Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
1 Problem 1
(a) + (b): We show first that λ = k is an eigenvalue and then we show that for
all i ∈ [n], it holds that |λi | ≤ k. Thus, we can conclude that λ1 = k.
1
1
• λ = k is an eigenvalue: we show that x = . ∈ Rn is an eigenvector with
..
1
n n
Acr ·xc = Acr ·1 =
P P P
eigenvalue λ = k, indeed (Ax)r = 1
c=1 c=1 c ∈ neighbors(r)
k
k
G is k−regular
= k. Hence, Ax = . = kx.
..
k
• For all i ∈ [n], |λi | ≤ k: Let v 6= 0 be some eigenvector of A, that is, there
is λ ∈ R with Av = λv 1 . Let z ∈ [n] be such that |λvz | is maximal, And
assume W.l.o.g that z = 1. We want to show that |λ| ≤ k: it holds that,
n
Ac1 vc =
P P
λv1 = (λv)1 = (Av)1 = vc
c=1 c ∈ neighbors(1)
Note that since |λv1 | is maximal, we get that |v1 | is maximal in |v|. There-
fore, we get from this and the above equality that
P T he triangle0 s inequality P
|λv1 | = | vc | ≤ |vc |
c ∈ neighbors(1) c ∈ neighbors(1)
G is k−regular and |v1 | is maximal
≤ k|v1 |
1
(c) A is symmetric over R, therefore, its eigenvectors form an orthogonal basis.
Now, assume that G has m connected components V1 , ..., Vm . We will show:
1) There are m orthogonal eigenvectors u(1) , ..., u(m) with eigenvalue k each.
Therefore the multiplicity of k is at least m.
2) Any vector u with Au = ku is in Span{u(1) , ..., u(m) }. Therefore the multi-
plicity of k is at most m
(i)
1. For every 1 ≤ i ≤ m, define the c’th coordinate of u(i) to be uc = 1 if c ∈
(i)
Vi and uc = 0 if c ∈ / Vi . In words, the vector u(i) is an indicator to which
vertices are in the Vi component. Its not hard to see that u(1) , ..., u(m) are
independent, indeed since the components partition the graph we get that
for every i 6= j hvi , vj i = 0. Now, what is left to show is that for every
1 ≤ i ≤ m, it holds that Au(i) = ku(i) . This follows from the fact that the
vertex r is in the component Vi all of r’s neighbors are in Vi , indeed
P
1 · 1, if r ∈ Vi
n
(i) c ∈ neighbors(r)
Acr (i)
P
(Au )r = · (u )c = P
c=1
1 · 0, if r ∈
/ Vi
c ∈ neighbors(r)
(
k, if r ∈ Vi
= = (ku(i) )r
0, if r ∈
/ Vi
2. Let u be some non-zero vector with Au = ku, fix i ∈ [m] and let r∗ be a
vertex in Vi with maximal |ur∗ |. Now since Au = ku, we get
P
kur∗ = (ku)r∗ = (Au)r∗ = uc
c ∈ neighbors(r ∗ )
(d)
• For the first direction, assume that that λn = −k, that is there is a non-
zero vector u such that Au = −ku, let r be such that | − ku| is maximal.
We have
n
Acr uc =
P P
−kur = (−ku)r = (Au)r = uc
c=1 c ∈ neighbors(r)
2
Note that the above equality holds iff uc = −ur for every c ∈ neighbors(r).
Applying a similar argument on the neighbors of r, we will get that if t is
a neighbor of a neighbor of r then ut = −(−ur ) = ur . If we keep applying
the same argument till we reach every vertex in r’s connected component
we will get that every vertex v in this component either has uv = ur or
uv = −ur , and if uv1 6= uv2 then there is no edge between v1 and v2 .
Hence, r’s component is bipartite w.r.t 1) vertices v with uv = ur . and 2)
vertices v with uv = −ur .
