3D printing
For methods of applying a 2D and 3D image onto a 3D
Build surface, see pad printing. For methods of copying
2D parallax stereograms that seem 3D to the eye, see
lenticular printing and holography.
A MakerBot three-dimensional printer.
3D printing, also known as additive manufactur-
ing (AM), refers to processes used to create a three-
dimensional object[1] in which successive layers of ma-
terial are formed under computer control to create an
object.[2] Objects can be of almost any shape or geom-
etry and are produced using digital model data from a
3D model or another electronic data source such as an
Additive Manufacturing File (AMF) file.
The futurologist Jeremy Rifkin[3] claimed that 3D print-
ing signals the beginning of a third industrial revo-
lution,[4] succeeding the production line assembly that
dominated manufacturing starting in the late 19th cen- AM processes for metal sintering or melting (such as
tury.
The term “3D printing” originally referred to a pro- selective laser melting) usually went by their own indi-
cess that deposits a binder material onto a powder bed
with inkjet printer heads layer by layer. More recently,
the term is being used in popular vernacular to encom-
pass a wider variety of additive manufacturing tech-
niques. United States and global technical standards use
the official term additive manufacturing for this broader
sense. ISO/ASTM52900-15 defines seven categories of
AM processes within its meaning: binder jetting, di-
rected energy deposition, material extrusion, material
jetting, powder bed fusion, sheet lamination and vat
photopolymerization.[5]
1 Terminology and methods
Early additive manufacturing equipment and materials
were developed in the 1980s.[6] In 1981, Hideo Ko-
dama of Nagoya Municipal Industrial Research Insti-
tute invented two AM fabricating methods of a three-
dimensional plastic model with photo-hardening poly-
mer, where the UV exposure area is controlled by a mask
pattern or the scanning fiber transmitter.[7][8] But on July
16, 1984 Alain Le Méhauté, Olivier de Witte and Jean
Claude André filed their patent for the stereolithography
process.[9] It was three weeks before Chuck Hull filed
his own patent for stereolithography. The application
of French inventors were abandoned by the French
General Electric Company (now Alcatel-Alsthom) and
CILAS (The Laser Consortium).[10] The claimed rea-
son was “for lack of business perspective”.[11] Then in
1984, Chuck Hull of 3D Systems Corporation[12] devel-
oped a prototype system based on a process known as
stereolithography, in which layers are added by curing
photopolymers with ultraviolet light lasers. Hull defined
the process as a “system for generating three-dimensional
objects by creating a cross-sectional pattern of the ob-
ject to be formed,”[13][14] but this had been already in-
vented by Kodama. Hull’s contribution is the design of
the STL (Stereolithography) file format widely accepted
by 3D printing software as well as the digital slicing and
infill strategies common to many processes today. The
term 3D printing originally referred to a process employ-
ing standard and custom inkjet print heads. The technol-
ogy used by most 3D printers to date—especially hob-
byist and consumer-oriented models—is fused deposition
modeling, a special application of plastic extrusion.
selective laser sintering, direct metal laser sintering, and
1
2 2 GENERAL PRINCIPLES

