Relativity Length Contraction & Simultaneity

OPTION - RELATIVITY
1. This question is about length contraction and simultaneity.

(a) Define proper length.
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(1)
(b) A spaceship is travelling to the right at speed 0.75 c, through a tunnel which is open at both ends. Observer A
is standing at the centre of one side of the tunnel. Observer A, for whom the tunnel is at rest, measures the
length of the tunnel to be 240 m and the length of the spaceship to be 200 m. The diagram below shows this
situation from the perspective of observer A.
Observer B, for whom the spaceship is stationary, is standing at the centre of the spaceship.
(i) Calculate the Lorentz factor, γ, for this situation.
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(ii) Calculate the length of the tunnel according to observer B.
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(iii) Calculate the length of the spaceship according to observer B.
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(iv) According to observer A, the spaceship is completely inside the tunnel for a short time. State and
explain whether or not, according to observer B, the spaceship is ever completely inside the tunnel.
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(2)
(c) Two sources of light are located at each end of the tunnel. The diagram below shows this situation from the
perspective of observer A.
According to observer A, at the instant when observer B passes observer A, the two sources of light emit a
flash. Observer A sees the two flashes simultaneously. Discuss whether or not observer B sees the two
flashes simultaneously.
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(4)
(Total 10 marks)
2. This question is about length contraction and simultaneity.
(a) Define proper length.
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(1)
(b) A spaceship is travelling to the right at speed 0.75 c, through a tunnel which is open at both ends. Observer A
is standing at the centre of one side of the tunnel. Observer A, for whom the tunnel is at rest, measures the
length of the tunnel to be 240 m and the length of the spaceship to be 200 m. The diagram below shows this
situation from the perspective of observer A.
Observer B, for whom the spaceship is stationary, is standing at the centre of the spaceship.
(i) Calculate the Lorentz factor, γ, for this situation.
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(1)
(ii) Calculate the length of the tunnel according to observer B.
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(1)
(iii) Calculate the length of the spaceship according to observer B.
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(1)
(iv) According to observer A, the spaceship is completely inside the tunnel for a short time. State and
explain whether or not, according to observer B, the spaceship is ever completely inside the tunnel.
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(2)
(c) Two sources of light are located at each end of the tunnel. The diagram below shows this situation from the
perspective of observer A.
According to observer A, at the instant when observer B passes observer A, the two sources of light emit a
flash. Observer A sees the two flashes simultaneously. Discuss whether or not observer B sees the two
flashes simultaneously.
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(4)
(Total 10 marks)
3. This question is about relative velocities and energy at relativistic speeds.
Two identical rockets are moving along the same straight line as viewed from Earth.
Rocket 1 is moving away from the Earth at speed 0.80 c relative to the Earth and rocket 2 is moving away from
rocket 1 at speed 0.60 c relative to rocket 1.
(a) Calculate the velocity of rocket 2 relative to the Earth, using the
(i) Galilean transformation equation.
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(ii) relativistic transformation equation.
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(b) Comment on your answers in (a).
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3
(c) The rest mass of rocket 1 is 1.0 × 10 kg. Determine the relativistic kinetic energy of rocket 1, as measured
by an observer on Earth.
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(3)
4. This question is about the Michelson–Morley experiment.
The diagram below shows the essential features of the apparatus used in the Michelson–Morley experiment.
(a) State and explain how this apparatus was used to try to measure the speed of the Earth relative to the ether.
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(4)
(b) State the result of this experiment and explain how this result supports the special theory of relativity.
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(2)
(Total 6 marks)
5. This question is about gravitational red-shift.
Two identical lasers are situated on the surface of the Earth. One is directed horizontally towards observer A, who
14
measures the frequency to be 4.62 × 10 Hz. The other is directed vertically upwards towards observer B, who is
2
at a height of 1.00 × 10 m
(a) (i) State how the frequency as measured by observer B compares with the frequency as measured by
observer A.
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(ii) Calculate the difference in frequency between the laser light as measured by observers A and B.
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(iii) State one assumption that you made in (a)(ii).
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–2
(b) The lasers are now placed on a spaceship, which is accelerating upwards at a constant rate of 9.81 m s , far
2
away from any other masses as shown below. The distance of observer D from the laser is 1.00 × 10 m.
Observer C is at the bottom of the spaceship.
Explain, with reference to the equivalence principle, the frequencies measured by observers C and D, as
compared to observers A and B.
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(2)
(Total 6 marks)
6. This question is about relativity.
Carrie is in a spaceship that is travelling towards a star in a straight-line at constant velocity as observed by Peter.
Peter is at rest relative to the star.
(a) Carrie measures her spaceship to have a length of 100 m. Peter measures Carrie’s spaceship to have a length
of 91 m.
(i) Explain why Carrie measures the proper length of the spaceship.
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(1)
(ii) Show that Carrie travels at a speed of approximately 0.4 c relative to Peter.
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(b) According to Carrie, it takes the star ten years to reach her. Using your answer to (a)(ii), calculate the
distance to the star as measured by Peter.
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(c) According to Peter, as Carrie passes the star she sends a radio signal. Determine the time, as measured by
Carrie, for the message to reach Peter.
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(3)
(Total 8 marks)
7. This question is about a light clock.
Describe the principle of a light clock.
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(Total 2 marks)
8. This question is about relativity.
Carrie is in a spaceship that is travelling towards a star in a straight-line at constant velocity as observed by Peter.
Peter is at rest relative to the star.
(a) Carrie measures her spaceship to have a length of 100 m. Peter measures Carrie’s spaceship to have a length
of 91 m.
(i) Explain why Carrie measures the proper length of the spaceship.
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(1)
(ii) Show that Carrie travels at a speed of approximately 0.4 c relative to Peter.
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(b) According to Carrie, it takes the star ten years to reach her. Using your answer to (a)(ii), calculate the
distance to the star as measured by Peter.
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(2)
(c) According to Peter, as Carrie passes the star she sends a radio signal. Determine the time, as measured by
Carrie, for the message to reach Peter.
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(3)
(d) Carrie and Louise, two observers in a spaceship, view a light source placed close to Carrie. When the
spaceship is travelling at a constant velocity, they both measure the frequency of the light source and obtain
identical values.
The magnitude of the velocity of the spaceship increases.

