PREPARED BY:

SEPT 2013
CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
2.1 MATTER
1. Matter :
 Any substance or material that occupies space and has mass.
 Exists as a solid, liquid or gas (3 states of matter).
 Made up of particles.
 3 kinds of particles – atoms, molecules, ions
 Can be divided into elements and compound.

Particles Description
Atoms  Smallest particles of an element that retain the chemical
properties of the element.
 Examples : Sodium atom (Na)
Zinc atom (Zn)
Helium atom (He)
Molecules  Particles composed of two or more atoms.
 Can be with the same or different atoms
 Examples : Same atoms – Oxygen gas (O2)
Different atoms – Ammonia (NH3)
Ions  Charged particles – positive or negative
 Positive charged ion (Cation) – Zinc ion (Zn2+)
 Negative charged ion (Anion) – Chloride ion(Cl-)

Matter Descriptions
Elements  Particles made up of the same atoms only.
 Can be in the form of atom or molecules.
 Cannot be split into two or more simpler substance by
chemical means.
 Examples:
- Metallic  Copper(Cu), Iron(Fe), Gold(Au)
- Non-metallic  Oxygen(O2), Sulphur(S8)
Compounds  Particles made up of two or more elements.
 Can be molecules or ions.
 Examples:
- Molecules  Water (H2O)
Sulphur trioxide (SO3)
Tetrachloromethane (CCl4)
- Ions  Sodium chloride (Na+, Cl-)
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 Iron(III) oxide (Fe3+, O2-)
Calcium chloride (Ca2+, Cl-)

2. Changes in states of matter

 Matter can change its state.
 Reversible changes.
 Exists in 3 states, solid, liquid and gas.

SOLID LIQUID GAS

Boiling point Melting point

 During the changes, the following do not change:

- Mass of particles
- Size of particles
- Type of particles
 Velocity of the particle increases when
- Temperature increases
- Kinetic energy increases
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  Sublimation can only happen to :
- Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl)
- Solid carbon dioxide / Dry ice (CO2)
- Iodine (I2)
 Differences between solid, liquid and gas (Kinetic Theory Of Matter):
(Essay)

States of matter Solid Liquid Gas

Arrangement of
compact, orderly Loosely packed, very far apart,
particles
manner disorderly manner random motion
Particles motion
Vibrate, rotate in Move freely Move freely and
a fixed position randomly
Particles Kinetic Very low Moderate High
energy
Shape Fixed Not fixed (follow Not fixed (follow
the shape of the shape of
container) container)
Volume Fixed Fixed Not fixed
Rate of diffusion Low Average High

Attractive forces Very strong Medium Very weak

between particles

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3. Experiment (PeKa)
a. Heating curve of naphthalene/acetamide
 Diagram:

 Graph:

AB: Solid DE: Liquid + Gas

BC: Solid + Liquid EF: Gas
CD: Liquid

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 Explanation:

AB: When the solid is heated, heat energy is absorbed. This causes the
particles to gain kinetic energy and vibrate faster.

BC: The temperature remains constant because the heat energy absorbed by
the particles is used to overcome the forces between particles so that the
solid can turn into a liquid. At this temperature, both solid and liquid are
present.

CD: The particles in liquid naphthalene absorb heat energy and move faster.

 During the heating of naphthalene:

- Water bath is used (ensure uniform heating, naphthalene is flammable)

- Naphthalene is stirred continuously (ensure an even heating)

 Water bath: For heating a substance which is less than 100°C.

 Oil bath: For heating a substance which is more than 100°C.
 Latent heat of fusion: heat required to convert solid to liquid without a
change in temperature.

b. Cooling curve of naphthalene/acetamide

 Diagram:

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  Graph:

PQ: Gas ST: Solid + Liquid

QR: Liquid + Gas TU: Solid

RS: Liquid

 Explanation:
RS: When the liquid is cooled, the particles in the liquid lose their
kinetic energy. They move slower as the temperature decreases.
ST: The temperature of naphthalene remains constant because the
heat loss to the surroundings is balanced by the heat energy given off
during freezing.
TU: The particles in solid naphthalene release heat energy and vibrate
slower.
 During the cooling of naphthalene:
 Boiling tube containing naphthalene is placed in a conical flask. (to
minimize heat loss which may affect the accuracy of freezing point –
air trapped in conical flask is poor conductor of heat)
 Stirred by using thermometer (to ensure even cooling)

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  Super cooling

i. Condition in which the temperature of a cooling liquid drops below the

normal freezing point.
ii. Occurs when conical flask is not used in the experiment.

2.2 ATOMIC STRUCTURES

1. Historical development of the structure of atom

a) John Dalton

- All elements made up of small indivisible particles called atoms.

- Atoms made up of tiny particles which cannot be created or destroyed.
- Atoms of same element – same mass
- Atoms of different elements – different mass
- Atoms join together to form larger molecules or compounds (in simple
ratio)
- Weakness:
 Atoms are not the simplest particles – bigger than proton, neutrons
and electron
 Atoms can be destroyed or breakdown – radioisotopes
 Atoms of same element have different mass – isotopes

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b) J.J. Thomson

- Plum pudding model.

- Electron embedded in a sphere of positive charge.
- Electron spreads randomly throughout the positive charge.

c) Ernest Rutherford

- All positive charge of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus – contain

protons.
- Mass of atom is located in a small area (nucleus).
- Number of protons = number of electron

d) Neils Bohr

- Electrons of atom are arranged and move around the nucleus in orbital
called electron shells.
- Nucleus contains protons.
- The orbital has various radius form the nucleus.

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 e) Sir James Chadwick

- Discovered neutrons which are located in the nucleus.

- The neutral particle has the same mass as protons.

2. Atomic Structure
 Made up of subatomic particles; protons, electrons and neutron.
 Nucleus – situated at the centre of atom.
– has positive charge, protons. Neutrons may also present.
 Electrically neutral. (Number of proton = Number of electrons)
 Have electrons which move around the nucleus in its shells.
 Mass of proton = mass of neutron
 Nucleus contributes a lot of mass in an atom.

Subatomic Symbol Relative atomic Charge

particles mass (RAM)
Proton p 1 +
Neutron n 1 neutral
Electron e˗ 1 ˗
1840

3. Electron Configuration
 Maximum number for each shell:
 First shell : 2 electrons
 Second shell : 8 electrons
 Third shell : 8 electrons
 Forth shell : 2 electrons
 Valence electron = electrons found in the outermost shell of an atom.