vidual names in the 1980s and 1990s. At the time, nearly by additive manufacturing or 3D printing methods to en-
all metal working was produced by casting, fabrication, able quick prototyping and responses to tooling and fix-
stamping, and machining; although plenty of automation ture needs. Agile tooling uses a cost effective and high
was applied to those technologies (such as by robot weld- quality method to quickly respond to customer and mar-
ing and CNC), the idea of a tool or head moving through ket needs. It can be used in hydro-forming, stamping,
a 3D work envelope transforming a mass of raw mate- injection molding and other manufacturing processes.
rial into a desired shape layer by layer was associated As technology matured, several authors had begun to
by most people only with processes that removed metal speculate that 3D printing could aid in sustainable devel-
(rather than adding it), such as CNC milling, CNC EDM,
opment in the developing world.[21][22][23]
and many others. But AM-type sintering was begin-
ning to challenge that assumption. By the mid 1990s,
new techniques for material deposition were developed
at Stanford and Carnegie Mellon University, including 2 General principles
microcasting[15] and sprayed materials.[16] Sacrificial and
support materials had also become more common, en- 2.1 Modelling
abling new object geometries.[17]
The umbrella term additive manufacturing gained wider Main article: 3D modeling
currency in the decade of the 2000s.[18] As the various ad-
ditive processes matured, it became clear that soon metal 3D printable models may be created with a computer-
removal would no longer be the only metalworking pro- aided design (CAD) package, via a 3D scanner, or by a
cess done under that type of control (a tool or head mov- plain digital camera and photogrammetry software. 3D
ing through a 3D work envelope transforming a mass of printed models created with CAD result in reduced errors
raw material into a desired shape layer by layer). It was and can be corrected before printing, allowing verification
during this decade that the term subtractive manufactur- in the design of the object before it is printed.[24]
ing appeared as a retronym for the large family of machin-
ing processes with metal removal as their common theme.
At this time, the term 3D printing still referred only to
the polymer technologies in most minds, and the term
AM was likelier to be used in metalworking and end use
part production contexts than among polymer, inkjet, and
stereolithography enthusiasts. The term subtractive has
not replaced the term machining, instead complementing
it when a term that covers any removal method is needed.
By the early 2010s, the terms 3D printing and additive
manufacturing evolved senses in which they were alter-
nate umbrella terms for AM technologies, one being used
in popular vernacular by consumer - maker communities
and the media, and the other used officially by industrial
AM end use part producers, AM machine manufacturers, CAD model used for 3D printing
and global technical standards organizations.
The manual modeling process of preparing geometric
Both terms reflect the simple fact that the technologies data for 3D computer graphics is similar to plastic arts
all share the common theme of sequential-layer material such as sculpting. 3D scanning is a process of collecting
addition/joining throughout a 3D work envelope under digital data on the shape and appearance of a real object,
automated control. creating a digital model based on it.
(Other terms that had been used as AM synonyms (al-
though sometimes as hypernyms), include desktop man-
ufacturing, rapid manufacturing, agile tooling [as the 2.2 Printing
logical production-level successor to rapid prototyping],
and on-demand manufacturing [which echoes on-demand Before printing a 3D model from an STL file, it must first
printing in the 2D sense of printing].) The 2010s were be examined for errors. Most CAD applications produce
[25][26]
the first decade in which metal end use parts such as en- errors in output STL files: holes, faces normals,
[27]
gine brackets and large nuts would be grown (either self-intersections, noise shells or manifold errors.
[19] [20] A
before or instead of machining) in job production rather step in the STL generation known as “repair” fixes such
[28][29]
than obligately being machined from bar stock or plate. problems in the original model. Generally STLs
that have been produced from a model obtained through
Agile tooling is a term used to describe the process of
3D scanning often have more of these errors.[30] This is
using modular means to design tooling that is produced
due to how 3D scanning works-as it is often by point
 3