State and explain any changes to the frequency of the light source, as measured by Louise, that occur during
the acceleration.
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(4)
(Total 12 marks)
9. This question is about relativistic mechanics.
(a) Calculate the potential difference through which a proton, starting from rest, must be accelerated for its
mass–energy to be equal to three times its rest mass-energy.
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(3)
(b) Calculate the momentum of the proton after acceleration.
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(3)
(Total 6 marks)
10. This question is about the Michelson–Morley experiment.
(a) (i) Outline the purpose of the experiment.
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(ii) State and explain why Michelson and Morley rotated the apparatus through 90°.
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(b) State and explain the significance of the result of the experiment.
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(3)
(Total 6 marks)
11. This question is about spacetime.
(a) Describe what is meant by spacetime.
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(b) State the shape of the path in spacetime of a body
(i) moving at constant velocity.
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(ii) orbiting the Earth.
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(c) Explain how spacetime is used to describe the gravitational attraction between Earth and a satellite orbiting
the Earth.
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(2)
(Total 6 marks)
12. This question is about relativistic kinematics.
(a) Define inertial frame of reference.
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(2)
(b) Ann and Sue are twins. Sue remains on Earth. Ann travels to the star Sirius in a spaceship moving at a speed
of 0.80 c, as measured by Sue. The distance between Earth and Sirius is 8.8 ly, as measured by Sue.
(i) Calculate the time elapsed, as measured by Sue, between Ann leaving Earth and reaching Sirius.
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(1)
(ii) State and explain whether Ann or Sue measures the proper time between Ann leaving Earth and
arriving at Sirius.
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(iii) Calculate the time taken for the spaceship to reach Sirius, as measured by Ann.
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(iv) As Ann approaches Sirius, she sends a radio message back to Sue. The distance between Sirius and
Earth, as measured by Ann, is 5.28 ly. Determine the time, as measured by Ann, that it takes for the
signal to reach Sue.
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(3)
(Total 10 marks)
(a) Define inertial frame of reference.
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(2)
(b) Ann and Sue are twins. Sue remains on Earth. Ann travels to the star Sirius in a spaceship moving at a speed
of 0.80c, as measured by Sue. The distance between Earth and Sirius is 8.8 ly, as measured by Sue.
(i) Calculate the time elapsed, as measured by Sue, between Ann leaving Earth and reaching Sirius.
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(ii) State and explain whether Ann or Sue measures the proper time between Ann leaving Earth and
arriving at Sirius.
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(2)
(iii) Calculate the time taken for the spaceship to reach Sirius, as measured by Ann.
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(2)
(iv) As Ann approaches Sirius, she sends a radio message back to Sue. The distance between Sirius and
Earth, as measured by Ann, is 5.28 ly. Determine the time, as measured by Ann, that it takes for the
signal to reach Sue.
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(3)
(c) As soon as Ann arrives at Sirius, she immediately turns around and returns to Earth at a speed of 0.80c, as
measured by Sue. The return journey gives rise to the twin paradox.
(i) State what is meant by the twin paradox.
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(1)
(ii) Outline how the twin paradox is resolved.
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(2)
(Total 13 marks)
14. This question is about relativistic mass and energy.
(a) Define rest mass.
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(b) Explain why particles cannot be accelerated to the speed c.
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(c) Two protons are travelling towards one another along the same straight line. The speed of each proton is
0.70c as measured by a laboratory observer. Calculate the relative velocity of approach, as measured in the
frame of reference of one of the protons.
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(3)
(d) Determine the potential difference through which a proton must be accelerated in order to reach a speed of
0.70c.
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(3)
(Total 9 marks)
15. This question is about black holes.
(a) Define the Schwarzschild radius.
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(b) Calculate the Schwarzschild radius for an object of mass 2.0 × 10 kg.
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(2)
(c) A starship is stationary just outside the event horizon of a black hole. A space station is also stationary and is
located far away from the black hole and any other massive object.
(i) The starship transmits a radio signal to the space station. Explain why the signal received at the space
station is shifted to a lower frequency than the transmitted frequency.
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(2)
(ii) The starship remains stationary just outside the event horizon for one hour as measured by an observer
in the starship. The time elapsed, as measured by an observer in the space station, is ten hours.
Determine, in terms of the Schwarzschild radius Rs of the black hole, the distance of the starship from
the event horizon of the black hole.
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(Total 8 marks)
(a) State what is meant by proper length and proper time interval.
Proper length: ..............................................................................................................
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Proper time interval: ...................................................................................................
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(2)
(b) A spaceship moves with speed v = 0.600c relative to a space station. Two lasers, A and B, on the space
station are 5.00 m apart as measured by the space station observers. The gamma factor for a speed of v =
0.600c is γ =1.25.
(i) A radio signal is sent to the spaceship from the space station. The transmission lasts for 6.00 s
according to space station clocks. Calculate the duration of the transmission according to the spaceship
observers.
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(2)
(ii) Calculate the distance between the lasers A and B according to the spaceship observers.
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(2)
(c) The lasers in (b) are fired simultaneously according to the space station observers.
Light from each laser makes a mark on the spaceship. The spaceship observers measure the distance between
the two marks to be 6.25 m. According to the spaceship observers
(i) state which laser was fired first.
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(1)
(ii) determine the difference in time between the firings of the two lasers.
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(2)
(Total 9 marks)
17. This question is about frames of reference and the speed of light.
(a) Describe what is meant by an inertial frame of reference.
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8 –1
(b) The diagram shows two inertial frames of reference. Frame S′ moves with velocity v = 2.0 × 10 m s
relative to frame S along the x-x′-direction. When the origins of the two frames coincided, the clocks in both
frames were set to show zero.
3 –5
An event takes place at x = 5.0 × 10 m when the clocks in frame S show t = 3.0 × 10 s.
(i) By using Galilean transformation equations, determine the position and time of this event in the S′
frame of reference.
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(2)
(ii) A laser, at rest in the frame S′, emits a ray of light along the negative x′-direction (i.e. towards the left).
The speed of the ray of light is measured to be c in the frame S′. Show, using the relativistic velocity
addition formula, that the speed of the ray of light in the frame S is also measured to be c.
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(c) Outline an experiment (other than the Michelson–Morley experiment) which provides evidence that the
speed of light is independent of the speed of its source.
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(2)
(Total 8 marks)
(a) State what is meant by proper length and proper time interval.
Proper length: ..............................................................................................................
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Proper time interval: ....................................................................................................
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(2)
(b) A spaceship moves with speed v = 0.600c relative to a space station. Two lasers, A and B, on the space
station are 5.00 m apart as measured by the space station observers. The gamma factor for a speed of v =
0.600c is γ =1.25.
(i) A radio signal is sent to the spaceship from the space station. The transmission lasts for 6.00 s
according to space station clocks. Calculate the duration of the transmission according to the spaceship
observers.
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(2)
(ii) Calculate the distance between the lasers A and B according to the spaceship observers.
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(2)
(c) The lasers in (b) are fired simultaneously according to the space station observers.
Light from each laser makes a mark on the spaceship. The spaceship observers measure the distance between
the two marks to be 6.25 m. According to the spaceship observers
(i) state which laser was fired first.
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(1)
(ii) determine the difference in time between the firings of the two lasers.
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(2)
(Total 9 marks)
0 – +
The upsilon (Y ) is an unstable particle that decays into a tau (τ ) and an antitau (τ ) according to the reaction
0 – +
Y →τ +τ
0 –
The Y is at rest relative to the laboratory when it decays. The momentum of the τ relative to the laboratory is 4.40
–1 – + –2
GeV c . The rest mass of the τ and of the τ is 1.78 GeV c .
0
Determine the rest mass of the Y .
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(Total 3 marks)
20. This question is about general relativity.
(a) State Einstein’s principle of equivalence.
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(1)
(b) A rocket is accelerating in the direction shown far from any masses.
A monochromatic beam of light is emitted from the floor F of the rocket. The beam is received at the ceiling
C of the rocket. Suggest why the frequency of the light beam measured at C is less than the frequency
measured at F.
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(2)
(c) The diagram shows three identical rockets A, B and C.
Rocket A is accelerating in outer space with acceleration a.

