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712 GATES: THE ATTENUATION AND DISTORTION OF TRAVELLING
This equation is plotted in Fig. 1 as a curve between From equations (2) and (3), this oc^ond wave becomes
eJE and tl(o2x2), showing that the original vertical-fronted at the point x,
wave is distorted into one having a curved, sloping front,
but since
k\(l- E r f - ^ - U - ftflfl - Erf .™ . 1
f r^f ^) = 0 J V 2^/tJ [_ 2y/{t - 9)J
Hence the total wave for t > 9 is given by
the ultimate maximum value of the assumed infinite wave
is undiminished. This anomalous result is due to the
simple approximate formula for the effective circuit re- e~=k
sistance employed by Jacottet in his analysis, which,
while closely accurate for rapidly changing currents, fails
when applied to the infinitely long and more and more -k - kd[l - Erf
slowly rising tail portion of the wave. - 0)
L
Jacottet also extended this solution to include finite
rectangular waves, thus removing the anomaly mentioned
above, but as such waves seldom occur in practice the
results have little useful application. As shown in the
- 40" "t-9
Introduction, the important types are chopped waves and Thus the total wave is given by equation (3) for
waves with exponential tails. 0 < t < 9 and by equation (4) for t > 9. Using Simpson's
I0
1-0 Initia wave
/ OX/yfi9=0
- — 0 8
0 8 —i
/
-—-— /
0-6
0-6 ex /
ex
E
0-4
-«—
'W///M 1°
0-4 / / \
InitiaJ waye v/V0- )-5
/ /
0-2
/ 0-2 V
/
0 0 25 05 075 10 1-25 1-5 1-75 20
tie
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
(b) Chopped w a v e s (see Fig. 2) rule for integrating, the wave-shape for ax\y/9 = 0-5 has
Lightning strokes are the principal source of insulator been plotted in Fig. 2 and this shows how the wave-front
flash-overs on overhead transmission lines, and they are is flattened, the maximum is depressed, and a tail is
characterized by very steep wave-fronts. On the types developed. It is also seen that the maximum value
of system under consideration, the rate of rise of voltage occurs very nearly at t = 9 (actually slightly later), so
may be treated as practically constant up to the time that to a first approximation the maximum value is
of flash-over, whereat the voltage falls suddenly to zero. obtained by putting the upper limit equal to 9 in equation
Thus the wave-shape is triangular as indicated by the (3), giving
initial wave shown in Fig. 2.
If the initial wave-front a t x = 0 is represented by dt
e o = kt
then the shape of the wave-front after travelling a The original maximum was
distance x is given by the application of Duhamel's e0 = k9
theorem to equation ,(2) as
so that the attenuation ratio is
e* = dt (3)
2y/t
If 9 is the duration of the original wave to the flash-
over point, then the maximum voltage attained initially is
e o = k9
and the sudden fall,in voltage at t = 9 is equivalent to
the addition of a second initial wave
e 0 = — kt = — k(t — 9) — kd for t > 9 This is a function of ax/\/9 only and its value is
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WAVES ON OVERHEAD POWER TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS 713
plotted in Fig. 3. This is the attenuation curve for This equation is solved by trial, and values of fy/0 are
chopped voltage waves in a simple system: it is interest- obtained for various values of ax/s/d) these are plotted
ing to note that this curve may be extremely well repre- in Fig. 3. From this, when a 4-microsecond chopped
sented by the expression wave has been attenuated to half value as considered
above, it has developed a tail falling to half the maximum
in a time such as to make tyd = 1 • 2 or fy = 4 • 8 micro-
seconds, i.e. only 0-8 microseconds after the maximum.
over almost the entire range plotted, i.e. the attenuation Thus the tail is still very short even when the wave has
of chopped waves is very closely exponential. To the been heavily attenuated.
