghan Constitution or criminal
law; and the exposure of the identities of victims of violence. Proposed additions to the law would ban content
jeopardizing stability, national security, and territorial integrity of Afghanistan; false information that might disrupt
public opinion; promotion of any religion other than Islam; and "material which might damage physical well-being,
psychological and moral security of people, especially children and the youth.[132]
The Electronic Frontier Foundation reported that the Afghan Ministry of Communications mandated in June 2010
that all Internet Service Providers (ISPs) in Afghanistan filter Facebook, Gmail, Twitter, YouTube and websites
related to alcohol, gambling and sex. They are also trying or blocking websites which are “immoral” and against the
traditions of the Afghan people.[133] However, executives at Afghan ISPs said this was the result of a mistaken
announcement by Ariana Network Service, one of the country's largest ISPs. An executive there said that while the
government intends to censor pornographic content and gambling sites, social networking sites and email services
are not slated for filtering. As of July 2010, enforcement of Afghanistan's restrictions on "immoral" content was
limited, with internet executives saying the government didn't have the technical capacity to filter internet traffic.[134]
Algeria
• Listed as no evidence in all four areas (political, social, conflict/security, and Internet tools) by ONI in August
2009.[5]
Internet access in Algeria is not restricted by technical filtering. However, the state controls the Internet
infrastructure and regulates content by other means. Internet users and Internet service providers (ISPs) can face
criminal penalties for posting or allowing the posting of material deemed contrary to public order or morality.[135]
Argentina
• Not individually classified by ONI, but is included in the regional overview for Latin America.[68]
Technical filtering of the Internet is uncommon in Argentina. The regulation of Internet content addresses largely the
same concerns and strategies seen in North America and Europe, focusing on combating the spread of child
pornography and restricting child access to age-inappropriate material. As Internet usage in Argentina increases, so
do defamation, hate speech, copyright, and privacy issues.[68]
In August 2011 a judge ordered all ISPs to block the site LeakyMails, a Web site that obtains and publishes
documents exposing corruption in Argentina.[136][137]
In 2011 some internet service providers blocked the website IP address 216.239.32.2 which is linked to more than
one million blogs hosted on Google's Blogger service disrupting the access to all of them.[138]
Bangladesh
• No evidence of filtering found by ONI in 2011.[1][5]
Although Internet access in Bangladesh is not restricted by a national level filtering regime, the state has intervened
to block Web sites for hosting anti-Islamic content and content deemed subversive. Internet content is regulated by
existing legal frameworks that restrict material deemed defamatory or offensive, as well as content that might
challenge law and order.[139]
The Bangla blogging platform Sachalayatan was reported to be inaccessible on 15 July 2008, and was forced to
migrate to a new IP address. Although the blocking was not officially confirmed, Sachalayatan was likely
Bangladesh’s inaugural filtering event. YouTube was blocked for a few days in March 2009 in order to protect the
“national interest”. The disputed video covered a partial audio recording of a meeting between the prime minister and
military officials, who were angry at the government’s handling of a mutiny by border guards in Dhaka that left more
[68]
than seventy people dead.
Facebook was blocked by the Bangladesh Telecommunication Regulatory Commission (BTRC) for 7 days starting
on 29 May 2010 because of "obnoxious images", including depictions of Mohammed and several of the country's
political officials as well as links to pornographic sites.[140] The block was lifted after Facebook agreed to remove
the offensive content.[141] During the same period a 30-year-old man was arrested in the Bangladeshi capital on
charges of uploading satiric images of some political leaders on Facebook.[142]
The BTRC again blocked YouTube access in September 2012 after Google, Inc. ignored requests to remove the
controversial film, Innocence of Muslims, from the site.[143]
On 16 May 2013 BTRC asked the international internet gateway operators to reduce the upload bandwidth of ISPs
by 75% in an effort to prevent illegal VoIP.[144] There is speculation that the bandwidth reduction is actually an
effort to make it difficult for people to upload ‘problematic’ videos, images, TV talk show clips, etc. in the social
media.[145]
Belgium
• Not individually classified by ONI, but included in the regional overview for Europe.[68]
Belgian internet providers Belgacom, Telenet, Base, Scarlet, EDPnet, Dommel, Proximus, Mobistar, Mobile
Vikings, Tele2, and Versatel have started filtering several websites on DNS level since April 2009.[146] People who
browse the internet using one of these providers and hit a blocked website are redirected to a page that claims that
the content of the website is illegal under Belgian law and therefore blocked.[147]
Brazil
There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports that the government monitors
e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups can engage in the expression of views via the Internet,
including by e‑mail. A continuing trend is for private individuals and official bodies to take legal action against
Internet service providers and providers of online social media platforms, such as Google, Facebook, and Orkut,
holding them accountable for content posted to or provided by users of the platform. Judicial rulings often result in
the forced removal of content from the Internet.[148]
Brazilian legislation restricts the freedom of expression (Paim Law), directed especially to publications considered
racist (such as neo-nazi sites). The Brazilian Constitution also prohibits anonymity of journalists.[149]
In September 2012 an elections court in Brazil ordered the arrest of Google’s most senior executive in the country,
after the company failed to take down YouTube videos attacking a local mayoral candidate. The stringent 1965
Electoral Code bans campaign ads that “offend the dignity or decorum” of a candidate. Google is appealing the order,
which comes after a similar decision by another Brazilian elections judge. In that case, the judge found a different
senior executive responsible for violating local election law after the company refused to take down a YouTube
video mocking a mayoral candidate. That decision was overturned by another judge who wrote that “Google is not
the intellectual author of the video, it did not post the file, and for that reason it cannot be punished for its
propagation.”[150]
Canada
• No evidence of filtering found by ONI in 2009.[1] There is no individual ONI country profile for Canada, but it is
included in the regional overview for the United States and Canada.[68]
Information, such as names of young offenders or information on criminal trials subject to publication bans, which
the government is actively attempting to keep out of Canadian broadcast and print media is sometimes available to
Canadian users via the Internet from sites hosted outside Canada.
Project Cleanfeed Canada (cybertip.ca) decides what sites are child pornographic in nature and transmits those lists
to the voluntarily participating ISPs who can then block the pages for their users. However, some authors, bloggers
and digital rights lawyers argue that they are accountable to no one and could be adding non pornographic sites to
their list without public knowledge.[151]
Chile
The constitution provides for freedom of speech and press, and the government generally respects these rights in
practice. There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet. Individuals and groups can engage in the
peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by electronic mail. While the Investigations Police (PICH)
maintains a sexual crimes unit that monitors Web sites for child pornography and prosecutes individuals for selling,
storing, or trading child pornography on the Internet, there were no reports that the government monitors e-mail or
Internet chat rooms for other purposes.[152]
Colombia
• Classified as no evidence of Internet filtering in the political, social, conflict/security, or Internet tools areas by
ONI in October 2012.[1] There is no individual ONI country profile for Colombia, but it is included in the
regional overview for Latin America.[68]
Because of threats from local drug cartels or other gangs and individuals, many journalists practice self-censorship,
including many in Colombia who avoid reporting on corruption, drug trafficking, or violence by armed groups
because of such threats.[68]
Colombian law requires ISPs to monitor their content and report any illegal activity to the government. Colombia’s
“Internet Sano” (healthy Internet) campaign calls for public education on “decent” ways of using the Internet as well
as penalties for improper use. Some websites are blocked as part of the Internet Sano program. Child pornography is
illegal in Colombia.[68]
Croatia
• No ONI country profile, but shown as no evidence in all areas (political, social, conflict/security, and Internet
tools) on the ONI global Internet filtering maps.[63]
The constitution and law generally provide for freedom of speech and the press; however, growing economic
pressures lead journalists to practice self-censorship. Hate speech committed over the Internet is punishable by six
months' to three years' imprisonment and libel is a criminal offense. There are no government restrictions on access
to the Internet or reports the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms. In general individuals and groups
engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. Internet access is widely available
and used by citizens throughout the country. An estimated 51 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet in
2010.[153]
Czech Republic
• Not individually classified by ONI.
Since 2008, mobile operators T-Mobile[154] and Vodafone[155][156] pass mobile and fixed Internet traffic through
Cleanfeed, which uses data provided by the Internet Watch Foundation to identify pages believed to contain indecent
photographs of children, and racist materials.
On 13 August 2009, Telefónica O2 Czech Republic, Czech DSL incumbent and mobile operator, started to block
access to sites listed by Internet Watch Foundation. The company said it wanted to replace the list with data provided
by Czech Police.[157] The rollout of the blocking system attracted public attention due to serious network service
difficulties and many innocent sites mistakenly blocked. The concrete blocking implementation is unknown but it is
believed that recursive DNS servers provided by the operator to its customers have been modified to return fake
answers diverting consequent TCP connections to an HTTP firewall.[158]
On 6 May 2010, T-Mobile Czech Republic officially announced[159] that it was starting to block web pages
promoting child pornography, child prostitution, child trafficking, pedophilia and illegal sexual contact with
children. T-Mobile claimed that its blocking was based on URLs from the Internet Watch Foundation list and on
individual direct requests made by customers.
Denmark
• No evidence of filtering found by ONI in 2009.[1] There is no individual ONI country profile for Denmark, but it
is included in the regional overview for the Nordic Countries.[68]
Denmark's biggest Internet service provider TDC A/S launched a DNS-based child pornography filter on 18 October
2005 in cooperation with the state police department and Save the Children, a charity organisation. Since then, all
major providers have joined and as of May 2006, 98% of the Danish Internet users were restricted by the filter.[160]
The filter caused some controversy in March 2006, when a legal sex site named Bizar.dk was caught in the filter,
sparking discussion about the reliability, accuracy and credibility of the filter.[161]
Also, as of 18 October 2005, TDC A/S had blocked access to AllOfMP3.com, a popular MP3 download site,
through DNS filtering.[162]
On 4 February 2008 a Danish court ordered the Danish ISP Tele2 to shutdown access to the file-sharing site
thepiratebay.org for its Danish users.[163]
On 23 December 2008, the list of 3,863 sites filtered in Denmark was released by Wikileaks.[164]
In November 2011 a site selling diet pills, 24hdiet.com, was blocked by Danish ISPs, the first use of a new law
on the blocking of foreign websites that sell drugs.[165]
In August 2012 Google removed ads from ticket website Viagogo after an investigation found that the site was
violating Danish law by overcharging and manipulating tickets before sending them to the buyer.[166]
Estonia
• Not individually classified by ONI, but is included in the regional overview for the Commonwealth of
Independent States.[167]
Prior to the blocking of remote gambling sites in 2010 the Internet in Estonia was free of censorship.[168] Early in
2010 Estonia started DNS filtering of remote gambling sites that violate the renewed Gambling Act (2008).[169] The
Gambling Act requires that servers for legal remote gambling must be physically located in Estonia.[170] In March
2010 the Tax and Customs Board had compiled a blocking list containing 175 sites which ISPs are to
enforce.[171][172] As of September 2013 the list had grown to include over 800 sites.[173] RecentlyWikipedia:Manual
of Style/Dates and numbers#Chronological items all Nauru domains were added to the blacklist, because the
Estonian government believes the country only hosts gambling websites.[citation needed]
Fiji
In May 2007 it was reported that the military in Fiji had blocked access to blogs critical of the regime.[]
Finland
[1]
• Classified as no evidence of filtering in all areas by ONI in 2009.
There is no individual ONI country profile for Finland, but it is
[68]
included in the regional overview for the Nordic Countries.
In 2006, a new copyright law known as Lex Karpela set some
restrictions on publishing information regarding copy protection
schemes.
Also in 2006 the government started Internet censorship by delivering
Finnish ISPs a secret blocking list maintained by Finnish police.[174]
Implementation of the block was voluntary, but some ISPs
Lapsiporno.info block announcement as seen
implemented it. The list was supposed to contain only sites with child
from the network maintained by ISP Welho
pornography, but ended up also blocking, among others, the site
lapsiporno.info that criticized the move towards censorship and listed
sites that were noticed to have been blocked.[175]
In 2008 a government-sponsored report has considered establishing similar filtering in order to curb online
gambling.[176]
In 2012 Internet Service Providers Elisa,[177] Sonera[178] and DNA[179] have been ordered by court to block traffic to
The Pirate Bay.
Germany
• Listed as no evidence in all four areas (political, social, conflict/security, and Internet tools) by ONI in December
2010.[5]
Occasional take down requests and access restrictions are imposed on German ISPs, usually to protect minors or to
suppress hate speech and extremism. In April 2009, the German government signed a bill that would implement
large-scale filtering of child pornography Web sites, with the possibility for later expansion.[180] However, that law
was repelled in 2011 since internet service providers quickly take down child pornography after they receive
knowledge about it, a fact that had already been pointed out by internet freedom organisations and political parties
such as the Freie Demokratische Partei and the Piratenpartei before the law came into effect.[181]
Ghana
• Not individually classified by ONI, but is included in the regional overview for sub-Saharan Africa.[68]
In 2002 the government of Ghana censored internet media coverage of tribal violence in Northern Ghana.[182]
Guatemala
• Classified as no evidence of filtering by ONI in 2011.[1] There is no individual ONI country profile for
Guatemala, but it is included in the regional overview for Latin America.[68]
Hungary
tools) on the ONI global Internet filtering maps.[]
The constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and of the press, and the government generally respects
these rights in practice. There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government
monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups engage in the peaceful expression of views via the
Internet, including by e-mail. According to the International Telecommunication Union, in 2009 approximately 63
percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet.[183]
European Commissioner Kroes, NGOs, and the foreign press raised concerns that provisions of the new media laws
requiring balanced reporting and registration of media outlets lacked clear limits and could be interpreted to include
blogs. The government and the NMHH argued that, in practice, blogs would be exempt from these requirements on
the basis that they are not considered "business endeavors."[183]
Iceland
• Not individually classified by ONI, but included in the regional overview for the Nordic Countries.[68]
Censorship is prohibited by the Icelandic Constitution and there is a strong tradition of protecting freedom of
expression that extends to the use of the Internet.[184] However, questions about how best to protect children, fight
terrorism, prevent libel, and protect the rights of copyright holders are ongoing in Iceland as they are in much of the
world.
The five Nordic countries—Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden, and Iceland—are central players in the European
battle between file sharers, rights holders, and Internet service providers (ISPs). While each country determines its
own destiny, the presence of the European Union (EU) is felt in all legal controversies and court cases. Iceland,
while not a member of the EU, is part of the European Economic Area (EEA) and has agreed to enact legislation
similar to that passed in the EU in areas such as consumer protection and business law.[68]
Internet service providers in Iceland use filters to block Web sites distributing child pornography. Iceland's ISPs in
cooperation with Barnaheill—Save the Children Iceland participate in the International Association of Internet
Hotlines (INHOPE) project. Suspicious links are reported by organizations and the general public and passed on to
relevant authorities for verification.[68]
In 2012 and 2013 Ögmundur Jónasson, Minister of Interior, proposed two bills to the Icelandic parliament that
would limit Icelander's access to the Internet. The first proposed limitations on gambling[185] and the second on
pornography.[186][187] Neither bill was passed by parliament and a new government has since been formed following
the parliamentary election held on 27 April 2013.[188]
Iraq
2009.[5]
Internet access in Iraq remains largely unfettered, but this is likely to change, as the authorities have initiated
measures to censor Internet content and monitor online activities. In addition, the government has launched legal
offensives against independent news media and Web sites.[189]
Ireland
Internet censorship in Ireland is a controversial issue with the introduction of a graduated response policy in 2008
followed by an effort to block certain file sharing sites starting in February 2009.[] Grassroots campaigns including
[190]
"Blackout Ireland" and "Boycott Eircom" have been established to protest the censorship.
Beyond these issues there are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports that the
government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the expression of views
via the Internet, including by e-mail. Irish law provides for freedom of speech including for members of the press,
and the government generally respects these rights in practice. An independent press, an effective judiciary, and a
functioning democratic political system act jointly to ensure freedom of speech and of the press.[191]
Israel
2009.[5]
The Orthodox Jewish parties in Israel proposed an internet censorship legislation would only allow access to
pornographic Internet sites for users who identify themselves as adults and request not to be subject to filtering. In
February 2008 the law passed in its first of three votes required,[192] however, it was rejected by the government's
legislation committee on 12 July 2009.[193]
Japan
Japanese law provides for freedom of speech and of the press, and the government respects these rights in practice.
These freedoms extend to speech and expression on the Internet. An effective judiciary and a functioning democratic
political system combine to ensure these rights. There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or
reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet activities. Individuals and groups engage in the peaceful
expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail.[194] Freedom House's Freedom in the World 2011 reports
that "Internet access is not restricted" in Japan.[195]
Legislation criminalizing the use of the Internet for child pornography and the solicitation of sex from minors was
passed in 2003.[196]
Kenya
• There is no ONI country profile for Kenya.[5]
• Kenya was rated as "partly free" in the 2009 and 2011 Freedom on the Net reports with scores of 34 and 32 which
is much closer to the "free" rating that ends at 30 then it is to the "not free" rating that starts at 60.[197]
The government does not employ technical filtering or any administrative censorship system to restrict access to
political or other content. Citizens engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail,
and are able to access a wide range of viewpoints, with the websites of the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC),
the U.S.-based Cable News Network (CNN), and Kenya’s Daily Nation newspaper the most commonly
accessed.[197] There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet, but Internet services are limited in rural
areas due to lack of infrastructure. In 2008, approximately 8.6 percent of Kenyans used the Internet.[183]
The constitution protects freedom of expression and the “freedom to communicate ideas and information.” However,
it also grants the government the authority to punish defamation, protect privileged information, and restrict state
employees’ "freedom of expression“ in the interest of defense, public safety, public order, public morality or public
health.” In January 2009, the government passed a controversial Communications Amendment Act that established
that any person who publishes, transmits, or causes to be published in electronic form obscene information commits
an offense. The Act also outlines other forms of illegality associated with the use of information and communication
technologies. At the end of 2010, the measure had not been used to prosecute anyone for online expression. Under
the Act, the Communications Commission of Kenya (CCK), rather than the independent Media Council of Kenya, is
responsible for regulating both traditional and online media. The CCK is also independent, but because the CCK has
yet to make any decisions affecting the internet, its autonomy and professionalism in making determinations remain
to be seen.[197]
In July 2009 the government announced that all cell phone users had to provide the government with their name and
identification number. This regulation applies to citizens who access the Internet through cell phone-based services
as well.[183]
Laos
• There is no ONI country profile for Laos,[5] but Laos is included in the ONI Regional Overview for Asia[68] and
the ONI global Internet filtering maps show no evidence of filtering in Laos in the political, social,
conflict/security, and Internet tools areas.[63]
Very few homes have Internet access; most non-business users depend on Internet cafes located chiefly in the larger
urban areas. The International Telecommunication Union reported that Internet users numbered approximately 5
percent of the country's inhabitants in 2009.
The government does not block domestic web sites, major foreign news sources, or social networking sites. There
are no reports of government prosecution of persons for the expression of political, religious, or dissenting views via
the Internet. The Lao National Internet Committee under the Prime Minister's Office administers a system that
controls all domestic Internet servers, sporadically monitors Internet usage, and has authority to block access to
Internet sites it deems pornographic or critical of government institutions and policies.[198]
Latvia
tools) on the ONI global Internet filtering maps.[]
The constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and of the press. There are no government restrictions on
access to the Internet or reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups
engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. According to International
Telecommunication Union statistics for 2009, approximately 67 percent of the country's inhabitants used the
Internet.[183]
In September 2010 the government's Corruption Prevention and Combating Bureau (KNAB), which enforces
campaign laws, removed a satirical film, The Last Bear Slayer, from the on-demand playlist of the partially
state-owned cable provider, Lattelecom. The KNAB stated that the film might have constituted election advertising.
Reporters Without Borders charged that the prohibition constituted improper censorship, but noted it was ineffective
because the film was widely available on the Internet.[183]
Lebanon
2009.[5]
Internet traffic in Lebanon is not subject to technical filtering, but poor infrastructure, few household computers, low
Internet penetration rates, and the cost high of connectivity, remain serious challenges. Some Internet café operators
prevent their clients from accessing objectionable content such as pornography, however, there is no evidence that
these practices are required or encouraged by the state. Lebanese law permits the censoring of pornography, political
opinions, and religious materials when considered a threat to national security.[199]
Malawi
Malawi prohibits the publication or transmission of anything “that could be useful to the enemy,” as well as
religiously offensive and obscene material. Malawi participates in regional efforts to combat cybercrime: the East
African Community (consisting of Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda) and the South African Development Community
(consisting of Malawi, Mozambique, South Africa, Zambia, and Zimbabwe) have both enacted plans to standardize
cybercrime laws throughout their regions.[68]
Mexico
• Classified by ONI as no evidence of filtering in 2011.[1] There is no individual ONI country profile for Mexico,
but it is included in the regional overview for Latin America.[68]
• Classified as "partly free" in the Freedom on the Net 2011 report from Freedom House.[200]
Mexican law provides for freedom of speech and press, and the government generally respects these rights in
practice. There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports that the government
monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups can engage in the expression of views via the
Internet, including by e-mail.[201]
Transnational Criminal Organizations (TCOs) exercise an increasing influence over media outlets and reporters, at
times directly threatening individuals who published critical views of crime groups. As citizens increasingly use
social media Web sites such as Twitter and Facebook to obtain and share drug-related news, violence against the
users of these sites is rising dramatically.[201] The threats and violence lead to self-censorship in many cases.[202]
In May 2009, the Mexican Federal Electoral Institute (IFE), asked YouTube to remove a parody of Fidel Herrera,
governor of the state of Veracruz. Negative advertising in political campaigns is prohibited by present law, although
the video appears to be made by a regular citizen which would make it legal. It was the first time a Mexican
institution intervened directly with the Internet.[200][203]
Nepal
• Listed as no evidence in all four areas (political, social, conflict/security, and Internet tools) by ONI in May
2007.[5]
In 2007 Nepali journalists reported virtually unconditional freedom of the press, including the Internet, and ONI’s
testing revealed no evidence that Nepal imposes technological filters on the Internet.[204]
Netherlands
Government-mandated Internet censorship is nonexistent due to the house of representatives speaking out against
filtering on multiple occasions, although there have been proposals to filter child pornography and the Netherlands,
like many countries, is grappling with how to prevent or control copyright infringement on the Internet.
In 2008 the Minister of Justice proposed a plan to block websites known to contain child pornography. A blacklist
created by the Meldpunt ter bestrijding van Kinderpornografie op Internet (Hotline combating Child Pornography on
the Internet)[205] would have been used by Internet Service Providers to redirect the websites to a stop page. In 2011
the plan was withdrawn due to an "almost complete lack of websites to block" because the sharing of the material
was no longer done by conventional websites, but by other services.[206] The House of Representatives reaffirmed
this by voting against the filter later that year, effectively killing any plans for government censorship.[207]
In January 2012, the internet providers Ziggo and XS4all were required by a court order in a case brought by the
Bescherming Rechten Entertainment Industrie Nederland (BREIN) to block the website of The Pirate Bay due to
copyright infringement.[208] This blocking raised questions within the government, customers, and the internet
providers themselves, not only because of the blocking, but also about its randomness and the role of BREIN, an
industry trade association that can change the blacklist.[209][210][211]
New Zealand
• Not individually classified by ONI, but is included in the regional overview for Australia and New Zealand.[68]
Since February 2010 Department of Internal Affairs offers to ISPs voluntary Internet filtering.[212] Participating
providers routes suspect destination IP addresses to the Department that blocks desired HTTP requests. Other
packets are routed back to correct networks. List of blocked addresses is secret, but it's believed that child
pornography is subjected only.
Nigeria
• Listed as no evidence in all four areas (political, social, conflict/security, and Internet tools) by ONI in October
2009.[5]
In 2008 two journalists were arrested for publishing online articles and photos critical of the government.[213]
Norway
• Classified as no evidence of filtering by ONI in 2009.[1] There is no individual ONI country profile for Norway,
but it is included in the regional overview for the Nordic Countries.[68]
Norway's major Internet service providers have a DNS filter which blocks access to sites authorities claim are known
to provide child pornography,[214] similar to Denmark's filter. A list claimed to be the Norwegian DNS blacklist was
published at Wikileaks in March 2009.[215] The minister of justice, Knut Storberget, sent a letter threatening ISPs
with a law compelling them to use the filter should they refuse to do so voluntarily (dated 29 August 2008).[216]
Paraguay
The law in Paraguay provides for freedom of speech and press, and the government generally respects these rights in
practice. Individuals criticize the government publicly and privately, generally without reprisal or impediment. There
are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports that the government monitored e-mail or
Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the expression of views via the Internet, including by
e-mail.[217]
Because of their reporting, journalists are on occasion subjected to harassment, intimidation, and
violence—primarily from drug trafficking gangs and criminal syndicates based in departments bordering Brazil but
also from politicians. Political officials often retaliate against media criticism by invoking criminal libel laws and
suing the media to intimidate journalists and suppress further investigations.[217]
Following the 22 June 2012 parliamentary coup, the new government appears to be assuming complete control of the
state-owned media and its hostility is affecting journalists with the privately owned media as
well.[218][219][220][221][222]
Peru
[68]
• No ONI country profile, but included in the regional overview for Latin America, and shown as no evidence in
all areas (political, social, conflict/security, and Internet tools) on the ONI global Internet filtering maps.[]
There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet and no reports that the government monitors e-mail or
Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups engage in the free expression of views via the Internet, including by
e-mail. The chief impediment to Internet access was a lack of infrastructure; the International Telecommunication
Union reported that there were 31 Internet users per 100 inhabitants in 2009.[223]
Philippines
• There is no ONI country profile for the Philippines,[5] but it is included in the ONI Regional Overview for
Asia[68] and the ONI global Internet filtering maps show no evidence of filtering in the political, social,
conflict/security, and Internet tools areas.[63]
The constitution provides for freedom of speech and of the press, and the government generally respects these rights.
There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitors e-mail or
Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups engage in peaceful expressions of views via the Internet, including by
e-mail. Internet access is widely available. According to International Telecommunication Union statistics for 2009,
approximately 6.5 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet.[224]
In 2012 the Republic Act No. 10175 or Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2012 was signed by President Benigno
Aquino, which criminalizes acts such as libel done online that are already punishable in other media such as radio,
TV, and newspapers, with punishment one level higher than their non computer counterpart. The Act was greatly
endorsed by Senator Tito Sotto, who was recently "cyberbullied" online for plagiarizing bloggers and Sen. Robert F.
Kennedy.[225] After several petitions submitted to the Supreme Court questioned the constitutionality of the Act,[] on
October 9, 2012, the Supreme Court issued a temporary restraining order, stopping implementation of the Act for
120 days,[] and extended it on 5 February 2013 "until further orders from the court."[]
Poland
• Not individually classified by ONI, but included in the regional overview for Europe.[68]
Internet censorship legislation that included the creation of a register of blocked web sites was abandoned by the
Polish Government in early 2011, following protests and petitions opposing the proposal.[226][227][228]
Romania
• Classified by ONI as no evidence of filtering in 2009.[1] There is no individual ONI country profile for Romania,
but it is included in the regional overview for Europe.[68]
Internet censorship in Romania is mainly related to the filtering of sites with pornographic content hosted in
Romania[229] and the protection of children.[230] Although proposals have been made to censor pornographic sites,
so far no sites have been blocked.
Rwanda
• Rated "partly free" in Freedom on the Net 2011 with a score of 50, somewhat past the midway point between the
end of the range for "free" (30) and the start of the range for "not free" (60).[231]
There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet. Individuals and groups engage in the peaceful
expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. Internet cafes are common and used regularly in the largest
towns, but the Internet is generally unavailable in rural areas, where the majority of the population lives. According
to International Telecommunication Union statistics for 2008, approximately 3 percent of the country's inhabitants
used the Internet. Laws prohibiting divisionism, genocide ideology, and genocide denial and forbidding "contempt
for the Head of State of Rwanda" promote self-censorship. Expression of these viewpoints sometimes results in
arrest, harassment, or intimidation.[232]
Slovenia
On 28 January 2010 the Slovenian National Assembly adopted changes to the law governing gambling. Under the
law Internet service providers are responsible for blocking access to Internet gambling web sites that are not licensed
by the Slovenian government.[233]
South Africa
In 2006, the government of South Africa began prohibiting sites hosted in the country from displaying X18
(explicitly sexual) and XXX content (including child pornography and depictions of violent sexual acts); site owners
who refuse to comply are punishable under the Film and Publications Act 1996. In 2007 a South African "sex
blogger" was arrested.[68]
South Africa participates in regional efforts to combat cybercrime. The East African Community (consisting of
Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda) and the South African Development Community (consisting of Malawi,
Mozambique, South Africa, Zambia, and Zimbabwe) have both enacted plans to standardize cybercrime laws
throughout their regions.[68]
Sweden
• Classified by ONI as no evidence of filtering in 2009.[1] There is no individual ONI country profile for Sweden,
but it is included in the regional overview for the Nordic Countries.[68]
Sweden's major Internet service providers have a DNS filter which blocks access to sites authorities claim are known
to provide child porn, similar to Denmark's filter. A partial sample of the Swedish internet censorship list can be seen
at a Finnish site criticizing internet censorship [234]. The Swedish police are responsible for updating this list of
forbidden Internet sites. On 6 July, Swedish police said that there is material with child pornography available on
torrents linked to from the torrent tracker site Pirate Bay and said it would be included in the list of forbidden
Internet sites. This, however, did not happen as the police claimed the illegal material had been removed from the
site. Police never specified what the illegal content was on TPB. This came with criticism and accusations that the
intended The Pirate Bay's censorship was political in nature.
Uganda
• Listed as no evidence in all four areas (political, social, conflict/security, and Internet tools) by ONI in September
2009.[5]
Though Uganda has made great technological strides in the past five years, the country still faces a number of
challenges in obtaining affordable, reliable Internet bandwidth. This, rather than a formal government-sponsored
filtering regime, is the major obstacle to Internet access. Just prior to the presidential elections in February 2006, the
Uganda Communications Commission (UCC) blocked the anti-government Web site RadioKatwe in the only
internationally reported case of Internet filtering in Uganda to date.[235]
Ukraine
2010.[5]
Access to Internet content in Ukraine remains largely unfettered. Ukraine possesses relatively liberal legislation
governing the Internet and access to information. The Law on Protection of Public Morals of November 20, 2003,
prohibits the production and circulation of pornography; dissemination of products that propagandize war or spread
national and religious intolerance; humiliation or insult to an individual or nation on the grounds of nationality,
religion, or ignorance; and the propagation of "drug addition, toxicology, alcoholism, smoking and other bad
habits."[236]
United Kingdom
2010.[5]
The United Kingdom has a notable libertarian tradition, manifested by, among other things, solid guarantees of
freedom of expression, freedom of information, and protection of privacy. Freedom of expression and protection of
privacy over the Internet is guaranteed by law. Nonetheless, over the last few years there has been a shift toward
increased surveillance and police measures. Combating terrorism and preventing child abuse have been widely used
as a justification by state agencies and private commercial actors (e.g., Internet service providers) for the
implementation of interception and direct filtering measures. Nevertheless in 2010 the OpenNet Initiative found no
evidence of technical filtering in the political, social, conflict/security, or Internet tools areas. However, the U.K.
openly blocks child pornography Web sites, for which ONI does not test.[237]
British Telecommunications' ISP passes internet traffic through a service called Cleanfeed which uses data provided
by the Internet Watch Foundation to identify pages believed to contain indecent photographs of children.[238][239]
When such a page is found, the system creates a 'URL not found page' error rather than deliver the actual page or a
warning page. Other ISPs use different systems such as WebMinder [240].
In July and again in October 2011, the UK High Court ruled that British Telecom must block access to a website
(newzbin.com) which "provides links to pirated movies".[][241] In September 2011, in response to the court ruling
and with encouragement from government, leading UK ISPs are reported to have privately agreed in principle to
quickly restrict access to websites when presented with court orders.[242] In May 2012 the High Court ordered UK
ISPs to block The Pirate Bay to prevent further copyright infringing movie and music downloads from the
website.[243][244]
On July 22, 2013, Prime Minister David Cameron announced that by default pornography and other abusive material
(such as suicide, alcohol and violence-related content) to most households in the UK would be filtered from the
Internet by the end of 2013 unless a household chooses to receive it.[245]
United States
• Classified by ONI as no evidence of filtering in 2009.[1] There is no individual ONI country profile for the United
States, but it is included in the regional overview for the United States and Canada.[68]
Most online expression is protected by the First Amendment to the United States Constitution, but laws concerning
libel, intellectual property, and child pornography still determine if certain content can be legally published online.
Internet access by individuals in the US is not subject to technical censorship, but can be penalized by law for
violating the rights of others. As in other countries, the potential for legal liability for civil violations, including
defamation and copyright, constrains the publishers of Internet content in the United States. This can have a "chilling
effect" and lead to self-censorship of lawful online content and conduct. Content-control software is sometimes used
by businesses, libraries, schools, and government offices to limit access to specific types of content.[68]
Venezuela
• Classified as no evidence of Internet filtering in the political, social, conflict/security, and Internet tools areas in
October 2012.[1]
Access to the Internet in Venezuela continues to be unrestricted. The level of self-censorship is hard to evaluate, but
the adoption of legislation that could potentially limit Internet freedom has yet to have any damaging effect in
practice. As a result RWB removed Venezuela from its list of countries under surveillance.[2]
In December 2010, the government of Venezuela approved a law named "Social Responsibility in Radio, Television
and Electronic Media" (Ley de Responsabilidad Social en Radio, Televisión y Medios Electrónicos). The law is
intended to exercise control over content that could "entice felonies", "create social distress", or "question the
legitimate constituted authority". The law indicates that the website's owners will be responsible for any information
and contents published, and that they will have to create mechanisms that could restrict without delay the distribution
of content that could go against the aforementioned restrictions. The fines for individuals who break the law will be
of the 10% of the person's last year's income. The law was received with criticism from the opposition on the
grounds that it is a violation of freedom of speech protections stipulated in the Venezuelan constitution, and that it
encourages censorship and self-censorship.[246]
Zimbabwe
• Listed as no evidence in all four areas (political, social, conflict/security, and Internet tools) by ONI in September
2009.[5]
Because Internet penetration in Zimbabwe is low, it is mainly used for e-mail and the government focuses its efforts
to control the Internet to e-mail monitoring and censorship. Though its legal authority to pursue such measures is
contested, the government appears to be following through on its wishes to crack down on dissent via e-mail.[247]
References
This article incorporates public domain material from the United States Department of State document "Country
Reports on Human Rights Practices" [248] by the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor.
This article incorporates licensed material [79] from the Country Profiles, [249] Regional Overviews [250], and
Filtering Maps [251] sections of the OpenNet Initiative web site.[252]
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[147] StopPage (http:/ / 84. 199. 40. 99/ )