moving material[35] with a higher-resolution subtractive

process can achieve greater precision.
Some printable polymers such as ABS, allow the surface
finish to be smoothed and improved using chemical vapor
processes[36] based on acetone or similar solvents.
Some additive manufacturing techniques are capable of
using multiple materials in the course of constructing
parts. These techniques are able to print in multiple col-
ors and color combinations simultaneously, and would not
necessarily require painting.
Timelapse video of a hyperboloid object (designed by George W.
Some printing techniques require internal supports to
Hart) made of PLA using a RepRap “Prusa Mendel” 3 printer for
molten polymer deposition
be built for overhanging features during construction.
These supports must be mechanically removed or dis-
solved upon completion of the print.
to point acquisition, reconstruction will include errors in All of the commercialized metal 3D printers involve cut-
most cases.[31] ting the metal component off the metal substrate after
Once completed, the STL file needs to be processed by deposition. A new process for the GMAW 3D print-
a piece of software called a “slicer,” which converts the ing allows for substrate surface modifications to remove
[37] [38]
model into a series of thin layers and produces a G-code aluminum or steel.
file containing instructions tailored to a specific type of
3D printer (FDM printers). This G-code file can then be
printed with 3D printing client software (which loads the 3 Processes and printers
G-code, and uses it to instruct the 3D printer during the
3D printing process).
Main article: 3D printing processes
Printer resolution describes layer thickness and X-Y res- A large number of additive processes are available. The
olution in dots per inch (dpi) or micrometers (µm). Typi-
cal layer thickness is around 100 µm (250 DPI), although
some machines can print layers as thin as 16 µm (1,600
DPI).[32] X-Y resolution is comparable to that of laser
printers. The particles (3D dots) are around 50 to 100
µm (510 to 250 DPI) in diameter.
Construction of a model with contemporary methods can
take anywhere from several hours to several days, de-
pending on the method used and the size and complexity
of the model. Additive systems can typically reduce this
time to a few hours, although it varies widely depending
on the type of machine used and the size and number of
models being produced simultaneously.[33]
Traditional techniques like injection moulding can be
less expensive for manufacturing polymer products in
Fused deposition modeling: 1 – nozzle ejecting molten material,
high quantities, but additive manufacturing can be faster,
2 – deposited material, 3 – movable table
more flexible and less expensive when producing rela-
tively small quantities of parts. 3D printers give design-
main differences between processes are in the way lay-
ers and concept development teams the ability to produce
ers are deposited to create parts and in the materials that
parts and concept models using a desktop size printer.[34]
are used. Each method has its own advantages and draw-
Seemingly paradoxically, more complex objects can be backs, which is why some companies offer a choice of
cheaper for 3D printing production than less complex ob- powder and polymer for the material used to build the
jects. object.[39] Others sometimes use standard, off-the-shelf
business paper as the build material to produce a durable
prototype. The main considerations in choosing a ma-
2.3 Finishing chine are generally speed, costs of the 3D printer, of the
printed prototype, choice and cost of the materials, and
Though the printer-produced resolution is sufficient for color capabilities.[40] Printers that work directly with met-
many applications, printing a slightly oversized version als are generally expensive. However less expensive print-
of the desired object in standard resolution and then re- ers can be used to make a mold, which is then used to
4 3
A timelapse video of a robot model (logo of Make magazine)
being printed using FDM on a RepRapPro Fisher printer.
make metal parts.[41]
Some methods melt or soften the material to produce
the layers. In Fused deposition modeling (FDM), the
model or part is produced by extruding small beads or
streams of material which harden immediately to form
layers. A filament of thermoplastic, metal wire, or other
material is fed into an extrusion nozzle head (3D printer
extruder), which heats the material and turns the flow on
and off. FDM is somewhat restricted in the variation of
shapes that may be fabricated. Another technique fuses
parts of the layer and then moves upward in the work-
ing area, adding another layer of granules and repeat-
ing the process until the piece has built up. This pro-
cess uses the unfused media to support overhangs and
thin walls in the part being produced, which reduces the
need for temporary auxiliary supports for the piece.[42]
Laser sintering techniques include selective laser sinter-
ing, with both metals and polymers, and direct metal laser
sintering.[43] Selective laser melting does not use sinter-
ing for the fusion of powder granules but will completely
melt the powder using a high-energy laser to create fully
dense materials in a layer-wise method that has mechan-
ical properties similar to those of conventional manufac-
tured metals. Electron beam melting is a similar type of
additive manufacturing technology for metal parts (e.g.
titanium alloys). EBM manufactures parts by melting
metal powder layer by layer with an electron beam in a
high vacuum.[44][45] Another method consists of an inkjet
3D printing system, which creates the model one layer at
a time by spreading a layer of powder (plaster, or resins)
and printing a binder in the cross-section of the part using
an inkjet-like process. With laminated object manufac-
turing, thin layers are cut to shape and joined together.
Other methods cure liquid materials using different
sophisticated technologies, such as stereolithography.
Photopolymerization is primarily used in stereolithogra-
phy to produce a solid part from a liquid. Inkjet printer
systems like the Objet PolyJet system spray photopolymer
materials onto a build tray in ultra-thin layers (between
16 and 30 µm) until the part is completed. Each pho-
topolymer layer is cured with UV light after it is jetted,
producing fully cured models that can be handled and
used immediately, without post-curing. Ultra-small fea-
PROCESSES AND PRINTERS
Stereolithography apparatus
tures can be made with the 3D micro-fabrication tech-
nique used in multiphoton photopolymerisation. Due to
the nonlinear nature of photo excitation, the gel is cured
to a solid only in the places where the laser was focused
while the remaining gel is then washed away. Feature
sizes of under 100 nm are easily produced, as well as
complex structures with moving and interlocked parts.[46]
Yet another approach uses a synthetic resin that is so-
lidified using LEDs.[47] In Mask-image-projection-based
stereolithography, a 3D digital model is sliced by a set
of horizontal planes. Each slice is converted into a two-
dimensional mask image. The mask image is then pro-
jected onto a photocurable liquid resin surface and light
is projected onto the resin to cure it in the shape of the
layer.[48] Continuous liquid interface production begins
with a pool of liquid photopolymer resin. Part of the
pool bottom is transparent to ultraviolet light (the “win-
dow”), which causes the resin to solidify. The object rises
slowly enough to allow resin to flow under and maintain
contact with the bottom of the object.[49] In powder-fed
directed-energy deposition, a high-power laser is used to
melt metal powder supplied to the focus of the laser beam.
The powder fed directed energy process is similar to Se-
lective Laser Sintering, but the metal powder is applied
only where material is being added to the part at that
moment.[50][51]
As of October 2012, additive manufacturing systems
were on the market that ranged from $2,000 to $500,000
in price and were employed in industries including
aerospace, architecture, automotive, defense, and med-
ical replacements, among many others. For example,
General Electric uses the high-end model to build parts
for turbines.[52] Many of these systems are used for rapid
prototyping, before mass production methods are em-
ployed. Higher education has proven to be a major buyer
of desktop and professional 3D printers which indus-
try experts generally view as a positive indicator.[53] Li-
braries around the world have also become locations to
 5

