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CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

 Carbon is a chemical element


with symbol ‘C’ and atomic
number 6. It is non-metallic and
tetravalent, making four
electrons available to form
covalent chemical bonds. It
belongs to group 14 of periodic
table.

 Carbon is the 15th most


abundant element in the
Earth's crust, and the fourth most abundant element in the universe by mass after
hydrogen, helium, and oxygen. Carbon's abundance, its unique diversity of organic
compounds, and its unusual ability to form polymers at the temperatures commonly
encountered on Earth enables this element to serve as a common element of all
known life. It is the second most abundant element in the human body by mass (about
18.5%) after oxygen.

 The atoms of carbon can bond together in different ways, termed allotropes of carbon.
The best known are graphite, diamond, and amorphous carbon. The physical
properties of carbon vary widely with the allotropic form. For example, graphite is
opaque and black while diamond is highly transparent. Graphite is soft enough to form
a streak on paper, while diamond is the hardest naturally occurring material known.
Graphite is a good electrical conductor while diamond has a low electrical
conductivity. Under normal conditions, diamond, carbon nanotubes, and graphene
have the highest thermal conductivities of all known materials. All carbon allotropes
are solids under normal conditions, with graphite being the most thermodynamically
stable form. They are chemically resistant and require high temperature to react even
with oxygen.

Covalent Bond in Carbon


The atomic number of carbon is 6 and its electronic configuration is 2, 4. To attain a
noble gas configuration it requires four more electrons in its valence shell. It is difficult for an
atom of carbon to either gain or lose electrons as it would be difficult to hold extra electrons
and would require a large amount of energy to remove four electrons. Carbon attains the
noble gas configuration by sharing its valence electrons with other atoms. Such mutual
sharing of electrons between atoms to attain a stable noble gas configuration is called
Covalent bonding.

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Atoms of other elements like hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine also show sharing
of valence electrons.
Depending on the number of electron pairs shared, covalent bond is of three types:
1. Single Covalent Bond: Single covalent bond is formed because of sharing of two
electrons, i.e. one pair .Example: Hydrogen, Chlorine, and Methane.
2. Double covalent bond: Double bond is formed by sharing of four electrons, i.e. two
pairs of electrons. Example: Oxygen molecule, Carbon Dioxide molecule.
3. Triple Covalent Bond: Triple covalent bond is formed because of the sharing of six
electrons, three pairs of electrons. Example: Nitrogen, C2H2

The properties of covalent compounds:


 Covalently bonded molecules have low melting and boiling points.
 Comparatively weaker intermolecular forces, unlike ionic compounds.
 These molecules are generally poor conductor of electricity since no charged particles
are formed.

Two important properties which enable carbon to form enormously large number of
compounds:
 Catenation
 Tetra-Valency

Catenation
In chemistry, catenation is the bonding of atoms of the same element into a series,
called a chain. A chain may be open if its ends are not bonded to each other (an open-chain
compound), or closed if they are bonded in a ring (a cyclic compound).

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Catenation occurs most readily with carbon, which forms covalent bonds with other
carbon atoms to form longer chains and structures. This is the reason for the presence of the
vast number of organic compounds in nature. Carbon is most well-known for its properties of
catenation, with organic chemistry essentially being the study of catenated carbon structures.
Carbon chains in biochemistry combine any of various other elements, such as hydrogen,
oxygen, and biometals, onto the backbone of carbon, and proteins can combine multiple
chains encoded by multiple genes (such as light chains and heavy chains making up
antibodies).

Tetra-Valency
In chemistry, tetravalence is the state of an atom with four valence electrons available
for covalent chemical bonding in its outermost electron shell, giving the atom a chemical
valence of four.

An example is methane (CH4): the tetravalent carbon atom forms a covalent bond
with four hydrogen atoms. The carbon atom is called tetravalent because it forms 4 covalent
bonds. A carbon atom has a total of six electrons occupying the first two shells, i.e., the K-
shell has two electrons and the L-shell has four electrons. This distribution indicates that in
the outermost shell there are one completely filled 's' orbital and two half-filled 'p' orbitals,
showing carbon to be a divalent atom. But in actuality, carbon displays tetravalency in the
combined state. Therefore, a carbon atom has four valence electrons. It could gain four
electrons to form the C4− anion or lose four electrons to form the C4+ cation. Both these
conditions would take carbon far away from achieving stability by the octet rule.

Hydrocarbons
In organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting entirely of
hydrogen and carbon.
The classifications for hydrocarbons are as follows:
 Saturated Hydrocarbons
 Unsaturated Hydrocarbons

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Saturated Hydrocarbon
Saturated hydrocarbons are hydrocarbons that contain only single bonds between
carbon atoms. They are also known as Alkanes. They are the simplest class of hydrocarbons.
They are called saturated because each carbon atom is bonded to as many hydrogen atoms
as possible. In other words, the carbon atoms are saturated with hydrogen.
You can see an example of a saturated hydrocarbon in the figure.
In this compound, named ethane, each carbon atom is bonded to three
hydrogen atoms. In the structural formula, each dash (-) represents a
single covalent bond, in which two atoms share one pair of valence
electrons.

Unsaturated Hydrocarbon
Unsaturated hydrocarbons are hydrocarbons that have double or triple covalent
bonds between adjacent carbon atoms. Those with at least one carbon-to-carbon double
bond are called alkenes and those with at least one carbon-to-carbon triple bond are called
alkynes.
An alkene is a hydrocarbon with one or more carbon-carbon
double covalent bonds. The simplest alkene is composed of two carbon
atoms and is called ethene (shown). Each carbon is bonded to two
hydrogen atoms in addition to the double bond between them.
An alkyne is a hydrocarbon with one or more carbon-carbon
triple covalent bonds. The simplest alkyne consists of two carbon atoms
and is called ethyne (common name: acetylene).