Rocket B is at rest on the surface of a planet. The gravitational field strength at the surface of the planet is a.
Rocket C is falling freely above a planet. The gravitational field strength of the planet in the region of the
rocket is a.
Light is emitted from a source X on the left wall of each rocket. The receiver Y is directly opposite X.
The initial direction of the light is parallel to the floor of the rocket.
Draw, for each rocket, the path of the light ray emitted from X according to an observer in each rocket.
(3)
(d) Einstein’s theory of general relativity predicts that a massive body causes a curvature (bending) of space.
(i) Describe what is meant by the curvature of space.
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(1)
(ii) Describe how Eddington’s experiment provides evidence for the curvature of space caused by the Sun.
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(3)
(Total 10 marks)
21. This question is about a Galilean transformation and time dilation.
Ben is in a spaceship that is travelling in a straight-line with constant speed v as measured by Jill who is in a space
station.
Ben switches on a light pulse that bounces vertically (as observed by Ben) between two horizontal mirrors M 1 and
M2 separated by a distance d. At the instant that the mirrors are opposite Jill, the pulse is just leaving the mirror M 2.
The speed of light in air is c.
(a) On the diagram, sketch the path of the light pulse between M 1 and M2 as observed by Jill.
(1)
(b) The time for the light pulse to travel from M2 to M1 as measured by Jill is Δt.
(i) State, according to Jill, the distance moved by the spaceship in time Δt.
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(1)
(ii) Using a Galilean transformation, derive an expression for the length of the path of the light between
M2 and M1.
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(c) State, according to special relativity, the length of the path of the light between M 2 and M1 as measured by
Jill in terms of c and ∆t.
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(1)
(d) The time for the pulse to travel from M2 to M1 as measured by Ben is ∆t′. Use your answers to (b)(i) and (c)
to derive a relationship between ∆t and ∆t′.
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(3)
(e) According to a clock at rest with respect to Jill, a clock in the spaceship runs slow by a factor of 2.3. Show
that the speed v of the spaceship is 0.90c.
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(2)
(Total 10 marks)
22. This question is about a Galilean transformation and time dilation.
Ben is in a spaceship that is travelling in a straight-line with constant speed v as measured by Jill who is in a space
station.
Ben switches on a light pulse that bounces vertically (as observed by Ben) between two horizontal mirrors M 1 and
M2 separated by a distance d. At the instant that the mirrors are opposite Jill, the pulse is just leaving the mirror M 2.
The speed of light in air is c.
(a) On the diagram, sketch the path of the light pulse between M 1 and M2 as observed by Jill.
(1)
(b) The time for the pulse to travel from M2 to M1 as measured by Jill is ∆t.
(i) State, according to Jill, the distance moved by the spaceship in time ∆t.
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(1)
(ii) Using a Galilean transformation, derive an expression for the length of the path of the light between
M2 and M1.
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(2)
(c) State, according to special relativity, the length of the path of the light between M 2 and M1 as measured by
Jill in terms of c and ∆t.
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(1)
(d) The time for the pulse to travel from M2 to M1 as measured by Ben is ∆t′. Use your answers to (b)(i) and (c)
to derive a relationship between ∆t and ∆t′.
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(3)
(e) According to a clock at rest with respect to Jill, a clock in the spaceship runs slow by a factor of 2.3. Show
that the speed v of the spaceship is 0.90c.
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(2)
(f) The length of a table in the spaceship is measured by Ben to be 1.8 m. Calculate the length of the table as
measured by Jill.
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(1)
(g) The questions (e) and (f) introduce the concepts of time dilation and length contraction. Discuss how muon
decay in the atmosphere provides experimental evidence for these concepts.
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(5)
(Total 16 marks)
23. This question is about pair production and relativistic mechanics.
–
A γ-photon of energy 2.46 MeV is travelling close to the nucleus of a gold atom. It converts into an electron (e )–
+
positron (e ) pair. Each particle travels at 45° to the original direction of the photon.
Immediately after the conversion, the kinetic energies of the electron and positron are equal. The magnitude of the
–1
recoil momentum of the gold nucleus is 0.880 MeV c and is in the direction of the photon.
(a) Calculate, immediately after the decay, the magnitude of the momentum of the electron.
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(4)
(b) Calculate the value V of the potential difference through which an electron at rest must be accelerated in
order to have the same magnitude of momentum as that in (a).
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(2)
(Total 6 marks)
24. This question is about general relativity.
Bob is standing on the floor of a spaceship and he throws a ball in a direction parallel to the floor.
Between leaving Bob’s hand and landing on the floor, the ball follows the path shown.
(a) State and explain whether, from the path followed by the ball, Bob can deduce that the spaceship is at rest on
the surface of a planet.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(3)
(b) Outline how the concept of spacetime can be used to explain the
(i) trajectory of the ball if the spaceship is at rest on the surface of a planet.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(ii) nature of a black hole.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(c) Calculate the radius that Earth would have to have in order for it to behave as a black hole. The mass of
24
Earth is 6.0 × 10 kg.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 8 marks)
25. This question is about simultaneity.
Albert is at rest with respect to the ground. Hermann is in a carriage that is moving with speed v relative to Albert
in the direction shown. Two flashes of light are emitted from the back and the front of the carriage. According to
Hermann’s clock they arrive at Hermann’s position simultaneously.
Explain with reference to the concept of proper time, why the arrival of the light pulses at Hermann will also be
simultaneous to Albert.
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
(Total 3 marks)
A spacecraft leaves Earth at a speed of 0.80c as measured by an observer on Earth. It heads towards, and continues
beyond, a distant planet. The planet is 52 light years away from Earth as measured by an observer on Earth.
When the spacecraft leaves Earth, Amanda, one of the astronauts in the spacecraft, is 20 years old.
5
The Lorentz gamma factor for a speed of 0.80c is γ = 3 .
(a) Calculate
(i) the time taken for the journey to the planet as measured by an observer on Earth.
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii) the distance between the Earth and the planet, as measured by Amanda.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(iii) Amanda’s age as the spacecraft goes past the planet, according to Amanda.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(b) As the spacecraft goes past the planet Amanda sends a radio signal to Earth.
Calculate, as measured by the spacecraft observers, the time it takes for the signal to arrive at Earth.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 7 marks)
27. This question is about the Michelson-Morley experiment.
The diagram shows the type of arrangement that was used in the Michelson-Morley experiment.
The speed of light in free space is c and the orbital speed of Earth is v.
(a) State
(i) the purpose of the Michelson-Morley experiment.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii) using a Galilean transformation, the speed of light along the path from the mirror M1 to the semi-
transparent mirror S in terms of c and v.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(b) With the apparatus in the position shown, an interference pattern was observed in the field of view of the
telescope. The apparatus was then rotated by 90º.
State
(i) what was expected to be observed.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii) what was actually observed.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(iii) how the result of the Michelson-Morley experiment is explained in the theory of special relativity.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 5 marks)
28. This question is about simultaneity.
(a) Define what is meant by a proper time interval.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
(b) Albert is at rest with respect to the ground. Hermann is in a carriage that is moving with speed v relative to
Albert in the direction shown. Two flashes of light are emitted from the back and the front of the carriage.
According to Hermann’s clock they arrive at Hermann’s position simultaneously.
Explain with reference to the concept of proper time, why the arrival of the light pulses at Hermann will also
be simultaneous to Albert.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 4 marks)
A spacecraft leaves Earth at a speed of 0.80c as measured by an observer on Earth. It heads towards, and continues
beyond, a distant planet. The planet is 52 light years away from Earth as measured by an observer on Earth.
When the spacecraft leaves Earth, Amanda, one of the astronauts in the spacecraft, is 20 years old.
5
The Lorentz gamma factor for a speed of 0.80c is γ = 3 .
(a) Calculate
(i) the time taken for the journey to the planet as measured by an observer on Earth.
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii) the distance between the Earth and the planet, as measured by Amanda.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(iii) Amanda’s age as the spacecraft goes past the planet, according to Amanda.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(b) As the spacecraft goes past the planet Amanda sends a radio signal to Earth.
Calculate, as measured by the spacecraft observers, the time it takes for the signal to arrive at Earth.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 7 marks)
The graph shows the variation with speed v of the total energy E of a particle called the kaon,
– – –2
K . The rest mass of the K is 490 MeV c and its electric charge is the same as that of the electron.
–
(a) Suggest how the graph may be used in order to obtain the rest mass of the K .
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
–
(b) Use the graph to determine the potential difference required to accelerate a K from rest to a speed of 0.95c.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
–
(c) The K is unstable and decays into a muon and an antineutrino according to the reaction
– –
K →µ + v
–2
The rest mass of the muon is 105 MeV c . The rest mass of the antineutrino may be assumed to be zero.
–
The K is at rest when it decays.
–1
(i) Show that total energy is conserved if the momentum of the muon is 234 MeV c .
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(ii) Determine the kinetic energy of the muon.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 8 marks)
31. This question is about black holes
(a) Define what is meant by the Schwarzschild radius of a black hole.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
4
(b) A probe is at rest a small distance from a black hole of Schwarzschild radius 6.7 × 10 m.
The probe emits monochromatic light pulses that are received by a spacecraft very far from the black hole.
14
According to a clock in the probe the pulses have a frequency of 4.5 × 10 Hz, with one pulse being emitted
14
every two seconds. The frequency of the light as measured by a clock in the spacecraft is 3.0 × 10 Hz.
(i) State the name of the phenomenon responsible for the observed change in the frequency of the light.
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii) Determine, according to the spacecraft clock, how often the pulses are received by the spacecraft.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(iii) Determine the distance of the probe from the centre of the black hole.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 6 marks)
32. This question is about simultaneity and length measurement.
(a) One of the two postulates of special relativity states that “the laws of physics are the same for all inertial
observers”. State the other postulate.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
(b) Tom and Barbara are two observers each in a separate reference frame. The reference frames are moving
relative to each other in the same straight line with constant velocity.
Two lamps L1 and L2 are operated by the same switch. Tom is at the mid-point between the lamps as
measured in his frame of reference.
The lamps and the switch are at rest relative to Tom.
Tom switches on the lamps and to him they light simultaneously. Explain, based on your answer to (a), why
the lamps will not light simultaneously, according to Barbara.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(3)
(c) Tom measures the separation of L1 and L2 to be 1.5 m whereas Barbara measures the separation to be 0.5 m.
(i) State and explain which observer measures the proper length between L 1 and L2.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii) Calculate, in terms of the free space speed of light c, the relative speed between Tom and Barbara.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
(iii) Sketch a graph to show how the relative speed v between Tom and Barbara varies with the length L
between L1 and L2 as measured by Barbara. The data point (1.5,0) is shown. On the v axis, label the
point v = c.
(3)
(Total 11 marks)
33. This question is about simultaneity and length measurement.
(a) One of the two postulates of special relativity states that “the laws of physics are the same for all inertial
observers”. State the other postulate.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
(b) Tom and Barbara are two observers each in a separate reference frame. The reference frames are moving
relative to each other in the same straight line with constant velocity.
Two lamps L1 and L2 are operated by the same switch. Tom is at the mid-point between the lamps as
measured in his frame of reference.
The lamps and the switch are at rest relative to Tom.