• For the other direction, assume that G has bipartite connected component,
denote one side of this component by L and the other side by R, and
assume that L has m vertices, while R has s vertices. Assume W.l.o.g
that L = [m], R = [m + s] \ L. Define the vector u ∈ Rn to be such that
the first m coordinates in u are 1, the coordinates from m + 1 up to m + s
are all equal −1 and the rest of the coordinates are all zero. We claim
that u is an eigenvector with eigenvalue −k, indeed
P
– For every 1 ≤ r ≤ m, we have that (Au)r = uc
c ∈ neighbors(r)
r 0 s neighbors are in R P
= −1 = −k.
c ∈ neighbors(r)
P
– For every m + 1 ≤ r ≤ m + s, we have that (Au)r = uc
c ∈ neighbors(r)
r 0 s neighbors are in L P
= 1 = k.
c ∈ neighbors(r)
P
– For every m + s < r, we have that (Au)r = uc
c ∈ neighbors(r)
r 0 s neighbors are not in L∪R P
= 0 = 0.
c ∈ neighbors(r)
Therefore, Au = −ku.
(e) G is bipartite, that is, V is partitioned to two sets L and R such that G0 s
edges are only between R and L. Assume W.l.o.g that L = [m], R = [m + s] \ L.
We show now that for every eigenvector u 6= 0 with eigenvalue λ, there exists an
eigenvector v 6= 0 with eigenvalue −λ: let u be some eigenvector with eigenvalue
λ. Define v as follows:
• For every 1 ≤ r ≤ m: vr = ur .
• For every m < r: vr = −ur .
In words, v agrees with u on the first m coordinates and agrees with −u on the
rest of the coordinates. Its not hard to see that since u 6= 0, then so is v. We
claim that v is an eigenvector with eigenvalue λ, indeed
3
P r 0 s neighbors are in R
• For every 1 ≤ r ≤ m, we have that (Av)r = vc =
c ∈ neighbors(r)
P P u0 s eigenvalue is λ
−uc = − uc = −(Au)r =
c ∈ neighbors(r) c ∈ neighbors(r)
−(λu)r .
P r 0 s neighbors are in L
• For every m < r, we have that (Av)r = vc =
c ∈ neighbors(r)
P u0 s eigenvalue is λ
uc = (Au)r = (λu)r .
c ∈ neighbors(r)
Now, since agrees with u on the first m coordinates and agrees with −u on the
other coordinates, we conclude that −λ is an eigenvalue of u. BTW, its not
hard to see that the above describes a linear bijection between the eigenspace
of λ and the eigenspace of −λ.
2 Problem 2
To begin with, we prove the following lemma
Lemma 2.1. Let A be an n×n matrix. It holds that rank(A)+dim(E(0, A)) =
n, where E(0, A) is the eigenspace of the the zero eigenvalues of A.
3 Problem 3
To begin with, define for each i ∈ [n], #3 (i) to be the number of different paths
from i to itself. We have seen in recitation that #3 (i) = (A3 )i,i . Now,
of length 3P
n
note that i=1 #3 (i) is 6 times the number of triangles, because each triangle is
counter
Pn twice for each
Pof its nodes. That is, thu number of triangles in the
Pngraph
n
is 61 i=1 #3 (i) = 16 i=1 (A3 )i,i . That is, if we show that trace(A3 ) = i=1 λ3i ,
then we are done. We show this as follows: we know that trace(A3 ) equals to
the sum of A3 eigenvalues (with multiplicity), hence, it is sufficient to show
4
that λ31 , λ32 , ..., λ3n are the eigenvalues of A3 . This is easy! Because, if v is an
eigenvector of A with eigenvalue λ, then v is an eigenvector of A3 with eigenvalue
λ3 , indeed
A3 v = A2 Av = A2 λv = λAAv = λ2 Av = λ3 v
4 Problem 4
(a) To begin with, we use the fact the unit circle is compact. Also, note that
f is continuous (f can be thought of as a polynomial of n variables- x1 , ..., xn ).
Now, since f is a continuous function from a compact set to R, we get that
image(f ) is compact! why?
• image(f ) is closed: let (yn ) ⊆ image(f ) be a sequence that converges
to some y. Hence, by definition there is some sequence (xn ) ⊆ S with
f (xn ) = yn for every n. Now, since S is compact, there is a subsequence
xnk that converges to some x ∈ S. Now, by continuity of f , we have
5
T T
y 0 z−z 0 y
limt→0 g 0 (t) = limt→0 z2 = (u Av+v Au) limt→0 z(t)−0·limt→0 y
limt→0 z 2 (t) =
(uT Av+v T Au)||v||2
||v||4
Now, since f (x) obtains maximum at v. We get that g(t) has a critical point
at t = 0. Therefore, limt→0 g 0 (t) has to be 0, that is, uT Av + v T Au = 0. This
happens iff