[148] "Brazil" (http:/ / www. state. gov/ j/ drl/ rls/ hrrpt/ humanrightsreport/ index. htm?dlid=186495), Country Reports on Human Rights
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"IV - the expression of thought is free, anonymity being forbidden" and "XIV - access to information is ensured to everyone and the
confidentiality of the source shall be safeguarded, whenever necessary to the professional activity".
[150] "Top Google Executive in Brazil Faces Arrest Over Video" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2012/ 09/ 26/ business/ global/
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vodafone. cz/ o_vodafonu/ tiskove_centrum/ tiskove_zpravy/ tiskove_zpravy. htm?lang=cz& id=509& year=2008), press release,
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Lupa.cz, 30 June 2008
[157] "Klienti Telefóniky O2 si stěžují na blokování webů" (Telefonica O2 confirmed it plans to filter customers access to illegal Web sites)
(http:/ / www. lupa. cz/ zpravicky/ telefonica-o2-potvrdila-filtrovani-stranek/ ), Jiří Macich ml., Lupa.cz, 14 August 2009
[158] "Stalo se: Už i Telefónica přistoupila k blokování" (http:/ / www. lupa. cz/ clanky/ stalo-se-uz-i-telefonica-blokuje/ ), Jiří Peterka, Lupa.cz,
17 August 2009
[159] "T-Mobile pomáhá v boji proti zneužívání dětí blokováním nelegálního obsahu" (T-Mobile helps in the fight against the abuse of children
by blocking illegal content) (http:/ / t-press. cz/ tiskove_zpravy/ 2010/ 1081/ ), press release, T-Mobile.cz, 6 May 2010
[160] ( English translation (http:/ / translate. google. com/ translate?u=http:/ / www. computerworld. dk/ art/ 30573/
tdc-aktiverer-filter-mod-boerneporno))
politisk-strid-om-politiets-boerneporno-filter))
tdc-lukker-for-adgangen-til-allofmp3-com))
[164] "Denmark: 3863 sites on censorship list, Feb 2008" (http:/ / mirror. wikileaks. info/ wiki/
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[165] ( English translation (http:/ / translate. google. com/ translate?u=www. version2. dk/ artikel/
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[166] ( English translation (http:/ / translate. google. com/ translate?u=http:/ / www. dr. dk/ DR1/ kontant/ 2012/ 08/ 16112455. htm))
[167] "ONI Regional Overview: Commonwealth of Independent States" (http:/ / opennet. net/ research/ regions/ cis), OpenNet Initiative, March
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[168] "Internet Censorship Around the World" (http:/ / www. gimonca. com/ personal/ archive/ foreign. html), Charles A. Gimon, Info Nation,
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[169] "Estonia Implements Gambling Act" (http:/ / www. casinopeople. com/ news/ estonia-implements-gambling-act. html), Casino People, 12
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[174] "Laki lapsipornografian levittämisen estotoimista 1.12.2006/1068" (Measures to prevent the spread of child pornography 1.12.2006/1068)
(http:/ / www. finlex. fi/ fi/ laki/ ajantasa/ 2006/ 20061068), FINLEX, 1 December 2006
[175] "The Finnish Internet Censorship List" (http:/ / www. lapsiporno. info/ suodatuslista/ ?lang=en), Matti Nikki, Lapsiporno.info
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[185] " Vill banna happdrætti á netinu" (http:/ / www. ruv. is/ frett/ vill-banna-happdraetti-a-netinu) ( English translation: "Wants to ban
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[187] "Iceland seeks internet pornography ban" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ world/ 2013/ feb/ 25/ iceland-seeks-internet-pornography-ban),
Associated Press, The Guardian, 25 February 2013
[188] "Iceland campaigns to restrict internet porn" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ world/ 2013/ may/ 26/ iceland-crackdown-internet-porn),
Alexandra Topping, The Guardian (Reykjavik), 26 May 2013
[189] "ONI Country Profile: Iraq" (http:/ / opennet. net/ research/ profiles/ iraq), OpenNet Initiative, 10 August 2009
[191] "Ireland: Freedom of Speech and Press and Internet Freedom" (http:/ / www. state. gov/ j/ drl/ rls/ hrrpt/ humanrightsreport/ index.
htm?dlid=186364), Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2011, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department
of State
[194] "2010 Human Rights Report: Japan" (http:/ / www. state. gov/ j/ drl/ rls/ hrrpt/ 2010/ eap/ 154386. htm), Bureau of Democracy, Human
[195] "Country report for Japan" (http:/ / www. freedomhouse. org/ report/ freedom-world/ 2011/ japan), Freedom in the World 2011, Freedom
House, 2011 (covering events in 2010)
[196] "Japan's Lolita merchants feel the heat" (http:/ / www. atimes. com/ atimes/ Front_Page/ JB23Aa02. html), William Sparrow, Asia Times
Online, 23 February 2008
[197] "Country Report: Kenya" (http:/ / www. freedomhouse. org/ images/ File/ FotN/ Kenya2011. pdf), Freedom on the Net 2011, Freedom
House, April 2011
[198] "2010 Human Rights Report: Laos" (http:/ / www. state. gov/ g/ drl/ rls/ hrrpt/ 2010/ eap/ 154390. htm), Bureau of Democracy, Human
Rights, and Labor<, U.S. Department of State, 8 April 2011
[199] "ONI Country Profile: Lebanon" (http:/ / opennet. net/ research/ profiles/ lebanon), OpenNet Initiative, August 6, 2009
[200] "Mexico" (http:/ / www. freedomhouse. org/ sites/ default/ files/ inline_images/ Mexico_FOTN2011. pdf), Freedom on the Net 2011,
Freedom House, January 18, 2012
[201] "Mexico country report" (http:/ / www. state. gov/ j/ drl/ rls/ hrrpt/ humanrightsreport/ index. htm?dlid=186528), Country Reports on
Human Rights Practices for 2011, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State, June 22, 2012
[202] Digital and Mobile Security for Mexican Journalists and Bloggers: Results of a survey of Mexican journalists and bloggers (http:/ / www.
freedomhouse. org/ report/ special-reports/ digital-and-mobile-security-mexican-journalists-and-bloggers), Jorge Luis Sierra (ICFJ Knight
International Journalism Fellow), Freedom House and International Center for Journalists, February 12, 2013
[203] "IFE ordena a YouTube retirar spot de Fidel Herrera" (http:/ / www. eluniversal. com. mx/ notas/ 597512. html) , English translation: "IFE
orders YouTube remove Fidel Herrera Spot" (http:/ / www. google. com/ translate_c?langpair=en& u=http:/ / www. eluniversal. com. mx/
notas/ 597512. html), Jose Gerardo Mejia, El Universal, May 12, 2009
[204] "ONI Country Profile: Nepal" (http:/ / opennet. net/ research/ profiles/ nepal), OpenNet Initiative, 10 May 2007
[205] "The Dutch Hotline" (http:/ / www. meldpunt-kinderporno. nl/ EN/ about_us. htm), Hotline combating Child Pornography on the Internet
[206] (Dutch) "Dutch internet filtering off track" (http:/ / webwereld. nl/ nieuws/ 105947/ nederlands-internetfilter-van-de-baan. html) ( English
translation) (http:/ / translate. google. com/ translate?u=http:/ / webwereld. nl/ nieuws/ 105947/ nederlands-internetfilter-van-de-baan. html),
Rene Schoemaker, WebWereld (IDG Netherlands), 7 March 2011
[207] (Dutch) "Politiek zegt 'nee' tegen internetfilter" (http:/ / tweakers. net/ nieuws/ 74508/ politiek-zegt-nee-tegen-internetfilter. html) ("Politics
says no to internet filter") ( English translation (http:/ / translate. google. com/ translate?u=http:/ / tweakers. net/ nieuws/ 74508/
politiek-zegt-nee-tegen-internetfilter. html)), Joost Schellevis, Tweakers.net, 18 May 2011
[208] (Dutch) Ziggo en XS4ALL moeten toegang The Pirate Bay blokkeren" (http:/ / www. nu. nl/ internet/ 2712455/
ziggo-en-xs4all-moeten-toegang-the-pirate-bay-blokkeren. html) (Ziggo and XS4all required to block The Pirate Bay) ( English translation
(http:/ / translate. google. com/ translate?u=http:/ / www. nu. nl/ internet/ 2712455/ ziggo-en-xs4all-moeten-toegang-the-pirate-bay-blokkeren.
html)), NU.nl, Netherlands Sanoma media group, 11 January 2012
[209] (Dutch) "Brein speelt voor eigen rechter" (http:/ / www. nu. nl/ internet/ 2722173/ brein-speelt-eigen-rechter. html) (BREIN plays for
itself) ( English translation (http:/ / translate. google. com/ translate?u=http:/ / www. nu. nl/ internet/ 2722173/ brein-speelt-eigen-rechter.
html)), NU.nl, Netherlands Sanoma media group, 24 January 2012
[210] (Dutch) "The Pirate Bay noemt Brein corrupte organisatie" (http:/ / www. nu. nl/ internet/ 2713599/
the-pirate-bay-noemt-brein-corrupte-organisatie. html) (Pirate Bay calls BREIN a corrupt organization) ( English translation (http:/ / translate.
google. com/ translate?u=http:/ / www. nu. nl/ internet/ 2713599/ the-pirate-bay-noemt-brein-corrupte-organisatie. html)), NU.nl, Netherlands
Sanoma media group, 12 January 2012
[211] (Dutch) "Kamer eist opheldering over Pirate Bay-blokkades" (http:/ / www. nu. nl/ internet/ 2717063/
kamer-eist-opheldering-pirate-bay-blokkades. html) (House requires explanation about Priate Bay blockades) ( English translation (http:/ /
translate. google. com/ translate?u=http:/ / www. nu. nl/ internet/ 2717063/ kamer-eist-opheldering-pirate-bay-blokkades. html)), NU.nl,
Netherlands Sanoma media group, 18 January 2012
[213] "Second online journalist arrested in one week" (http:/ / en. rsf. org/ nigeria-second-online-journalist-arrested-04-11-2008,29185),
Reporters Without Borders, 4 November 2008
[216] "Norway's Knut Storberget tells ISPs to deploy secret censorship lists" (http:/ / wikileaks. org/ wiki/
Norway's_Knut_Storberget_tells_ISPs_to_deploy_secret_censorship_lists,_29_Aug_2008), Wikileaks, 29 Aug 2008]
[217] "Paraguay" (http:/ / www. state. gov/ j/ drl/ rls/ hrrpt/ humanrightsreport/ index. htm?dlid=186534), Country Reports on Human Rights
Practices for 2011, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, U.S. Department of State, 25 May 2012. This article incorporates text
from this source, which is in the public domain.
[218] "Censorship at Radio Nacional, threats and violence from president’s inner circle" (http:/ / en. rsf. org/
paraguay-censorship-at-radio-nacional-19-09-2012,43409. html), Reporters Without Borders, 19 September 2011
[219] "In continuing purge, 27 employees fired from state TV" (http:/ / en. rsf. org/
paraguay-in-continuing-purge-27-employees-05-09-2012,43332. html), Reporters Without Borders, 5 September 2012
[220] "Purges in state media, community radios on alert" (http:/ / en. rsf. org/ paraguay-threat-of-purges-hangs-over-state-12-07-2012,43014.
html), Reporters Without Borders, 13 July 2012
[221] "Community radio stations face crackdown for 'inciting crime'" (http:/ / en. rsf. org/
paraguay-community-radio-stations-face-14-08-2012,43225. html), Reporters Without Borders, 14 August 2012
[222] "Purges in state media, community radios on alert" (http:/ / en. rsf. org/ paraguay-threat-of-purges-hangs-over-state-12-07-2012,43014.
html), Reporters Without Borders, 12 July 2012
[223] "2010 Human Rights Report: Peru" (http:/ / www. state. gov/ g/ drl/ rls/ hrrpt/ 2010/ wha/ 154516. htm), Bureau of Democracy, Human
[224] "2010 Human rights Report: Philippines" (http:/ / www. state. gov/ g/ drl/ rls/ hrrpt/ 2010/ eap/ 154399. htm), Bureau of Democracy,
[225] "Opinion: Beware the Cybercrime Law’s Section 19 – the ‘Takedown Clause’" (http:/ / www. interaksyon. com/ infotech/
opinion-beware-the-cybercrime-laws-section-19-the-takedown-clause), News5 InterAksyon.com (Quezon City Philippines), 24 September
2012
[226] "Security Question 2 in Country Report: Poland" (http:/ / portal. bsa. org/ cloudscorecard2012/ assets/ pdfs/ country_reports/
Country_Report_Poland. pdf), BSA Global Cloud Computing Scorecard, Business Software Alliance, 22 February 2012
[227] "Government stopped from preparing ‘illegal’ anti-internet piracy legislation" (http:/ / www. thenews. pl/ 1/ 12/ Artykul/
91997,Government-stopped-from-preparing-â illegal-antiinternet-piracy-legislation), Polskie Radio, 2 March 2012
[228] "Polish Government Feels Urge to Regulate Internet" (http:/ / blogs. wsj. com/ emergingeurope/ 2011/ 03/ 16/
polish-government-feels-urge-to-regulate-internet/ ), Marcin Sobczyk, Wall Street Journal, 16 March 2011
[229] "ANC cere blocarea accesului la 40 de site-uri cu caracter pornografic" (http:/ / www. anrcti. ro/ desktopdefault. aspx?tabid=3483),
National Authority for Communications, December 11, 2008
[230] Sunteţi de acord cu interzicerea înjurăturilor pe internet? (http:/ / www. evz. ro/ detalii/ stiri/
sunteti-de-acord-cu-interzicerea-injuraturilor-pe-internet-903168. html), Evenimentul Zilei, 15 August 2010
[231] "Country Report: Rwanda" (http:/ / www. freedomhouse. org/ images/ File/ FotN/ Rwanda2011. pdf), Freedom on the Net 2011, Freedom
House, April 2011
[232] "2010 Human Rights Report: Rwanda" (http:/ / www. state. gov/ g/ drl/ rls/ hrrpt/ 2010/ af/ 154364. htm), 2010 Human Rights Report:
Rwanda Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State, 8 April 2011
[233] "Nesmiselna blokada spletnih stavnic" (Unreasonable seizure of betting) (http:/ / www. dnevnik. si/ novice/ slovenija/ 1042427509), Blaz
Petkovic and Katja Svenšek, Dnevnik.si, 1 March 2011 ( English translation (http:/ / translate. google. com/ translate?u=http:/ / www.
dnevnik. si/ novice/ slovenija/ 1042427509))
[234] http:/ / www. lapsiporno. info/ blocked. glocalnet
[235] "ONI Country Profile: Uganda" (http:/ / opennet. net/ research/ profiles/ uganda), OpenNet Initiative, September 30, 2009
[236] "ONI Country Profile: Ukraine" (http:/ / opennet. net/ research/ profiles/ ukraine), OpenNet Initiative, December 21, 2010
[237] "Country report: United Kingdom" (http:/ / opennet. net/ research/ profiles/ united-kingdom), OpenNet Initiative, 18 December 2010
[238] " IWF/BT Project Cleanfeed (http:/ / www. iwf. org. uk/ media/ news. archive-2004. 39. htm)", Internet Watch Foundation. Retrieved 29
May 2006.
[239] " How net providers stop child porn (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ technology/ 4689386. stm)", BBC News, 7 February 2006. Retrieved
29 May 2006.
[240] http:/ / www. webminder. net/
[241] "BT ordered to block Newzbin2 filesharing site within 14 days" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ technology/ 2011/ oct/ 26/
bt-block-newzbin2-filesharing-site), Mark Sweney, The Guardian, 26 October 2011
[242] "Brit ISPs shift toward rapid pirate website blocking" (http:/ / www. theregister. co. uk/ 2011/ 09/ 22/ isp_web_blocking/ ), Andrew
Orlowski, The Register, 22 September 2011
[243] "Pirate Bay must be blocked, High Court tells ISPs" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ technology/ news/ 9236667/
Pirate-Bay-must-be-blocked-High-Court-tells-ISPs. html), Matt Warman, The Telegraph, 30 April 2012
[244] "The Pirate Bay cut off from millions of Virgin Media customers" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ technology/ broadband/ 9242729/
The-Pirate-Bay-cut-off-from-millions-of-Virgin-Media-customers. html), Christopher Williams, The Telegraph, 3 May 2012
[245] "David Cameron: Online porn will be blocked by default" (http:/ / metro. co. uk/ 2013/ 07/ 21/
david-cameron-online-porn-will-be-blocked-by-default-3891620/ ), Tariq Tahir, Metro, July 22, 2013.
[246] "Aprueban ley que regula contenidos de Internet y medios en Venezuela (new law regulates contents on the internet in Venezuela) (http:/ /
www. eltiempo. com/ mundo/ latinoamerica/ aprueban-reforma-a-ley-que-regula-contenidos-de-internet-y-medios_8643260-4), El
Tiempo.com, 20 December 2010
[247] "ONI Country Profile: Zimbabwe" (http:/ / opennet. net/ research/ profiles/ zimbabwe), OpenNet Initiative, September 30, 2009
[248] http:/ / www. state. gov/ j/ drl/ rls/ hrrpt/ index. htm
[249] http:/ / opennet. net/ research/ profiles
[250] http:/ / opennet. net/ regional-overviews
[251] http:/ / opennet. net/ research/ map
[252] Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported license (http:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by/ 3. 0/ deed. en), see the lower right corner
of pages at the OpenNet Initiative web site (http:/ / opennet. net/ )
External links
• OpenNet Initiative web site (http://opennet.net/).
• Reporters Without Borders web site (http://en.rsf.org/).
• Global Integrity: Internet Censorship, A Comparative Study (http://www.globalintegrity.org/node/130),
Jonathan Werve, Global Integrity Commons, 19 February 2008, puts online censorship in cross-country context.
369
Organizations
Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and