Tom switches on the lamps and to him they light simultaneously. Explain, based on your answer to (a), why
the lamps will not light simultaneously, according to Barbara.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(3)
(c) Tom measures the separation of L1 and L2 to be 1.5 m whereas Barbara measures the separation to be 0.5 m.
(i) State and explain which observer measures the proper length between L 1 and L2.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii) Calculate, in terms of the free space speed of light c, the relative speed between Tom and Barbara.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
(iii) Sketch a graph to show how the relative speed v between Tom and Barbara varies with the length L
between L1 and L2 as measured by Barbara. The data point (1.5, 0) is shown. On the v axis, label the
point v = c.
(3)
(d) In another situation, Tom is at rest on the surface of Earth. Barbara is in a spaceship travelling at constant
velocity, with respect to Earth, towards a distant planetary system. After reaching the system she returns to
Earth. Outline how this situation leads to the so-called twin paradox.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 14 marks)
34. This question is about some consequences of special relativity.
A proton is accelerated from rest through a potential difference V. After acceleration its speed is close to that of the
speed of light in free space c.
(a) On the axes sketch a graph to show the variation with speed v of the mass m of the proton.
(3)
8
(b) The potential difference V is 8.50 ×10 V. As measured in the laboratory frame of reference,
(i) calculate the total energy of the proton after acceleration.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
(ii) show that the final speed of the proton is 0.852c.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(c) After acceleration the proton approaches an antiproton (proton with a negative charge) that is moving along
the same straight line but in the opposite direction. The relative speed of approach of the particles, as
measured in the laboratory frame of reference, is 0.987c.
Deduce that the speed of the antiproton is about the same as the speed of the proton in (b)(ii).
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 10 marks)
35. This question is about gravitational red-shift and black holes.
The concept of gravitational red-shift indicates that clocks run slower as they approach a black hole.
(a) Describe what is meant by
(i) gravitational red-shift.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(ii) spacetime.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(iii) a black hole with reference to the concept of spacetime.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(b) A particular black hole has a Schwarzschild radius R. A person at a distance of 2R from the event horizon of
the black hole measures the time between two events to be 10 s.
Deduce that for a person a very long way from the black hole the time between the events will be measured
as 12 s.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 6 marks)
36. This question is about special relativity.
(a) State what is meant by an inertial frame of reference.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
(b) Aibhe is at rest in an inertial frame of reference A and Euan is at rest in an inertial frame of reference B. B is
moving in the x-direction, with speed v, relative to A. The table T is at rest with respect to Aibhe.
Aibhe measures the length of T to be 1.5 m and Euan measures it to be 1.2 m.

(i) Explain which observer measures the proper length of T.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii) Determine the speed v.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(4)
(c) Two insects land at the same point on T. According to a clock at rest with respect to Aibhe, one of the insects
lands 2.4 seconds after the other. Calculate, according to Euan, the time interval between the landings of each
insect.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
(d) Two other insects land at either end of the table. These two events may occur at the same time as measured
by one of the observers (Aibhe or Euan) but not to the other. Outline, with reference to the postulates of
relativity, why these times differ.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 10 marks)
37. This question is about special relativity.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
(b) Aibhe is at rest in an inertial frame of reference A and Euan is at rest in an inertial frame of reference B. B is
moving in the x-direction, with speed v, relative to A. The table T is at rest with respect to Aibhe.
Aibhe measures the length of T to be 1.5 m and Euan measures it to be 1.2 m.

(i) Explain which observer measures the proper length of T.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii) Determine the speed v.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(4)
(c) Two insects land at the same point on T. According to a clock at rest with respect to Aibhe, one of the insects
lands 2.4 seconds after the other. Calculate, according to Euan, the time interval between the landings of each
insect.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
(d) Two other insects land at either end of the table. These two events may occur at the same time as measured
by one of the observers (Aibhe or Euan) but not to the other. Outline, with reference to the postulates of
relativity, why these times differ.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(3)
(e) Muons are produced in the upper atmosphere by the bombardment of cosmic rays. The muons travel close to
the speed of light and are unstable. They have a very short half-life as measured in a muon’s frame of
reference. Explain how the detection of muons at the surface of the Earth provides evidence for the special
theory of relativity.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 13 marks)
38. This question is about relativistic energy and momentum.
(a) Particle A is at rest with respect to an observer. Another identical particle B is moving with respect to the
observer. Distinguish between the total energy of particle A and the total energy of particle B as measured by
the observer.
Particle A: ....................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
Particle B: ....................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(b) Two protons are travelling towards each other along the same straight line in a vacuum.
The speed of each proton, as measured in the laboratory frame of reference, is 0.960c.
(i) Calculate the relative speed of one proton with respect to the other proton.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(ii) Show that the total energy of one of the protons, according to an observer at rest in the laboratory, is
3.35 GeV.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(c) The collision of the two protons results in the following reaction
+ + + 0 +
p +p =p +n +π
+ –2
where π is a particle called a pion and has a rest mass of 140 MeV c . The total energy of the pion is 502
MeV. Determine, according to an observer at rest in the laboratory, the
(i) total energy of the proton formed plus the total energy of the neutron formed by the collision.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(ii) momentum of the pion.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(d) The diagram shows the paths followed by the neutron and pion in (c).
The dotted line shows the path of the original collision of the protons in (b). On the diagram, draw the
direction of the proton formed in the collision.
(1)
(Total 11 marks)
39. This question is about spacetime and black holes.
(a) State what is meant by the concept of spacetime.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(b) Outline, with reference to the motion of photons in spacetime, what is meant by the Schwarzschild radius.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(3)
30
(c) The mass of the Sun is about 2 × 10 kg. Show that, if the Sun were to become a black hole, its radius
would be about 3 km.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 6 marks)
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(2)
(b) A spacecraft is moving with a speed of 0.80c with respect to observers on Earth. After 6.0 years of travel,
according to the spacecraft clocks, the spacecraft arrives at a distant solar system.
(i) Calculate the time the journey has taken according to an observer on Earth.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
(3)
(ii) Calculate the distance between the Earth and the solar system according to an observer on Earth.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
(2)
(iii) The spacecraft observers send a signal to Earth to announce that they have arrived at the solar system.
The spacecraft continues to move. Determine how long it will take the signal to arrive on Earth
according to the spacecraft observers.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 10 marks)
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(2)
(b) A spacecraft is moving with a speed of 0.80c with respect to observers on Earth. After 6.0 years of travel,
according to the spacecraft clocks, the spacecraft arrives at a distant solar system.
(i) Calculate the time the journey has taken according to an observer on Earth.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
(3)
(ii) Calculate the distance between the Earth and the solar system according to an observer on Earth.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
(2)
(iii) The spacecraft observers send a signal to Earth to announce that they have arrived at the solar system.
The spacecraft continues to move. Determine how long it will take the signal to arrive on Earth
according to the spacecraft observers.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 10 marks)
42. Two electrons are travelling directly towards one another. Each has a speed of 0.80c relative to a stationary
observer. Calculate the relative velocity of approach, as measured in the frame of reference of one of the electrons.
..............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................
(Total 3 marks)
43. This question is about mass-energy.
(a) Distinguish between the rest mass-energy of a particle and its total energy.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(2)
–2
(b) The rest mass of a proton is 938 MeV c . State the value of its rest mass-energy.
...................................................................................................................................
(1)
(c) A proton is accelerated from rest through a potential difference V until it reaches a speed of 0.980c.
Determine the potential difference V as measured by an observer at rest in the laboratory frame of reference.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(4)
(Total 7 marks)
44. The diagram below illustrates the distortion of space by the gravitational field of a black hole.
(a) (i) Describe what is meant by the centre and the surface of a black hole.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
(3)
(ii) With reference to your answer in (a)(i), define the Schwarzschild radius.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
(1)
31
(iii) Calculate the Schwarzschild radius for an object having a mass of 2.0 ´ 10 kg (ten solar masses).
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
(2)
(iv) Science fiction frequently portrays black holes as objects that “swallow” everything in the universe.
A spacecraft is travelling towards the object in (a)(iii) such that, if it continues in a straight-line, its
7
distance of closest approach would be about 10 m. By reference to the diagram and your answer in (a)
(iii), suggest whether the fate of the spacecraft is consistent with the fate as portrayed in science
fiction.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
(2)
(b) In 1979, Wahl, Carswell and Weymann discovered “two” very distant quasars separated by a small angle.
Spectroscopic examination of the images showed that they were identical.
Outline how these observations give support to the theory of General Relativity.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 10 marks)
MARKSCHEME
1. (a) the length of an object as measured by an observer who is at rest
relative to the object; 1
1 1