house smaller 3D printers for educational and commu-

nity access.[54] Several projects and companies are mak-
ing efforts to develop affordable 3D printers for home
desktop use. Much of this work has been driven by and
targeted at DIY/Maker/enthusiast/early adopter commu-
nities, with additional ties to the academic and hacker
communities.[55]

4 Applications
Main article: Applications of 3D printing
Additive manufacturing’s earliest applications have been

3D printed human skull from computed computer tomography

data

The Audi RSQ was made with rapid prototyping industrial KUKA
robots.

on the toolroom end of the manufacturing spectrum. For

example, rapid prototyping was one of the earliest addi-
tive variants, and its mission was to reduce the lead time
and cost of developing prototypes of new parts and de-
vices, which was earlier only done with subtractive tool-
room methods such as cnc milling and turning, and pre-
cision grinding.[56] Additive manufacturing of food is be-
ing developed by squeezing out food, layer by layer, into
three-dimensional objects. A large variety of foods are
appropriate candidates, such as chocolate and candy, and
flat foods such as crackers, pasta,[57] and pizza.[58][59]
3D printing has entered the world of clothing, with
fashion designers experimenting with 3D-printed bikinis,
shoes, and dresses.[60] In commercial production Nike is
using 3D printing to prototype and manufacture the 2012
Vapor Laser Talon football shoe for players of American
football, and New Balance is 3D manufacturing custom-
fit shoes for athletes.[60][61] 3D printing has come to the
point where companies are printing consumer grade eye-
wear with on-demand custom fit and styling (although
they cannot print the lenses). On-demand customization 3D printed sculpture of the Egyptian Pharaoh Merankhre Men-
of glasses is possible with rapid prototyping.[62] tuhotep shown at Threeding