scale employed in the Figure, the two curves are These curves also provide means whereby the past
indistinguishable. history and original characteristics may be estimated for
To assess the order of the numerical values involved, a chopped wave recorded at some distance from its point
note that the maximum value of a chopped wave is of origin. For example, suppose that a 20-kV, 4/5-micro-
attenuated to one-half when ax\s/Q = 0-6 approxi- second wave is recorded on the simple line already con-
mately. Hence, considering a wave between one wire sidered for which a = 1-3 x 10~9. For this wave
and earth for which a may be taken as 1-3 X 10~9 (see 0 = 4 microseconds and fy/0 = 1-25; hence, from Fig. 3,
Appendix), the corresponding distance of travel for a ax/-\/d = 0-68 and the attenuation ratio is 0-44. From
wave, say 4 microseconds in length, is these,
0-6 X V ( 4
X 10 6
~ ) ,^ 5 * n -, ax = 0-68V(4 X 10-6) = 1-36 X 10- 3
— 5 = n9-2
n x 10 cm. = 5-7 miles
and
1-3 X 10- 9 1-36 X 10*~3
The corresponding distances for waves of other lengths • x= —§• = 1-045 x 1 0 6 c m . = 6 - 5 miles
are proportional to the square roots of their lengths.
and the original maximum value was
10 2-0
20
\ / = 45 kV
0 8 1-8 0-44
•> / It has been shown above that chopped waves do not
0^6 1-6 1 have time to develop very long tails before they are
attenuated to negligible amplitudes; hence, since the
eo T1 9
0 4 1-4 /
above calculation depends on the measurement of the
interval between a possibly ill-defined maximum and
0-2 12 another point not far removed from it, the estimates of
past history and distance travelled must not be regarded
as precise if they are based on oscillograms which do not
0 10 •
02 0-4 0-6 08 1-0 1-2 14 1-6 permit the accurate location of the necessary points,
even when the value of a for the line is known fairly
definitely.
Fig. 3
To obtain the length of the tail of the distorted chopped (c) Waves with vertical fronts and exponential tails
wave, we may proceed as follows. (see Fig. 4)
The time t% at which the tail has died away to half the It is now necessary to consider the behaviour of waves
•maximum is given by the solution of the equation made having initially the form
up from equations (4) and (5) thus:—
eo=Ee~at (6)
(l _ Erf It is possible to apply Duhamel's theorem to equa-
tions (2) and (6) but the resulting solution is cumbrous.
A very close approximation to the required result using
= Jc | ( 1 _ Erf - Erf simple functions is obtained as follows:—
j
If the two expressions
and
a =
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714 GATES: THE ATTENUATION AND DISTORTION OF TRAVELLING
10
\\
0-8
\ \ \ Initial wave
vs.
0 6
/
r/2>=0-25
J
^ ^
0-4 1
1
0-2
1 . ^ ^
=1-0
y /
Fig. 4
or, if <f> is the time for the tail of the original wave to fall original wave has its front flattened, its maximum value
to half the maximum, reduced, and its tail spread out in a way similar to the
, lOge 2 chopped wave.
a The maximum value ix of the wave at the point x is
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WAVES ON OVERHEAD POWER TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS 715
between iJE and ax\b. This is the attenuation curve for the attenuation ratio for ax/b = 0*5 is 0-43, so that it
voltage waves originally of exponential shape. would have had a maximum value of 50/0-43 = 1 1 6 kV
To assess the numerical order of the quantities in- and a tail falling to half value in
volved, consider a 0/20-microsecond wave on a simple line
assuming, as before, a = 1-3 x 10~9. For this wave /4 x 10- 3 \ 2
( „„-—) = 8 - 3 microseconds
6 = l-386V(20 X 10-6) = 6-2 x 10~3
\ 1-386 /
From Fig. 5, an exponential wave is attenuated to
half its original value in a distance such that ax\b = 0-4 If a is again assumed to be 1 • 3 X6 10- 9
approximately, i.e. = 1-54 x 10 cm. = 9-6 miles
1-3 3 1
2 xX10-10-
. = H
" ' ' i
^ - i
= !-9 x 10«cm. = 11-8 miles The behaviour of the real incident wave can now be
| i
I ' D X i-v calculated for any point along the line. For example, at
a point 10 miles down the line x has increased to 19-6
As in the case of chopped waves, the corresponding miles = 3-15 X 106 cm., giving a value of
distances for waves of other lengths are proportional to
b, i.e. to the square roots of the lengths of the waves. ax _ 1-3 x 10- 9 X 3-15 X 106
= 1-02
T~ 4 x 10- 3
(d) Extension to waves with finite fronts From Figs. 5 and 6 the following values are obtained:
By successive approximations, the value of t/b2 for a Attenuation ratio = 0-25, tm\t± = 0-33, and V V 6 = 1*43,
point on the tail of a wave given by equation (11) where giving a maximum value of 0-25 x 116 = 29kV,
«l = (1-43 X 4 x 10-3)2 = 33 microseconds, a n d ^ = 33
0-5 X 0-33 = 11 microseconds, so that after travelling 10
miles the original 50-kV, 5/20-microsecond wave becomes
a 29-kV, 11/33-microsecond wave.