Numbers
ICANN
Founded September 18, 1998
Headquarters Los Angeles, California, U.S.
Key people Fadi Chehadé
Focus(es) Manage Internet protocol numbers and Domain Name System root
Motto One World. One Internet.
Website [1]
www.icann.org
Internet
Internet portal
The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers

(ICANN, /ˈaɪkæn/ EYE-kan) is a nonprofit private organization
headquartered in the Playa Vista section of Los Angeles, California,
United States, that was created on September 18, 1998, and
incorporated on September 30, 1998[2] to oversee a number of
Internet-related tasks previously performed directly on behalf of the
U.S. government[citation needed] by other organizations, notably the
Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), which ICANN now
operates.
ICANN is responsible for the coordination of the global Internet's ICANN headquarters in Playa Vista
systems of unique identifiers and, in particular, ensuring its stable and

secure operation.[] This work includes coordination of the Internet Protocol address spaces (IPv4 and IPv6) and
assignment of address blocks to regional Internet registries, for maintaining registries of Internet protocol identifiers,
and for the management of the top-level domain name space (DNS root zone), which includes the operation of root
name servers. Most visibly, much of its work has concerned the DNS policy development for internationalization of
the DNS system and introduction of new generic top-level domains (TLDs). ICANN performs the actual technical
maintenance work of the central Internet address pools and DNS root registries pursuant to the "IANA function"
contract.
ICANN's primary principles of operation have been described as helping preserve the operational stability of the
Internet; to promote competition; to achieve broad representation of the global Internet community; and to develop
policies appropriate to its mission through bottom-up, consensus-based processes.[]
On September 29, 2006, ICANN signed a new agreement with the United States Department of Commerce (DOC)
that moves the private organization towards full management of the Internet's system of centrally coordinated
identifiers through the Multistakeholder Model of consultation that ICANN represents.[3]
History
Before the establishment of ICANN, the Government of the United States controlled the domain name system of the
Internet.[4]
The original mandate for ICANN came from the United States government, spanning the presidential administrations
of both Bill Clinton and George W. Bush. On January 30, 1998, the National Telecommunications and Information
Administration (NTIA), an agency of the U.S. Department of Commerce, issued for comment, "A Proposal to
Improve the Technical Management of Internet Names and Addresses." The proposed rule making, or "Green Paper
[5]
", was published in the Federal Register on February 20, 1998, providing opportunity for public comment. NTIA
received more than 650 comments as of March 23, 1998, when the comment period closed.[6]
The Green Paper proposed certain actions designed to privatize the management of Internet names and addresses in a
manner that allows for the development of robust competition and facilitates global participation in Internet
management. The Green Paper proposed for discussion a variety of issues relating to DNS management including
private sector creation of a new not-for-profit corporation (the "new corporation") managed by a globally and
functionally representative Board of Directors.[citation needed] ICANN was formed in response to this policy.[citation
needed]
The IANA function currently exists under an agreement with the U.S. Department of Commerce.[citation
needed]
ICANN was incorporated in California on September 30, 1998, with entrepreneur and philanthropist Esther Dyson as
founding chairwoman.[2] It is qualified to do business in the District of Columbia.[7] ICANN was established in
California due to the presence of Jon Postel, who was a founder of ICANN and was set to be its first CTO prior to
his unexpected death. ICANN formerly operated from the same Marina del Rey building where Mr. Postel formerly
worked, which is home to an office of the Information Sciences Institute at the University of Southern California.
However, ICANN's headquarters is now located in the nearby Playa Vista section of Los Angeles.
Per its original Bylaws [8], primary responsibility for policy formation in ICANN was to be delegated to three
supporting organizations (Address Supporting Organization, Domain Name Supporting Organization, and Protocol
Supporting Organization), each of which was to develop and recommend substantive policies and procedures for the
management of the identifiers within their respective scope. They were also required to be financially independent
from ICANN.[9] As expected, the Regional Internet Registries and the IETF agreed to serve as the Address
Supporting Organization and Protocol Supporting Organization respectively,[10][11] and ICANN issued a call for
interested parties to propose the structure and composition of the Domain Name Supporting Organization.[12] On 4
March 1999, the ICANN Board, based in part on the DNSO proposals received, decided instead on an alternate
construction for the DNSO which delineated specific constituencies bodies within ICANN itself,[13][14] thus adding
primary responsibility for DNS policy development to ICANN's existing duties of oversight and coordination.
On July 26, 2006, the United States government renewed the contract with ICANN for performance of the IANA
function for an additional one to five years.[] The context of ICANN's relationship with the U.S. government was
clarified on September 29, 2006 when ICANN signed a new Memorandum of understanding with the United States
[]
Department of Commerce (DOC). This document does give the DoC a final, unilateral oversight over some of the
ICANN operations.[][]
In July 2008, the U.S. Department of Commerce reiterated an earlier statement[] that it has "no plans to transition
management of the authoritative root zone file to ICANN". The letter also stresses the separate roles of the IANA
and VeriSign.[]
Structure
At present, ICANN is formally organized as a non-profit corporation "for charitable and public purposes" under the
California Nonprofit Public Benefit Corporation Law. It is managed by a 16-member Board of Directors, which is
composed of eight members selected by a Nominating Committee on which all the constituencies of ICANN are
represented; six representatives of its Supporting Organizations, sub-groups that deal with specific sections of the
policies under ICANN's purview; an At-Large seat filled by an At-Large Organization; and the President / CEO,
appointed by the Board. [15]
There are currently three Supporting Organizations. The Generic Names Supporting Organization (GNSO) deals
with policy making on generic top-level domains (gTLDs). The Country Code Names Supporting Organization
(ccNSO) deals with policy making on country-code top-level domains (ccTLDs). The Address Supporting
Organization (ASO) deals with policy making on IP addresses.
ICANN also relies on some advisory committees to receive advice on the interests and needs of stakeholders that do
not directly participate in the Supporting Organizations. These include the Governmental Advisory Committee
(GAC), which is composed of representatives of a large number of national governments from all over the world; the
At-Large Advisory Committee (ALAC), which is composed of representatives of organizations of individual Internet
users from around the world; the Root Server System Advisory Committee, which provides advice on the operation
of the DNS root server system; the Security and Stability Advisory Committee (SSAC), which is composed of
Internet experts who study security issues pertaining to ICANN's mandate; and the Technical Liaison Group (TLG),
which is composed of representatives of other international technical organizations that focus, at least in part, on the
Internet.
Governmental Advisory Committee

The Governmental Advisory
Committee has representatives from
111 states (108 UN members, Cook
Islands, Niue and Taiwan), the Holy
See, Hong Kong, Bermuda,
Montserrat, the European Commission
and the African Union
Commission.[16]
In addition the following organizations

are GAC Observers:[17] Governmental Advisory Committee representatives
• African Telecommunications Union

• Asia-Pacific Telecommunity
• Commonwealth Telecommunications Organisation (CTO)
• Council of Europe
• Economic Commission for Africa (ECA)
• European Broadcasting Union
• European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN)

• European Space Agency
• International Labour Office
• International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
• International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL)
• League of Arab States
• New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD)
• Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
• Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie (OIF)
• Pacific Islands Forum
• REGULATEL
• Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC)
• Inter-American Telecommunication Commission (CITEL)
• International Criminal Court
• United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
• Universal Postal Union
• World Health Organization
• World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)
• World Bank
• World Trade Organization
Democratic input
In the Memorandum of Understanding that set up the relationship between ICANN and the U.S. government,
ICANN was given a mandate requiring that it operate "in a bottom up, consensus driven, democratic manner."
However, the attempts that ICANN have made to set up an organizational structure that would allow wide input from
the global Internet community did not produce results amenable to the current Board. As a result, the At-Large
constituency and direct election of board members by the global Internet community were soon abandoned.[18]
ICANN holds periodic public meetings rotated between continents for the purpose of encouraging global
participation in its processes. Resolutions of the ICANN Board, preliminary reports, and minutes of the meetings, are
published on the ICANN website, sometimes in real time. However there are criticisms from ICANN constituencies
including the Noncommercial Users Constituency (NCUC) and the At-Large Advisory Committee (ALAC) that
there is not enough public disclosure and that too many discussions and decisions take place out of sight of the
public.[citation needed]
In the early 2000s, there had been speculation that the United Nations might signal a takeover of ICANN,[] followed
by a negative reaction from the US government[] and worries about a division of the Internet[] the World Summit on
the Information Society in Tunisia in November 2005 agreed not to get involved in the day-to-day and technical
operations of ICANN. However it also agreed to set up an international Internet Governance Forum, with a
consultative role on the future governance of the Internet. ICANN's Government Advisory Committee is currently
set up to provide advice to ICANN regarding public policy issues and has participation by many of the world's
governments.[19]
Some have attempted to argue that ICANN was never given the authority to decide policy, e.g., choose new TLDs or
shut out other interested parties who refuse to pay ICANN's US$185,000 fee, but was to be a technical caretaker.
CriticsWikipedia:Avoid weasel words suggest that ICANN should not be allowed to impose business rules on
market participants, and that all TLDs should be added on a first-come, first-served basis and the market should be
the arbiter of who succeeds and who does not.[citation needed]
Activities
One task that ICANN was asked to do was to address the issue of domain name ownership resolution for generic
top-level domains (gTLDs). ICANN's attempt at such a policy was drafted in close cooperation with the World
Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), and the result has now become known as the Uniform Dispute
Resolution Policy (UDRP). This policy essentially attempts to provide a mechanism for rapid, cheap and reasonable
resolution of domain name conflicts, avoiding the traditional court system for disputes by allowing cases to be
brought to one of a set of bodies that arbitrate domain name disputes. According to ICANN policy, a domain
registrant must agree to be bound by the UDRP — they cannot get a domain name without agreeing to this.
A look at the UDRP decision patterns has led some[20] to conclude that compulsory domain name arbitration is less
likely to give a fair hearing to domain name owners asserting defenses under the First Amendment and other laws,
compared to the federal courts of appeal in particular.
Notable events
On March 18, 2002, publicly elected At-Large Representative for North America board member Karl Auerbach sued
ICANN in Superior Court in California to gain access to ICANN's accounting records without restriction. Auerbach
won.[21]
In September and October 2003, ICANN played a crucial role in the conflict over VeriSign's "wild card" DNS
service Site Finder. After an open letter from ICANN issuing an ultimatum to VeriSign, later supported by the IAB,[]
the company voluntarily shut down the service on October 4, 2003. Following this action, VeriSign filed a lawsuit
against ICANN on February 27, 2004, claiming that ICANN had overstepped its authority. In this lawsuit, VeriSign
sought to reduce ambiguity about ICANN's authority. The antitrust component of VeriSign's claim was dismissed in
August 2004. VeriSign's broader challenge that ICANN overstepped its contractual rights is currently outstanding. A
proposed settlement already approved by ICANN's board would resolve VeriSign's challenge to ICANN in exchange
for the right to increase pricing on .com domains. At the meeting of ICANN in Rome, which took place from March
2 to March 6, 2004, ICANN agreed to ask approval of the US Department of Commerce for the Waiting List Service
of VeriSign.[citation needed]
On May 17, 2004, ICANN published a proposed budget for the year 2004-05. It included proposals to increase the
openness and professionalism of its operations, and greatly increased its proposed spending from US $8.27 million
to $15.83 million. The increase was to be funded by the introduction of new top-level domains, charges to domain
registries, and a fee for some domain name registrations, renewals and transfers (initially USD 0.20 for all domains
within a country-code top-level domain, and USD 0.25 for all others).[citation needed] The Council of European
National Top Level Domain Registries (CENTR), which represents the Internet registries of 39 countries, rejected
the increase, accusing ICANN of a lack of financial prudence and criticizing what it describes as ICANN's
"unrealistic political and operational targets". Despite the criticism, the registry agreement for the top-level domains
jobs and travel includes a US $2 fee on every domain the licensed companies sell or renew.[]
After a second round of negotiations in 2004, the TLDs eu, asia, travel, jobs, mobi, and cat were
introduced in 2005.
On February 28, 2006, ICANN's board approved a settlement with