2
v 1  0.75 2
1
(b) (i) γ= c2 = 1.5; 1
L0 240

(ii) L = γ 1.5 = 160 m; 1
(iii) L0 = γL = 1.5 × 200 = 300 m; 1
(iv) the spaceship is never completely inside the tunnel;
because (according to observer B) the spaceship is longer
than the tunnel; 2
Apply ECF in all parts of question (b).
(c) observer B will not see the two flashes simultaneously;
according to B, light 2 is moving to the left/towards observer B;
since the speed of light is the same for both sources;
the flash from light 2 reaches B before the flash from light 1;
or
according to B, the two flashes arrive at A simultaneously;
according to B, A is moving to the left/away from light 2;
since light from both sources moves with the same speed;
for the flashes to be received by A at the same time, the flash from
light 2 must be emitted first; 4
Accept any equivalent discussion.
[10]
2. (a) the length of an object as measured by an observer who is at rest
relative to the object; 1
1 1

v2 1  0.75 2
1 2
(b) (i) γ= c = 1.5; 1
L0 240

(ii) L =  1.5 = 160 m; 1
(iii) L0 = γL = 1.5 × 200 = 300 m; 1
(iv) the spaceship is never completely inside the tunnel;
because (according to observer B) the spaceship is longer
than the tunnel; 2
Apply ECF in all parts of question (b).
(c) observer B will not see the two flashes simultaneously;
according to B, light 2 is moving to the left/towards observer B;
since the speed of light is the same for both sources;
the flash from light 2 reaches B before the flash from light 1;
or
according to B, the two flashes arrive at A simultaneously;
according to B, A is moving to the left/away from light 2;
since light from both sources moves with the same speed;
for the flashes to be received by A at the same time, the flash from
light 2 must be emitted first; 4
Accept any equivalent discussion.
[10]
3. (a) (i) ux′ = ux + v = 0.60c + 0.80c = 1.40c; 1
 
 
 ux  v  0.60c  0.80c
ux  
 uxv  0.60c ´ 0.80c
 1 2  1
(ii)  c  c2 ;
 1.40c 
 
 1.48  0.95c; 2
Award [1] for answers that use v = – 0.80 c to get an
answer of – 0.38 c.
(b) the answer to (a)(i) exceeds c / the answer to (a)(ii) does not exceed c;
hence the Galilean transformation is not valid / the relativistic
transformation must be used / OWTTE; 2
1 1

v2 0.80 2 c 2
1 2 1
(c) γ= c c2 = 1.7;
2 3 8 2
EK = [γ – 1]m0c = [1.667 – 1] × 1.0 × 10 × [3.0 × 10 ] ;
19
= 6.0 × 10 J; 3
1
2 19
Award [0] for answers that use Ek = 2 mv to get an answer of 2.9 × 10 J.
[8]
4. (a) light from two beams causes an interference pattern at the
detector/telescope;
due to the path difference/difference in speed of light relative
o aether between two beams;
if the apparatus were rotated (by 90 degrees) the interference
pattern would change/shift (if the aether existed);
the amount of shift/change would allow the speed of the Earth
(relative to the aether) to be determined; 4
(b) the orientation of the apparatus had no effect on the interference pattern;
hence the speed of light does not depend on the speed of the source/
speed of observer / there is no absolute reference frame / aether
does not exist; 2
[6]
5. (a) (i) observer B measures a lower frequency; 1
f gh 4.62 ´1014 ´ 9.81´1.00 ´ 10 2
 2  f 
(ii) f c [3.00 ´ 108 ] 2 ;
∆f = 5.04 Hz; 2
–2
Accept use of g = 10 m s to get f = 5.13 Hz.
(iii) assume that g is constant over the height interval; 1
(b) the equivalence principle states that it is impossible to
distinguish between an accelerating reference frame and
a gravitational field;
therefore the frequency measured by observer D will be
lower than that measured by observer C (by 5.04 Hz) /
observer C measures the same value as A, observer D
measures the same frequency as B / OWTTE; 2
[6]
6. (a) (i) proper length is measured by observer at rest relative to
object / Carrie is at rest relative to spaceship; 1
 100 
 
(ii) γ =  91  1.1;
v2 1
2 2
evidence of algebraic manipulation e.g. c = 1 – 1.1 to give
v = 0.42 c;
≈ 0.4 c 2
(b) travel time measured by Peter = (10 × γ =) 11 years;
4.6 ly or 4.4 ly (if 0.4 c used); 2
(c) moves away at 0.42 c so is 4.2 ly away when signal emitted; (allow
ECF from (a)(ii))
signal travel time t where ct = 4.2 + 0.42ct;
7.2 y or 7 y (if 0.4 c used); 3
[8]
7. time interval for light to be reflected between two parallel mirrors / OWTTE;
observer must be in same reference frame / OWTTE; 2
[2]
8. (a) (i) proper length is measured by observer at rest relative to
object / Carrie is at rest relative to spaceship; 1
 100 
 
(ii) γ =  91  1.1;
v2 1
2 2
evidence of algebraic manipulation e.g. c = 1 – 1.1 to give
v = 0.42 c;
≈ 0.4 c 2
(b) travel time measured by Peter = (10 × γ =) 11 years;
4.6 ly or 4.4 ly (if 0.4 c used); 2
(c) moves away at 0.42 c so is 4.2 ly away when signal emitted; (allow
ECF from (a)(ii))
signal travel time t where ct = 4.2 + 0.42ct;
7.2 y or 7 y (if 0.4 c used); 3
(d) speed of light is independent of speed of source;
so (because of acceleration) source appears to move away from
Louise / OWTTE;
Doppler effect predicts a red-shift;
Louise measures a lower frequency; 4
or
accelerating spaceship is equivalent to being at rest in a gravitational
field / OWTTE;
photons leaving the source therefore gain potential energy and
lose kinetic energy;
since E = hf;
Louise will measure a lower frequency;
[12]
2 2
9. (a) 3mpc = kinetic energy gain + mpc ;
2 –2
kinetic energy gain = 2 × 938 c (MeV c );
1900 MV; 3
2 2 2 2 2 4
(b) 9mp c = p c +mp c ;
2 2 2 4
p c = 8mp c ;
–1
p = 2700 MeV c ; 3
or
γ = 3;
to give v = 0.943 c;
–1
p = γmpv = 3 × 938 × 0.943 = 2700 MeV c ;
[6]
10. (a) (i) to measure the Earth’s motion through “ether”; 1
(ii) 90° rotation exchanges beam directions relative to Earth’s
motion through “ether”;
to produce a shift in the interference pattern (if “ether” exists); 2
(b) no shift;
means no change in optical path difference/optical lengths
of two beams;
so time taken by light independent of path/speed of light is
invariant / “ether” has no effect; 3
Award [0] for a bald statement such as “ether does not exist”.
[6]
11. (a) a coordinate system;
in which time is at right angles to space coordinates / consisting
of three dimension of space and one of time; 2
(b) (i) straight line; 1
(ii) curve/circle/ellipse; 1
(c) (general relativity suggests that) Earth warps spacetime;
the satellite follows shortest path in spacetime which is an orbit about Earth; 2
[6]
12. (a) a co-ordinate system (in which measurements of distance and
time can be made);
which is not accelerating/in which Newton’s laws are valid; 2
Distance  8.8 
 