0-4 If the wave considered were not the incident wave, but
fb^. were simply a record taken at some point on the line, then
03 the data obtained for the possible original exponential
0^2
/I wave give an upper limit for the amplitude and distance
away of the original wave. For example, if the 50-kV,
5/20-microsecond wave were recorded, the curves show
/ that it could not have originated more than 9-6 miles
0-1
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716 GATES: THE ATTENUATION AND DISTORTION OF TRAVELLING
Three-phase Single-phase Lines struck Lines not struck Lines struck Lines not struck
The proportions of the total waves falling into each value, as compared with that required on a single
of these depend on the relative effective line impedances wire parallel to the earth, is increased in the ratio
for the two groups and on whether the original wave was 1 • 4/0 -6 = 2-3 times (approximately).
incident upon one, two, or three lines. This analysis
may also be applied to a single-phase transmission line
having only two wires, the two groups now being as
follows:—
Group A:—Two waves identical on both lines.
Group B:—Two waves whose sum is zero.
Table 1 shows the proportions of the voltage waves in
each group in terms of m, the ratio of the Group A wave
to the incident wave on the line or lines struck.
Formulae and representative values for the line
impedances, and the resulting values of m, are given in
Table 3 (see Appendix).
Examination of the values of a given in the Appendix
shows that the rate of attenuation of Group A waves is
many times more rapid than that of Group B. Hence to
a first approximation the wave at a point may be written
as the sum of the distorted and attenuated Group A wave
and the unaffected Group B wave. For impacts on one Fig. 7
line of a single-phase system and on one or two lines in a
three-phase system, this results in the preservation of (c) Waves with vertical fronts and exponential tails
part of the original wave-front. Further, owing to the In the same way as above, the total wave at a point x
negative sign of the Group B waves on the untouched on the line or lines struck and carrying a wave of this
lines, the total waves in these lines, which are purely type is obtained from equations (7) and (11) as
induced waves, develop a negative loop preceding the
positive parts of their fronts.
= (1 -m)( 1-53 Erf - 0-53)
(b) Chopped waves
ox + b
From the above considerations and from equation (5),
it is evident that the maximum value of the total wave at
( ax (14)
a point x on the line struck, due to an impact causing a where a is calculated for Group A waves.
•chopped wave at the origin, is given by This wave has a vertical portion to its front equal to
* See Reference (4). (1 — m)E. The maximum value eJE is found by differ-
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WAVES ON OVERHEAD POWER TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS 717
az/b-01 0 25 05 0 75 1 1-25
05
0-4
0 01 02 0-3 04 05 06 07 08 0-9
Fig. 8
0-2-
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
(a) Maximum at t/b2 = 0-1&; (b) Point of inflexion at t/b' = 0; (c) Maximum at t/b* = 0;
(d) Maxima att/6 a = Oand 0-7, minimum at tjb* = 0-24; (e) Maximum at t/b1 = 0, point of inflexion at t/b* = 0-45.
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718 GATES: THE ATTENUATION AND DISTORTION OF TRAVELLING
entiating the right-hand side of equation (14) with respect lower of these branches have points d'arrSt where the
to t and equating to zero. This gives corresponding maxima degenerate into points of inflexion.