In early 2014, Swedish supercar manufacturer

Koenigsegg announced the One:1, a supercar that mounted using the technology 3D printing (its bodywork
utilizes many components that were 3D printed.[63] and car windows were “printed”).[64][65][66] In 2014,
Urbee is the name of the first car in the world car Local Motors debuted Strati, a functioning vehicle that
6 5
was entirely 3D Printed using ABS plastic and carbon
fiber, except the powertrain.[67] In May 2015 Airbus
announced that its new Airbus A350 XWB included over
1000 components manufactured by 3D printing.[68] 3D
printing is also being utilized by air forces to print spare
parts for planes. In 2015, a Royal Air Force Eurofighter
Typhoon fighter jet flew with printed parts. The United
States Air Force has begun to work with 3D printers,
and the Israeli Air Force has also purchased a 3D printer
to print spare parts.[69] In 2012, the US-based group
Defense Distributed disclosed plans to design a working
plastic 3D printed firearm “that could be downloaded
and reproduced by anybody with a 3D printer.”[70][71]
After Defense Distributed released their plans, questions
were raised regarding the effects that 3D printing and
widespread consumer-level CNC machining[72][73] may
have on gun control effectiveness.[74][75][76][77]
Surgical uses of 3D printing-centric therapies have a his-
tory beginning in the mid-1990s with anatomical model-
ing for bony reconstructive surgery planning.[78] Patient-
matched implants were a natural extension of this work,
leading to truly personalized implants that fit one unique
individual.[79] Virtual planning of surgery and guidance
using 3D printed, personalized instruments have been
applied to many areas of surgery including total joint
replacement and craniomaxillofacial reconstruction with
great success.[80] One example of this is the bioresorbable
trachial splint to treat newborns with tracheobronchoma-
lacia [81] developed at the University of Michigan. The
use of additive manufacturing for serialized production
of orthopedic implants (metals) is also increasing due
to the ability to efficiently create porous surface struc-
tures that facilitate osseointegration. The hearing aid
and dental industries are expected to be the biggest area
of future development using the custom 3D printing
technology.[82] In March 2014, surgeons in Swansea used
3D printed parts to rebuild the face of a motorcyclist
who had been seriously injured in a road accident.[83]
As of 2012, 3D bio-printing technology has been stud-
ied by biotechnology firms and academia for possible
use in tissue engineering applications in which organs
and body parts are built using inkjet techniques. In this
process, layers of living cells are deposited onto a gel
medium or sugar matrix and slowly built up to form three-
dimensional structures including vascular systems.[84]
In 2005, academic journals had begun to report
on the possible artistic applications of 3D printing
technology.[85] As of 2012, domestic 3D printing was
mainly practiced by hobbyists and enthusiasts. However,
little was used for practical household applications, for
example, ornamental objects. Some practical examples
include a working clock[86] and gears printed for home
woodworking machines among other purposes.[87] Web
sites associated with home 3D printing tended to include Patents cover inventions including processes, machines,
backscratchers, coat hooks, door knobs, etc.[88] manufactures, and compositions of matter and have a fi-
nite duration which varies between countries, but gener-
3D printing, and open source 3D printers in particu- ally 20 years from the date of application. Therefore, if a
lar, are the latest technology making inroads into the type of wheel is patented, printing, using, or selling such
LEGAL ASPECTS
classroom.[89][90][91] Some authors have claimed that 3D
printers offer an unprecedented “revolution” in STEM
education.[92] The evidence for such claims comes from
both the low cost ability for rapid prototyping in the class-
room by students, but also the fabrication of low-cost
high-quality scientific equipment from open hardware de-
signs forming open-source labs.[93] Future applications
for 3D printing might include creating open-source sci-
entific equipment.[93][94]
In the last several years 3D printing has been inten-
sively used by in the cultural heritage field for preser-
vation, restoration and dissemination purposes.[95] Many
Europeans and North American Museums have pur-
chased 3D printers and actively recreate missing pieces
of their relics.[96] The Metropolitan Museum of Art and
the British Museum have started using their 3D printers
to create museum souvenirs that are available in the mu-
seum shops.[97] Other museums, like the National Mu-
seum of Military History and Varna Historical Museum,
have gone further and sell through the online platform
Threeding digital models of their artifacts, created using
Artec 3D scanners, in 3D printing friendly file format,
which everyone can 3D print at home.[98]
5 Legal aspects
5.1 Intellectual property
See also: Free hardware
3D printing has existed for decades within certain manu-
facturing industries where many legal regimes, including
patents, industrial design rights, copyright, and trademark
may apply. However, there is not much jurisprudence to
say how these laws will apply if 3D printers become main-
stream and individuals and hobbyist communities begin
manufacturing items for personal use, for non-profit dis-
tribution, or for sale.
Any of the mentioned legal regimes may prohibit the dis-
tribution of the designs used in 3D printing, or the dis-
tribution or sale of the printed item. To be allowed to
do these things, where an active intellectual property was
involved, a person would have to contact the owner and
ask for a licence, which may come with conditions and a
price. However, many patent, design and copyright laws
contain a standard limitation or exception for 'private',
'non-commercial' use of inventions, designs or works of
art protected under intellectual property (IP). That stan-
dard limitation or exception may leave such private, non-
commercial uses outside the scope of IP rights.
 7