Lewis Structure
A Lewis structure is a graphic representation of the electron distribution around
atoms.
Steps to draw a Lewis structure :
1. Decide how many valence (outer shell) electrons are possessed by each atom in the
molecule.
2. If there is more than one atom type in the molecule, put the most metallic or least
electronegative atom in the center. Recall that electro-negativity decreases as atom
moves further away from fluorine on the periodic chart.
3. Arrange the electrons so that each atom contributes one electron to a single bond
between each atom.
4. Count the electrons around each atom: are the octets complete? If so, your Lewis dot
structure is complete.
5. If the octets are incomplete, and more electrons remain to be shared, move one
electron per bond per atom to make another bond. Note that in some structures there
will be open octets (example: the B of BF3), or atoms which have ten electrons
(example: the S of SF5).

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6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 as needed until all octets are full.
7. Redraw the dots so that electrons on any given atom are in pairs wherever possible.

Electron dot structure of a saturated carbon compound, ethane is as follows:

Electron dot structure of an unsaturated carbon compound, ethene is as follows:

Formulae and Structures of Saturated Compounds of Carbon and Hydrogen:

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Nomenclature
Nomenclature is the system of assignment of names given to organic compounds. In
chemistry, a number of prefixes, suffixes and infixes are used to describe the type and position
of functional groups in the compound.
The steps for naming an organic compound are:
1. Identify the number of carbon atoms in the compound.
2. Functional group is indicated either by prefix or suffix.
 Alkene- ene
 Alkyn- yne
 Alcohol- ol
 Aldehyde- al
 Ketone- one
 Carboxylic acid- oic acid
 Chlorine -chloro
3. If a suffix is added, then final ‘e’ is removed from the name e.g.methanol
(methane-e = methan + ol).

Heteroatom and Functional Group


 In hydrocarbon chain, one or more hydrogen atoms can be replaced by other atoms
in accordance with their valencies. The element that replaces hydrogen is called a
hetero atom.
 These hetero atoms and the group containing them impart chemical properties to the
compound and hence are called functional groups.

Homologous Series
In organic chemistry, a homologous series is a series of compounds with the same
general formula, usually varying by a single parameter. This can be the length of a carbon
chain, for example in the straight-chained alkanes (paraffins).
 For instance, the ALCOHOLS: CH2OH, C2H5OH, C3H7OH, C4H9OH.
 The successive member differs by one -CH2 unit and 14 units of mass.

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 The chemical properties are imparted by the functional group thus all members have
similar chemical properties. But the members have different physical properties.
 The physical properties vary among the members of homologous series due to
difference in their molecular mass.
 Melting point and boiling point increases with increasing molecular mass.

Chemical Properties of Carbon Compounds


1. Combustion:
 Carbon compounds generally burn (oxidize) in air to produce carbon dioxide
and water, and release heat and light energy.
{ CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O + Heat & Light }
 Saturated hydrocarbon burns generally with a blue flame in good supply or air
and with a yellow sooty flame in limited supply of air.
 Sooty flame is seen when unsaturated hydrocarbons are burnt.
 Burning of coal and petroleum emits oxides of sulphur and nitrogen which are
responsible for acid rain.

2. Oxidation:
 Alcohols can be converted to carboxylic acids by oxidizing them using alkaline
potassium permanganate or acidified potassium di-chromate (they add oxygen
to the reactant, thus are called oxidizing agents).

3. Addition Reaction:
 An addition reaction, in organic chemistry, is in its simplest terms an organic
reaction where two or more molecules combine to form a larger one.

Chemical Properties of Ethanol


 C2H5OH reacts with Sodium to form Sodium
Ethoxide and Hydrogen.
 When C2H5OH is heated with concentrated
Sulphuric acid at 443K it is dehydrated to Ethene.

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Ethanoic Acid
 5-8% solution of acetic acid in water is called vinegar.
 Pure acetic acid is called glacial acetic acid.

 Carboxylic acids react with alcohols in presence of few drops of concentrated


sulphuric acid as catalyst and form sweet smelling compounds called ester.

 Hydrolysis On heating with an acid or a base the ester forms back the original alcohol
and carboxylic acid.
 Alkaline hydrolysis of ester is also called saponification.

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Soaps and Detergents
 Soap is sodium and potassium salt
of carboxylic acids with long chain.
 Soaps are effective with soft water
only and ineffective with hard
water.
 Detergents are ammonium or
sulphonate salts of carboxylic acids
with long chain. They are effective
with both soft as well as hard water.

An ionic part (hydrophilic) and a


long hydrocarbon chain (hydrophobic) part constitutes the soap molecule.

Cleansing Action of Soaps


 Most dirt is oily in nature and the
hydrophobic end attaches itself with
dirt, while the ionic end is surrounded
with molecules of water. This result in
formation of a radial structure called
micelles.
 An emulsion is thus formed by soap
molecule. The cloth needs to be
mechanically agitated to remove the
dirt particles from the cloth.
 Scum: The magnesium and calcium
salts present in hard water reacts with soap molecule to form insoluble products called
scum, thus obstructing the cleansing action. Use of detergents overcome this problem
as the detergent molecule prevents the formation of insoluble product and thus
clothes get cleaned.

________________________
Miss Rakhi Rani

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