VeriSign in the lawsuit resulting from SiteFinder that involved
allowing VeriSign (the registry) to raise its registration fees by up to
7% a year.[22] This was criticised by some people in the US House of
Representatives' Small Business committee.[23]
In February 2007, ICANN began the steps to remove accreditation of
one of their registrars, RegisterFly amid charges and lawsuits involving
fraud, and criticism of ICANN's handling of the situation. ICANN has
ICANN meeting, Los Angeles USA, 2007. The
been the subject of criticism as a result of its handling of RegisterFly, sign refers to Vint Cerf, then Chairman of the
and the harm caused to thousands of clients due to what has been Board of Directors, who is working on the
called ICANN's "laissez faire attitude toward customer allegations of Interplanetary Internet.
fraud".[24]
On May 23, 2008, ICANN issued Enforcement Notices against 10 Accredited Registrars and announced this through
a press release entitled: "Worst Spam Offenders" Notified by ICANN, Compliance system working to correct Whois
and other issues.[25] This was largely in response to a report issued by KnujOn called The 10 Worst Registrars in
terms of spam advertised junk product sites and compliance failure.[26] The mention of the word spam in the title of
the ICANN memo is somewhat misleading since ICANN does not address issues of spam or email abuse. Website
content and usage are not within ICANN's mandate. However the KnujOn Report details how various registrars have
not complied with their contractual obligations under the Registrar Accreditation Agreement (RAA).[27] The main
point of the KnujOn research was to demonstrate the relationships between compliance failure, illicit product traffic,
and spam. The report demonstrated that out of 900 ICANN accredited Registrars fewer than 20 held 90% of the web
domains advertised in spam. These same Registrars were also most frequently cited by KnujOn as failing to resolve
complaints made through the Whois Data Problem Reporting System (WDPRS).
On June 26, 2008, the ICANN Board started a new process of TLD naming policy to take a "significant step forward
on the introduction of new generic top-level domains." This program envisions the availability of many new or
already proposed domains, as well a new application and implementation process.[]
On October 1, 2008, ICANN issued Breach Notices against Joker and Beijing Innovative Linkage Technology
Ltd.[28] after further researching reports and complaints issued by KnujOn. These notices gave the Registrars 15 days
to fix their Whois investigation efforts.
In 2010, ICANN approved a major review of its policies with respect to accountability, transparency, and public
participation by the Berkman Center for Internet and Society at Harvard University.[29] This external review was in
support of the work of ICANN's Accountability and Transparency Review team.[30]
On February 3, 2011, ICANN announced that it had distributed the last batch of its remaining IPv4 addresses to the
world’s five Regional Internet Registries, the organizations that manage IP addresses in different regions. These
Registries began assigning the final IPv4 addresses within their regions until they ran out completely.[31]
On June 20, 2011, the ICANN board voted to end most restrictions on the names of generic top-level domains
(gTLD).[32][33][34] Companies and organizations became able to choose essentially arbitrary top level Internet
domain names. The use of non-Latin characters (such as Cyrillic, Arabic, Chinese, etc.) will also be allowed in
gTLDs. ICANN began accepting applications for new gTLDS on January 12, 2012.[32] The initial price to apply for
a new gTLD is $185,000.[35] The renewal or the annual fee of the domain will further be $25,000.[36][37] It is
anticipated that many corporations will apply for gTLDs based on their brands. ICANN expects the new rules to
significantly change the face of the Internet. Peter Thrush, chairman of ICANN's board of directors stated after the
vote: "Today's decision will usher in a new Internet age. We have provided a platform for the next generation of
creativity and inspiration. Unless there is a good reason to restrain it, innovation should be allowed to run free."[38]
Some would argue that the innovative freedom Peter Thrush talks about starts at $185,000, and thus is not accessible
to everyone.[39]
References
[1] http:/ / www. icann. org
[2] California Secretary of State, Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (http:/ / kepler. ss. ca. gov/ corpdata/
ShowAllList?QueryCorpNumber=C2121683). Accessed 2009.09.18.
[3] ICANN-DOC JPA 09-29-2006 (http:/ / www. ntia. doc. gov/ ntiahome/ domainname/ agreements/ jpa/ ICANNJPA_09292006. htm)
[4] Brito, Jerry. " ICANN vs. the World (http:/ / techland. time. com/ 2011/ 03/ 05/ icann-vs-the-world/ )." TIME. March 5, 2011. Retrieved on
March 6, 2011.
[5] http:/ / www. ntia. doc. gov/ ntiahome/ domainname/ domainname130. htm
[7] D.C. Department of Consumer and Regulatory Affairs, Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (http:/ / mblr. dc. gov/ corp/
lookup/ status. asp?id=259200). Accessed 2009.09.18.
[8] http:/ / www. icann. org/ en/ about/ governance/ bylaws/ bylaws-06nov98-en. htm#VI
[15] https:/ / www. icann. org/ en/ about/ governance/ bylaws#VI
[16] GAC Representatives (https:/ / gacweb. icann. org/ display/ gacweb/ GAC+ Representatives)
[17] GAC Observers (https:/ / gacweb. icann. org/ display/ gacweb/ GAC+ Observers)
[18] ICANN decided to reduce direct public ("at large") participation on March 14, 2002, at a public meeting in Accra, Ghana.
[19] ICANN Government Advisory Committee (http:/ / gac. icann. org/ about-gac/ )
[20] Hannibal Travis, The Battle for Mindshare: the Emerging Consensus that the First Amendment Protects Corporate Criticism and Parody on
the Internet, 10 Virginia Journal of Law and Technology 3, 32-34 (2005), Vjolt.net (http:/ / www. vjolt. net/ vol10/ issue1/ v10i1_a3-Travis.
pdf)
[21] "Court Grants Access to Net Regulatory Corp Records" (http:/ / w2. eff. org/ Infrastructure/ DNS_control/ ICANN_IANA_IAHC/
Auerbach_v_ICANN/ 20020729_eff_icann_pr. html), Media Release, Electronic Frontier Foundation (EEF), 29 July 2002
[22] "ICANN Board Approves VeriSign Settlement Agreements" (http:/ / www. icann. org/ announcements/ announcement-28feb06. htm),
Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), 28 February 2006, retrieved November 1, 2006
[23] CNET: Domain name price hikes come under fire (http:/ / news. com. com/ Domain+ name+ price+ hikes+ come+ under+ fire/
2100-1030_3-6081336. html?tag=nefd. top)
[24] The Register, Burke Hansen Of ICANN and the Registerfly meltdown (http:/ / www. theregister. co. uk/ 2007/ 03/ 03/
icann_registerfly_domain/ ), March 3, 2007
[25] "'Worst Spam Offenders' Notified by ICANN (http:/ / www. icann. org/ en/ announcements/ announcement-23may08-en. htm), News
release, Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), 23 May 2008
[26] "2008 ICANN Registrar Report" (http:/ / www. knujon. com/ registrars/ #may08RegistrarReport), KnujOn.com
[27] "Registrar Accreditation Agreement" (http:/ / www. icann. org/ en/ registrars/ ra-agreement-17may01. htm), Internet Corporation for
Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), 17 May 2001 with updates 2002-2006
[28] http:/ / www. icann. org/ en/ announcements/ announcement-01oct08-en. htm
[29] "Accountability and Transparency Review Team – Selection of Independent Expert and Update on ATRT Review" (http:/ / www. icann.
org/ en/ announcements/ announcement-10aug10-en. htm), News release, Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN),
10 August 2010
[30] "The First AART (Accountability and Transparency Review Team) Review was Completed in December 2010" (https:/ / community. icann.
org/ display/ atrt/ The+ Accountability+ and+ Transparency+ Review+ Team;jsessionid=20B32EA76A0A674F629A8D72132CBF19),
Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), 17 January 2012
[31] "Available Pool of Unallocated IPv4 Internet Addresses Now Completely Emptied" (http:/ / www. icann. org/ en/ news/ releases/
release-03feb11-en. pdf), News release, Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), 3 February 2011
[32] New Internet Name Rule Opens Door to Huge Changes. (http:/ / www. voanews. com/ english/ news/ science-technology/
New-Internet-Name-Rule-Opens-Door-to-Huge-Changes-124180874. html) Voice of America, June 20, 2011. Accessed June 20, 2011
[33] Internet minders OK vast expansion of domain names, (http:/ / news. yahoo. com/ s/ ap/ 20110620/ ap_on_hi_te/
as_internet_domain_names;_ylt=Arq2MV_LZjTuVPrs9JafjPJ34T0D;_ylu=X3oDMTJ0OGxxanN2BGFzc2V0A2FwLzIwMTEwNjIwL2FzX2ludGVybmV0X2RvbWFpb
Associated Press, June 20, 2011. Accessed June 20, 2011
[34] Icann to allow any word as a domain, (http:/ / www. zdnet. co. uk/ news/ networking/ 2011/ 06/ 20/
icann-to-allow-any-word-as-a-domain-40093152/ ) ZDNet, June 20, 2011. Accessed June 20, 2011
[35] ICANN increases web domain suffixes, (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ news/ technology-13835997) BBC News, June 20, 2011. Accessed June
20, 2011
[36] "ICANN Approves Historic Change to Internet's Domain Name System – Board Votes to Launch New Generic Top-Level Domains" (http:/
/ www. icann. org/ en/ announcements/ announcement-20jun11-en. htm), News release, Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and
Numbers (ICANN), 20 June 2001
[37] "ICANN Approves New Top-Level Domains, So Prepare For .Whatever" (http:/ / mashable. com/ 2011/ 06/ 20/ icann-top-level-domains/ ),
Stan Schroeder, Mashable Tech, 20 June 2011
[38] Icann announces huge expansion of web domain names from 2012 (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ technology/ 2011/ jun/ 20/
icann-domains-expansion-annnounced), The Guardian, June 20, 2011. Accessed June 20, 2011
[39] When free markets make it worse: new TLDs (http:/ / blog. asmartbear. com/ free-markets-bad. html/ ), A smart bear, July 18, 2011.
Accessed April 10, 2012
Further reading
• Franda, Marcus, The Emergence of an International Regime, ISBN 1-55587-999-3
• Wass, Erica, Addressing the World, ISBN 0-7425-2809-X
• Paré, Daniel J. Internet Governance in Transition, ISBN 0-7425-1846-9
• Mueller, Milton L. Ruling the Root, ISBN 0-262-13412-8
• Froomkin, A. Michael Wrong Turn in Cyberspace: Using ICANN to Route Around the APA and the Constitution
(http://personal.law.miami.edu/~froomkin/articles/icann.pdf), 50 Duke Law Journal17 (2000)
External links
• ICANN website (http://www.icann.org/)
• ICANN DNS Operations website (http://dns.icann.org/)
• ICM Registry LLC v. ICANN Top Level Domain Declaration of 19 February 2010 (http://www.icann.org/en/
irp/icm-v-icann/irp-panel-declaration-19feb10-en.pdf) of the ICDR Judicial Review Panel, H.E. President
Stephen M. Schwebel, Arbitrators Jan Paulsson (http://www.lcil.cam.ac.uk/people/mr_jan_paulsson.php)
and Dickran Tevrizian (http://www.transnational-dispute-management.com/editors/welcome.html) and ICM
v. ICANN Proceedings (http://www.icann.org/en/irp/icm-v-icann.htm) and ASIL/ILIB of 5 March 2010
(http://www.asil.org/ilib100305.cfm) and .xxx Internet Domain Plan Resurrected of 9 March 2010 (http://
news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/8556364.stm) and Panel Makes Internet History of 24 February 2010 (http:/
/www.globalarbitrationreview.com/news/article/27767/panel-makes-Internet-history/) and ICDR Panel
Urges ICANN to Reconsider (http://www.mg.co.za/article/
2010-02-24-plans-for-xxx-porn-net-domain-revived) and Channel 4 (http://www.channel4.com/news/articles/
science_technology/plan+for+xxx+sites+revived/3558357) and Arbitration Database (http://www.
arbitration.fr/5.html)
• Memorandum of Understanding Between the Department of Commerce and the Internet Corporation for
Assigned Names and Numbers (http://www.ntia.doc.gov/ntiahome/domainname/icann.htm)
• ICANNWatch (http://www.icannwatch.org)
• Site advocating the return of public representation in ICANN (http://www.icannatlarge.com/)
• VeriSign Domain Report (http://www.verisign.com/domainbrief) - Quarterly analysis of global domain name
market
• DailyChanges.com (http://dailychanges.com/) — a free ICANN Registrar Statistics website
• ICANNWiki.com (http://www.icannwiki.com) - Wiki with people and companies related to ICANN
• ICANN Annual Reports (http://www.icann.org/en/annualreport/)
• ICANN Financials (http://www.icann.org/en/about/financials)
• ICANN FY12 Board Member Report of Payments (http://www.icann.org/en/about/financials/
fy12-board-payments-27oct12-en.pdf)
Internet Society
Internet Society
Abbreviation ISOC
Formation 1992
Legal status Non-profit
Purpose/focus Leadership
Headquarters [1]
Reston, Virginia, U.S.
Region served Worldwide
Membership 50,000
Affiliations Public Interest Registry
Website [2]
www.internetsociety.org
Internet
Internet portal
The Internet Society (ISOC) is an international, non-profit organization founded in 1992 to provide leadership in
Internet related standards, education, and policy. It states that its mission is "to assure the open development,
evolution and use of the Internet for the benefit of all people throughout the world".[3]
The Internet Society has offices near Washington, DC, USA, and in Geneva, Switzerland. It has a membership base
comprising more than 130 organizational and more than 55,000 individual members. Members also form "chapters"
based on either common geographical location or special interests. There are currently more than 90 chapters around
the world.[3]
History
The Internet Society was formed officially in 1992, with one of its purposes being to provide a corporate structure to
support the Internet standards development process. Vint Cerf, Bob Kahn, Lyman Chapin released a document,
Announcing ISOC, which explained the rationale for establishing the Internet Society. This document also defines
the original charter of the organization as follows:
The Society will be a non-profit organization and will be operated for international educational, charitable, and
scientific purposes, among which are:
• To facilitate and support the technical evolution of the Internet as a research and education infrastructure and
to stimulate involvement of the academic, scientific, and engineering communities (among others) in the
evolution of the Internet.
• To educate the academic and scientific communities and the public concerning the technology, use, and
application of the Internet.
• To promote scientific and educational applications of Internet technology for the benefit of educational
institutions at all grade levels, industry, and the public at large.
• To provide a forum for exploration of new Internet applications and to foster collaboration among
organizations in their operation and use of the Internet.[4]
• Many of the main forces of the Internet, such as the
• Internet Engineering Task Force
• (IETF), remain very informal organizations from a legal perspective. There was a growing need for financial
support and organization structure. The Internet Society was incorporated as a non-profit educational
organization which could provide that support structure, as well as promoting other activities that are important
for the development of the Internet. The Internet Society is the parent corporation of the IETF; as such all
IETF
• Request for Comments
• documents, including those RFCs which describe "Internet Standards", are copyrighted by the Internet Society
(although freely available to anyone, including non-members, at no charge). However, the Internet Society
itself grew out of the IETF, to support those functions that require a corporate form rather than simply the ad
hoc approach of the IETF. In reality, the Internet Society was formed because the IETF Secretariat, which had
been operated under NSF contract by staff at the Corporation for National Research Initiatives (
• CNRI
• ) would not be supported beyond 1991 by NSF. The then Internet Activities Board sought to create a non-profit
institution that could provide financial support for the IETF Secretariat among other things. CNRI served as
the first host for the Internet Society's operation. In 2012, on ISOC's 20th anniversary, it established the
• Internet Hall of Fame
• , an annual award whose purpose is to "publicly recognize a distinguished and select group of visionaries,
leaders and luminaries who have made significant contributions to the development and advancement of the
global Internet".
• [5]
• [6]
Internet Society today

The Internet Society conducts a great range of activities under three main categories, namely standards, public
policy, and education.
Under the standards category, the Internet Society supports and promotes the work of the standards settings bodies
for which it is the organizational home: the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), the Internet Architecture Board
(IAB), the Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG), and the Internet Research Task Force (IRTF). The Internet
Society also seeks to promote understanding and appreciation of the Internet model of open, transparent processes
and consensus-based decision making.[7]
Under the public policy category, the Internet Society works with governments, national and international
organizations, civil society, the private sector, and other parties to promote policies about the Internet that conform
to its core values. The following statement illustrates the foundation for the Internet Society's policy positions:
"We envision a future in which people in all parts of the world can use the Internet to improve their
quality of life, because standards, technologies, business practices, and government policies sustain an
open and universally accessible platform for innovation, creativity, and economic opportunity.[8]
The Internet Society has a prominent function in Internet governance discussions, including significant involvement
in the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) and Internet Governance Forum (IGF).
Under the category of education, the Internet Society pursues its goals by coordinating and delivering hands-on
technical training, seminars and conferences on topical Internet issues; supporting local and regional Internet
organisations; issuing briefings and white papers on Internet technologies; and funding participation opportunities
for Internet experts in developing countries.[9]
The Internet Society also encourages innovation and fresh thinking by providing grants and rewards to relevant
initiatives and outreach efforts that address the humanitarian, educational and societal contexts of online
connectivity.
The Internet Society is the parent company for the Public Interest Registry, which manages the .ORG top-level
domain.
ISOC has joint offices in Reston, Virginia, United States and Geneva, Switzerland. It has also established "Regional
Bureaus" for Latin America and the Caribbean, Africa, Asia, North America and Europe.
The Internet Society helped organize World IPv6 Day, which gathered companies such as Facebook, Google, Yahoo,
Akamai Technologies and Limelight Networks as well as ISPs to raise awareness of IPv6 issues such as
fragmentation.[10]
Board of trustees
The Board of Trustees of the Internet Society is its governing body. The current list of trustees and their committee
memberships is found at the organization's board page. [11]
Chapters
In the following, local chapters are listed in alpha order by nation state. Non geographic chapters are listed within the
alpha order.
[12] [13]
• Capitulo Argentino de Internet Society - Argentina • ISOC-MU - Mauritius
[14] [15]
• ISOC-AM - Armenia • MISOC - Morocco
[16] [17]
• ISOC-AU - Australia • ISOC Nepal - Nepal
[18] [19]
• Bahrain Internet Society Chapter - Bahrain • ISOC NL the Netherlands
• ISOC BD - Bangladesh • ISOC NE - Niger
[20] [21]
• ISOC European Chapters Coordinating Council - • ISOC NG Nigeria
Barcelona - Europe
[22] [23]
• ISOC Belgium vzw - Belgium • Disability & Special Needs Chapter of ISOC - Non Geographic -
Disability & Special Needs
[24] • ISOC NO - Norway
• ISOC Wallonie - Belgium - Wallonia
[25] • PICISOC - Pacific Islands
• ISOC BJ - Benin
[26] [27]
• ISOC BR - Brazil • ISOC PK - Pakistan
• Internet Society - Bulgaria • ISOC PS - Palestine
[28] [29]
• ISOC BI - Burundi • ISOC Peru - Peru
• ISOC Cambodia - Cambodia • ISOCCP - Philippines
• ISOC Cameroon - Cameroon [30]
• ISOC PL Poland
• ISOC Canada - Canada - National [31]
• ISOC PT Portugal
[32] [33]
• ISOC Quebec - Canada - Québec • ISOC PR - Puerto Rico
[34] [30]
• ISOC Toronto - Canada - Toronto • ISOC Polska - Poland
• ISOC Colombia - Colombia [35]
• ISOC RO Romania
• ISOC CG - Congo • Saudi Arabian Chapter of the Internet Society - Saudi Arabia
• ISOC DRC - Democratic Republic of the Congo [36]
• Scottish Chapter of the Internet Society - Scotland - UK
[37] • ISOC SN - Senegal
• ISOC DK - Denmark
[38] [39]
• ISOC EC - Ecuador • ISOC Serbia - Serbia
[40] [41]
• ISOC EG - Egypt • ISOC SL - Sierra Leone
[42] [43]
• ISOC England - ISOC UK - England • ISOC SI - Slovenia
[44] [45]
• ISOC Finland - Finland • ISOC-ZA - South Africa
[46] [47]
• ISOC FR - France • ISOC-ES - Spain
[48] [49]
• ISOC-GAL - Galicia (Spain) • ISOC ANDA - Spain - Andalucia
• ISOC GM - Gambia • AS ISOC - Spain - Asturia
• ISOC GE - Georgia [50]
• Aragonese Chapter of the Internet Society - Spain - Aragon
[51] [52]
• ISOC DE - Germany • ISOC CAT - Spain, Andorra and France - Catalan Chapter
• ISOC Ghana - Ghana [48]
• ISOC GAL - Spain - Galicia
[53] • Madrid Chapter of the Internet Society - Spain - Madrid
• ISOC GR - Greece
[54] [55]
• ISOC Hong Kong - Hong Kong • Sudan Chapter of the Internet Society (SIS) - Sudan
[56] [57]
• Hungary Chapter of ISOC (MITE) - Hungary • ISOC-SE - Sweden
• Delhi Chapter of the Internet Society - India - Delhi [58]
• ISOC-CH - Switzerland
[59] [60]
• India Chennai Chapter of the Internet Society - India - • ISOC TW - Taiwan
Chennai
[61] [62]
• India Kolkata Chapter of the Internet Society - India - • ISOC TH - Thailand
Kolkata
[63] [64]
• India Bangalore Chapter of the Internet Society - India • ISOC-TT - TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO
- Bangalore
[65] [66]
• Irish Chapter of ISOC - Ireland • ISOC TN - Tunisia
[67] [68]
• Israel Internet Association (ISOC IL ) - Israel • Istanbul-Turkey chapter - Turkey - Istanbul
[69] • Ugandan Chapter of the Internet Society - Uganda
• Società Internet - Italy
[70] • ISOC UAE - United Arab Emirates
• ISOC JP - Japan
[71] [72]
• ISOC KR - Korea (Republic of) • Capitulo Uruguay de Internet Society - Uruguay
[73] [74]
• ISOC LB - Lebanon • Chicago Chapter of the Internet Society - USA - Chicago
• ISOC Liberia [75] • ISOC Hawaii - USA - Hawaii
• ISOC Luxembourg - Luxembourg [76]
• ISOC Los Angeles - USA - Los Angeles
[77] [78]
• ISOC MY - Malaysia • ISOC NY - USA - New York Metropolitan Area
• ISOC Mali - Mali [79]
• South Central Texas Chapter - USA - Texas
[13] [80]
• ISOC MU - Mauritius • Washington DC Chapter of Internet Society - USA - Washington
[81] • ISOC VE - Venezuela
• Sociedad Internet de Mexico - Mexico
References
[1] Contact (http:/ / www. isoc. org/ isoc/ contact. shtml)
[2] http:/ / www. internetsociety. org
[3] Internet Society (ISOC) - Introduction to ISOC (http:/ / www. isoc. org/ isoc/ )
[4] Internet Society (ISOC) All About The Internet: History of the Internet (http:/ / www. isoc. org/ internet/ history/ isochistory. shtml)
[5] About page (http:/ / www. internethalloffame. org/ about), Internet Hall of Fame website. Last accessed April 24, 2012
[7] Internet Society (ISOC) - ISOC's Standards Activities (http:/ / www. isoc. org/ standards/ )
[8] Internet Society - Public Policy - ISOC's Public Policy Activities" (http:/ / www. isoc. org/ pubpolpillar/ )
[9] Internet Society (ISOC) - ISOC's Education Activities (http:/ / www. isoc. org/ educpillar/ )
[10] World Internet Society IPv6 Day (http:/ / www. worldipv6day. org/ )
[11] http:/ / www. internetsociety. org/ who-we-are/ board-trustees
[12] http:/ / www. isoc. org. ar
[13] http:/ / www. isoc-mu. org
[14] http:/ / www. isoc. am
[15] http:/ / www. misoc. ma/
[16] http:/ / www. isoc-au. org. au
[17] http:/ / www. isoc. net. np
[18] http:/ / www. bis. org. bh
[19] http:/ / isoc. nl
[20] http:/ / www. isoc-ecc. org
[21] http:/ / www. isocnig. org. ng
[22] http:/ / www. internetsociety. be
[23] http:/ / www. isocdisab. org
[24] http:/ / www. wallonie-isoc. org
[25] http:/ / www. isoc. bj
[26] http:/ / www. isoc. org. br
[27] http:/ / www. isocpk. org
[28] http:/ / www. isoc. bi
[29] http:/ / www. isoc. pe
[30] http:/ / www. isoc. org. pl
[31] http:/ / www. isoc. pt
[32] http:/ / www. isocquebec. org
[33] http:/ / www. isocpr. org
[34] http:/ / www. isoctoronto. org
[35] http:/ / www. isoc. ro/
[36] http:/ / scotland. isoc. org
[37] http:/ / www. isoc. dk