a wheel could be an infringement of the patent.[99] ple the 3D printing industry, and could infringe on free
Copyright covers an expression [100]
in a tangible, fixed speech rights, with early pioneer of 3D printing Profes-
medium and often lasts for the life of the author plus sor Hod Lipson[116][117][118][119][120][121][122]
suggesting that gunpowder could be con-
70 years thereafter. [101]
If someone makes a statue, they trolled instead.
may have copyright on the look of that statue, so if some-
one sees that statue, they cannot then distribute designs
to print an identical or similar statue. 6 Safety
When a feature has both artistic (copyrightable) and func-
tional (patentable) merits, when the question has ap-
peared in US court, the courts have often held the fea-
ture is not copyrightable unless it can be separated from
the functional aspects of the item.[101] In other countries
the law and the courts may apply a different approach al-
lowing, for example, the design of a useful device to be
registered (as a whole) as an industrial design on the un-
derstanding that, in case of unauthorized copying, only
the non-functional features may be claimed under design
law whereas any technical features could only be claimed
if covered by a valid patent.
A video on research done on printer emissions

5.2 Gun legislation and administration
The US Department of Homeland Security and the Joint
Regional Intelligence Center released a memo stating that
“significant advances in three-dimensional (3D) print-
ing capabilities, availability of free digital 3D printable
files for firearms components, and difficulty regulating
file sharing may present public safety risks from unqual-
ified gun seekers who obtain or manufacture 3D printed
guns,” and that “proposed legislation to ban 3D print-
ing of weapons may deter, but cannot completely prevent
their production. Even if the practice is prohibited by
new legislation, online distribution of these 3D printable
files will be as difficult to control as any other illegally
traded music, movie or software files.”[102]
Internationally, where gun controls are generally stricter
than in the United States, some commentators have said
the impact may be more strongly felt, as alternative
firearms are not as easily obtainable.[103] Officials in the
United Kingdom have noted that producing a 3D printed
gun would be illegal under their gun control laws.[104]
Europol stated that criminals have access to other sources
of weapons, but noted that as the technology improved
the risks of an effect would increase.[105][106] Downloads
of the plans from the UK, Germany, Spain, and Brazil
were heavy.[107][108]
Attempting to restrict the distribution over the Internet
of gun plans has been likened to the futility of prevent-
ing the widespread distribution of DeCSS which enabled
DVD ripping.[109][110][111][112] After the US government
had Defense Distributed take down the plans, they were
still widely available via The Pirate Bay and other file
sharing sites.[113] Some US legislators have proposed reg- 7.1 Social change
ulations on 3D printers, to prevent them being used for
printing guns.[114][115] 3D printing advocates have sug- Since the 1950s, a number of writers and social com-
gested that such regulations would be futile, could crip- mentators have speculated in some depth about the so-
3D printers have been noted to be an environmental haz-
ard due to them emitting microscopic particles and chem-
icals that have been linked to asthma. A National In-
stitute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) re-
port notes these emissions peaked a few minutes after
printing started and returned to baseline levels 100 min-
utes after printing ended. The problem was reduced
by using manufacturer-supplied covers and full enclo-
sures, using proper ventilation, keeping workers away
from the printer while wearing respirators, turning off the
printer if it jammed, and using lower emission printers
and filaments[123] (It must also be noted that 3D printing
drastically reduces the wastage of material, resulting in
less pollution, and is therefore safer for environment.)
7 Impact
Additive manufacturing, starting with today’s infancy pe-
riod, requires manufacturing firms to be flexible, ever-
improving users of all available technologies to remain
competitive. Advocates of additive manufacturing also
predict that this arc of technological development will
counter globalization, as end users will do much of their
own manufacturing rather than engage in trade to buy
products from other people and corporations.[6] The real
integration of the newer additive technologies into com-
mercial production, however, is more a matter of comple-
menting traditional subtractive methods rather than dis-
placing them entirely.[124]
8 7 IMPACT
cial and cultural changes that might result from the ad-
vent of commercially affordable additive manufacturing
technology.[125] Amongst the more notable ideas to have
emerged from these inquiries has been the suggestion
that, as more and more 3D printers start to enter peo-
ple’s homes, the conventional relationship between the
home and the workplace might get further eroded.[126]
Likewise, it has also been suggested that, as it becomes
easier for businesses to transmit designs for new objects
around the globe, so the need for high-speed freight ser-
vices might also become less.[127] Finally, given the ease
with which certain objects can now be replicated, it re-
mains to be seen whether changes will be made to current
copyright legislation so as to protect intellectual property