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4. Atomic number & Mass number
 Atomic number = proton number
 Nucleon number = proton number + number of neutrons
 Mass number = Nucleon number

2.3 KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER

1. According to the Kinetic Theory Of Matter,
 Matter consists of tiny and discrete particles.
 Particles always move randomly.
 There are forces of attraction between the particles.
 Particles gain kinetic energy and move faster when heated.
 Particles lose kinetic energy and move slower when cooled.
 Can be proven by using 2 experiments: Diffusion and Brownian
movement.
2. Diffusion
 Occurs when particles of a substance move in between the particles of
another substance.
 Random movement of particles from a high concentration region to a
lower concentration region.
 Happens in three states of matter; solid, liquid and gas.
 Occurs most rapidly in gases, followed by liquid and solid.
 Particles diffuse from one medium to another.
 Rate of diffusion increases with the temperature.
 Rate of diffusion decreases when the mass of matter increases.
 Diffusion in gases:

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  Diffusion of liquid:

(Blue)
 Diffusion of solid:

Jelly

3. Brownian movement

 Random movement that is shown when colliding with other particle.

 Can only be observed under a light microscope.
 Supports the Kinetic Theory Of Matter.

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2.4 ISOTOPES
1. Atoms of same element with the same number of protons but different
number of neutrons.

Uses
Isotopes

Carbon-14  determination of age of carbon-containing artifacts

 as a biological tracer, for example, in studies of
photosynthesis

Oxygen-18  biological tracer, for example, in studies of photosynthesis

Sodium-24  Detect location of leaks in water pipes,

 studies of body electrolytes

Magnesium-  location of leaks in water pipes

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Cobalt-60  cancer treatment as tumour cells tend to be more

susceptible to radiation than other cells

Krypton-81  lung ventilation studies

Technetium-  Medical tracer used to locate brain tumours and problems

99 with the lungs, thyroid, liver, spleen, kidney, gall bladder,
skeleton, blood pool, bone marrow, salivary
 to detect infection
 Medical tracer
Iodine-131
 treat the thyroid gland &amp
 used in the diagnosis of adrenal medulla
 for imaging suspected neural crest and other endocrine
tumours
 used in imaging to monitor thyroid function
Iodine-123
 detect adrenal dysfunction

Uranium-235  Enriched as a fuel for most nuclear reactors

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Americium-  Domestic smoke alarms
241

Phosphorus-  Treatment of excess red blood cells

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CHAPTER 3: CHEMICAL FORMULAE AND EQUATIONS
3.1 Formula and Chemical Equations
1. Reasons of comparing relative atomic mass(R.A.M, Ar) with one carbon-12
atom:
 Solid and easily handled.
 Most abundant carbon isotope.
 Easily available.
 Used as a reference standard in spectrometer.
2. Formulae:

MASS OF
SUBSTANCE, g

÷ M.M. × M.M.

× M.V.
VOLUME OF NO. OF MOLES, mol
SOLUTION, cm3
÷ M.V.
× NA
÷ NA

NO. OF
PARTICLES, atoms

3.2 The Mole and the Volume of Gas

1. Avogadro’s Constant, NA
 Number of particles in one mole of substance.
 6.02 × 1023
2. Standard Temperature and Pressure (S. T. P.)
 Temperature = 0°C

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  Pressure = 1 atmosphere / atm
 Molar volume of 1 mole of gas = 22.4dm3 or 22400cm3
3. Room condition (R. T. P.)
 Room temperature = 25°C
 Pressure = 1 atmosphere / atm
 Molar volume of 1 mole of gas = 24dm3 or 24000cm3

3.3 Molecular Formula and Empirical Formula

1. Molecular formula: actual number of atoms in each element that present
in a molecule of the compound.
2. Empirical formula: simplest whole number ratio of atoms of each element
in the compound.
Molecular formula
3. Empirical formula =
common factor
4. Example : Glucose – M.F.: C6H12O6
– E.F.: CH2O
5. Determining empirical formula by using table form:
Element -
Mass/Percentage x
𝑥
No. of mole y( )
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑥
Ratio 𝑦
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

Empirical formula

4. Experiment for empirical formula:

For higher reactivity of metal (Mg, Zn, Ca, Al)

Crucible with lid Metal tape

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 Precaution:
- Lift the lid at intervals to allow oxygen gas to enter for
combustion of metal.
- Lid is closed immediately after it is lifted to prevent white fume
from escaping to the surroundings.
- Stop heating the metal when it is started to glow.
Reactive metal: both reactant and products are solid and thus, the
individual mass of metal and oxygen cannot be determined.
For lower reactivity of metal (Cu, Sn, Pb, Ag)

Chemical used to dry hydrogen gas: Anhydrous cobalt chloride /

anhydrous calcium chloride.
Hydrogen gas is flowed through the apparatus throughout the
experiment to prevent the air for entering it.

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CHAPTER 4: PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS
4.1 INTRODUCTION TO PERIODIC TABLE

1. Classifications of elements with the same chemical properties are placed in

the same group.
2. Elements in:
 Group 1 – Alkali metals
 Group 2 – Alkali earth metals
 Group 3 – 12 – transition elements
 Group 17 – Halogens
 Group 18 – Noble gases
 Group 1, 2, transition elements and 13 – metals
 Group 15, 16 and 17 – non metals
 Same group – same chemical properties and valence electrons

No. of 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8/2
valence
electrons
Group 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
3. Historical Development of the Periodic Table
i. Antoine Lavoisier

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  Classify elements into 4 groups which are gases, metals, non-metals and
metal oxide.
 Not accurate – heat and light are included as gases.
ii. Johann W. Dobereiner
 Classify elements with the same chemical properties into groups of three
(triads).
 Discover relationship between R.A.M. in each triad. (Middle R.A.M. =
average R.A.M.)
iii. John Newlands
 Arrange elements in order of increasing nucleon number (mass number)
in horizontal rows. Each row has 7 elements.
 Law of Octaves – every eighth element have similar chemical properties.
– Only accurate for the first 16 elements.
 Discover the existence of periodic pattern.
iv. Lothar Meyer
Mass of one mole of atom
 Volume of an atom = of an element
density
 Graph of volume of atoms against their R.A.M.
 Show the properties of elements recur periodically.
v. Dmitri Mendeleev
 Arrange element in order of increasing atomic mass.
 Left gaps for elements yet to be discovered.
vi. Henry G. J. Moseley
i. Different element with high energy electrons & measured the frequency of
the X-ray emitted by inert gases elements.
ii. Graph of square root of frequency against proton number.
a) Group 18 elements – Noble Gases
 Made up of Helium (He), Neon (Ne), Argon (Ar), Krypton (Kr), Xenon
(Xe), Radon (Rn).
 Exist in monoatomic form.
 Has stable electron arrangement (outermost shell filled with the maximum
number of electrons).
 Chemically unreactive (do not share, donate or accept electrons).
 Duplet – Helium, Octet – other noble gases.
 Physical properties:
 Colourless gaseous state at room temperature.