[38] http:/ / www. isoc. org. ec
[39] http:/ / www. isoc-srbija. org
[40] http:/ / www. ise. org. eg
[41] http:/ / www. sierravisions. org/ isocsl/
[42] http:/ / www. isoc-e. org
[43] http:/ / www. isoc-drustvo. si
[44] http:/ / www. isoc. fi
[45] http:/ / isoc. org. za
[46] http:/ / www. isoc. fr
[47] http:/ / www. isoc-es. org
[48] http:/ / www. isoc-gal. org
[49] http:/ / www. isocanda. org/
[50] http:/ / www. unizar. es/ isocara/
[51] http:/ / www. isoc. de/
[52] http:/ / www. isoc. cat
[53] http:/ / www. isoc. gr
[54] http:/ / www. isoc. hk
[55] http:/ / www. isoc. sd
[56] http:/ / www. isoc-hu. hu/
[57] http:/ / www. isoc. se
[58] http:/ / www. isoc. ch/
[59] http:/ / www. isocindiachennai. org
[60] http:/ / www. isoc. org. tw/
[61] http:/ / www. isocindiakolkata. in
[62] http:/ / www. isoc-th. org
[63] http:/ / www. isocbangalore. org
[64] http:/ / www. isoc. tt
[65] http:/ / ireland. isoc. org
[66] http:/ / www. isoc. org. tn
[67] http:/ / www. isoc. org. il/ index_eng. html
[68] http:/ / www. isoctr. org
[69] http:/ / www. isoc. it
[70] http:/ / www. iajapan. org
[71] http:/ / kr. isoc. org
[72] http:/ / www. isoc. org. uy
[73] http:/ / www. isoc. org. lb
[74] http:/ / www. isoc-chicago. org
[75] http:/ / isoc-liberia-chapter. yolasite. com/
[76] http:/ / www. isoc-la. org
[77] http:/ / www. isoc. my
[78] http:/ / www. isoc-ny. org
[79] http:/ / www. salsa. net
[80] http:/ / www. isoc-dc. org
[81] http:/ / www. isocmex. org. mx/
External links
• Official website (http://www.internetsociety.org)
• IETF and ISOC (http://www.isoc.org/internet/history/ietfhis.shtml) by Vint Cerf
Internet Architecture Board

The Internet Architecture Board (IAB) is the committee charged with oversight of the technical and engineering
development of the Internet by the Internet Society (ISOC).
It oversees a number of Task Forces, of which the most important are the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
and the Internet Research Task Force (IRTF).
The body which eventually became the IAB was created originally by the United States Department of Defense's
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency with the name Internet Configuration Control Board during 1979;
it eventually became the Internet Advisory Board during September, 1984, and then the Internet Activities Board
during May, 1986 (the name was changed, while keeping the same acronym). It finally became the Internet
Architecture Board, under ISOC, during January, 1992, as part of the Internet's transition from a U.S.-government
entity to an international, public entity.
Activities
The IAB's current responsibilities include-
• Architectural Oversight: The IAB provides oversight of, and occasional commentary on, aspects of the
architecture for the network protocols and procedures used by the Internet.
• Standards Process Oversight and Appeal: The IAB provides oversight of the process used to create Internet
Standards. The IAB serves as an appeal board for complaints of improper execution of the standards process,
through acting as an appeal body in respect of an Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG) standards decision.
• Request for Comments series: The IAB is responsible for editorial management and publication of the Request for
Comments (RFC) document series.
• Internet Assigned Numbers Authority: In conjunction with the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and
Numbers (ICANN), the IAB is responsible for administration of the assignment of IETF protocol parameter
values by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA).
• External Liaison: The IAB acts as representative of the interests of the IETF in liaison relationships with other
organizations concerned with standards and other technical and organizational issues relevant to the worldwide
Internet.
• Advice to the Internet Society: The IAB acts as a source of advice and guidance to the Board of Trustees and
Officers of ISOC concerning technical, architectural, procedural, and (where appropriate) policy matters
pertaining to the Internet and its enabling technologies.
• Internet Engineering Steering Group Confirmation: The IAB confirms the IETF Chair and IESG Area Directors,
from nominations provided by the IETF Nominating Committee.
• Internet Research Task Force Chair: The IAB selects a chair of the IRTF for a renewable two year term..
RFC1087 - Ethics and the Internet

The IAB's 1989 RFC "Ethics and the Internet" strongly endorses the view of the Division Advisory Panel of the
National Science Foundation Division of Network, Communications, Research and Infrastructure which, in
paraphrase, characterized as unethical and unacceptable any activity which purposely:[1]
• seeks to gain unauthorized access to the resources of the Internet,
• disrupts the intended use of the Internet,
• wastes resources (people, capacity, computer) through such actions,
• destroys the integrity of computer-based information
• compromises the privacy of users.
Chairs
The following people have served as chair of the IAB:[2]
• David D. Clark - 1981 to July 1989
• Vint Cerf - July 1989 to July 1991
• Lyman Chapin - July 1991 to March 1993
• Christian Huitema - March 1993 to July 1995
• Brian Carpenter - July 1995 to March 2000
• John Klensin - March 2000 to March 2002
• Leslie Daigle - March 2002 to March 2007
• Olaf Kolkman - March 2007 to March 2011
• Bernard Aboba - March 2011 to March 2013
• Russ Housley- March 2013 to present
Footnotes
Further reading
• Carpenter, Brian (editor), Charter of the Internet Architecture Board (RFC 2850, May 2000)
External links
• IAB website (http://www.iab.org/),
• List of IAB Members (http://www.iab.org/about/members.html)
Internet Engineering Task Force

Internet Engineering
Task Force
Abbreviation IETF
Formation January 16, 1986
Type Standards Organization
Purpose/focus Creating standards applying to the internet to improve internet usability.
Region served Worldwide
IETF Chair Jari Arkko
Parent organization Internet Society
Website [1]
ietf.org
Internet
Internet portal
The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) develops and promotes Internet standards, cooperating closely with
the W3C and ISO/IEC standards bodies and dealing in particular with standards of the Internet protocol suite
(TCP/IP).[2][3] It is an open standards organization, with no formal membership or membership requirements.
All participants and managers are volunteers, though their work is usually funded by their employers or sponsors.
Organization
The IETF is organized into a large number of working groups and informal discussion groups (BoF), each dealing
with a specific topic. Each group is intended to complete work on that topic and then disband. Each working group
has an appointed chairperson (or sometimes several co-chairs), along with a charter that describes its focus, and what
and when it is expected to produce. It is open to all who want to participate, and holds discussions on an open
mailing list or at IETF meetings, where the entry fee is currently around USD $650 per person.[4] The mailing list
consensus is the primary basis for decision of-making. There is no voting procedure, as it operates on rough
consensus process.
The working groups are organized into areas by subject matter. Current areas include: Applications, General,
Internet, Operations and Management, Real-time Applications and Infrastructure, Routing, Security, and
[5]
Transport. Each area is overseen by an area director (AD), with most areas having two co-ADs. The ADs are
responsible for appointing working group chairs. The area directors, together with the IETF Chair, form the Internet
Engineering Steering Group (IESG), which is responsible for the overall operation of the IETF. The groups will
normally be closed once the work described in its charter is finished. In some cases, the WG will instead have its
charter updated to take on new tasks as appropriate.
The IETF is formally a part of the Internet Society. The IETF is overseen by the Internet Architecture Board (IAB),
which oversees its external relationships, and relations with the RFC Editor.[6] The IAB is also jointly responsible for
the IETF Administrative Oversight Committee (IAOC), which oversees the IETF Administrative Support Activity
(IASA), which provides logistical, etc. support for the IETF. The IAB also manages the Internet Research Task
Force (IRTF), with which the IETF has a number of cross-group relations.
A committee of ten randomly chosen volunteers who participate regularly at meetings is vested with the power to
appoint, reappoint, and remove members of the IESG, IAB, IASA, and the IAOC.[7] To date, no one has been
removed by a NOMCOM, although several people have resigned their positions, requiring replacements.
History
The first IETF meeting was on January 16, 1986, consisting of 21 U.S.-government-funded researchers. It was a
continuation of the work of the earlier GADS Task Force.
Initially, it met quarterly, but from 1991, it has been meeting 3 times a year. Representatives from non-governmental
entities were invited starting with the fourth IETF meeting, during October of that year. Since that time all IETF
meetings have been open to the public. The majority of the IETF's work is done on mailing lists, and meeting
attendance is not required for contributors.
The initial meetings were very small, with fewer than 35 people in attendance at each of the first five meetings. The
maximum attendance during the first 13 meetings was only 120 attendees. This occurred at the 12th meeting held
during January 1989. These meetings have grown in both participation and scope a great deal since the early 1990s;
it had a maximum attendance of 2,810 at the December 2000 IETF held in San Diego, CA. Attendance declined with
industry restructuring during the early 2000s, and is currently around 1,200.[8]
During the early 1990s the IETF changed institutional form from an activity of the U.S. government to an
independent, international activity associated with the Internet Society.
There are statistics available that show who the top contributors have been, by RFC publication.[9] While the IETF
only allows for participation by individuals, and not by corporations or governments, sponsorship information is
available from those same statistics.
Operations
The details of its operations have changed considerably as it has grown, but the basic mechanism remains
publication of draft specifications, review and independent testing by participants, and republication. Interoperability
is the chief test for IETF specifications becoming standards. Most of its specifications are focused on single
protocols rather than tightly interlocked systems. This has allowed its protocols to be used in many different systems,
and its standards are routinely re-used by bodies which create full-fledged architectures (e.g. 3GPP IMS).
Because it relies on volunteers and uses "rough consensus and running code" as its touchstone, results can be slow
whenever the number of volunteers is either too small to make progress, or so large as to make consensus difficult,
or when volunteers lack the necessary expertise. For protocols like SMTP, which is used to transport e-mail for a
user community in the many hundreds of millions, there is also considerable resistance to any change that is not fully
backwards compatible. Work within the IETF on ways to improve the speed of the standards-making process is
ongoing but, because the number of volunteers with opinions on it is very great, consensus mechanisms on how to
improve have been slow.
Because the IETF does not have members (nor is it an organisation per se), the Internet Society provides the
financial and legal framework for the activities of the IETF and its sister bodies (IAB, IRTF,...). Recently the IETF
has set up an IETF Trust that manages the copyrighted materials produced by the IETF. IETF activities are funded
by meeting fees, meeting sponsors and by the Internet Society via its organizational membership and the proceeds of
the Public Interest Registry.
IETF meetings vary greatly in where they are held. The list of past and future meeting locations can be found on the
[10]
IETF meetings page. The IETF has striven to hold the meetings near where most of the IETF volunteers are
located. For a long time, the goal was three meetings a year, with two in North America and one in either Europe or
Asia (alternating between them every other year). The goal ratio is currently, during a two-year period, to have three
in North America, two in Europe and one in Asia. However, corporate sponsorship of the meetings is typically a
more important factor and this schedule has not been kept strictly in order to decrease operational costs.
Chairs
The IETF Chairperson is selected by the NOMCOM process specified in RFC 3777 for a 2-year term, renewable.
Before 1993, the IETF Chair was selected by the IAB.
• Mike Corrigan (1986)
• Phill Gross (1986–1994)
• Paul Mockapetris (1994–1996)
• Fred Baker (1996–2001)
• Harald Tveit Alvestrand (2001–2005)
• Brian Carpenter (2005–2007)
• Russ Housley (2007–2013)
• Jari Arkko (2013– )[11]
References
[1] http:/ / ietf. org
[4] IETF Meeting Registration Page (http:/ / www. ietf. org/ meeting/ register. html)
[5] List IETF of Areas and Working Group Charters (http:/ / datatracker. ietf. org/ wg/ )
[6] RFC 2850 (http:/ / tools. ietf. org/ html/ rfc2850)
[7] The NOMCOM web page (https:/ / www. ietf. org/ nomcom/ )
[9] Jari Arkko's IETF Author Statistics Page (http:/ / www. arkko. com/ tools/ allstats/ )
External links
• Official website (http://ietf.org/)
• IETF Online Proceedings (http://www.ietf.org/old/2009/proceedings_directory.html)
• Early IETF Proceedings (http://www.ietf.org/old/2009/proceedings/directory2.html) (note: large pdf
files, one for each volume)
• Past Meetings of the IETF (http://www.ietf.org/meeting/past.html)
• Past IESG Members and IETF Chairs (http://www.ietf.org/iesg/past-members.html)
• The Tao of the IETF (http://tools.ietf.org/rfcmarkup?doc=fyi17): details on how IETF is organized
• MyIETF (http://myietf.unfix.org) Personalized notification service on RFC's and drafts with full archive of old
drafts etc.
Internet Governance Forum
Internet Governance Forum, Rio de Janeiro 2007
Internet
Internet portal
The Internet Governance Forum (IGF) is a multi-stakeholder forum for policy dialogue on issues of Internet
governance. It brings together all stakeholders in the Internet governance debate, whether they represent
governments, the private sector or civil society, including the technical and academic community, on an equal basis
and through an open and inclusive process.[1] The establishment of the IGF was formally announced by the United
Nations Secretary-General in July 2006. It was first convened in October–November 2006 and has held an annual
meeting since then.
History and development of the Internet Governance Forum
WSIS Phase I, WGIG, and WSIS Phase II

The first phase of World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS), held in Geneva in December 2003, failed to
agree on the future of Internet governance, but did agree to continue the dialogue and requested the United Nations
Secretary-General to establish a multi-stakeholder Working Group on Internet Governance (WGIG).[2]
Following a series of open consultations in 2004 and 2005 and after reaching a clear consensus among its members
the WGIG proposed the creation of the IGF as one of four proposals made in its final report.[3] Paragraph 40 of the
WGIG report stated:
"(t)he WGIG identified a vacuum within the context of existing structures, since there is no global
multi-stakeholder forum to address Internet-related public policy issues. It came to the conclusion that
there would be merit in creating such a space for dialogue among all stakeholders. This space could
address these issues, as well as emerging issues, that are cross-cutting and multidimensional and that
either affect more than one institution, are not dealt with by any institution or are not addressed in a
coordinated manner”.
The WGIG report was one of the inputs to the second phase of the World Summit on the Information Society held in
Tunis in 2005.
The idea of the Forum was also proposed by Argentina, as stated in its proposal made during the last Prepcom 3 in
Tunis:[4]
"In order to strengthen the global multistakeholder interaction and cooperation on public policy issues
and developmental aspects relating to Internet governance we propose a forum. This forum should not
replace existing mechanisms or institutions but should build on the existing structures on Internet
governance, should contribute to the sustainability, stability and robustness of the Internet by addressing
appropriately public policy issues that are not otherwise being adequately addressed excluding any
involvement in the day to day operation of the Internet. It should be constituted as a neutral,
non-duplicative and non-binding process to facilitate the exchange of information and best practices and
to identify issues and make known its findings, to enhance awareness and build consensus and
engagement. Recognizing the rapid development of technology and institutions, we propose that the
forum mechanism periodically be reviewed to determine the need for its continuation.”
The second phase of WSIS, held in Tunis in November 2005, formally called for the creation of the IGF and set out
its mandate. Paragraph 72 of the Tunis Agenda called on the UN Secretary-General to convene a meeting with
regards to the new multi-stakeholder forum to be known as the IGF.[5]
The Tunis WSIS meeting did not reach an agreement on any of the other WGIG proposals that generally focused on
new oversight functions for the Internet that would reduce or eliminate the special role that the United States plays
with respect to Internet governance through its contractual oversight of ICANN. The US Government's position
during the lead-up to the Tunis WSIS meeting was flexible on the principle of global involvement, very strong on the
principle of multi-stakeholder participation, but inflexible on the need for US control to remain for the foreseeable
future in order to ensure the "security and stability of the Internet".[6]
2005 mandate
The mandate for the IGF is contained in the 2005 WSIS Tunis Agenda.[5] The IGF was mandated to be principally a
discussion forum for facilitating dialogue between the Forum's participants. The IGF may "identify emerging issues,
bring them to the attention of the relevant bodies and the general public, and, where appropriate, make
recommendations," but does not have any direct decision-making authority.[7] In this mandate, different stakeholders
are encouraged to strengthen engagement, particularly those from developing countries. In paragraph 72(h), the
mandate focused on capacity-building for developing countries and the drawing out of local resources.[5] This
particular effort, for instance, has been reinforced through Diplo Foundation’s Internet Governance Capacity
Building Programme (IGCBP) that allowed participants from different regions to benefit from valuable resources
with the help of regional experts in Internet governance.
Formation of the IGF

The United Nations published its endorsement of a five-year mandate for the IGF in April 2006.[8]
There were two rounds of consultations with regards to the convening of the first IGF:
1. 16 – 17 of February 2006 – The first round of consultations was held in Geneva. The transcripts of the two-day
consultations are available in the IGF site.[9]
2. 19 May 2006 – The second round of consultations was open to all stakeholders and was coordinated for the
preparations of the inaugural IGF meeting. The meeting chairman was Nitin Desai who is the United Nations
Secretary-General's Special Adviser for Internet Governance.[10]
The convening of the IGF was announced on 18 July 2006, with the inaugural meeting of the Forum to be held in
Athens, Greece from 30 October to 2 November 2006.
2011 mandate renewal and improvements process

In the lead-up to the completion of the first five-year mandate of the IGF in 2010, the UN initiated a process of
evaluating the continuation of the IGF, resulting in a United Nations General Assembly resolution to continue the
IGF for a further five years (2011-2015).[11]
In addition to the renewed mandate, another UN body, the Commission on Science and Technology for
Development (CSTD), established a Working Group on Improvements to the IGF (CSTDWG),[12] which first met in
February 2011, held five working group meetings, completed its work in early 2012, and issued a report to the
Commission for consideration during its 15th session to be held 21–25 May 2012, in Geneva.[13]
The Working Group report made 15 recommendations with regard to five specific areas, namely:[14]
1. Shaping of the outcomes of IGF meetings (2);
2. Working modalities of the IGF, including open consultations, the Multi-stakeholder Advisory Group (MAG) and
the Secretariat (3);
3. Funding of the IGF (3);
4. Broadening participation and capacity-building (4); and
5. Linking the IGF to other Internet governance-related entities (3).
At its meeting held from 21 to 25 May 2012 the CSTD made the following recommendations to the Economic and
Social Council regarding Internet governance and the Internet Governance Forum,[15][16] which the Council accepted
at its meeting on 24 July 2012:[17]
25. Takes note that the CSTD Working Group on improvements to the Internet Governance Forum
successfully completed its task;
26. Takes note with appreciation of the report of the Working Group on improvements to the Internet
Governance Forum and expresses its gratitude to all its members for their time and valuable efforts in this
endeavour as well as to all member states and other relevant stakeholders that have submitted inputs to the
Working Group consultation process;
35. Urges the Secretary-General to ensure the continued functioning of the IGF and its structures in
preparation for the seventh meeting of the Internet Governance Forum, to be held from 6 to 9 November 2012
in Baku, Azerbaijan and future meetings of the Internet Governance Forum;
36. Notes the necessity to appoint the Special Advisor to the Secretary-General on Internet Governance and
the Executive Coordinator to the IGF.
Organizational structure
Following an open consultation meeting called in February 2006, the UN Secretary-General established an Advisory
Group (now known as the Multistakeholder Advisory Group, or MAG), and a Secretariat, as the main institutional
bodies of the IGF.
Multistakeholder Advisory Group (MAG)

The Advisory Group, now known as the Multistakeholder Advisory Group (MAG), was established by the then UN
Secretary-General, Kofi Annan on 17 May 2006, to assist in convening the first IGF, held in Athens, Greece. The
MAG's mandate has been renewed or extended each year to provide assistance in the preparations for each upcoming
IGF meeting.[18][19]
The MAG meets for two days three times each year — in February, May and September. All three meetings take
place in Geneva and are preceded by a one day Open Consultations meeting. The details on the MAG's operating
principles and selection criteria are contained in the summary reports of its meetings.[20]
The MAG was originally made up of 46 members, but membership grew first to 47, then 50, and eventually 56.
Members are from international governments, the commercial private sector and public civil society, including
academic and technical communities.[21] The MAG tries to renew roughly one third of the members within each
stakeholder group each year.[22] In 2011, because there were only three new MAG members in 2010, it was
suggested that two thirds of each group’s membership be renewed in 2012 and in fact 33 new members were
appointed to the 56 member group.[23][24]
The first MAG chairman was Nitin Desai, an Indian economist and former UM Under-Secretary-General for
Economic and Social Affairs from 1992 to 2003.[] He also served as the Secretary-General’s Special Adviser for the
World Summit on the Information Society, later Special Advisor for Internet Governance.[25]
• Starting in August 2007 Nitin Desai and Brazilian diplomat Hadil da Rocha Vianna served as co-chairman.[26]
• Starting in April 2008 and continuing in 2009 and 2010 Nitin Desai again served as sole chairman.[27]
• Alice Munyua, the Chair of the Kenyan IGF Steering Committee, was MAG chair in 2011.[28]
• Elmir Valizada, Deputy Minister of Communications and Information Technology, Azerbaijan was MAG
chairman in 2012.[29]
• For 2013 Mr. Ashwin Sasongko, Director General of ICT Application, Ministry of Communication and
Information Technology (CIT), Indonesia serves as Honorary Chairman with Mr. Markus Kummer,
Vice-President for Public Policy of the Internet Society as interim chairman of the MAG.[30]
Secretariat
The Secretariat, based in the United Nations Office in Geneva, assists and coordinates the work of the
Multistakeholder Advisory Group (MAG). The Secretariat also hosts fellowships. The Secretariat's Executive
Coordinator position is currently vacant. Chengetai Masango is IGF Programme and Technology Manager.[1]
Until 31 January 2011 the IGF Secretariat was headed by Executive Coordinator Markus Kummer. Mr. Kummer was
also Executive Coordinator of the Secretariat of the UN Working Group on Internet Governance (WGIG).[31] On 1
February 2011 he joined the Internet Society as its Vice President for Public Policy.[32]
Activities at the IGF