These are the attenuation curves for voltage waves on
2 single- and three-phase systems, and it will be noted that
•\/TT these are not uniformly spaced as was the case with
ax+fr chopped waves, but the curves for the higher values of m
are crowded more closely together.
i.e.
(d) Waves with finite fronts and estimates of past
1 —m
—l
ax history of waves
ax 15
m It is possible to extend the above analysis to include
the case of waves with finite fronts, but the general
By assigning values to ax/b and t/b2, values of m may be formulae become unwieldy, and to cover all cases a large
calculated. Curves of these results are given in Fig. 8, number of sets of curves would be required. However,
and from these, for selected constant values of m, the as indicated in Section 2(d), waves whose lengths of
values of t/b2 for maximum = tm/b2 are read off; these front do not exceed one-tenth of their tail lengths to half
are plotted against ax/b in Fig. 9 for values of m from value may be treated as vertical-fronted waves for the
0-4 to 1-0. purpose of calculating the attenuation and distortion, so
Figs. 8 and 9 show that for ax/b < 1 there is a maxi- that the results developed in the above Section are
mum which is greater than the vertical part of the front, applicable to waves of this type.
(1 _ rn)E. For ax/b > 1 there is a minimum and a In the same way, it is impracticable to provide general
maximum provided that m is large enough, i.e. after the curves to estimate the past history and future behaviour
initial vertical rise the wave dips and rises again, but if of waves recorded at some point on the line distant from
m is too small there is no maximum and the initial rise is the, point of incidence.
the highest point on the wave. For values of m corre- It is necessary in such cases to treat each instance on
sponding to the lowest points on the curves in Fig. 8 for its own merits, except for strokes to three lines simul-
ax/b > 1, there is a point of inflexion on the wave tail. taneously, when, since the Group B waves are zero, the
For ax/b = 1 and m = 0 • 605, this point of inflexion results obtained for simple systems are applicable.
occurs at t/b2 = 0, and the wave is initially flat-topped. In the case of chopped waves, it is evident from Fig. 2
These types of wave are illustrated in Fig. 10. The that the combination of the distorted and attenuated
curves in Fig. 9 for values of m > 0 • 605 have points Group A waves and the unmodified Group B waves yield
d'arrit corresponding to these points of inflexion. total waves not differing greatly in shape from the
By inserting the values of £m/62 obtained from Fig. 9 in Group A wave, the principal difference being a vertical
equation (14), the corresponding maximum values of &JE drop after the peak. In practice this will merge imper-
are obtained. These are plotted in Fig. 11 for values of ceptibly into the tail of the Group A wave, and the effect
m from 0 • 4 to 1 • 0. For values of m > 0 • 605, the lower will be to produce a wave having a very short length of
portions of these curves have two branches corresponding tail to half maximum value, thus accentuating to a pro-
to the initial peak and the subsequent maximum. The hibitive extent the difficulty and the danger of inaccuracy
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WAVES ON OVERHEAD POWER TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS 719
Table 2
EFFECT OF NON-MAGNETIC EARTH WIRES
Undistorted component
Distorted components
(all lines)
Impact on Three-phase Single-phase
Three-phase Single-phase Lines struck Lines not struck Lines struck Lines not struck
mentioned in Section 2(6). This increase in difficulty Group A2 waves is closely similar to that of the Group A1
does not arise, however, where the chopped wave occurs waves, and no serious error is introduced by neglecting
on all lines simultaneously, since the Group B waves are any difference and treating them as one set of waves.
zero. This case has a distinct probability in practice, That is to say, having made due allowance in the calcula-
since lightning strokes frequently involve all lines, causing tion of the values of ZA and m for the presence of the
the line insulators to flash over simultaneously. earth wires, the method given in Sections 3[(a) to (d)] can
be applied immediately.