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  Low boiling and melting point (weak Van der Waals forces /
intermolecular forces of attraction.
 Do not conduct electricity.
 Low density (atoms are far apart).
 Going down the group,
Melting & Boiling point
Atomic size
Forces of attraction between atoms
Heat energy
Density
Atomic mass
 Uses:
Helium  Fill airship, bicycle tyres of Olympic cyclist &
meteorological balloons.
 Exist in the gas in diver’s oxygen tank.
Neon  Advertising boards / lights.
 Electric discharge through glass tubes produces a red
light.
Argon  Electric light bulb.
 Carrier gas in gas-liquid chromatography.
Krypton  Laser light
 Flash lamps of a light house
Radon  For cancer treatment.
Xenon  For flash lamp.
b) Group 1 elements – Alkali metals
 Made up of Lithium (Li), Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Rubidium (Rb),
Cesium (Cs), and Francium (Fr).
 Has 1 valence electron.
 Very reactive to become positive ions (easily to donate valence electron).
 Physical properties:
 Soft metal with shiny and silvery surfaces (can be cut by knife).
 Good electric and heat conductor.
 Less dense than water.

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  When going down the group,
Melting and boiling point
Metallic bond Decreases
Forces of attraction
Atomic size
Density Increases
Number of occupied shell
 Chemical properties:
 Have same chemical properties.
 Electropositivity: measurement of ability of an element to lose an
electron and form a positive ion.
 Good reducing agent.
 Can be oxidised easily.
 Going down the group, reactivity / electropositivity increases.
 Safety precautions when handling Group 1 elements:
 Kept in paraffin oil.
 Use forceps to take them.
 Wear safety goggles & gloves.
 Reactions:
a) Alkali metal + water
 Hydroxide solution produced will turn red litmus paper red.
 Products: metal hydroxide + hydrogen gas

Alkali metal

Cold water

Lithium 2Li + 2H2O  2LiOH + H2

Moves slowly with “hiss” sound.
Sodium 2Na + 2H2O  2NaOH + H2
Moves quickly and randomly with loud “hiss” sound.
Potassium 2K + 2H2O  2KOH + H2
Burns with reddish-purple light, jumps, “hiss” and “pop” sound.

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 b) Alkali metal + oxygen
 Products: metal oxide (white powder).
 When metal oxide dissolves in water, it turns phenolphthalein
indicator red (presence of OH- ions – alkaline)

Lithium 4Li + O2  2Li2O

Burns slowly with red light.
Sodium 4Na + O2  2Na2O
Burns quickly and brightly with yellow light.
Potassium 4K + O2  2K2O
Burns very quickly and brightly with reddish-purple light.
c) Alkali metal + halogen gas (Chlorine & Bromine)
 Products: metal halides (metal bromide / chloride – white powder)

Halogen

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Lithium 2Li + Cl2  2LiCl / 2Li + Br2  2LiBr
Burns slowly with reddish flame. A white solid is obtained.
Sodium 2Na + Cl2  2NaCl / 2Na + Br2  2NaBr
Burns brightly with a yellowish flame. A white solid is obtained.
Potassium 2K + Cl2  2KCl / 2K + Br2  2KBr
Burns very brightly with a purplish flame. A white solid is
obtained.

4.2 HALOGEN
1. Group 17 elements (Halogens)
 Made up of fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I), and
astatine (At).
 Exist in diatomic molecules.
 Non – metal.
 Physical properties:
 Heat and electrical insulator.
 Low melting and boiling point (weak forces between the molecules).
 When going down the group,
 Atomic size
 Van der Waals forces
 Heat energy used to overcome forces
 Boiling and melting point
 Colour of halogen darker.
2. Chemical properties:
 Same chemical properties (same valence electrons – 7)
 High electronegativity
 When going down the group,
 Reactivity/electronegativity
 Van der Waals forces
 Tendency to accept electron
 Solubility
 Atomic size
 Distance between the nucleus and outermost shell
 Reaction:
 Halogen + water
 Product: two acids.
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  Halogens act as bleaching agent, except iodine water.
 In general, X2 + H2O  HX + HXO, where X is halogen.
 Chlorine water
 Turn blue litmus paper red then decolourise it.
 Prepared from the reaction between potassium manganate
(VII) chips with concentrated hydrochloric acid.
16HCl + 2KMnO4  2MnCl + 8H2O + 5Cl2

Chlorine (gas)  Cl2 + H2O  HCl + HClO

 Products: Hydrochloric acid + Hypochlorous acid
(bleaching agent).
 Greenish–yellow gas dissolves quickly to form a light
yellow solution.
Bromine (liquid)  Br2 + H2O  HBr + HBrO
 Products: Hydrobromic acid + hypobromous acid
(bleaching agent).
 Reddish–brown liquid dissolves slowly, forming a
brownish–yellow solution.
Iodine (solid)  I2 + H2O  HI + HIO
 Products: Hydroiodic acid + hypoiodous acid (bleaching
agent).
 Very little purplish–black solid dissolves, forming a light
yellow solution.
 Halogen + Sodium hydroxide solution, NaOH.
 Products: Sodium halide + Sodium halite(I) + Water
 In general, X2 + 2NaOH  NaX + NaOX + H2O, where X is
halogen.

Chlorine Cl2 + 2NaOH  NaCl + NaOCl(sodium chlorate) + H2O

Greenish-yellow gas dissolves quickly to form a colourless solution.
Bromine Br2 + 2NaOH  NaBr + NaOBr(sodium bromate) + H2O
Reddish-brown liquid dissolve averagely to form a colourless
solution.
Iodine I2 + 2NaOH  NaI+ NaOI(sodium Iodate) + H2O
Purplish-black solid dissolves slowly to form a colourless solution.
 Halogen + Iron (Fe)
 Product: iron(III) halides (brown solid)
 Apparatus set up:

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 / Lime soda

 Soda lime: mixture of calcium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide

(absorb excess halogen gas)
 Iron wool is heated strongly until red hot.
 Concentrated hydrochloric acid is added to potassium manganate
(VII) through a thistle funnel (to produce chlorine gas).
 In general, 3X2 + 2Fe  2FeX3, where X is a halogen.

Chlorine 3Cl2 + 2Fe  2FeCl3

Iron wool burns lights up strong and bright. Brown solid is formed.
Bromine 3Br2 + 2Fe  2FeBr3
Iron wool glows moderately bright and less vigorously. Brown solid
is formed.
Iodine 3I2 + 2Fe  2FeI3
Iron wool glows dimly and slowly. Brown solid is formed.
3. Precaution:
 Halogens are poisonous gas.
 Must be handled in fume chamber.
 When handling halogens. Safety goggles and gloves must be used.
 Fluorine is a radioactive substance, astatine is radioactive.

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4.3 Elements in a Period
1. Period: horizontal row in the Periodic Table.
2. There are 7 periods in the modern periodic table.
3. When it goes across the period from left to right:
 Electronegativity
 Proton number
 Valence electrons Increases
 Non-metallic properties
 Nuclei attraction on valence electrons
 Atomic size
 Electropositivity Decreases
 Metallic properties (Metallicity)

Element Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P4O10 SO2 Cl2O7

Characteristics Basic oxides Amphoteric Acidic oxides
(Alkali) oxides
4. Amphoteric oxides: react with both acids and alkalis, have base and acidic
1 1
properties. ( acid, alkali)
2 2
5. Sodium, Magnesium and Aluminium :
 Metal
 Strong metallic bonds
 High melting and boiling points
 High strength of metallic bond
6. Silicon
 High melting and boiling points
 Has strong covalent bond, forming a 3-dimensional gigantic network.