The following activities take place during IGF meetings: Main sessions, Workshops, Dynamic Coalition meetings,
Best Practice Forums, Open Forums, Inter-regional dialogue sessions, Pre-events, and the IGF Village.
Main sessions
The first IGF meeting in Greece in 2006 was organized around the main themes of: openness, security, diversity, and
access. A new theme, critical Internet resources, was introduced for IGF Brazil in 2007. And starting with IGF Egypt
in 2009 there have been six standard themes: (i) Internet governance for development, (ii) Emerging issues, (iii)
Managing critical Internet resources, (iv) Security, openness, and privacy, (v) Access and diversity, and (vi) Taking
stock and the way forward.
Workshops
Each year starting in 2007, the IGF has hosted a number of workshops (workshop with panel, roundtable, capacity
building session).[33][34]
Examples of workshops held at IGF meetings include:[35]
• Universalization of the Internet - How to reach the next • Evaluating Internet Freedom Initiatives: What works?
billion (Expanding the Internet)
• Low cost sustainable access • DNSSEC for ccTLDs: Securing National Domains
• Multilingualization • Media pluralism and freedom of expression in the Internet age
• Implications for development policy • An industry lead approach for making internet a better place for kids
• Managing the Internet (Using the Internet) • Best Common Practices for Building Internet Capacity
• Critical Internet resources • Law Enforcement via Domain Names: Caveats to DNS Neutrality
• Arrangements for Internet governance • Defining the Successful Factors of Different Models for Youth Participation
in Internet Governance
• Global cooperation for Internet security and stability • How to engage users on Internet Policies?
• Taking stock and the way forward • New gTLDs: Implications and Potential for Community Engagement,
advocacy and Development
• Emerging issues • Human Rights, Internet Policy and the Public Policy Role of ICANN
• Internet Governance and RPKI • Innovative application of ICTs to facilitate child protection online
• Spectrum for Democracy and Development • EURid/UNESCO World Report on IDN Deployment 2012 – opportunities
and challenges associated with IDNs and online multilingualism
• Internet Regulation for Improved Access in Emerging • The Benefits of Using Advanced Mobile Technologies and Global Spectrum
Markets Harmonization
• Understanding Internet Infrastructure: an Overview of • Empowering Internet Users – which tools?
Technology and Terminology
• Freedom of expression and freedom from hate on-line
(Young People Combating Hate Speech On-line)
• Protecting the rule of law in the online environment
Dynamic coalitions
The most tangible result of the first IGF in Athens was the establishment of a number of so-called Dynamic
Coalitions.[36] These coalitions are relatively informal, issue-specific groups consisting of stakeholders that are
interested in the particular issue. Most coalitions allow participation of anyone interested in contributing. Thus, these
groups gather not only academics and representatives of governments, but also members of the civil society
interested in participating on the debates and engaged in the coalition's works.
[37] [41]
Active Dynamic Coalitions: Inactive Dynamic Coalitions:
• Internet and Climate Change • Framework of Principles for the Internet
[38] [42]
• Accessibility and Disability • Online Collaboration
• Child Online Safety • Access 2 Knowledge (A2K@IGF)
• Gender and Internet Governance • Access and Connectivity for Remote, Rural and Dispersed
[43]
• Freedom of Expression and Freedom of the Media on the Internet Communities
[39] [44]
(FOEonline) • Privacy
[40]
• Internet Rights and Principles / Internet Bill of Rights • Stop Spam Alliance
• Core Internet Values • Open Standards
• Youth Coalition on Internet Governance • Linguistic Diversity
• Public Access in Libraries • Global Localization Platform
• Internet of Things • Social Media and Legal Issues
• Online Education
Open forums
All major organizations dealing with Internet governance related issues are given a 90 minutes workshop slot, at
their request, to hold an Open Forum in order to present and discuss their activities during the past year and allow for
questions and discussions.[45]
Examples of recent Open fora include:[46]
• OECD: Promoting policies for the Internet economy
• EBU, CoE, OSCE: Safety of online media actors
• Internet Society: Internet Operations, How does the Internet work?
• Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN): Update on the internationalization of ICANN,
efforts underway pertaining to global and regional strategies, and other matters that might interest the audience
• UNESCO: Digital preservation, multilingualism and UNESCO’s upcoming Internet special event
• Council of Europe: Terrorism, the Internet and Human Rights - Preventing Misuse of the Internet for Terrorist
Purposes
• European Commission: Enhanced Cooperation – who does what on Internet-related public policy issues?
Regional, national, and subject area initiatives

A number of regional, national, and subject area initiatives hold separate meetings throughout the year and an
inter-regional dialogue session at the annual IGF meeting.[47]
Subject area initiatives: Regional initiatives: National initiatives: • Nigeria IGF

• Youth IGF Project • African IGF • Bangladesh IGF • Portugal IGF
• Youth IGF • Arab IGF • Canada IGF • Russia IGF
• Young Asia Pacific IGF • Asia Pacific IGF • Côte d'Ivoire IGF • Rwanda IGF
• Caribbean IGF • Denmark IGF • Spain IGF
• Central Africa IGF • Finland IGF • Tanzania IGF
• Commonwealth IGF • Germany IGF • The Gambia IGF
• East Africa IGF • Italy IGF • Togo IGF
• European Dialog on IGF • Japan IGF • Uganda IGF
• Pacific IGF • Kenya IGF • Ukraine IGF
• Southern Africa IGF • Malta IGF • USA IGF
• West Africa IGF • Netherlands IGF • United Kingdom IGF
• New Zealand IGF
Pre-events
Examples of pre-events held the day before the IGF Baku meeting included:[48]
• Concertation francophone sur la gouvernance d’Internet / Francophone IGF dialogue
• Enhanced Cooperation in Internet Governance: From Deadlock to Dialogue (Association for Progressive
Communications, Internet Society, and the Business Action to Support the Information Society initiative of the
International Chamber of Commerce)
• The Next Click, agenda for action within the European Union (European NGO Alliance for Child Safety Online,
eNACSO)
• Human Rights and Internet Governance Must Go Hand in Hand (Expression Online Initiative)
• The Privatisation of Censorship: the online responsibility to protect free expression (Index on Censorship)
• Cybercrime and the rule of law safeguard (Council of Europe's Data Protection and Cybercrime Division of the
Directorate General for Human Rights and Rule of Law)
• GIGANET Annual Symposium (Global Internet Governance Academic Network)
• IGF Incubator Challenge (Freedom House)
IGF Village
The IGF Village provides booths and meeting areas where participants may present their organizations and hold
informal meetings.[49][50]
IGF meetings
Four day IGF meetings have been held in the last quarter of each year starting in 2006.
IGF I — Athens, Greece 2006

The first meeting of the IGF was held in Athens, Greece from 30 October to 2 November 2006. The overall theme
for the meeting was: "Internet Governance for Development". The agenda was structured along five broad themes:
(i) Openness - Freedom of expression, free flow of information, ideas and knowledge; (ii) Security - Creating trust
and confidence through collaboration; (iii) Diversity - Promoting multilingualism and local content; and (iv) Access
- Internet connectivity, policy and cost; and (v) Emerging issues, with capacity-building as a cross-cutting
priority.[51][52]
IGF II — Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 2007

The second meeting of the IGF was held in Rio de Janeiro on 12–15 November 2007. The overall theme for the
meeting was: "Internet Governance for Development". The main sessions were organized around five themes: (i)
Critical Internet resources; (ii) Access; (iii) Diversity; (iv) Openness, and (v) Security.[53]
IGF III — Hyderabad, India 2008

The third meeting of the IGF was held in Hyderabad, India between 3–6 December 2008. The overall theme for the
meeting was "Internet for All". The meeting was held in the aftermath of terrorist attacks in Mumbai. The
participants expressed their sympathies to the families of the victims and the Government and the people of India.
The five main sessions were organized around the themes: (i) Reaching the next billion, (ii) Promoting
cyber-security and trust, (iii) Managing critical Internet resources, (iv) Emerging issues - the Internet of tomorrow,
and (v) Taking stock and the way forward.[55] The meeting was attended by 1280 participants from 94 countries.[56]
IGF IV — Sharm El Sheikh, Egypt 2009

Egypt hosted the fourth IGF meeting from 15–18 November 2009 in Sharm El Sheikh.[57] The overall theme for the
meeting was: “Internet Governance – Creating Opportunities for all”. IGF IV marked the beginning of a new
multi-stakeholder process. The main sessions on the agenda were (i) Managing critical Internet resources; (ii)
Security, openness and privacy; (iii) Access and diversity; (iv) Internet governance in light of the WSIS principles;
(v) Taking stock and the way forward: the desirability of the continuation of the forum; and (vi) Emerging Issues:
impact of social networks. A key focus of IGF 2009 was encouraging youth participation in Internet Governance
issues.[58]
IGF V — Vilnius, Lithuania 2010

The fifth IGF meeting was held in Vilnius, Lithuania on 14–17 September 2010. The overall theme for the meeting
was "Developing the future together". The meeting was organized around six themes: (i) Internet governance for
development, (ii) Emerging issues: cloud computing, (iii) Managing critical Internet resources, (iv) Security,
openness, and privacy, (v) Access and diversity, and (vi) Taking stock and the way forward.[59]
IGF VI — Nairobi, Kenya 2011

The sixth IGF meeting was held in Nairobi, Kenya on 27–30 September 2011, at the United Nations Office
(UNON). The overall theme for the meeting was "Internet as a catalyst for change: access, development, freedoms
and innovation".[60] The meeting was organized around the traditional six themes: (i) Internet governance for
development, (ii) Emerging issues, (iii) Managing critical Internet resources, (iv) Security, openness, and privacy,
(v) Access and diversity, and (vi) Taking stock and the way forward.[61]
IGF VII — Baku, Azerbaijan 2012

The seventh IGF meeting was held in Baku, Azerbaijan on 6–9 November 2012. The overall theme for the meeting
was: "Internet Governance for Sustainable Human, Economic and Social Development". The meeting was organized
around the traditional six themes: (i) Internet governance for development, (ii) Emerging issues, (iii) Managing
critical Internet resources, (iv) Security, openness, and privacy, (v) Access and diversity, and (vi) Taking stock and
the way forward.[62]
IGF VIII — Bali, Indonesia 2013 (upcoming)

The eighth IGF meeting will be held in Bali, Indonesia from 22 to 25 October 2013. The overarching theme for
meeting is: "Building Bridges"- Enhancing Multistakeholder Cooperation for Growth and Sustainable
Development".[63]
Attendance
• IGF I — Athens, Greece 2006: Attendance was estimated to be around one thousand participants.[64]
• IGF II — Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 2007: There were over 2,100 registered participants prior to the meeting, of
which 700 came from civil society, 550 from government, 300 from business entities, 100 from international
organizations, and 400 representing other categories. The meeting was attended by 1,363 participants from 109
countries. Over 100 members of the press attended.[53]
• IGF III — Hyderabad, India 2008: The meeting was held in the aftermath of terrorist attacks in Mumbai. While
these tragic events led to some cancellations, the overall attendance with 1280 participants from 94 countries, of
which 133 were media representatives, was close to that at the second annual meeting.[55]
• IGF IV — Sharm El Sheikh, Egypt 2009: With more than 1800 participants from 112 countries the Sharm
meeting had the largest attendance of any IGF to date. 96 governments were represented. 122 media
representatives were accredited.[58]
• IGF V — Vilnius, Lithuania 2010: With close to 2000 badges issued and 1461 participants, attendance at the
Vilnius meeting was similar to the 2009 meeting in Sharm El Sheikh.[59]
• IGF VI — Nairobi, Kenya 2011: More than 2,000 participants attended, the highest attendance of IGF meetings
held so far. 125 governments were represented. 68 media representatives were accredited. The approximate
nationality distribution was: African (53%), WEOG-Western European and Others Group (29%), Asian (11%),
GRULAC-Latin American and Caribbean Group (4%) and Eastern Europe (3%).[61]
• IGF VII — Baku, Azerbaijan 2012: More than 1,600 delegates representing 128 different countries attended
with a particularly strong presence from civil society as this was the highest represented stakeholder group at the
forum. Participation was regionally diverse and the participation of women at the forum increased significantly
from previous years. Youth representation and activity was also sited to be a notable achievement.[62]
Remote participation
The Remote Participation Working Group (RPWG) has worked closely with the IGF Secretariat starting in 2008 to
allow remote participants across the globe to interact in the IGF meetings.
• IGF I — Athens, Greece 2006: Remote participants were able to take part via blogs, chat rooms, email, and text
messaging.[52]
• IGF II — Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 2007: The entire meeting was webcast and transcribed in real time. Video and
text records were made available on the IGF Web site.[53]
• IGF III — Hyderabad, India 2008: The entire meeting was webcast in real-time using high quality video, audio
streaming, and live chat. There were 522 remote participants from around the world who joined the main sessions
and workshops. Remote hubs were also introduced with remote moderators leading discussions in their region.
Most of the hubs were able to discuss pertinent local and domestic Internet Governance issues. The Remote Hubs
were located in Buenos Aires, Argentina, Belgrade, Serbia, São Paulo (Brazil), Pune (India), Lahore (Pakistan),
Bogotà (Colombia), Barcelona and Madrid (Spain). The platform used for remote participation was DimDim. The
text transcripts of the main sessions, the video and audio records of all workshops and other meetings were made
available through the IGF Web site.[55]
• IGF IV — Sharm El Sheikh, Egypt 2009: The entire meeting was Webcast, with video streaming provided from
the main session room and audio streaming provided from all workshop meeting rooms. The proceedings of the
main sessions were transcribed and displayed in the main session hall in real-time and streamed to the Web.
Remote hubs in 11 locations around the world allowed remote participation. The text transcripts of the main
sessions, the video and audio records of all workshops and other meetings were made available through the IGF
Web site.[58] Webex was used as the remote participation platform.[65]
• IGF V — Vilnius, Lithuania 2010: The entire meeting was Webcast, with video streaming provided from the
main session room and all nine other meeting rooms. All proceedings were transcribed and displayed in the
meeting rooms in real-time and streamed to the Web. Remote hubs in 32 locations around the world provided the
means for more than 600 people who could not travel to the meeting to participate actively in the forum and
contribute to discussions.The text transcripts as well as the video and audio records of all official meetings are
archived on the IGF Web site.[59]
• IGF VI — Nairobi, Kenya 2011: All the main sessions and workshops had real time transcription. The entire
meeting was Webcast, with video streaming provided from the main session room and audio streaming provided
from all workshop meeting rooms. Remote hubs were established in 47 locations, and provided the means for
more than 823 people participate contribute to discussions. 38 remote participants/panelists participated via video
or audio and an approximate 2,500 connections were made throughout the week from 89 countries. The text
transcripts and video of all meetings were made available through the IGF Website.[61]
• IGF VII — Baku, Azerbaijan 2012: Real time transcription was available. The entire meeting was webcast and
remote participation was offered, which doubled the active participation in main sessions, workshops, and other
events. 49 expert remote participants and panelists participated in various sessions via video and audio. 52
different remote ‘hubs’ allowed remote participants to gather together to follow the proceedings in Baku online.
There was also an increase in social media activity allowing discussions to begin prior to the start of the meeting,
continue between sessions and during breaks throughout the week and extend after delegates left Baku to return
home. There were thousands of ‘tweets’ about the forum each day, which reached millions of followers.[62]
References
[1] "About the the Internet Governance Forum" (http:/ / www. intgovforum. org/ cms/ aboutigf), Internet Governance Forum, 17 October 2011
[2] "Item 13(b)" (http:/ / www. itu. int/ wsis/ docs/ geneva/ official/ poa. html), Plan of Action (WSIS-03/GENEVA/DOC/5-E), World Summit
on the Information Society, United Nations, 12 December 2003, retrieved 22 June 2013.
[3] "WGIG Report" (http:/ / www. wgig. org/ WGIG-Report. html), Working Group on Internet Governance, United Nations, 14 July 2005
[4] "Argentina, Part 5 of the Chair's Paper" (http:/ / www. itu. int/ wsis/ docs2/ pc3/ working/ dt18. html), World Summit on the Information
Society, 30 September 2005
[5] "Tunis Agenda for the Information Society" (http:/ / www. itu. int/ wsis/ docs2/ tunis/ off/ 6rev1. html), paras 29-82, World Summit on the
Information Society, United Nations, 18 November 2005
[6] "UN at odds over internet's future " (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ technology/ 4692743. stm), BBC News, 18 July 2005, retrieved 22 June
2013
[7] "The Mandate of the IGF" (http:/ / www. intgovforum. org/ mandate. htm), Paragraph 72 of the Tunis Agenda, Internet Governance Forum,
retrieved 10 June 2013
[8] Resolution adopted by the General Assembly: 60/252, World Summit on the Information Society (http:/ / www. un. org/ ga/ search/
view_doc. asp?symbol=A/ RES/ 60/ 252), United Nations, 27 April 2006
[9] "Transcript of Afternoon Session" (http:/ / intgovforum. org/ contributions/ IGF-1-0216. txt) and "Transcript of Morning Session" (http:/ /
intgovforum. org/ contributions/ IGF-1-021606pm. txt), Consultations on the Convening of the Internet Governance Forum (Geneva), 16
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[10] "Summary of the discussions and contributions" (http:/ / intgovforum. org/ Summary of discussions. htm), The substantive agenda of the
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[11] "Resolution adopted by the General Assembly, 65/141, Information and communications technologies for development" (http:/ / www. un.
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[12] "Draft resolution: Assessment of the progress made in the implementation of and follow-up to the outcomes of the World Summit on the
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[17] "Resolution 2012/5: Assessment of the progress made in the implementation of and follow-up to the outcomes of the World Summit on the
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[18] "Multistakeholder Advisory Group Renewed to Prepare Internet Governance Forum Meeting in Sharm El-Sheikh, Egypt, 15-18 November"
(http:/ / www. un. org/ News/ Press/ docs/ 2009/ pi1880. doc. htm), press release, United Nations (New York), 6 May 2009
[19] "Multistakeholder Advisory Group Renewed to Prepare Internet Governance Forum Meeting in Bali, Indonesia, 22-25 October" (http:/ /
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[20] "MAG Meetings" (http:/ / www. intgovforum. org/ cms/ magabout/ 67-mag-meetings), Internet Governance Forum
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[23] "Announcement on the MAG" (http:/ / www. intgovforum. org/ cms/ component/ content/ article/ 926), Internet Governance Forum, 2011
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[25] "Secretary-General Establishes Advisory Group to Assist Him in Convening Internet Governance Forum" (http:/ / www. un. org/ News/
Press/ docs/ / 2006/ sga1006. doc. htm), press release, United Nations (New York), 17 May 2006.
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pi1791. doc. htm), press release, United Nations (New York), 20 August 2007
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/ www. un. org/ News/ Press/ docs/ / 2010/ pi1936. doc. htm), press release, United Nations (New York), 5 May 2010
[28] "Summary Report" (http:/ / www. intgovforum. org/ cms/ 2011/ summaries/ MAG summary Report. 19. May. 2011. pdf), Multistakeholder
Advisory Group, Internet Governance Forum, 19 May 2011
[29] "Summary Report" (http:/ / www. intgovforum. org/ cms/ 2012/ MAG Summary Final-1. 1 copy 2. pdf), Multistakeholder Advisory Group,
Internet Governance Forum, 15–16 February 2012
[30] "Summary Report" (http:/ / www. intgovforum. org/ cms/ 2013/ May Consultations/ MAG Summary May 22-23. rev4. pdf),
Multistakeholder Advisory Group, Internet Governance Forum, 22–23 May 2013
[31] "Statement on Internet Governance Forum" (http:/ / www. un. org/ sg/ statements/ ?nid=1942), Spokesman for the Secretary-General, United
Nations (New York), 2 March 2006
[32] "Global Internet Community Leader Joins Internet Society as VP for Public Policy" (http:/ / www. internetsociety. org/ articles/
global-internet-community-leader-joins-internet-society-vp-public-policy), Newsletter Vol 10 / Issue 01, Internet Society, 19 January 2011
[33] "Rio Final Schedule" (http:/ / www. intgovforum. org/ Rio_Schedule_final. html), Internet Governance Forum (Rio de Janeiro), 2007
[34] "Workshops" (http:/ / www. intgovforum. org/ workshop_info. htm), Internet Governance Forum (Hyderabad), 2008
[35] "Workshop List" (http:/ / www. intgovforum. org/ workshops_08/ wrkshplist. php), IGF 2008 Hyderabad, Internet Governance Forum,
retrieved 15 May 2008
[36] "Dynamic Coalitions" (http:/ / www. intgovforum. org/ Dynamic Coalitions. php), Internet Governance Forum, retrieved 11 June 2013
[37] "Dynamic Coalitions" (http:/ / www. intgovforum. org/ cms/ dynamiccoalitions), Internet Governance Forum, retrieved 11 June 2013
[38] "Dynamic Coalition on Accessibility and Disability" (http:/ / www. itu. int/ accessibility/ DC), International Telecommunications Union,
retrieved 11 June 2013
[39] "About" (http:/ / foeonline. wordpress. com/ about/ ), Dynamic Coalition on Freedom of Expression and Freedom of the Media on the
Internet, 1 December 2008
[40] "About" (http:/ / www. internet-bill-of-rights. org/ About/ ), Internet Bill of Rights, retrieved 11 June 2013
[41] "Inactive Dynamic Coalitions" (http:/ / www. intgovforum. org/ cms/ component/ content/ article/ 90-dc-meetings-2009/
519-inactive-dynamic-coalitions), Internet Governance Forum, 24 September 2012, retrieved 12 June 2013
[42] "IGF-OCDC: About us" (http:/ / wiki. igf-online. net/ wiki/ IGF-OCDC), Online Collaboration Dynamic Coalition, IGFWIKI, retrieved 11
June 2013
[43] "Welcome to pacificIT.org" (http:/ / www. pacificit. org), Pacific Internet Technology Center, 20 April 2012, retrieved 11 June 2013
[44] "Privacy" (http:/ / wiki. igf-online. net/ wiki/ Privacy), The Dynamic Coalition on Privacy, IGFWIKI, retrieved 11 June 2013
[45] "Open Forum" (http:/ / www. intgovforum. org/ cms/ open-forums), Internet Governance Forum, 9 May 2013, retrieved 13 June 2013
[46] "Open Fora" (http:/ / www. intgovforum. org/ cms/ 2012-igfbaku/ open-fora), Internet Governance Forum (Baku), retrieved 13 June 2013
[47] "IGF Initiatives" (http:/ / www. intgovforum. org/ cms/ igf-initiatives), Internet Governance Forum, 29 May 2013, retrieved 13 June 2013
[48] "Pre-events" (http:/ / www. intgovforum. org/ cms/ component/ content/ article/ 114-preparatory-process/ 1218-pre-events), Internet
Governance Forum (Baku), 5 November 2012, retrieved 13 June 2013
[49] "IGF Village" (http:/ / igf2012. com/ ?mod=content& sub=top& id=124& lang=en), IGF Baku, 2012, retrieved 13 June 2013
[50] "IGF Village" (http:/ / igf09. eg/ IGFvillage. html), IGF Egypt, retrieved 13 June 2013
[51] "IGF Greece 2006" (http:/ / www. igfgreece2006. gr/ ), Internet Governance Forum (Greece), 26 February 2007, retrieved 11 June 2013
[52] "Summing-up by the IGF Secretariat" (http:/ / www. intgovforum. org/ cms/ Substantive_1st_IGF/ Summary. Final. 07. 11. 2006. doc), First
Meeting of the Internet Governance Forum (IGF), 30 October - 2 November 2006, Athens, Greece, retrieved 19 June 2013
[53] "Chairman's Summary" (http:/ / www. intgovforum. org/ Rio_Meeting/ Chairman Summary. FINAL. 16. 11. 2007. pdf), Second Meeting of
the Internet Governance Forum (Rio de Janeiro), 12–15 November 2007
[54] "Transcript: Internet Governance Forum 2 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Openning Ceremony 12 November 2007" (http:/ / www. intgovforum. org/
Rio_Meeting/ IGF2-opening-12NOV07. txt), Internet Governance Forum, 12 November 2007
[55] "Chairman's Summary" (http:/ / www. intgovforum. org/ cms/ hydera/ Chairman's Summary. 10. 12. 2. pdf), Third Meeting of the Internet
Governance Forum (Hyderabad, India), December 2008
[56] "Attendance Breakdown of the Hyderabad Meeting" (http:/ / igf. wgig. org/ cms/ index. php/ component/ content/ article/ 42-igf-meetings/
414-attendance-breakdown-of-the-hyderabad-meeting), Internet Governance Forum, retrieved 11 June 2013
[57] "Fourth meeting of the IGF" (http:/ / igf09. eg/ homeeng. html), Internet Governance Forum (Egypt), November 2009
[58] "Chairman's Summary" (http:/ / www. intgovforum. org/ cms/ 2011/ IGF. 2011. Chair's Summary copy. pdf), Fourth Meeting of the Internet
Governance Forum (IGF), Sharm El Sheikh, Egypt, 15–18 November 2009, retrieved 18 June 2013
[59] "Chairman's Summary" (http:/ / www. intgovforum. org/ cms/ 2011/ IGF. 2011. Chair's Summary copy. pdf), Fifth Meeting of the Internet
Governance Forum (IGF), Vilnius, Lithuania, 14–17 September 2010, retrieved 18 June 2013
[60] "IGF 2011" (http:/ / www. intgovforum. org/ cms/ component/ content/ article/ 42-igf-meetings/ 761-2011-igf-meeting), Internet
Governance Forum, retrieved 11 June 2013
[61] "Chair's Summary" (http:/ / www. intgovforum. org/ cms/ 2011/ IGF. 2011. Chair's Summary copy. pdf), Sixth Meeting of the Internet
Governance Forum (IGF), Nairobi, Kenya, 27–30 November 2011, retrieved 18 June 2013
[62] "Chair's Summary" (http:/ / www. intgovforum. org/ cms/ 2012/ Book/ Chairs. Summary. IGF. 2012. pdf), Seventh Meeting of the Internet
Governance Forum (IGF), Baku, Azerbaijan, 6–9 November 2012, retrieved 17 June 2013
[63] "IGF 2013" (http:/ / www. intgovforum. org/ cms/ component/ content/ article/ 121-preparatory-process/ 1261-igf-2013), Internet
Governance Forum, retrieved 24 August 2013.
[64] "IGF Greece 2006" (http:/ / www. igfgreece2006. gr/ ?tid=56& aid=0), Internet Governance Forum (Greece), retrieved 19 June 2013
[65] "Remote Participation Sharm El Sheikh 2009 " (http:/ / www. intgovforum. org/ cms/ 2009-igf-sharm-el-sheikh/ remote-participation),
Internet Government Forum, 23 June 2010, retrieved 11 June 2013
External links
• Internet Governance Forum (http://www.intgovforum.org/), official website
• IGF on Facebook (https://www.facebook.com/IntGovForum)
• IGF on Twitter (https://twitter.com/intgovforum)
• IGF on Youtube (http://www.youtube.com/igf)
• IGF at Flickr (http://www.flickr.com/groups/1062424@N22)
• IGF Community Site (http://www.igf-online.net/), an independent, non-profit Web site which exists without
any support from the IGF Secretariat or any other organisation, and which carries no advertising
• Diplo Internet Governance Community (http://www.diplointernetgovernance.org), a community of IG and ICT
policy professionals from around the world
• Internet Society at the IGF (http://www.internetsociety.org/who-we-are/related-and-partner-organisations/
our-community-and-partners/igf), information on Internet Society contributions to the IGF and its IGF
Ambassador Programme
• IP Justice IGF webpage (http://ipjustice.org/wp/campaigns/igf/), news about IGF participation by an
international civil liberties organization that promotes balanced intellectual property laws with a focus on
international treaties, directives, and other trade agreements that address intellectual property rights or impact
freedom of expression guarantees
• Internet Governance Project (IGP) (http://internetgovernance.org/), an alliance of academics that puts expertise
into practical action in the fields of global governance, Internet policy, and information and communication
technology
• Association for Progressive Communications (APC) on the IGF (http://www.apc.org/en/node/6924/),
recommendations and publications from the civil society network for social justice and sustainable development.
80% of APC's member organisations are from developing countries.
• LACIGF (http://www.lacigf.org/en/lacigf6/index.html), Latin American and Caribbean (LAC) Regional
Preparatory Meeting for the Internet Governance Forum (IGF) ( Portuguese (http://www.lacigf.org/pt/lacigf6/
index.html)) ( Spanish (http://www.lacigf.org/sp/lacigf6/index.html))
Meetings
IGF Greece 2006 • IGF site (http:/ / www.