(e) Effect of earth wires In the case of the non-magnetic earth wires, it is
When a set of continuously earthed conductors is necessary to proceed as follows:—
mounted parallel to the line wires, the value of Z^ (see Suppose that the proportion of the Group A waves
Table 3 in the Appendix) is reduced, and thus m is also which falls into Group A2 is q, then on the conductors
Observed Calculated
3 4 5 2 3 4
Microseconds Microseconds
Fig. 12
reduced. In addition to this, however, the Group A on which the main waves are travelling the component
waves now require subdivision as follows:— waves [see Table 1 in Section 3(a)] and the total distorted
and undistorted components are as shown below:—
Group Aj. Waves travelling between all conductors
in parallel and earth. yGroup Ax: (1 — q)m: distorted.
Group A2. Waves travelling between all conductors Group A: m
in parallel and all earth wires in parallel. \ Group A2: qm
\
The behaviour of the Group Aj waves is identical with Group B: (1 — m)- M — (1 — q)m: undistorted.
that of the Group A waves already considered, but that
of the Group A2 waves depends on the nature of the The net effect of this is to cause the waves on these con-
material used for the earth wires. If this is non-magnetic, ductors to behave as if the line had no earth wires but had
then these waves are only very slowly attenuated and its m value changed to (1 — q)m, i.e. the effective value of
distorted, and they behave exactly like Group B waves. m is reduced. Similar remarks apply to the waves in-
If, however, a magnetic material is used, then, as shown duced in the other conductors, but the modification to the
by the values of a given in Table 3, the behaviour of the effective value of m is different.
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'720 GATES: THE ATTENUATION AND DISTORTION OF TRAVELLING
10 15 20 10 15 20
Microseconds Microseconds
14 miles
J Omiles
-20 10 15 20 10 15 20
Microseconds Microseconds
Fig. 14
(a) Wave on 3 lines. (b) Wave on 1 line.
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WAVES ON OVERHEAD POWER TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS 721
three points out on the line were taken at distances as lichungen aus dem Siemens-Konzern, vol. 8, part 3,
indicated in the Figure. Since the earth wire was non- p. 54.
magnetic, Table 2 applies, and an examination of (4) S. BEKKU: " Electric Oscillations in the Three-phase
the oscillograms shows that an approximate value Aerial Line," Journal of the I.E.E. of Japan, 1923,
for (1 — q)m is 0-35. Using this value and taking No. 415, p. 79.
cr = 2 - 3 x l O - 9 (see Table 3), the wave-shapes shown (5) W. G. HAWLEY and H. M. LACEY: " Surge Tests on
on the right of Fig. 12 have been calculated by the a 33-kV Transmission Line," Technical Report
methods of Sections 2(d) and 3(d). The agreement be- (Ref. S/T10) of The British Electrical and Allied
tween the calculated and the experimental results is seen Industries Research Association (published 1937).
to be extremely close. (6) O. BRUNE and J. R. EATON: " Experimental Studies
As a further check, the formulae, etc., have been in the Propagation of Lightning Surges," Trans-
applied to some oscillograms taken by Brune and Eaton.* actions of the American I.E.E., 1931, vol. 50, p. 1132.
These are reproduced on the left-hand side of Fig. 14. f
Of these, the upper set is for a wave travelling on all three APPENDIX
lines, and the lower set is for a wave on one line only. Formulae and representative values for a and m.
No data are given for the characteristics of the line List of symbols and assumed values.
tested, but since there is no residue of the original wave-
front in the oscillograms for waves on three lines, q = 0 (1) Simple systems.
(see Table 2). Also, from the height of the nearly (a) Isolated two-wire. Assumed values.
vertical portion of the wave-front in the oscillogram for a = radius of each wire, in cm = 0 - 5
the one-line wave, it is found that m = 0 • 6 approxi- d = distance between wires, in
mately. The original waves for the two cases can be cm. = 100
approximately described as 72-kV, 0/25-microseconds, p = specific resistance of mate-
and 72-kV, 0/40-microseconds, respectively. Using these rial of wires, in ohms/cm,
initial values and assuming, as in the previous instance, cube = 1 - 7 x-10-6
that a = 2 • 3 X 10~ 9 , the wave-shapes shown on the (b) One wire and earth.