7. Uses of semi-metals/metalloids(element with properties intermediate

between those of metals and non-metals)
 Silicon and Germanium – makes diodes and transistor/switch
 Conductivity increases with temperature.
 Important in microelectronic industry

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8. Transition Element
 Elements between Group 3 until Group 12.
 Metals
 Show metallic properties:
 Shiny surface
 Ductile
 Malleable
 Can withstand high tension
 High melting and boiling point
 High density (big atomic mass despite small radius)
 Electric and heat conductor
 Form coloured compounds or ions

Transition elements Colour

3+
Chromium ion, Cr Green
2+
Iron(II) ion, Fe Green
3+
Iron(III) ion, Fe Brown
2+
Copper(II) ion, Cu Blue
2-
Chromate ion, CrO 4 Yellow
2+
Manganese ion, Mn Pink
2+
Cobalt ion, Co Pink
2+
Nickel ion, Ni Green
2-
Manganate ion, MnO 4 Purple
2-
Dichromate ion, Cr2O 7 Orange
 Act as catalyst to speed up the reaction.
 Iron, Fe – Haber process (producing ammonia, NH3).
 Platinum, Pt – Ostwald process (producing nitric acid, HNO3).
 Nickel, Ni – manufacture of margarine.
 Vanadium (V) oxide, V2O5 – Contact process (producing sulphuric
acid, H2SO4).
 Form complex ions.
 Polyatomic anion/cation consisting of more than 2 metal ions with
other group bonded to it.
 Examples – hexacyanoferrate (II) – [Fe(CN)6]4-
– Tetramine copper (II) – [Cu(NH3)4]2+

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 Have different oxidation number.
 Iron, Fe - +2, +3, +1
 Manganese - +1, +2, +3, +6, +7
 Nickel - +2, +3
 Chromium - +2, +3, +6
 Give colour to precious stone.
 Presence of ions in a solution can be confirmed by using sodium
hydroxide solution, NaOH / ammonia solution, NH3.
 The ions of transition elements will react with hydroxide ion, OH - to
form coloured solution / precipitate.

Precious stone Colour Transition elements

Emerald Green Nickel, Iron
Ruby Red Chromium
Sapphire Blue Iron, Titanium
Amethyst Purple Iron, Manganese

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CHAPTER 5: CHEMICAL BONDS
5.1 Formation of Chemical Bonds
1. Ionic bond
 Metal element reacts with non-metal element.
 Metal element (Group 1, 2, and 13)
 Non-metal element (Group 16 and 17)
 Metal elements donate electrons and produce positive ions.
 Non-metal elements will accept electrons to achieve a stable electron
configuration and produce negative ions.
 These ions will attract each other by a strong electrostatic force of
attraction (ionic bond).
 Examples: sodium chloride, magnesium oxide, lithium oxide.

Elements which are reacting Formula of ionic

Metal M Non-metal X compound
+
Group 1, M Group 15, M3- M3X
Group 1, M+ Group 16, M2- M2X
Group 1, M+ Group 17, M- MX
Group 2, M2+ Group 15, M3- M3X2
Group 2, M2+ Group 16, M2- MX
Group 2, M2+ Group 17, M- MX2
Group 13, M3+ Group 15, M3- MX
Group 13, M3+ Group 16, M2- M2X3
Group 13, M3+ Group 17, M- MX3
 Sodium chloride, NaCl

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4.2 Covalent Bonds
1. Formed by non-metal elements form Group 14, 15, 16, and 17.
2. Atoms of non-metals will combine to donate one, two or three valence
electrons to be shared.
3. 3 types of covalent bonds:
 Single – sharing one pair of electrons
 Double – sharing two pair of electrons
 Triple – sharing three pair of electrons
4. These will form covalent compound.
5. Examples:
Chlorine molecule, Cl2 (Single)

Water molecule, H2O (Single)

Carbon dioxide molecule, CO2 (Double)

Nitrogen molecule, N2 (Triple)

30
 Non-metal elements which combined Molecular
Element P Element Q Formula
4+
Group 14, P Group 17, Q- PQ4
Group 14, P4+ Group 16, Q2- P2Q4 / PQ2
Group 15, P3+ Group 17, Q- PQ3
Group 16, P2+ Group 17, Q- PQ2

6. Physical properties of ionic compounds:

 High melting and boiling point
 Conducts electricity

 Soluble in water, insoluble in organic solvents

 Able to ionize in water.
 Has strong electrostatic force of attraction
 Need a lot of heat energy to overcome the forces
 Arranged in lattice structure in solid state
 Contain free-moving ions that carry charges
7. Physical properties of covalent compounds:
 Low melting and boiling points
 Has weak Van der Waals forces – less heat energy is needed.
 Insoluble in water, soluble in organic solvent
 Cannot conduct electricity
 Do not contain free-moving ions that carry charges

31
8. Giant molecules covalent compounds:
 Strong covalent bonds combine all atoms in a three-dimensional lattice
structure.
 Have high melting and boiling point
 Unable to conduct electricity.
 Examples: silicon, graphite, silicon oxide, diamond, protein
9. Covalent compound as organic solvents
 Water
 Dissolves all types of food – sugar and salt
 Dissolves food substances in the body
 Cleanses or gets rid of dirt
 Organic solvent
 Ethanol – preparation of shellac, lacquer, paint, cosmetic and
perfumes
 Petrol / kerosene – cleans greasy and oily dirt stains
 Propanone – nail varnish
 Chlorofluorocarbon – cleans circuit board of computer

5.4 Comparisons between ionic and covalent bond

Ionic compound Properties Covalent compound
NaCl, MgO, ZnCl2, CuO Examples O2, CO2, H2O, N2, Cl2
High – has strong Melting and boiling Low – has weak
electrostatic forces of points intermolecular forces of
attraction (A lot of heat attraction (Little heat is
energy is needed) needed)
Soluble in water, Solubility Soluble in organic
insoluble in organic solvent, insoluble in
solvent. water.
Conduct electricity in Electrical conductivity Do not conduct
both molten and aqueous electricity.
state – contain free–
moving charged ions.
Non – volatile Volatility Volatile

32
 Ionic compound Covalent compound Metal
Simple Giant
Examples Cu, Zn, Na,
Ca, Pt, Ni,
Mg
M/P & B/P High Low High High
Solubility Soluble inInsoluble in Insoluble in Insoluble in
water, insolubleorganic both both
in organicsolvent,
solvents soluble in
water
Electrical Conduct in Does not Does not Conduct in
conductivity molten state or solid or liquid
aqueous
solution
Volatility No Yes No No