(b) (i) Time = Speed  0.80  = 11 years; 1
(ii) Ann;
according to Ann, the two events of leaving Earth and
arriving at Sirius occur at the same point in space;
Award [0] for bald correct answer or incorrect explanation. 2
 
 
1  1 
  1.667
v2  0.8 2 c 2 
1 2  1 2 
(iii) γ= c  c  ≈ 1.7;
 11 
 
Time for Ann  1.667  6.6 years; 2
(iv) let t be the time signal takes to reach Earth according to Ann.
In this time, Ann would move further away from the Earth
by the distance vt, where v = 0.80c;
starship and Earth originally separated by 5.28light-years,
according to Ann;
 5.28 light years 
 t  
so 5.28 = ct – vt  c  0.8c  = 26 years; 3
[10]
13. (a) a co-ordinate system (in which measurements of distance and
time can be made);
which is not accelerating/in which Newton’s laws are valid; 2
Distance  8.8 
 
(b) (i) Time = Speed  0 . 80  = 11 years; 1
(ii) Ann;
according to Ann, the two events of leaving Earth and
arriving at Sirius occur at the same point in space;
Award [0] for bald correct answer or incorrect explanation. 2
 
 
1  1 
  1.667
v2  0.8 2 c 2 
1 2  1 2 
(iii) γ= c  c  ≈ 1.7;
 11 
 
Time for Ann  1.667  6.6 years; 2
(iv) let t be the time signal takes to reach Earth according to Ann.
In this time, Ann would move further away from the Earth
by the distance vt, where v = 0.80c;
starship and Earth originally separated by 5.28light-years,
according to Ann;
 5.28 light years 
 t  
so 5.28 = ct – vt  c  0 . 8c  = 26 years; 3
(c) (i) (the paradox is that) Ann will appear to age more slowly
to Sue but Sue will appear to age more slowly to Ann / OWTTE; 1
(ii) Ann is in an accelerating reference frame;
so situation is not symmetrical / Ann changes from one
inertial frame into another; 2
[13]
14. (a) mass measured in reference frame in which object is at rest / OWTTE; 1
(b) as speed approaches c, mass approaches infinity / the energy
required to accelerate particle increases its mass-energy;
at c, energy required would be infinite / mass would be
infinite which is impossible / OWTTE; 2
 u v
ux  x
u v
1  x2
(c) c ;
0.7c  0.7c
0.7c ´ 0.7c
1
= c2
= 0.94 c; 3
or
 0.7c  0.7c
 0.7c ´ 0.7c
1
= c2 ;
= –0.94c;
 
 
1  1 
 
v2  0.7c 2 
1 2  1 2 
(d) γ= c  c  = 1.4;
2
EK = [γ – 1]m0c = [1.4 – 1] × 938 = 380 MeV;
hence V = 380 MV; 3
[9]
15. (a) distance from singularity at which light can no longer escape / OWTTE; 1
11 31
 2GM  2 ´ 6.7 ´ 10 ´ 2.0 ´ 10
 2 
(b) RS =  c  [3.0 ´108 ] 2
4
= 3.0 × 10 m; 2
(c) (i) photons move upwards through gravitational field and so
lose energy;
since E = hf, frequency decreases;
or
if space station were accelerating away from starship,
signal would undergo Doppler shift towards lower frequency;
by equivalence principle, passing through gravitational
field has same effect as acceleration; 2
or
the inverse of frequency is period that can be used as a clock;
since time slows down near a massive body, the period and
so frequency must change;
t 1

t 0 R
1 s
(ii) r =10;
1 R R
 1 s  s
100 r r = 0.99;
r = 1.01Rs and so distance = 0.01 Rs; 3
[8]
16. (a) proper length:
is the length of an object in the object’s rest frame / the length of the
object as measured by an observer at rest relative to the object;
proper time interval:
is the time interval between two events taking place at the same
point in space / the shortest time interval between two events; 2
(b) (i) realization that 6.00 s is the proper time;
so that time interval = γ × 6.00= 7.50s; 2
(ii) realization that 5.00 m is the proper length;
 5.00 
  
so that length =    4.00 m; 2
Do not apply SD deduction here.
(c) (i) laser B was fired first; 1
(ii) during the delay time T, space station moved backward a distance
vT = 6.25 – 4.00 = 2.25 m;
 2.25 
 
and so T =  0.600c  1.25 × 10 s;
–8
2
[9]
17. (a) a coordinate system (used to record events) / a set of rulers and
clocks (that may be used to record the position and time of events);
that is not accelerating / where Newton’s first law applies; 2
–5
(b) (i) t′ = 3.0 × 10 s;
3 8 –5 3
x′ = 5.0 × 10 – 2.0 × 10 × 3.0 × 10 = –1.0 × 10 m; 2
u  v
u v
1 2
(ii) u= c ;
cv
v
1
u= c ;
u = –c 2
(c) neutral pions moving at close to the speed of light are observed to
decay into two photons (in different directions);
the speed of each of the photons is measured to be c
independently of the speed of the pion; 2
[8]
18. (a) proper length:
is the length of an object in the object’s rest frame / the length
of the object as measured by an observer at rest relative to the object;
proper time interval:
is the time interval between two events taking place at the same
point in space / the shortest time interval between two events; 2
(b) (i) realization that 6.00 s is the proper time;
so that time interval = γ × 6.00= 7.50 s; 2
(ii) realization that 5.00 m is the proper length;
 5.00 
  
so that length =    4.00 m; 2
Do not apply SD deduction here.
(c) (i) laser B was fired first; 1
(ii) during the delay time T, space station moved backward a distance
vT = 6.25 – 4.00 = 2.25 m;
 2.25 
 
and so T =  0.600c  1.25 × 10 s;
–8
2
[9]
2
19. Mc = 2E;
2 2
E = 1.78  4.40 = 4.75GeV;
–2
so M = 9.49 or 9.50 GeV c ; 3
[3]
20. (a) a frame of reference accelerating in outer space (with acceleration a)
is equivalent to a frame of reference at rest in a (uniform)
gravitational field (of field strength g = a) 1
or
an inertial frame of reference in outer space is equivalent to a
freely falling frame of reference in a (uniform) gravitational field;
(b) there is relative motion between the observer at C and the beam
of light / OWTTE;
and so by the Doppler effect the frequency at C will be less; 2
or
(by the equivalence principle) the rocket is equivalent to a similar
rocket at rest in a gravitational field;
the photon moving towards C expends energy and so its frequency
is reduced;
(c) A: curved path hitting below Y;
B: identical to A;
C: straight line hitting at Y; 3
(d) (i) the geometry of space does not follow the rules of planar/
Euclidean geometry / light and particles (with no forces on
them) follow geodesics that appear curved (in a background
of ordinary flat space); 1
(ii) measurement of the position of a star during a solar eclipse
as light from the star grazes/moves close to the Sun / OWTTE;
measurement of the position of the same star at night;
the two positions are different indicating that light has
bent in the curved space around the Sun / OWTTE; 3
Award [3] for a correctly labelled diagram.
[10]
21. (a) any diagonal line as shown; 1
(b) (i) v∆t; 1

1
(ii) speed of pulse (c 2  v 2 ) 2 ;

1
2 2 2
distance = (c  v ) ∆t; 2
(c) c∆t; 1
(d) d = c∆t′;
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
from Pythagoras d = c ∆t′ = c ∆t – v ∆t ;
t 
v2
1
∆t = c2 ; 3
1
v2
1
(e) recognize that 2.3 = c2 ;
[ 2.3] 2  1
some evidence of rearranging e.g. v = [ 2.3] 2 ;