right-hand side of Fig. 14 are obtained and their agree- a = radius of wire, in cm. =0-5
ment with the experimental results is seen to be very h = height of wire above earth,
close. The corresponding induced waves on the un- in cm. = l 000
touched conductors in the case of the wave on one line p = specific resistance of the
have been calculated in order to show the formation of earth, in ohms/cm, cube = 5 000
the negative loop described in Section 3(a): these are (c) Isolated two-wire with one wire of magnetic
shown dotted on the right-hand side of Fig. 14. material.
a — radius of non-magnetic
(4) CONCLUSION wire, in cm. =0-5
Formulae and curves have been developed which per- as= radius of magnetic wire, in
mit the calculation of the behaviour of two of the most cm. =0-3
important types of natural disturbances occurring in d = distance between wires, in
single- and three-phase overhead power transmission cm. = 100
systems, and the close agreement with some experimental p8 = specific resistance of mag-
results is good confirmation of their utility and accuracy. netic wire, in ohms/cm,
. Subject to certain limitations, the methods developed cube = 8-8 x 1 0 - 6
are reversible and make possible the estimation of limit- fj, = permeability of magnetic
ing values for the distance travelled and the original wire == 300*
amplitudes and shapes of wave recorded at points remote (2) Practical systems (without earth wires and completely
from their sources. transposed).
The author wishes to thank the Director of the British (a) Single-phase.
Electrical and Allied Industries Research Association for a = radius of each wire, in cm. = 0 - 5
permission to reproduce the data in Figs. 12 and 13. d = average distance between
wires, in cm. = 100
REFERENCES
(1) J. R. CARSON: " Theory of the Transient Oscillations h = average height of wires
of Electrical Networks and Transmission Lines," above earth, in cm. = 1 000
Transactions of the American I.E.E., 1919, vol. 38, p = specific resistance of mate-
p. 345. rial of wires, in ohms/cm,
(2) J. R. CARSON: " The Guided and Radiated Energy in cube = 1-7 x 1 0 - 6
Wire Transmission," Journal of the American p' = specific resistance of the
I.E.E., 1924, vol. 43, p. 908. earth, in ohms/cm, cube = 5 000
(3) P. JACOTTET : " Influence of Skin Effect on the Wave (b) Three-phase.
Front of Surges," Wissentschaftliche Veroffent- Symbols as above.
* See Reference (6). • The value to be used for /u. is very indefinite. The surge currents may reach
t An error of 2 seems to have occurred in the scaling of the oscillogram shown magnitudes in excess of 20 000 amperes, even after travelling a considerable
dotted. In the original paper, the ordmates given are scaled at twice the values distance along the line, and saturation may occur at the crest of the wave. The
shown. In view of the excellent agreement obtained with all the "remaining value of 300 is taken only as a very rough approximation for the purpose of
oscillograms, the presence of an error seems probable making a reasonable estimate of the attenuation obtained in practice.
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722 GATES: TRAVELLING WAVES ON OVERHEAD T R A N S M I S S I O N SYSTEMS
Table 3
FORMULAE
m for impact on
Item Wave CT Surge impedance
distribution 6-46 X 10 8 Z (ohms)
One line Two lines Three lines
Vp
I(a) — d 2761og 1 0 - — — —
d
alog10-
Vp 2h
w — 1.1 2 f e 1381og10- — — —
fclog1(f—
V(/^ps)
I(C)* 2761 g
° 'V(«a s )
Group B; \
a = 7-32 x 1 0 - u ZB = 317
wire/wire J
II(a) 0-68 1 —
Group A; 1
a= 1-86 X lO- 9 ZA = 676
2 wires/earth/
Group B; "I
a= 7-32 x 1 0 - u Zi* = 317
wire/2 wires J
11(6) 0-575 0-844 1
Group A; "1
a = 2-21 x lO- 9 ZA = 855
3 wires/earth/
* The contribution of the line conductor to the value of cr is negligible as compared with that due to the earth or the magnetic wire.
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