33
CHAPTER 6: ELECTROCHEMISTRY
6.1 Electrochemistry
1. Electrochemistry: study of the interconversion of chemical energy and
electrical energy.
2. Electrolyte: chemical substances that can conduct electricity in molten or
aqueous form.
Examples:
 Molten potassium iodide, KI
 Molten lead(II) chloride, PbCl2
 Molten aluminium oxide, Al2O3
 Sulphuric acid solution, H2SO4
 Copper sulphate solution, CuSO4
 Sodium chloride solution, NaCl
3. Non-electrolyte: chemical substances that cannot conduct electricity either in
molten or aqueous form as they have no free-moving ions.
Examples:
 Sulphur
 Wood
 Molten sugar
 Naphthalene
 Covalent compounds except ammonia and hydrogen chloride
4. Conductor: substances that can conduct electricity in liquid or solid state (not
regarded as electrolyte as they are not decomposed)
 Copper
 Iron
 Platinum
 Silver
5. Electrolysis: process whereby a compound is separated into its constituent
elements when an electric current passes through an electrolyte.
Electrical energy  chemical energy

34
 Set up of apparatus:
Electrolysis of molten compound Electrolysis of aqueous solution

6. 2 types of electrodes:
a) Active electrode
- do not react with electrolytes
- do not involve in chemical reactions
- Carbon, platinum and graphite electrodes
b) Inert electrode
- react with electrolytes
- involves in chemical reactions
- Copper, silver, or mercury electrodes
7. Anode: electrode that connect to the positive terminal of battery.
8. Cathode: electrode that connect to the negative terminal of battery.
9. Anion: negatively charged ions and attracted to anode.
10.Cation: positively charged ions and attracted to cathode.
11.Half equation:
Positive ions (Cations) Negative ions (Anions)
K +eK
+
2F - 2e  F2
-

Na + e  Na
+
2F-  F2 + 2e
Ca2+ + 2e  Ca 2Cl-  Cl2 + 2e
Mg2+ + 2e  Mg 2I-  I2 + 2e
Al3+ + 3e  Al 4OH-  2H2O + O2 + 4e
Zn2+ + 2e  Zn 2O2-  O2 + 4e
Fe2+ + 2e  Fe 2Br-  Br2 + 2e
Sn2+ + 2e  Sn
Pb2+ + 2e  Pb
2H+ + 2e  H2
Cu2+ + 2e  Cu
Ag+ + e  Ag

35
12.Electrolysis of molten compounds

Metal Observation
Sodium Shiny grey solid is formed.
Lead Shiny grey solid is deposited.
Nickel Shiny grey solid is formed.
Copper Brown deposit is formed.

Gas Observation
Bromine Brown gas is produced. (pungent smell)
Iodine Purple gas is produced.
Chlorine Yellowish-green gas is produced.
Oxygen Colourless gas bubbles are formed. (effervescence)
Hydrogen Colourless gas bubbles are formed. (effervescence)

Test for Oxygen gas, O2 Test for Hydrogen gas, H2

A glowing splinter is placed near the A lighted splinter is placed near the
mouth of the test tube containing mouth of the test tube containing
oxygen gas. It will light up. oxygen gas. A “pop” sound is
produced.

6.2 Electrolysis of Aqueous Solution

1. Aqueous solution:
 Produced when solute is dissolved in water.
 Electrolyte containing cations, anions, H+ and OH- ions.
2. During electrolysis of aqueous solution:
 2 cations are attracted to cathode (-).
 2 anions are attracted to anode (+).
 Only one of the four ions will be chosen to be discharged at anode and
cathode.
3. Factors affecting which ions are chosen to be discharged:
 Position of ions in the electrochemical series (ECS)
 Concentration of ions in the solution
 Type of electrodes used

36
4. Position of ions in the electrochemical series (ECS)

Cations Anions
-
K Kalau F Father
Na Nak SO42- Say
Ca Cari NO3- Nothing
Mg Minum Cl- Can
Al Air Br- Buy
Zn Zappel I- Indian
Fe Free OH- Oranges
Sn Sila
Pb Pergi
H Hotel
Cu Curi
Ag Agar
 The lower the position of the ion, the higher the tendency of the ions to be
discharged.
 Sulphate ion, SO42- and nitrate ion, NO3- cannot be discharged.
5. Concentration of ions
 The anions in a lower concentration solution will be chosen to be
discharged. (diluted)
 The cations in a higher concentration solution will be chosen to be
discharged.
 Diluted – 0.0001, 0.001, 0.01 dm-3
 Concentrated – 0.1, 1.0, 2.0 dm-3
 K+ and Na+ cannot be discharged even if their concentration of the
solution is high.
6. Types of electrodes used
 Inert electrodes: Carbon, graphite and platinum (Both of these electrodes
do not react with the electrolytes or products of electrolysis)
 Active electrodes: Silver, copper and nickel (Active anode ionises and
concentration of cations in the electrolyte does not change)

6.4 Application of Electrolysis

1. Electroplating of metals
 Objectives: to prevent corrosion / to improve appearance.
 Plating metals: gold (Au), Platinum (Pt), Chromium (Cr), copper (Cu),
Silver (Ag), & Nickel (Ni).

37
  Conditions:
 Object to be plated  cathode
 Electroplating metal  anode
 Electrolyte used must contain the metal ions.
 Surface of electroplating metal must be cleaned.
 Set-up apparatus:

2. Extraction of metals
 Reactive metals (Na, Ca, Mg, Al) are extracted from their ores
compounds using electrolysis.
 These metals cannot be extracted by reduction using carbon.
a) Extraction of aluminium metal from bauxite (aluminium oxide)

 Cryolite is added to bauxite to lower the temperature of bauxite from

2000°C to 950°C.
 Bauxite dissociates.
Al2O3  2Al3+ + 3O2-
 Half equation at cathode : Al3+ +3e  Al
38
  Half equation at anode : 2O2-  O2 + 4e
 Overall equation : 4Al3+ + 6O2-  4Al + 3O2
 Carbon electrodes react with the oxygen gas to produce carbon
dioxide.
 Hall Heroult’s Process.
b) Extraction of sodium metal from sodium chloride
 Iron : cathode
 Carbon : anode
 Set – up apparatus:

 Calcium chloride is added to lower the melting point of sodium

chloride.
 Half equation at cathode : Na+ + e  Na
 Half equation at anode : 2Cl-  Cl2 + 2e
 Overall equation : 2Na+ + 2Cl-  2Na + Cl2
 Downs’ Process
3. Purification of metals
 Impure metal containing impurities can be purified.
 Conditions:
 Impure metal : anode
 Pure metal : cathode
 Electrolyte used must contain the metal ions.