• Host site • Summary (http:/ / • Photos
I intgovforum. org/ cms/ (http:/ / www. www. intgovforum. (http:/ /
athensmeeting) igfgreece2006. org/ cms/ www.
gr/ ) Substantive_1st_IGF/ flickr.
Summary. Final. 07. com/
11. 2006. doc) search/
?q=IGF
2006)
IGF Brazil 2007 • IGF site (http:/ / www.

• Host site • Summary (http:/ / • Photos • Videos (http:/ / www. • Audio (http:/ / www.
II intgovforum. org/ cms/ (http:/ / www. www. intgovforum. (http:/ / igfbrazil2007. br/ igfbrazil2007. br/
secondmeeting) igfbrazil2007. org/ cms/ www. videos-archive. htm) audio-archive. htm)
br/ index. Rio_Meeting/ flickr.
htm) Chairman Summary. com/
FINAL. 16. 11. search/
2007. pdf) ?q=IGF
2007)
IGF India 2008 • IGF site (http:/ / www. • — • Summary (http:/ / • Photos • Videos (http:/ / www.
III
intgovforum. org/ cms/ www. intgovforum. (http:/ / youtube. com/
2008-igf-hyderabad) org/ cms/ hydera/ www. results?search_query=IGF+
Chairman's flickr. 2008+ & oq=IGF+ 2008)
Summary. 10. 12. 2. com/
pdf) search/
?q=IGF+
hyderabad)
IGF Egypt 2009 • IGF site (http:/ / www. • Host site • Summary (http:/ / • Photos • Videos (http:/ / www. un. • Videos from YouTube
IV intgovforum. org/ cms/ (http:/ / igf09. www. intgovforum. (http:/ / org/ webcast/ igf/ (http:/ / www. youtube.
2009-igf-sharm-el-sheikh) eg/ ) org/ cms/ 2009/ www. ondemand. asp) com/
sharm_el_Sheikh/ flickr. watch?v=d-kxYt2LwKc)
Chairman's com/
Summary. search/
Completed. 04. 12. ?q=IGF+
2009. doc) 2008)
IGF Lithuania 2010 • IGF site (http:/ / www. • Host site • Summary (http:/ / • Photos • Videos (http:/ / www.
V
intgovforum. org/ cms/ (http:/ / www. intgovforum. org/ (http:/ / youtube. com/
2010-igf-vilnius) igf2010. lt/ cms/ 2010/ The. www. results?search_query=IGF+
index. php/ 2010. Chairman's. flickr. 2010+ Vilnius)
en/ welcome/ Summary. pdf) com/
index. htm) search/
?q=IGF
2010)
IGF Kenya 2011 • IGF site (http:/ / www. • Host site • Summary (http:/ / • Photos • Videos (http:/ / www.
VI intgovforum. org/ cms/ (http:/ / igf. www. intgovforum. (http:/ / youtube. com/
2011-igf-nairobi) or. ke/ ) org/ cms/ 2011/ IGF. www. results?search_query=IGF+
2011. Chair's flickr. 2011)
Summary copy. pdf) com/
search/
?q=IGF
2011)
IGF Azerbaijan 2012

• IGF site (http:/ / www. • Host site • Summary (http:/ / • Photos • Videos (http:/ / www.
VII
intgovforum. org/ cms/ (http:/ / www. intgovforum. (http:/ / youtube. com/
2012-igfbaku) igf2012. com/ org/ cms/ 2012/ www. results?search_query=IGF+
) Book/ Chairs. flickr. 2012)
Summary. IGF. com/
2012. pdf) search/
?q=IGF
2012)
IGF Indonesia 2013 (upcoming)

• IGF site (http:/ / www. • Host site
VIII
intgovforum. org/ cms/ (http:/ /
component/ content/ igf2013. or.
article/ id/ )
121-preparatory-process/
1261-igf-2013)
402
People
Internet pioneers
Internet
Internet portal
Instead of a single "inventor", the Internet was developed by many people over many years. The following are some
Internet pioneers who contributed to its early development. These include early theoretical foundations, specifying
original protocols, and expansion beyond a research tool to wide deployment.
The pioneers
Claude Shannon
Claude Shannon (1916–2001) called the "father of modern information theory", published "A Mathematical Theory
of Communication" in 1948. His paper gave a formal way of studying communication channels. It established
fundamental limits on the efficiency of communication over noisy channels, and presented the challenge of finding
families of codes to achieve capacity.[1]
Vannevar Bush
Vannevar Bush (1890–1974) helped to establish a partnership between U.S. military, university research, and
independent think tanks. He was appointed Chairman of the National Defense Research Committee in 1940 by
President Franklin D. Roosevelt, appointed Director of the Office of Scientific Research and Development in 1941,
and from 1946 to 1947, he served as chairman of the Joint Research and Development Board. Out of this would
come DARPA, which in turn would lead to the ARPANET Project.[] His July 1945 Atlantic Monthly article "As We
May Think" proposed Memex, a theoretical proto-hypertext computer system in which an individual compresses and
stores all of their books, records, and communications, which is then mechanized so that it may be consulted with
exceeding speed and flexibility.[2]
Paul Baran
Paul Baran (1926–2011) developed the field of redundant distributed networks while conducting research at RAND
Corporation starting in 1959 when Baran began investigating the development of survivable communication
networks. This led to a series of papers titled "On Distributed communications"[3] that in 1964 described a detailed
architecture for a distributed survivable packet switched communications network.[] In 2012, Baran was inducted
into the Internet Hall of Fame by the Internet Society.[4]
Donald Davies
Donald Davies (1924–2000) coined the term "packet switching" at the National Physical Laboratory in the United
Kingdom. Previously working independently, the "packet" terminology was adopted when the ARPANET was
designed in 1967, and became the key concept of the Internet Protocol.[] In 2012, Davies was inducted into the
[]
Internet Hall of Fame by the Internet Society.
J. C. R. Licklider
Joseph Carl Robnett Licklider (1915–1990) was a faculty member of Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and
researcher at Bolt, Beranek and Newman. He developed the idea of a universal network at the Information
Processing Techniques Office (IPTO) of the United States Department of Defense Advanced Research Projects
Agency (ARPA).[][] He headed IPTO from 1962 to 1963, and again from 1974 to 1975. His 1960 paper
"Man-Computer Symbiosis" envisions that mutually-interdependent, "living together", tightly-coupled human brains
and computing machines would prove to complement each other's strengths.[5]
Charles M. Herzfeld
Charles M. Herzfeld (born 1925) is an American scientist and scientific manager, best known for his time as
Director of DARPA, during which, among other things, he personally took the decision to authorize the creation of
the ARPANET, the predecessor of the Internet.
In 2012, Herzfeld was inducted into the Internet Hall of Fame by the Internet Society.[]
Bob Taylor
Robert W. Taylor (born 1932) was director of ARPA's Information Processing Techniques Office from 1965
through 1969, where he convinced ARPA to fund a computer network. From 1970 to 1983, he managed the
Computer Science Laboratory of the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC), where technologies such as Ethernet
and the Xerox Alto were developed.[6] He was the founder and manager of Digital Equipment Corporation's Systems
Research Center until 1996.[7] The 1968 paper, "The Computer as a Communication Device", that he wrote together
with J.C.R. Licklider starts out: "In a few years, men will be able to communicate more effectively through a
machine than face to face."[] And while their vision would take more than "a few years", the paper lays out the future
of what the Internet would eventually become.
Douglas Engelbart
Douglas Engelbart (1925-2013) was an early researcher at the Stanford Research Institute. His Augmentation
Research Center laboratory became the second node on the ARPANET in October 1969, and SRI became the early
Network Information Center, which evolved into the domain name registry.[]
Engelbart was a committed, vocal proponent of the development and use of computers and computer networks to
help cope with the world’s increasingly urgent and complex problems.[8] He is best known for his work on the
challenges of human–computer interaction, resulting in the invention of the computer mouse,[9] and the development
of hypertext, networked computers, and precursors to graphical user interfaces.[]
Larry Roberts
Lawrence G. "Larry" Roberts (born 1937) is an American computer scientist.[] After earning his PhD in electrical
engineering from MIT in 1963, Roberts continued to work at MIT's Lincoln Laboratory where in 1965 he connected
Lincoln Lab's TX-2 computer to the SDC Q-32 computer in Santa Monica using packet-switching.[] In 1966, he
became the chief scientist in the ARPA Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO), where he led the
development of the ARPANET. In 1973, he left ARPA to commercialize the nascent technology in the form of
Telenet, the first data network utility, and served as its CEO from 1973 to 1980.[10] In 2012, Roberts was inducted
into the Internet Hall of Fame by the Internet Society.[]
Leonard Kleinrock
Leonard Kleinrock (born 1934) published his first paper on digital network
communications, "Information Flow in Large Communication Nets", in 1961.
After completing his Ph.D. thesis in 1962 which provided a fundamental
theory of packet switching, he moved to UCLA. In 1969, a team at UCLA
connected a computer to an Interface Message Processor, becoming the first
node on ARPANET.[11] In 2012, Kleinrock was inducted into the Internet
Hall of Fame by the Internet Society.[]
Louis Pouzin
Louis Pouzin (born 1931) is a French computer scientist. He invented the
datagram and designed an early packet communications network,
CYCLADES.[12] His work was broadly used by Robert Kahn, Vinton Cerf,
Leonard Kleinrock and the first Interface
and others in the development of TCP/IP. In 1997, Pouzin received the ACM Message Processor
SIGCOMM Award for "pioneering work on connectionless packet
communication".[13] Louis Pouzin was named a Chevalier of the Legion of Honor by the French government on
March 19, 2003. In 2012, Pouzin was inducted into the Internet Hall of Fame by the Internet Society.[]
John Klensin
John Klensin's involvement with Internet began in 1969, when he worked on the File Transfer Protocol.[14] Klensin
was involved in the early procedural and definitional work for DNS administration and top-level domain definitions
and was part of the committee that worked out the transition of DNS-related responsibilities between USC-ISI and
what became ICANN.[15]
His career includes 30 years as a Principal Research Scientist at MIT, a stint as INFOODS Project Coordinator for
the United Nations University, Distinguished Engineering Fellow at MCI WorldCom, and Internet Architecture Vice
President at AT&T; he is now an independent consultant.[16] In 1992 Randy Bush and John Klensin created the
Network Startup Resource Center,[17] helping dozens of countries to establish connections with FidoNet, UseNet,
and when possible the Internet.
In 2003, he received an International Committee for Information Technology Standards Merit Award.[18] In 2007, he
was inducted as a Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery for contributions to networking standards and
Internet applications.[19] In 2012, Klensin was inducted into the Internet Hall of Fame by the Internet Society.[]
Bob Kahn
Robert E. "Bob" Kahn (born 1938) is an American engineer and computer scientist, who in 1974, along with Vint
Cerf, invented the TCP/IP protocols.[20][21] After earning a Ph.D. degree from Princeton University in 1964, he
worked for AT&T Bell Laboratories, as an assistant professor at MIT, and at Bolt, Beranek and Newman (BBN),
where he helped develop the ARPANET IMP. In 1972, he began work at the Information Processing Techniques
Office (IPTO) within ARPA. In 1986 he left ARPA to found the Corporation for National Research Initiatives
(CNRI), a nonprofit organization providing leadership and funding for research and development of the National
Information Infrastructure[22]
Vint Cerf
Vinton G. "Vint" Cerf (born 1943) is an American computer
scientist. [23] He is recognized as one of "the fathers of the
Internet",[24][25] sharing this title with Bob Kahn.[26][27]
He earned his Ph.D. from UCLA in 1972. At UCLA he worked in
Professor Leonard Kleinrock's networking group that connected the
first two nodes of the ARPANET and contributed to the ARPANET
host-to-host protocol. Cerf was an assistant professor at Stanford
University from 1972–1976, where he conducted research on packet
network interconnection protocols and co-designed the DoD TCP/IP
protocol suite with Bob Kahn. He was a program manager for the
Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) from 1976 to 1982. Cerf
was instrumental in the formation of both the Internet Society and Vint Cerf, September 2010
Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN),
serving as founding president of the Internet Society from 1992–1995 and in 1999 as Chairman of the Board and as
ICANN Chairman from 2000 to 2007.[28] His many awards include the National Medal of Technology,[23] the
Turing Award,[29] the Presidential Medal of Freedom,[30] and membership in the National Academy of Engineering
and the Internet Society's Internet Hall of Fame.[]
Steve Crocker
Steve Crocker (born 1944 in Pasadena, California) has worked in the
ARPANET and Internet communities since their inception. As a
UCLA graduate student in the 1960s, he helped create the ARPANET
protocols which were the foundation for today's Internet.[31] He created
the Request for Comments series,[32] authoring the very first RFC and
[33]
many more. He was instrumental in creating the ARPA "Network
Working Group", the forerunner of the modern Internet Engineering Steve Crocker
Task Force.
Crocker has been a program manager at the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), a senior researcher at
USC's Information Sciences Institute, founder and director of the Computer Science Laboratory at The Aerospace
Corporation and a vice president at Trusted Information Systems. In 1994, Crocker was one of the founders and
chief technology officer of CyberCash, Inc. He has also been an IETF security area director, a member of the
Internet Architecture Board, chair of the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) Security
and Stability Advisory Committee, a board member of the Internet Society and numerous other Internet-related
volunteer positions. Crocker is chair of the board of ICANN.[34]
For this work, Crocker was awarded the 2002 IEEE Internet Award "for leadership in creation of key elements in
open evolution of Internet protocols". In 2012, Crocker was inducted into the Internet Hall of Fame by the Internet
Society.[]
Jon Postel
Jon Postel (1943–1998) was a researcher at the Information Sciences
Institute. He was editor of all early Internet standards specifications, such as
the Request for Comments (RFC) series. His beard and sandals made him
"the most recognizable archetype of an Internet pioneer".[35]
The Internet Society's Postel Award is named in his honor, as is the Postel
Center at Information Sciences Institute. His obituary was written by Vint
Cerf and published as RFC 2468 in remembrance of Postel and his work. In
2012, Postel was inducted into the Internet Hall of Fame by the Internet Jon Postel, c. 1994
[]
Society.
Jake Feinler
Elizabeth J. "Jake" Feinler (born 1931) was a staff member of Doug Engelbart's Augmentation Research Center at
SRI and PI for the Network Information Center (NIC) for the ARPANET and the Defense Data Network (DDN)
from 1972 until 1989.[36][] In 2012, Feinler was inducted into the Internet Hall of Fame by the Internet Society.[]
Peter Kirstein
Peter T. Kirstein (born 1933) is a British computer scientist and a leader in the international development of the
Internet.[37] In 1973, he established one of the first two international nodes of the ARPANET.[38] In 1978 he
co-authored "Issues in packet-network interconnection" with Vint Cerf, one of the early technical papers on the
internet concept.[39] Starting in 1983 he chaired the International Collaboration Board, which involved six NATO
countries, served on the Networking Panel of the NATO Science Committee (serving as chair in 2001), and on
Advisory Committees for the Australian Research Council, the Canadian Department of Communications, the
German GMD, and the Indian Education and Research Network (ERNET) Project. He leads the Silk Project, which
provides satellite-based Internet access to the Newly Independent States in the Southern Caucasus and Central Asia.
In 2012, Kirstein was inducted into the Internet Hall of Fame by the Internet Society.[]
Danny Cohen
Danny Cohen led several projects on real-time interactive applications over the ARPANet and the Internet starting
in 1973.[40] After serving on the computer science faculty at Harvard University (1969–1973) and Caltech (1976), he
joined the Information Sciences Institute (ISI) at University of Southern California (USC). At ISI (1973–1993) he
started many network related projects including, one to allow interactive, real-time speech over the ARPANet,
[41]
packet-voice, packet-video, and Internet Concepts. In 1981 he adapted his visual flight simulator to run over the
ARPANet, the first application of packet switching networks to real-time applications. In 1993, he worked on
Distributed Interactive Simulation through several projects funded by United States Department of Defense. He is
probably best known for his 1980 paper "On Holy Wars and a Plea for Peace"[42] which adopted the terminology of
endianness for computing.
Cohen was elected to the National Academy of Engineering in 2006 for contributions to the advanced design,
graphics, and real-time network protocols of computer systems[43] and as an IEEE Fellow in 2010 for contributions
to protocols for packet switching in real-time applications.[44] In 1993 he received a United States Air Force
Meritorious Civilian Service Award. And in 2012, Cohen was inducted into the Internet Hall of Fame by the Internet
Society.[]
Paul Mockapetris
Paul V. Mockapetris (born 1948), while working with Jon Postel at the Information Sciences Institute (ISI) in 1983,
proposed the Domain Name System (DNS) architecture.[45][46] He was IETF chair from 1994 to 1996.[47]
Mockapetris received the 1997 John C. Dvorak Telecommunications Excellence Award "Personal Achievement -
Network Engineering" for DNS design and implementation, the 2003 IEEE Internet Award for his contributions to
DNS, and the Distinguished Alumnus award from the University of California, Irvine. In May 2005, he received the
ACM Sigcomm lifetime award. In 2012, Mockapetris was inducted into the Internet Hall of Fame by the Internet
Society.[]
Joyce Reynolds
Joyce K. Reynolds of USC's Information Sciences Institute (ISI) served as RFC Editor, together with Bob Braden,
from 1987 to 2006,[3] and also performed the IANA function with Jon Postel until this was transferred to ICANN,
and worked with ICANN in this role until 2001.[] She was IETF User Services Area Director and a member of the
Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG) from 1990 to 1998.[48] She has authored or co-authored many RFCs. In
2006, together with Bob Braden, she received the Internet Society's Postel Award in recognition of her services to
the Internet.[3]
David Clark
We reject: kings, presidents and voting.
We believe in: rough consensus and running code.
[49]
-Dave Clark at IETF 24
David D. Clark (born 1944) is an American computer scientist.[50] During the period of tremendous grown and
expansion of the Internet from 1981 to 1989, he acted as chief protocol architect in the development of the Internet,
and chaired the Internet Activities Board, which later became the Internet Architecture Board. He is currently a
Senior Research Scientist at the MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory.
In 1990 Clark was awarded the ACM SIGCOMM Award "in recognition of his major contributions to Internet
protocol and architecture."[51] In 1998 he received the IEEE Richard W. Hamming Medal "for leadership and major
contributions to the architecture of the Internet as a universal information medium".[52] In 2001 he was inducted as a
Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery for "his preeminent role in the development of computer
communication and the Internet, including architecture, protocols, security, and telecommunications policy".[53] In
2001, he was awarded the Telluride Tech Festival Award of Technology in Telluride, Colorado,[54] and in 2011 the
Lifetime Achievement Award from the Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford "in recognition of his
intellectual and institutional contributions to the advance of the Internet."[55]
Dave Mills
David L. Mills (born 1938) is an American computer engineer.[56] Mills earned his PhD in Computer and
Communication Sciences from the University of Michigan in 1971. While at Michigan he worked on the ARPA
sponsored Conversational Use of Computers (CONCOMP) project and developed DEC PDP-8 based hardware and
software to allow terminals to be connected over phone lines to an IBM System/360 mainframe computer.[57][58]
Mills was the chairman of the Gateway Algorithms and Data Structures Task Force (GADS) and the first chairman
of the Internet Architecture Task Force.[] He invented the Network Time Protocol (1981),[59][60] the DEC LSI-11
based fuzzball router that was used for the 56 kbit/s NSFNET (1985),[61] the Exterior Gateway Protocol (1984),[62]
and inspired the author of ping (1983).[63] He is an emeritus professor at the University of Delaware.
In 1999 he was inducted as a Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery, and in 2002, as a Fellow of the
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE). In 2008, Mills was elected to the National Academy of
Engineering (NAE). In 2013 he received the IEEE Internet Award "For significant leadership and sustained
contributions in the research, development, standardization, and deployment of quality time synchronization
capabilities for the Internet."[64]
Radia Perlman
Radia Joy Perlman (born 1951) is the software designer and network engineer who developed the spanning-tree
protocol which is fundamental to the operation of network bridges.[65] She also played an important role in the
development of link-state routing protocols such as IS-IS (which had a significant influence on OSPF).[66] In 2010
she received the ACM SIGCOMM Award "for her fundamental contributions to the Internet routing and bridging
protocols that we all use and take for granted every day."[67]
Dennis M. Jennings
Dennis M. Jennings is an Irish physicist, academic, Internet pioneer, and venture capitalist. In 1984, the National
Science Foundation (NSF) began construction of several regional supercomputing centers to provide very high-speed
computing resources for the US research community. In 1985 NSF hired Jennings to lead the establishment of the
National Science Foundation Network (NSFNET) to link five of the super-computing centers to enable sharing of
resources and information. Jennings made three critical decisions that shaped the subsequent development of
NSFNET:[68]
• that it would be a general-purpose research network, not limited to connection of the supercomputers;
• it would act as the backbone for connection of regional networks at each supercomputing site; and
• it would use the ARPANET's TCP/IP protocols.
Jennings was also actively involved in the start-up of research networks in Europe (European Academic Research
Network, EARN - President; EBONE - Board member) and Ireland (HEAnet - initial proposal and later Board
member). He chaired the Board and General Assembly of the Council of European National Top Level Domain
Registries (CENTR) from 1999 to early 2001 and was actively involved in the start-up of the Internet Corporation
for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN). He was a member of the ICANN Board from 2007 to 2010, serving as
Vice-Chair in 2009-2010.[69]
Steve Wolff
Stephen "Steve" Wolff participated in the development of ARPANET while working for the U.S. Army.[70] In
1986 he became Division Director for Networking and Communications Research and Infrastructure at the National
[71]
Science Foundation (NSF) where he managed the development of NSFNET. He also conceived the Gigabit
Testbed, a joint NSF-DARPA project to prove the feasibility of IP networking at gigabit speeds.[72] His work at NSF
transformed the fledgling internet from a narrowly focused U.S. government project into the modern Internet with
scholarly and commercial interest for the entire world.[73] In 1994 he left NSF to join Cisco as a technical manager in
Corporate Consulting Engineering.[70] In 2011 he became the CTO at Internet2.[74]
In 2002 the Internet Society recognized Wolff with its Postel Award. When presenting the award, Internet Society
(ISOC) President and CEO Lynn St.Amour said “…Steve helped transform the Internet from an activity that served
the specific goals of the research community to a worldwide enterprise which has energized scholarship and
commerce throughout the world.”[75] The Internet Society also recognized Wolff in 1994 for his courage and
leadership in advancing the Internet.[75]
Van Jacobson
Van Jacobson is an American computer scientist, best known for his work on TCP/IP network performance and
scaling.[] His work redesigning TCP/IP's flow control algorithms (Jacobson's algorithm)[76][77] to better handle
congestion is said to have saved the Internet from collapsing in the late 1980s and early 1990s.[] He is also known for
the TCP/IP Header Compression protocol described in RFC 1144: Compressing TCP/IP Headers for Low-Speed
Serial Links, popularly known as Van Jacobson TCP/IP Header Compression. He is co-author of several widely used
network diagnostic tools, including traceroute, tcpdump, and pathchar. He was a leader in the development of the
multicast backbone (MBone) and the multimedia tools vic,[78] vat,[79] and wb.[80]
For his work, Jacobson received the 2001 ACM SIGCOMM Award for Lifetime Achievement,[13] the 2003 IEEE
Koji Kobayashi Computers and Communications Award,[44] and was elected to the National Academy of
Engineering in 2006.[81] In 2012, Jacobson was inducted into the Internet Hall of Fame by the Internet Society.[]
Ted Nelson
Theodor Holm "Ted" Nelson (born 1937) is an American sociologist and philosopher. In 1960 he founded Project
Xanadu with the goal of creating a computer network with a simple user interface. Project Xanadu was to be a
worldwide electronic publishing system using hypertext linking that would have created a universal library.[82] In
1963 he coined the terms "hypertext" and "hypermedia". In 1974 he wrote and published two books in one,
Computer Lib/Dream Machines,[83] that has been hailed as "the most important book in the history of new
media."[84] Sadly, his grand ideas from the 1960s and 1970s never became completed projects.
Tim Berners-Lee
Timothy John "Tim" Berners-Lee (born 1955) is a British physicist and
computer scientist.[] In 1980, while working at CERN, he proposed a project
using hypertext to facilitate sharing and updating information among
researchers.[85] While there, he built a prototype system named ENQUIRE.[]
Back at CERN in 1989 he conceived of and, in 1990, together with Robert
Cailliau, created the first client and server implementations for what became
the World Wide Web. Berners-Lee is the director of the World Wide Web
Consortium (W3C), a standards organization which oversees and encourages The Web's historic logo designed by
the Web's continued development, co-Director of the Web Science Trust, and Robert Cailliau.
founder of the World Wide Web Foundation.[86]
In 1994, Berners-Lee became one of only six members of the World Wide Web Hall of Fame.[] In 2004, Berners-Lee
was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II for his pioneering work.[] In April 2009, he was elected a foreign associate of
the United States National Academy of Sciences, based in Washington, D.C.[87][88] In 2012, Berners-Lee was
inducted into the Internet Hall of Fame by the Internet Society.[]
Mark P. McCahill
Mark P. McCahill (born 1956) is an American programmer and systems architect. While working at the University
of Minnesota he led the development of the Gopher protocol (1991), the effective predecessor of the World Wide
Web, and contributed to the development and popularization of a number of other Internet technologies from the
1980s.[89][90][91]
Robert Cailliau
Robert Cailliau (French: [kaˈjo], born 1947), is a Belgian informatics engineer and computer scientist who, working
with Tim Berners-Lee and Nicola Pellow at CERN, developed the World Wide Web.[92] In 2012 he was inducted
into the Internet Hall of Fame by the Internet Society.[]
Marc Andreessen
Marc L. Andreessen (born 1971) is an American software engineer,
entrepreneur, and investor. Working with Eric Bina while at NCSA, he
co-authored Mosaic, the first widely-used web browser. He is also co-founder
of Netscape Communications Corporation.[]
Eric Bina
Eric J. Bina (born 1964) is an American computer programmer. In 1993,
together with Marc Andreessen, he authored the first version of Mosaic while
working at NCSA at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.[]
Mosaic is famed as the first killer application that popularized the Internet. He
is also a co-founder of Netscape Communications Corporation.[93]
Plaque commemorating the creation of
Mosaic web browser at NCSA.
Birth of the Internet plaque