= 0.90c 2
[10]
22. (a) any diagonal line as shown; 1
(b) (i) v∆t; 1
1
(ii) speed of pulse (c 2  v 2 ) 2 ;

1
distance = (c 2  v 2 ) 2 ∆t; 2
(c) c∆t; 1
(d) d = c∆t′;
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
from Pythagoras d = c ∆t′ = c ∆t – v ∆t ;
t 
v2
1
∆t = c2 ; 3
1
v2
1
(e) recognize that 2.3 = c2 ;
[ 2.3] 2  1
2
some evidence of rearranging e.g. v = [ 2.3] ;
= 0.90c 2
 1.8 
 length  
(f)  2.3  = 0.78 m; 1
(g) Look for these main points however expressed.
muons produced in the upper atmosphere have speeds close to c;
many such muons are observed reaching the surface of Earth;
the half-life as measured in a muon’s frame of reference does not
give time for many to reach Earth / means many will have decayed
in travelling to Earth;
but the contracted length of the journey/length as measured in a
muon’s reference frame means there is sufficient time;
and the dilated time/time measured by Earth observer is also
sufficient for muons to reach the surface; 5
[16]
–1
23. (a) momentum of photon = 2.46 MeV c ;
–1
momentum of electron-positron pair = (2.46 – 0.880 =) 1.58 MeV c ;
2pelectron cos45 = 1.58;
 1.58 
 
pelectron =  2 cos 45  = 1.12 MeV c–1 ; 4
2 2
(b) total energy of electron = ( 1.12  0.511 ) 1.23 MeV;
KE = eV(= 1.23 – 0.511 = 0.72MeV) → V = 0.72 MV; 2
[6]
24. (a) no
it could be accelerating (upwards);
because of the principle of equivalence;
that states there is no way that gravitational effects can be distinguished
from inertial effects; 3
(b) (i) the planet warps spacetime;
and the ball follows the shortest path in spacetime; 2
(ii) the black hole causes extreme curvature of spacetime;
any light leaving the surface will be bent back to the
surface of the black hole / OWTTE; 2
–3
(c) 8.8 mm or 8.8 × 10 m; 1
[8]
25. Hermann measures a zero time difference between the arrival of the
light pulses;
because these occur at the same point in space this is a proper time interval;
so any other observer will measure a time interval of = γ × 0 = 0 i.e.
events will be simultaneous;
Award [2 max] for an answer based on “events are simultaneous in
one frame and occurring at the same point therefore are simultaneous
for everybody”. 3
[3]
 52 ly 
 
26. (a) (i)  0.80c = 65 y; 1
 
 
 52 ly 
 5 
 
(ii)  3  = 31.2ly  31ly; 1
 31.2 ly 
 
(iii) time to reach planet according to spacecraft is  0.80c  = 39 y;
so Amanda is 59 years old;
or
leaving earth and arriving at planet occur at the same
point for Amanda;
65
5
so time taken is 3 = 39 y, hence age is 59 years old; 2
(b) let the required time be denoted by T
signal reaches Earth after travelling a distance of cT;
this distance is 31.2 ly plus the distance travelled by earth in time T i.e.
31.2 + 0.80cT;
cT = 31.2 + 0.80cT  T = 156 yr; 3
Award [2] for use of ct = 0.80 ct + 52 and an answer for 260 years.
or
the events “spacecraft leaves Earth” and “signal arrives at Earth”
are separated by a proper time interval for the earth observers;
this time interval is 65 + 52 = 117 yr;
5
so spacecraft observers measure a time interval of 3 × 117 = 195 yr
so signal takes 195 – 39 = 156 yr to arrive on Earth;
[7]
27. (a) (i) to measure the speed of the Earth in its orbit/relative to the
ether / to detect the ether / to find an absolute reference frame; 1
(ii) c – v; 1
(b) (i) a shift of the interference pattern (horizontally) / a different
interference pattern; 1
(ii) no shift (within experimental error); 1
(iii) the speed of light is constant for all inertial observers / the
ether does not exist / there is no absolute reference frame; 1
[5]
28. (a) the time interval between two events that occur at the same point in space; 1
(b) Hermann measures a zero time difference between the arrival
of the light pulses;
because these occur at the same point in space this is a proper
time interval;
so any other observer will measure a time interval of = γ × 0 = 0 i.e.
events will be simultaneous; 3
Award [2 max] for answers based on “events are simultaneous
in one frame and occurring at the same point therefore are
simultaneous for everybody”.
[4]
 52 ly 
 
29. (a) (i)  0.80c = 65 y; 1
 
 
 52 ly 
 5 
 
(ii)  3  = 31.2ly 31ly; 1
 31.2 ly 
 
(iii) time to reach planet according to spacecraft is  0.80c  = 39 y;
so Amanda is 59 years old;
or
leaving earth and arriving at planet occur at the same
point for Amanda;
65
5
so time taken is 3 = 39 y, hence age is 59 years old; 2
(b) let the required time be denoted by T
signal reaches Earth after travelling a distance of cT;
this distance is 31.2 ly plus the distance travelled by earth in time T i.e.
31.2 + 0.80cT;
cT = 31.2 + 0.80cT  T = 156 yr; 3
Award [2] for use of ct = 0.80 ct + 52 and an answer for 260 years.
or
the events “spacecraft leaves Earth” and “signal arrives at Earth”
are separated by a proper time interval for the earth observers;
this time interval is 65 + 52 = 117 yr;
5
so spacecraft observers measure a time interval of 3 × 117 = 195 yr
so signal takes 195 – 39 = 156 yr to arrive on Earth;
[7]
30. (a) the rest energy corresponds to the energy when v = 0 and (is 490 MeV
–2
and so rest mass is 490 Me V c ); 1
Do not penalize units.
(b) change in total energy after acceleration is (1570 – 490) = 1080MeV;
and so p.d. is 1080 MV; 2
Do not penalize units.
(c) (i) muon and neutrino have equal and opposite momenta;
1052  p 2 c 2
conservation of energy gives 490 = pc + ;
solving for p algebraically or using a GDC or using a
substitution  p = 234 Me V c
–1
2
2 2
(ii) E = 105  234 ;
E = 256 MeV;
EK (= 256 – 105) = 151 Me V; 3
[8]
31. (a) the distance from the centre of a (non rotating) black hole where
the escape speed is the speed of light / distance from singularity to
event horizon / distance from which light can just not escape; 1
Do not accept the formula unless symbols are all defined.
(b) (i) gravitational redshift / gravitational time dilation; 1
 4.5 ´ 1014 
 
 3.0 ´ 1014  
(ii) realization that the time dilation factor is   1.5
and so one pulse is received every 3 seconds; 2
6.7 ´ 10 4 1
1 
(iii) r 1.5 ;
5
solving for r to give r = (1.8RS) = 1.2 × 10 m; 2
[6]
32. (a) the speed of light in a vacuum/free space is the same for all observers; 1
(b) according to Barbara, Tom receives light from L1 and L2 simultaneously;
but Tom moves away from L2;
hence light from L2 was emitted first; 3
(c) (i) Tom
proper length is the length between objects as measured by
the observer at rest with respect to the objects; 1
(ii) γ = 3 ;
1
v2
1
9= c2 ;
to give v = 0.94c; 3
(iii)
data point 1.5, 0;