39
  Set-up apparatus:

 Observation:
 Copper anode becomes thinner and the impurities are deposited below
it.
 Copper cathode becomes thicker.
 Intensity of blue solution remains the same. Rate of formation of
copper(II) ions of anode = rate of discharge of copper(II) ions of
cathode. Concentration remains the same.
 Half equation at anode : Cu  Cu2+ +2e
 Half equation at cathode : Cu2+ + 2e  Cu

6.5 Voltaic Cell

1. Simple voltaic cell
 Uses two metal plates being immersed in an electrolyte (must contain
one of the metal ions).
 Two different metals used must have different positions in the
electrochemical series.
 Voltage can be measured by using voltmeter.
 The further the distance between those two metals in electrochemical
series, the higher the voltage produced.
 Higher position of metal will donate electrons more easily to form
positive ion and become a negative terminal (anode).
 Lower position of metal will accept electrons from the electrolyte to
form metal and become a positive terminal (cathode).
 This results in the thinning and thickening of the plates.
 Unstable and will decrease rapidly.

40
2. Daniell cell
 Produces more stable cell voltage.
 Cell built with two pieces of different metal immersed in a salt solution
of their respective metals.
 Porous pot: to complete the circuit by allowing the transition of ions and
separate both solutions.
 Porous pot can be replaced by salt bridge.
 Salt bridge: consists of filter paper soaked with a concentrated salt
solution such as sodium chloride, potassium chloride, potassium nitrate,
ammonium chloride and dilute sulphuric acid.
 Weaknesses:
 Electrolyte can spill out easily.
 Difficult to carry around.
 Voltage produced decreases quickly due to the polarity of the
cell(formation of gas bubbles around the electrodes)

41
3. Examples of voltaic cells:

42
4. Advantages and disadvantages of voltaic cells:

5. Comparison between electrolytic cell and voltaic cell:

43
6.6 Construction of Electrochemical Series through Cell Potential
Difference
1. Procedure:
 30cm3 of 1 moldm-3 copper(II) sulphate solution is added into a beaker.
 A piece of magnesium tape and copper metal are cleansed with sand
paper and immersed into copper(II) sulphate solution.
 Both pieces of metals are connected to a voltmeter using wires as shown
in the diagram.
 The voltmeter reading is recorded. The positive and negative terminals
are determined.
 The procedure is repeated by using zinc, iron, lead, aluminium and
copper metal.
2. More electropositive metal : negative terminal
3. The further apart two metals are in the ECS, the higher the voltage of the
cell.

6.7 Construction of Electrochemical Series through Displacement

Reaction
1. Metal which is more electropositive (placed higher) in the ECS will displace
other metals less electropositive (below it) from its salt solutions.
2. Summary:

Solution Copper(II) Lead(II) Iron(II) Zinc salts Magnesium

salts salts salts (Zn2+) salts
Metal (Cu2+) (Pb2+) (Fe2+) (Mg2+)
Copper ~ No No No No
Lead Yes ~ No No No
Iron Yes Yes ~ No No
Zinc Yes Yes Yes ~ No
Magnesium Yes Yes Yes yes ~

44
Chapter 7: Acids and Bases
7.1 Acids and Bases
1. Acid
 Chemical substance that dissociate in water to produce hydrogen ions, H+
or hydroxonium ions, H3O+.
 Depicted as proton donors (H+).
 Strength of acid depends on the degree of dissociation/ionization.
 3 types of acids:
 Monoprotic acid (HCl, HNO3)
 Diprotic acid (H2SO4)
 Triprotic acid (H3PO4)
 Physical properties:
 Sour in taste
 pH value: less than 7
 Turns blue litmus paper red.
 Conducts electricity (has free-moving ions).
 Chemical properties:
 Acid + metal  salt + hydrogen gas
 Hydrogen gas can be tested by using a glowing splinter.
 Less reactive metals (Pb and Cu) are not suitable for the reaction.
 Acid + carbonate salt  salt + water + CO2 gas
 CO2 gas turns lime water chalky/milky/cloudy.
 Acid + alkali (base)  salt + water
 Neutralisation reaction.

Non-organic/mineral acid (strong acid) Organic acid (weak acid)

a. Sulphuric acid, H2SO4 a. Methanoic acid, HCOOH
b. Hydrochloric acid, HCl b. Ethanoic acid, CH3COOH
c. Nitric acid, HNO3 c. Lactic acid (sour milk)
d. Carbonic acid, H2CO3 d. Citric acid (citrus fruit)
e. Phosphoric acid, H3PO4 e. Ascorbic acid (vit. C)
f. Sulphurous acid, H2So3 f. Ethanediodic acid, H2C2O4
g. Formic acid (insect bites)

45
 Strong acid Weak acid
 Dissociate completely into  Dissociate partially into hydrogen
hydrogen ions in water. ions in water.
 Degree of dissociation is 100%.  Degree of dissociation is <100%.
 Produces higher concentration of  Produces lower concentration of
hydrogen ions and lower pH hydrogen ions and higher pH
value. value.
 Eg:  Eg:
 Hydrochloric acid  Ethanoic acid
 Sulphuric acid  Methanoic acid
 Nitric acid  Citric acid

2. Water and acidic properties

 Acid shows its acidic properties in the presence of water.
 Acid will ionise to form hydrogen ions that are responsible for the acidic
properties.
 Acid cannot be ionized in an organic solvent.

Acid Condition Observation Inference

Hydrogen Dissolved in No changes in the colour Does not show
chloride methylbenzene of litmus paper. Bulb does acidic properties.
(non-acid) not light up. Does not conduct
electricity as there
are no free moving
ions.
Aqueous Blue litmus paper turns Show acidic
solution (acid) red. Bulb lights up. properties.
Conduct electricity
as there are free
moving ions.

3. Bases
 Chemical substances that can neutralise an acid to produce salt and water
(Neutralisation process).
 Most are not soluble in water. Soluble bases are called alkali.
 Eg:
 zinc oxide, ZnO
 copper(II) oxide, CuO
 magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2

46
4. Alkali
 Chemical substance that dissociate in water to produce hydroxide ion,
OH-).
 Have alkaline properties as the formation of freely moving hydroxide
ions in water.
 Eg:
 Sodium hydroxide, NaOH
 Aqueous ammonia, NH3
 Potassium hydroxide, KOH
 Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2
 Physical properties:
 Feel soapy when in touch
 Bitter in taste
 Turns red litmus paper blue
 Has a pH >7
 Conducts electricity
 Chemical properties:
 Acid + Alkali  Salt + Water (neutralization)
 Alkali + ammonium salt  salt + water + ammonia gas
5. Water and alkaline properties
 Alkaline properties only can be shown in the presence of H2O (presence
of free-moving ions).
 Ionic compound – NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2
 Cannot show their properties in organic solvent.
 Ionisation of alkali produces hydroxide ions in water.
 Covalent compound – NH3
 Can dissolve in both water and organic solvent (trichloromethane).
 Only show its properties in water.
 Conduct electricity only in water.
 There is no mobile ion in organic solvents.