A plaque commemorating the "Birth of the Internet" was dedicated at a conference on the history and future of the
internet on July 28, 2005 and is displayed at the Gates Computer Science Building, Stanford University.[94] The text
printed and embossed in black into the brushed bronze surface of the plaque reads:[95]
BIRTH OF THE INTERNET
THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE INTERNET AND THE DESIGN OF

THE CORE NETWORKING PROTOCOL TCP (WHICH LATER BECAME TCP/IP)
WERE CONCEIVED BY VINTON G. CERF AND ROBERT E. KAHN DURING 1973
WHILE CERF WAS AT STANFORD'S DIGITAL SYSTEMS LABORATORY AND
KAHN WAS AT ARPA (LATER DARPA). IN THE SUMMER OF 1976, CERF LEFT STANFORD
TO MANAGE THE PROGRAM WITH KAHN AT ARPA.
THEIR WORK BECAME KNOWN IN SEPTEMBER 1973 AT A NETWORKING CONFERENCE IN ENGLAND.

CERF AND KAHN'S SEMINAL PAPER WAS PUBLISHED IN MAY 1974.
CERF, YOGEN K. DALAL, AND CARL SUNSHINE

WROTE THE FIRST FULL TCP SPECIFICATION IN DECEMBER 1974.
WITH THE SUPPORT OF DARPA, EARLY IMPLEMENTATIONS OF TCP (AND IP LATER)
WERE TESTED BY BOLT BERANEK AND NEWMAN (BBN),
STANFORD, AND UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON DURING 1975.
BBN BUILT THE FIRST INTERNET GATEWAY, NOW KNOWN AS A ROUTER, TO LINK NETWORKS TOGETHER.
IN SUBSEQUENT YEARS, RESEARCHERS AT MIT AND USC-ISI, AMONG MANY OTHERS,
PLAYED KEY ROLES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SET OF INTERNET PROTOCOLS.
KEY STANFORD RESEARCH ASSOCIATES AND FOREIGN VISITORS
VINTON CERF
DAG BELSNES (Seal of LELAND STANFORD JAMES MATHIS
RONALD CRANE JUNIOR UNIVERSITY BOB METCALFE
YOGEN DALAL ★★★ 1891 ★★★ DARRYL RUBIN
JUDITH ESTRIN motto in German: JOHN SHOCH
RICHARD KARP DIE LUFT DER FREIHEIT WEHT) CARL SUNSHINE
GERARD LE LANN KUNINOBU TANNO
DARPA
ROBERT KAHN
COLLABORATING GROUPS
BOLT BERANEK AND NEWMAN

WILLIAM PLUMMER • GINNY STRAZISAR • RAY TOMLINSON
MIT
NOEL CHIAPPA • DAVID CLARK • STEPHEN KENT • DAVID P. REED
NDRE
YNGVAR LUNDH • PAAL SPILLING
UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON

FRANK DEIGNAN • MARTINE GALLAND • PETER HIGGINSON

ANDREW HINCHLEY • PETER KIRSTEIN • ADRIAN STOKES
USC-ISI
ROBERT BRADEN • DANNY COHEN • DANIEL LYNCH • JON POSTEL
ULTIMATELY, THOUSANDS IF NOT TENS TO HUNDREDS OF THOUSANDS

HAVE CONTRIBUTED THEIR EXPERTISE TO THE EVOLUTION OF THE INTERNET.
DEDICATED JULY 28, 2005
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- News office, Cambridge, Massachusetts, February 27, 2001
[4] 2012 Inductees (http:/ / www. internethalloffame. org/ inductees/ year/ 2012), Internet Hall of Fame website. Last accessed April 24, 2012
[5] "Man-Computer Symbiosis" (http:/ / medg. lcs. mit. edu/ people/ psz/ Licklider. html), J.C.R. Licklider, IRE Transactions on Human Factors
in Electronics, vol. HFE-1, pp.4-11, Mar 1960
[12] "Biography of Louis Pouzin, 1999 SIGCOMM Award Winner" (http:/ / www. acm. org/ sigs/ sigcomm/ sigcomm99/ pouzin. html), ACM
SIGCOMM web site
[13] "Postel and Pouzin: 1997 SIGCOMM Award Winners" (http:/ / www. sigcomm. org/ awards/ sigcomm-awards/
postel-and-pouzin-award-details), ACM SIGCOMM web site
[15] "John Klensin biographical sketch" (http:/ / www. internethalloffame. org/ inductees/ john-klensin), Internet Hall of Fame, Internet Society,
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[23] Cerf's curriculum vitae as of February 2001 (http:/ / www. icann. org/ correspondence/ cerf-testimony-08feb01. htm#Vita), attached to a
transcript of his testimony that month before the United States House Energy Subcommittee on Telecommunications and the Internet, from
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[24] (see Interview with Vinton Cerf (http:/ / www. gcn. com/ print/ 25_2/ 38005-1. html?topic=interview), from a January 2006 article in
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[29] Cerf wins Turing Award (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2005/ 02/ 16/ technology/ 16internet. html?oref=login) Feb 16, 2005
[30] 2005 Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients (http:/ / georgewbush-whitehouse. archives. gov/ news/ releases/ 2005/ 11/ 20051109-10.
html) from the White House website
[32] RFC 2468
[33] RFC 1
[36] Oral History of Elizabeth (Jake) Feinler (http:/ / archive. computerhistory. org/ resources/ access/ text/ Oral_History/ 102702199. 05. 01.
acc. pdf), Interviewed by Marc Weber, September 10, 2009, Reference no: X5378.2009, Computer History Museum, 49 pp.
[37] "Peter T. Kirsten recognized with the Internet Society's Postel Award" (http:/ / www. isoc. org/ isoc/ media/ releases/ 030716pr. shtml), July
16, 2003, Press Release, Internet Society
[38] "Peter Kirstein's International Activities" (http:/ / www. cs. ucl. ac. uk/ staff/ P. Kirstein/ internationalactivity. html), University College
London web page
[39] "Issues in packet-network interconnection" (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1109/ PROC. 1978. 11147), V.G. Cerf and P.T. Kirstein, in Proceedings
of the IEEE, Volume 66 Issue 11 (November 1978), pp. 1386–1408
[40] "Danny Cohen biography" (http:/ / www. internethalloffame. org/ inductees/ danny-cohen), Internet Hall of Fame, Internet Society, accessed
14 July 2012
[41] "RFC 0741: Specifications for the Network Voice Protocol (NVP)", Nov-22-1977.
[42] Also published at IEEE Computer, October 1981 issue (http:/ / ieeexplore. ieee. org/ xpl/ freeabs_all. jsp?arnumber=1667115).
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4424CB034570705786257552006B36FC?opendocument), 2006
[44] IEEE Fellow (http:/ / www. ieee. org/ membership_services/ membership/ fellows/ chronology/ fellows_2010. html), 2010
[45] RFC 882 - Domain Names - Concepts and Facilities, November 1983
[46] RFC 883 - Domain Names - Implementation and Specification, November 1983
[47] Biography of Paul Mockapetris (http:/ / www. nominum. com/ who-we-are/ board-of-directors/ paul-mockapetris), Nominum web site
[48] IETF List of IESG members (http:/ / www. ietf. org/ iesg/ past-members. html), IETF web page
[49] (Presentation given at the 24th Internet Engineering Task Force.)
[50] David Clark's Biography (http:/ / www. csail. mit. edu/ user/ 1526), MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory
[51] "SIGCOMM Award Recipients" (http:/ / www. sigcomm. org/ awards/ sigcomm-awards), ACM, retrieved 5 March 2013
[53] "ACM Fellow Citation for David D. Clark" (http:/ / fellows. acm. org/ fellow_citation. cfm?id=1239037& srt=all), ACM, 2001, retrieved 5
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[54] "Telluride Tech Festival Award of Technology: Past Honorees" (http:/ / www. techfestival. org/ past-honorees/ ), Telluride Technology
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External links
• Internet Hall of Fame (http://www.internethalloffame.org/), established by the Internet Society in April 2012.
• RFC 1336 (http://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/pdfrfc/rfc1336.txt.pdf): Who's Who in the Internet: Biographies of
Internet Activities Board (IAB), Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG), and the Internet Research Steering
Group (IRSG) of the Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) Members, G. Malkin, IETF, May 1992.
• "Past IESG Members and IETF Chairs" (http://www.ietf.org/iesg/past-members.html), IETF web site
• "A Brief History of the Internet Advisory / Activities / Architecture Board" (http://www.iab.org/about/history.
html) from the IAB web site includes historical lists of IAB Members, IAB Chairs, IAB Ex-Officio and Liaison
Members (IETF Chairs), IRTF Chairs, RFC Editors, and much more historical information.
• "Internet Pioneers" (http://www.ibiblio.org/pioneers/), web pages at ibiblio.org (http://ibiblio.org), a
collaboration of the School of Information and Library Science and the School of Journalism and Mass
Communication at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
• "Pioneers Gallery" (http://www.wiwiw.org/pioneers/), from the Who Is Who in the Internet World (WiWiW)
web site.
• "Internet Milestones: Timeline of Notable Internet Pioneers and Contributions" (http://www.juliantrubin.com/
schooldirectory/internet_milestones_pioneers.html). Retrieved 6 January 2012.
• "The Greatest Internet Pioneers You Never Heard Of: The Story of Erwise and Four Finns Who Showed the Way
to the Web Browser" (http://www.xconomy.com/national/2009/03/03/
the-greatest-internet-pioneers-you-never-heard-of-the-story-of-erwise-and-four-finns-who-showed-the-way-to-the-web-browser/
), Juha-Pekka Tikka, March 3, 2009, Xconomy web page.
Oral histories
• "Oral history interview with Robert E. Kahn" (http://purl.umn.edu/107387). University of Minnesota,
Minneapolis: Charles Babbage Institute. 24 April 1990. Retrieved 15 May 2008. Focuses on Kahn's role in the
development of computer networking from 1967 through the early 1980s. Beginning with his work at Bolt
Beranek and Newman (BBN), Kahn discusses his involvement as the ARPANET proposal was being written and
then implemented, and his role in the public demonstration of the ARPANET. The interview continues into
Kahn's involvement with networking when he moves to IPTO in 1972, where he was responsible for the
administrative and technical evolution of the ARPANET, including programs in packet radio, the development of
a new network protocol (TCP/IP), and the switch to TCP/IP to connect multiple networks.
• "Oral history interview with Vinton Cerf" (http://purl.umn.edu/107214). University of Minnesota,
Minneapolis: Charles Babbage Institute. 24 April 1990. Retrieved 1 July 2008. Cerf describes his involvement
with the ARPA network, and his relationships with Bolt Beranek and Newman, Robert Kahn, Lawrence Roberts,
and the Network Working Group.
• "Oral history interview with Paul Baran" (http://purl.umn.edu/107101). University of Minnesota, Minneapolis:
Charles Babbage Institute. 5 March 1990. Retrieved 1 July 2008. Baran describes his work at RAND, and
discusses his interaction with the group at ARPA who were responsible for the later development of the
ARPANET.
• "Oral history interview with Leonard Kleinrock" (http://purl.umn.edu/107411). University of Minnesota,

Minneapolis: Charles Babbage Institute. 3 April 1990. Retrieved 1 July 2008. Kleinrock discusses his work on the
ARPANET.
• "Oral history interview with Larry Roberts" (http://purl.umn.edu/107608). University of Minnesota,
Minneapolis: Charles Babbage Institute. 4 April 1989. Retrieved 1 July 2008. The interview focuses on Robert's
work at the Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO) at ARPA including discussion of ARPA and IPTO
support of research in computer science, computer networks, and artificial intelligence, the ARPANET, the
involvement of universities with ARPA and IPTO, J. C. R. Licklider, Ivan Sutherland, Steve Lukasik, Wesley
Clark, as well as the development of computing at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Lincoln
Laboratory.
• "Oral history interview with Mark P. McCahill," (http://people.duke.edu/~jd135/papers/6ckhmwff.pdf).
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis: Charles Babbage Institute. 13 September 2001. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
Focuses on McCahill's work at the University of Minnesota where he lead the team that created Gopher, the
popular client/server software for organizing and sharing information on the Internet as well as his work on
development of Pop Mail, Gopher VR, Forms Nirvana, the Electronic Grants Management System, and the
University of Minnesota Portal.
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Andrewman327, Andreworkney, Andrewpmk, Andris, AndyBQ, Andyiou52345, Andypandy.UK, Anetode, AngelOfSadness, Angela, Angr, Animum, Ankiththegreat, Ann Stouter, Anna
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Internet

Precursors and early development 62

Today's Internet 116

Common uses 194

Social impact 299

A visualization of routing paths through a portion of the Internet.

Computer network types by

Historically the word internet was used, uncapitalized,

other) services can be implemented on any intranet, accessible to network users.

Worldwide Internet users

2005 2010 2013

[22] 6.5 billion 6.9 billion 7.1 billion

Users in the developing world 8% 21% 31%

they may also engage in peering. An

routing across the complex connections of the global Internet.

World Wide Web

World Wide Web browser software, such as Microsoft's Internet

After English (27%), the most

in Australia/Oceania.[51] The Internet's 22 April 2012

technologies have developed enough in

In an American study in 2005, the

Social networking and entertainment

Politics and political revolutions

Gartner, Inc., 13 January 2010

Articles, books, and journals

History of the Internet

• Hardware before 1960

A visualization of routing paths through a portion of the Internet.

• 1982 – Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)

• 2006 – First meeting of the Internet Governance Forum

Three terminals and an ARPA

Packet switching is a rapid store and forward networking design that

Networks that led to the Internet

By December 5, 1969, a 4-node network was connected by adding the

X.25 and public data networks

UUCP and Usenet

Merging the networks and creating the Internet (1973–90)

The specification of the resulting protocol, RFC 675 – Specification of

Stemming from the first specifications of TCP in 1974, TCP/IP

From ARPANET to NSFNET

Transition towards the Internet

TCP/IP goes global (1989–2010)

Global digital divide

Channel Satellite, established Africa's

Africa is building an Internet

high-performance transmission plant,

Asia and Oceania

Opening the network to commerce

Networking in outer space

NIC, InterNIC, IANA and ICANN

Internet Engineering Task Force

Request for Comments

The Internet Society

Globalization and Internet governance in the 21st century

Use and culture

Email and Usenet

From Gopher to the WWW

Urbana-Champaign (NCSA-UIUC), led by Marc Andreessen. Funding

Mobile phones and the Internet

Online population forecast

World Wide Web

A visualization of routing paths through a portion of the Internet.

World Wide Web

The web's logo designed by Robert Cailliau