rights with the new technology widely available.
As 3D printers became more accessible to consumers,
online social platforms have developed to support the
community.[128] This includes websites that allow users
to access information such as how to build a 3D printer,
as well as social forums that discuss how to improve
3D print quality and discuss 3D printing news, as well
as social media websites that are dedicated to share 3D
models.[129][130][131] RepRap is a wiki based website that
was created to hold all information on 3d printing, and has
developed into a community that aims to bring 3D print-
ing to everyone. Furthermore, there are other sites such
as Pinshape, Thingiverse and MyMiniFactory, which
were created initially to allow users to post 3D files for
anyone to print, allowing for decreased transaction cost of
sharing 3D files. These websites have allowed greater so-
cial interaction between users, creating communities ded-
icated to 3D printing.
Some[132][133][134] call attention to the conjunction of
Commons-based peer production with 3D printing and
other low-cost manufacturing techniques. The self-
reinforced fantasy of a system of eternal growth can be
overcome with the development of economies of scope,
and here, society can play an important role contribut-
ing to the raising of the whole productive structure to
a higher plateau of more sustainable and customized
productivity.[132] Further, it is true that many issues, prob-
lems, and threats arise due to the democratization of the
means of production, and especially regarding the phys-
ical ones.[132] For instance, the recyclability of advanced
nanomaterials is still questioned; weapons manufactur-
ing could become easier; not to mention the implications
for counterfeiting[135] and on IP.[136] It might be main-
tained that in contrast to the industrial paradigm whose
competitive dynamics were about economies of scale,
Commons-based peer production 3D printing could de-
velop economies of scope. While the advantages of
scale rest on cheap global transportation, the economies
of scope share infrastructure costs (intangible and tan-
gible productive resources), taking advantage of the ca-
pabilities of the fabrication tools.[132] And following Neil
Gershenfeld[137] in that “some of the least developed parts
of the world need some of the most advanced technolo-
gies,” Commons-based peer production and 3D printing
may offer the necessary tools for thinking globally but
acting locally in response to certain needs.
Larry Summers wrote about the “devastating conse-
quences” of 3D printing and other technologies (robots,
artificial intelligence, etc.) for those who perform rou-
tine tasks. In his view, “already there are more Amer-
ican men on disability insurance than doing production
work in manufacturing. And the trends are all in the
wrong direction, particularly for the less skilled, as the
capacity of capital embodying artificial intelligence to
replace white-collar as well as blue-collar work will in-
crease rapidly in the years ahead.” Summers recommends
more vigorous cooperative efforts to address the “myr-
iad devices” (e.g., tax havens, bank secrecy, money laun-
dering, and regulatory arbitrage) enabling the holders of
great wealth to “avoid paying” income and estate taxes,
and to make it more difficult to accumulate great fortunes
without requiring “great social contributions” in return,
including: more vigorous enforcement of anti-monopoly
laws, reductions in “excessive” protection for intellec-
tual property, greater encouragement of profit-sharing
schemes that may benefit workers and give them a stake
in wealth accumulation, strengthening of collective bar-
gaining arrangements, improvements in corporate gover-
nance, strengthening of financial regulation to eliminate
subsidies to financial activity, easing of land-use restric-
tions that may cause the real estate of the rich to keep
rising in value, better training for young people and re-
training for displaced workers, and increased public and
private investment in infrastructure development—e.g.,
in energy production and transportation.[138]
Michael Spence wrote that “Now comes a … powerful,
wave of digital technology that is replacing labor in in-
creasingly complex tasks. This process of labor substitu-
tion and disintermediation has been underway for some
time in service sectors—think of ATMs, online bank-
ing, enterprise resource planning, customer relationship
management, mobile payment systems, and much more.
This revolution is spreading to the production of goods,
where robots and 3D printing are displacing labor.” In his
view, the vast majority of the cost of digital technologies
comes at the start, in the design of hardware (e.g. 3D
printers) and, more important, in creating the software
that enables machines to carry out various tasks. “Once
this is achieved, the marginal cost of the hardware is rel-
atively low (and declines as scale rises), and the marginal
cost of replicating the software is essentially zero. With
a huge potential global market to amortize the upfront
fixed costs of design and testing, the incentives to invest
[in digital technologies] are compelling.” Spence believes
that, unlike prior digital technologies, which drove firms
to deploy underutilized pools of valuable labor around the
world, the motivating force in the current wave of dig-
ital technologies “is cost reduction via the replacement
of labor.” For example, as the cost of 3D printing tech-
nology declines, it is “easy to imagine” that production