data point 0, c;
smooth curve (by sight); 3
[11]
33. (a) the speed of light in a vacuum/free space is the same for all observers; 1
(b) according to Barbara, Tom receives light from L1 and L2 simultaneously;
but Tom moves away from L2;
hence light from L2 was emitted first; 3
(c) (i) Tom
proper length is the length between objects as measured by
the observer at rest with respect to the objects; 1
(ii) γ = 3 ;
1
v2
1
9= c2 ;
to give v = 0.94c; 3
(iii)
data point 1.5, 0;
data point 0, c;
smooth curve (by sight); 3
(d) according to Tom, Barbara’s clock will appear to run slower than his;
according to Tom, when Barbara returns she will not have aged
as much as him / OWTTE;
but according to Barbara, Tom is moving away from her so he is
the one that has not aged / OWTTE; 3
Award [3 max] for any order for the description if idea of
symmetry is clearly present and correctly acknowledged.
[14]
34. (a)
non-zero start;
reasonably linear at start – judge by eye;
asymptotic to c; 3
2
(b) (i) E = m0c + Ve;
= 938 + 850;
= 1790MeV; 3
m
(ii) γ = m0 = 1.91;
1
1
2 2
= [1  v ] ;
(to give v = 0.852c) 2
 0.852  u 
 0.987  
(c) correct substitution into relative velocity equation  1  0.852u  ;
correct working e.g. 0.987 + 0.840u = 0.852+u;
(to give u = 0.849c)
Accept other correct mathematical methods that eventually show
the speed of the antiproton to be about the same e.g. 0.852 + 0.852 = 0.987
via equation. 2
[10]
35. (a) (i) is the increase in wavelength (or decrease in frequency) of light;
(when measured) for light moving from stronger to weaker
gravitational field; 2
Accept “climbing uphill” type of response.
Do not award marks for responses along the lines “light in a
region of intense gravity is red-shifted”.
(ii) spacetime is a coordinate/reference system consisting of (three)
dimensions of space and (one of) time; 1
(iii) matter warps spacetime;
a black hole produces a region of such extreme curvature in
spacetime that not even light can escape the region/black hole; 2
10
1
 1 2
1  3 
(b) ∆t =   ;
(= 12s) 1
[6]
36. (a) a reference frame that is not accelerating/moving with constant
velocity / in which Newton’s first law is valid / OWTTE; 1
(b) (i) Aibhe
since proper length is defined as the length of the object
measured by the observer at rest with respect to the object /
since she is at rest with respect to the object; 1
L0
(ii) γ = L ;
 1.50 
 
=  1.20  1.25;
v2 1
2

1– c 1.252 or other evidence of algebraic manipulation;
8 –1
v = 0.60c or 1.8 × 10 m s ; 4
(c) 3.0 s; 1
(d) (because) the speed of light is the same for all inertial observers;
and because of their relative motion Aibhe and Euan will measure
different time intervals for the two events;
events which are simultaneous for Aibhe will not be simultaneous
for Euan; (vice versa) 3
[10]
37. (a) a reference frame that is not accelerating/moving with constant
velocity / in which Newton’s first law is valid / OWTTE; 1
(b) (i) Aibhe
since proper length is defined as the length of the object
measured by the observer at rest with respect to the object /
since she is at rest with respect to the object; 1
L0
(ii) γ = L ;
 1.50 
 
=  1.20  1.25;
v2 1
2

1– c 1.252 or other evidence of algebraic manipulation;
8 –1
v = 0.60c or 1.8 × 10 m s ; 4
(c) 3.0 s; 1
(d) (because) the speed of light is the same for all inertial observers;
and because of their relative motion Aibhe and Euan will measure
different time intervals for the two events;
events which are simultaneous for Aibhe will not be simultaneous
for Euan; (vice versa) 3
(e) using the half-life of the muons as measured in the laboratory/their
reference frame and the distance between surface and upper
atmosphere as measured by Earth observer shows that most
muons would have decayed / OWTTE;
the half-life measured by the observer on Earth is the dilated time;
relativity predicts that the dilated time will be greater than the
proper time so according to Earth observer not all the muons
will have decayed / OWTTE; 3
Accept answers in terms of length contraction and proper time.
[13]
38. (a) particle A: (the total energy is) the rest mass energy;
particle B: (the total energy is) the rest mass energy
plus the kinetic energy;
2 2 2 2 4
Do not accept E = p c + m0 c as answer. 2
0.960  0.960

(b) (i) 1  0.9602 ;
= 0.999c; 2
(ii) γ = 3.57;
2
E = (γm0c =) 3.57 × 938 MeV;
= 3.35 GeV 2
(c) (i) energy before collision = (3.35 + 3.35 =)6.70 GeV;
energy of p + n = (6700 – 502 =) 6.20 GeV; 2
2 2 2 2
(ii) 502 = p c + 140 ;
–1
p = 482 Me V c ; 2
(d)
1
as shown; (accept between 7 o’clock and 9 o’clock)
[11]
39. (a) a reference system / coordinate system / a means of locating events/
objects;
that consists of three space coordinates and a time coordinate; 2
(b) (the large mass of a) black hole produces (extreme) curvature
in spacetime/warps spacetime;
particles follow the shortest path between points in spacetime;
the distance from the singularity to the points where photons/light
cannot escape due to the extreme curvature/warping is the
Schwarzschild radius; 3
2 ´ 7 ´10 11 ´ 2 ´ 1030
(c) 9 ´1016 ;
≈ 3 km 1
[6]
40. (a) observers using rulers and clocks to measure positions and times of events;
these observers are not accelerating; 2
(b) (i) realization that 6.0 years is the proper time interval;
1 5
γ   1.67  ;
1  0.80 2 3
calculation of gamma factor
time on Earth  ´ 6.0 = 10 yrs; 3
(ii) realization that spacecraft has been travelling for 10 years at 0.80c;
so distance is 0.80c ´ 10 = 8.0 ly; 2
(iii) let t be the time according to the spacecraft observers, then in this time
Earth will move a distance of 0.80c ´ t according to spacecraft;
Earth and spacecraft are already separated by 0.80c ´ 6 = 4.8 ly
according to spacecraft;
4.8
t  24
and so ct = (0.80c ´ t) + 4.8  0.20 years; 3
[10]
41. (a) observers using rulers and clocks to measure positions and times of events;
these observers are not accelerating; 2
(b) (i) realization that 6.0 years is the proper time interval;
1 5
γ   1.67 ;
1  0.802 3
calculation of gamma factor
time on Earth  ´ 6.0 = 10 yrs; 3
(ii) realization that spacecraft has been travelling for 10 years at 0.80c;
so distance is 0.80c ´ 10 = 8.0 ly; 2
(iii) let t be the time according to the spacecraft observers, then in this time
Earth will move a distance of 0.80c ´ t according to spacecraft;
Earth and spacecraft are already separated by 0.80c ´ 6 = 4.8ly
according to spacecraft;
4.8
t  24
and so ct = (0.80c ´ t) + 4.8  0.20 years; 3
[10]
u x' 
 u x  v
 uxv 
1  2 
42.  c 
identifies ux as 0.8c;
identifies v as  0.8c;
to give answer of 0.98c;
[3]
2
43. (a) RME: rest mass times c ;
TE: sum of RME + kinetic energy (assuming no potential energy); 2
(b) 938 MeV; 1
(c)  m0c2 = m0c2 + Ve;
2 2
Ve =  m0c  m0c
2
Ve = m0c (  1);
Ve = 938(4.0);
V = 3750 MV; 4
[7]
44. (a) (i) centre is single point to which all mass would collapse;
surface is where the escape speed is equal to c;
within this surface, mass has “disappeared” from the universe; 3
(ii) distance from point of singularity to the event horizon / OWTTE; 1
RSCH  

2GM 2 ´ 6.67 ´10 11 ´ 2 ´10 31
;

(iii)
c2 
3 ´10 8
2

4
= 3.0 ´ 10 m; 2
7
(iv) at 10 km, space is not warped;
so Newtonian physics applies;
any other good comment; 2
Award [0] for a statement of “no” without justification.
(b) theory suggests that light is affected by gravitational fields;
diagrams or “words” to explain formation of two images; 2
[10]

Relativity Length Contraction & Simultaneity

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Relativity Length Contraction & Simultaneity

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OPTION - RELATIVITY

1. This question is about length contraction and simultaneity.

The magnitude of the velocity of the spaceship increases.

Rocket A is accelerating in outer space with acceleration a.

The lamps and the switch are at rest relative to Tom.

Aibhe measures the length of T to be 1.5 m and Euan measures it to be 1.2 m.

Aibhe measures the length of T to be 1.5 m and Euan measures it to be 1.2 m.

(b) (i) v∆t; 1

(ii) speed of pulse (c 2  v 2 ) 2 ;

some evidence of rearranging e.g. v = [ 2.3] 2 ;

(ii) speed of pulse (c 2  v 2 ) 2 ;

data point 1.5, 0;

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