47
7.2 The Strength of Acids and Alkalis
Strong alkali
 Dissociate completely into
hydroxide ions in water.
 Degree of dissociation is 100%.
 Produces higher concentration of
hydrogen ions and higher pH
value (pH 14).
 Eg:
 Sodium hydroxide, NaOH
 Potassium hydroxide, KOH
Weak acid
 Dissociate partially into hydrogen
ions in water.
 Degree of dissociation is <100%.
 Produces lower concentration of
hydroxide ions and low pH value.
 Eg:
 Magnesium hydroxide,
Mg(OH)2
 Aqueous ammonia, NH3
 Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2

1. pH concept
 To measure acidity and alkalinity of a solution.
 From pH 0  14
 pH 7 : the concentration of H+ ions = the concentration of OH- ions

2. Acid – base indicator

Indicator Acid Alkali Neutral

Litmus paper / Red Blue Purple
litmus solution
Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink Colourless
Methyl orange Red Yellow Orange
Universal Red/orange/yellow Green Blue/purple/violet
indicator
Bromothymol Yellow Blue Green
blue

48
3. Concentration / molarity
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑔) 𝑀𝑉
 No. of moles = /
𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 1000
 1000cm = 1dm
3 3

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑔) 𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 (𝑚𝑜𝑙)

 Concentration = /
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑐𝑚3) 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑐𝑚3)
4. Standard solution: solution which has a known concentration.
 Prepared by using volumetric flask.
 Dilution method:

7.4 Neutralisation
1. Neutralisation

Titration method
 Reaction between an acid and a base to produce salt and water.
 Acid + Base  Salt + Water
 H+ ions from acid will react with OH- ions from the alkali to produce
water molecules.
H+ + OH-  H2O (ionic equation)
 Neutral solution produced pH 7.
 Titration: method used to determine the molarity of a solution by using
another solution with a known molarity.
49
 End point: all the ions dissociated from acid and alkalis have reacted
completely to form water molecules. (neutral, pH 7)
 The water molecules dissociated into ions and thus do not conduct
electricity.
 Formula:
𝑀1𝑉1 𝐴
= (ratio of acid and alkali)
𝑀2𝑉2 𝐵
 Graph:

50
CHAPTER 8: SALTS
8.1 Salts
1. Salts
 Ionic compound that is formed when H+ ions in an acid is replaced by a
metal ion or ammonium ion.
 Neutral [ pH 7 – phenolphthalein (colourless)]
 Neutral in term of electrical charges.
 Can be produced through neutralisation process.
 Examples:
Acids
Hydrochloric acid HCl X chloride
Nitric acid HNO3 X nitrate
Sulphuric acid H2SO4 X sulphate
Carbonic acid HCO3 X carbonate
Phosphoric acid H2PO4 X phosphate
Ethanoic acid CH3COOH X ethanoate
2. Solubility of salts
Type of salts Solubility in water
Sodium, potassium & ammonium All are soluble except oxide,
salts hydroxide and carbonate
Nitrate, ethanoate salts All are soluble
Chloride salts All are soluble except PbCl2, AgCl,
HgCl2
Sulphate salts All are soluble except PbSO4, BaSO4,
CaSO4
Carbonate, oxide & hydroxide salts All are insoluble except sodium,
potassium & ammonium
Lead(II) salts All are insoluble except Pb(NO3)2
and Pb(CH3COO)2
***Lead hallides such as lead(II) chloride, lead(II) bromide and lead(II)
iodide are insoluble in cold water but soluble in hot water.
***Lead(II) nitrate is soluble in both cold and hot water.
3. Preparation of soluble salts except soluble salts of sodium, ammonium and
potassium
 Acid + alkali  salt + water
 Acid + metal  salt + hydrogen
 Acid + base  salt + water
 Acid + metal carbonate  salt + water + carbon dioxide

51
4. Preparation of soluble salts of sodium, ammonium and potassium
i. Titration of an acid and alkali (Neutralisation)
ii. Crystallization (Heating)
iii. Recrystallization (Filtration)
5. Crystals
 Formed when a saturated salt solution is cooled down.
 Physical characteristics:
 Fixed geometrical shape
 Flat surfaces, straight edges and sharp corners
 Fixed angle between two adjacent surfaces
 Hard and brittle
 Colour of crystal depends on the ions in the crystals.

Salt / metal oxide Colour

Solid Aqueous solution
Copper(II) salts
Copper(II) carbonate Green Insoluble
Copper(II) sulphate, copper(II) Blue Blue
nitrate, copper(II) chloride
Copper(II) oxide Black Insoluble
Iron(II) salts
Iron(II) sulphate, Iron(II) Light green Light green
nitrate, Iron(II) chloride
Iron(III) salts
52
 Iron(III) sulphate, Iron(III) Brown Brown /
nitrate, Iron(III) chloride Green – brownish
Zinc oxide Yellow (hot) Insoluble
White (cold)
Lead(II) oxide Brown (hot) Insoluble
Yellow (cold)
Magnesium oxide, aluminium White Insoluble
oxide
Potassium oxide, sodium oxide, White Colourless
calcium oxide
6.

8.2 Qualitative Analysis of Salts

53
1. Test for gases:
Gases Colour Smell Effect on damp Confirmation
litmus paper test
Oxygen, O2 Colourless - - Light up
glowing splinter
Hydrogen, H2 Colourless - - Lighted splinter
is placed near
the mouth of the
test tube. A
“pop” sound is
produced.
Carbon Colourless - Damp blue litmus Bubbled through
dioxide, CO2 paper turns red lime water. It
will turn milky.
Ammonia, Colourless Pungent Damp red litmus Forms dense
NH3 paper turns blue white fumes
with hydrogen
chloride gas.
Chlorine, Cl2 Greenish – Pungent Damp blue litmus Tested by using
yellow paper turns red, litmus paper.
then decolourises
/ bleaches it.
Hydrogen Colourless Pungent Damp blue litmus Forms dense
chloride, HCl paper turns red white fumes
with ammonia.
Sulphur Colourless Pungent Damp blue litmus Decolourise
dioxide, SO2 paper turns red purple colour of
potassium
manganate(VII)
solution /
changes orange
potassium
dichromate(VI)
solution
Nitrogen Brown Pungent Damp blue litmus Tested by using
dioxide, NO2 paper turns red litmus paper.

2. Production of gases:
Gases Production
54
Oxygen, O2 Heating a chlorate(V) or nitrate salt
Hydrogen, H2 Acid-metal reaction
Carbon dioxide, CO2 Heating a metal carbonate or acid-carbonate reaction
Ammonia, NH3 Heating a mixture of ammonium salt and alkali
Chlorine, Cl2 Heating a mixture of manganese(IV) oxide and
concentrated hydrochloric acid
Hydrogen chloride, HCl Heating a common salt and concentrated sulphuric
acid
Sulphur dioxide, SO2 An acid-sulphite reaction
Nitrogen dioxide, NO2 Heating a nitrate salt
3. Action of heat on salts
 Carbonate salts

55
 Nitrate salts

 Sulphate salts
i. Group 1 and 2 sulphate salts do not decompose when heated.
ii. The sulphates of heavy metals decompose into metal oxides and
sulphur trioxide when heated except iron(II) sulphate which
release sulphur dioxide gas.
iii. Ammonium sulphate sublimates at first and decompose into
ammonia and hydrogen sulphate when further heating.

56
  Chloride salts
i. All are stable to heat except ammonium chloride.
ii. Ammonia gas emerges first, then followed by hydrogen chloride.
4. Test for anions

57
5. Confirmatory tests

58
6. Tests for cations

59
CHAPTER 9: MANUFACTURED SUBSTANCES IN
INDUSTRY
9.1 Sulphuric Acid
1. Uses:
 To manufacture fertilizers
 To manufacture detergent
 To manufacture pesticides
 To manufacture synthetic fibres (boat, wall)
 To manufacture paint
 To manufacture metal oxide
 As an electrolyte (lead-acid accumulator)
2. Contact process
Step I Step II

Sulphur Sulphur
Sulphur, S
dioxide, SO2 trioxide, SO3

Step III

Sulphuric acid,
Oleum, H2S2O7
H2SO4

Catalyst: Vanadium(V) oxide

Temperature: 450°C - 550°C
Pressure: one atmosphere (atm)

60
  Step I
i. Production of sulphur dioxide
ii. S + O2  SO2
 Step II
i. Production of sulphur trioxide
ii. 2SO2 + O2 ↔ 2SO3
iii. High % of SO2 is converted into SO3.
 Step III
i. SO3 + H2SO4(concentrated)  H2S2O7 (oleum)
ii. H2S2O7 + H2O  2 H2SO4

9.2 Ammonia
1. Main uses:
 To manufacture fertilizers
 As a cooling agent in refrigerator
 To produce nitric acid (Ostwald process)
 To make explosives
 To prevent coagulation of latex
 To produce ammonium chloride
2. Haber process

Nitrogen, N2 + Hydrogen, H2

Ammonia, NH3

Excess N2 and H2

61
 Catalyst: Iron powder
Promoter: Aluminium oxide
Temperature: 450℃ – 550℃
Pressure: 200 – 500 atm

3. Nitrogen gas is obtained from fractional distillation of liquid air.

4. Source of hydrogen gas:
 Reaction between steam and heated coke (carbon)
 Reaction between steam and natural gas (methane)
5. Equation: N2 + 3H2  2NH3
6. Ratio of nitrogen gas to hydrogen gas  1 : 3

9.3 Alloy
1. Advantages of alloying:
 Increase the hardness/strength of metal
 Prevent corrosion/rusting
 Improve appearance of metal
2. Physical properties:
 Ductile – can slide over when external force is applied.

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  Malleable – slide into new positions in the empty spaces of alloy.
 High boiling and melting points
 High density
 Good conductor of electricity

Alloy Composition Properties Uses

Carbon steel 99% iron Hard For construction,
1% carbon bridges, vehicles,
tools, heavy machinery
Stainless steel 74% iron Rust resistant For crockery,
18% chromium kitchenware and
8% nickel machine parts
Bronze 90% copper Hard & shiny For kitchenware, ship
10% tin propellers, decorative
ornaments and art
crafts.
Brass 70% copper Hard & shiny For musical
30% zinc instrument, electrical
connecter, decorative
ornaments
Magnalium 70% aluminium Light & hard
30% magnesium
Duralumin 95% aluminium Light & hard
1% magnesium
4% copper
Pewter 97% tin Hard & shiny For mugs,
3% lead and candlesticks,
antimony decorative ornaments
and souvenirs.
Solder 50% tin Hard, shiny and For soldering electrical
50% lead low melting point wires and metal pipes
Cupro-nickel Copper, nickel Hard, shiny and For coins
corrosion resistant

9.4 Synthetic Polymers

1. Polymers: large long-chain molecules formed by joining together many
identical repeating sub-units called monomer.
2. Polymerisation: chemical process by which the monomers are joined
together into chain-like molecule called polymer.
3. Natural polymer: polymer obtained from animals and plants.
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4. Advantages of synthetic polymers
 Strong and light
 Cheap
 Able to resist corrosion
 Inert to chemical reactions
 Easily moulded or shaped and be coloured
 Can be made to have special properties
Name(s) Monomer Properties Uses
Polyethylene ethylene soft, waxy solid film wrap,
low density CH2=CH2 plastic bags
(LDPE)
Polyethylene ethylene rigid, translucent electrical
high density CH2=CH2 solid insulation
(HDPE) bottles, toys
Polypropylene propylene atactic: soft, elastic similar to LDPE
(PP) different CH2=CHCH3 solid carpet,
grades isotactic: hard, upholstery
strong solid
Poly(vinyl vinyl chloride strong rigid solid pipes, siding,
chloride) CH2=CHCl flooring
(PVC)
Poly(vinylidene vinylidene dense, high-melting seat covers,
chloride) chloride solid films
(Saran A) CH2=CCl2
Polystyrene styrene hard, rigid, clear toys, cabinets
(PS) CH2=CHC6H5 solid packaging
soluble in organic (foamed)
solvents
Polyacrylonitrile acrylonitrile high-melting solid rugs, blankets
(PAN, Orlon, CH2=CHCN soluble in organic clothing
Acrilan) solvents
Polytetrafluoroeth tetrafluoroethylen resistant, smooth non-stick
ylene e solid surfaces
(PTFE, Teflon) CF2=CF2 electrical
insulation
Poly(methyl methyl hard, transparent lighting covers,
methacrylate) methacrylate solid signs
(PMMA, Lucite, CH2=C(CH3)CO skylights
Plexiglas) 2CH3
Poly(vinyl acetate) vinyl acetate soft, sticky solid latex paints,
(PVAc) CH2=CHOCOC adhesives
H3

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 cis-Polyisoprene isoprene soft, sticky solid requires
natural rubber CH2=CH- vulcanization
C(CH3)=CH2 for practical use
Polychloroprene (c chloroprene tough, rubbery solid synthetic rubber
is + trans) CH2=CH- oil resistant
(Neoprene) CCl=CH2
9.5 Glass and ceramics
1. Properties of both glass and ceramics:
 Main component: silica or silicon dioxide, SiO2
 Hard but brittle
 Inert towards chemicals
 Insulator of heat and electricity
 withstand compression but not stretching
 Can be easily cleaned
 Low cost of production
2. Differences between glass and ceramics:
 Glass – transparent , ceramic – opaque
 Glass – cannot withstand high temperature, ceramics – can withstand
high temperature
3. Type of glass:

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4. Special purpose glass and ceramics
I. Photochromic glass
II. Conducting glass – produced by adding tin(IV) oxide (conduct
electricity) used to make LCD.
III. Super conductor – ceramics used to make light magnets, electrical
generators & electric motors

9.6 Composite Materials

1. New material produced from a complex mixture of two or more materials
with different physical properties.

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/ Optical fibres

~ THE END ~

~ febianhenry_96 ~

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