may become “extremely” local and customized. More-
over, production may occur in response to actual demand,
not anticipated or forecast demand. Spence believes that
labor, no matter how inexpensive, will become a less im-
portant asset for growth and employment expansion, with
labor-intensive, process-oriented manufacturing becom-
ing less effective, and that re-localization will appear in
both developed and developing countries. In his view,
production will not disappear, but it will be less labor-
intensive, and all countries will eventually need to rebuild
their growth models around digital technologies and the
human capital supporting their deployment and expan-
sion. Spence writes that “the world we are entering is one
in which the most powerful global flows will be ideas and
digital capital, not goods, services, and traditional capital.
Adapting to this will require shifts in mindsets, policies,
investments (especially in human capital), and quite pos-
sibly models of employment and distribution.”[139]
Forbes investment pundits have predicted that 3D print-
ing may lead to a resurgence of American Manufactur-
ing, citing the small, creative companies that comprise the
current industry landscape, and the lack of the necessary
complex infrastructure in typical outsource markets.[140]
8 See also
• 3D Manufacturing Format
• Additive Manufacturing File Format
• AstroPrint
• Cloud manufacturing
• Computer numeric control
• Fusion3
• Laser cutting
• Limbitless Solutions
• List of 3D printer manufacturers
• List of common 3D test models
• List of emerging technologies
• List of notable 3D printed weapons and parts
• Magnetically assisted slip casting
• MakerBot Industries
• Milling center
• Organ-on-a-chip
• Self-replicating machine
• Ultimaker
• Volumetric printing
9
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on your Desktop: From Personal Computers to Personal drugs” (video interview [5:21]). Glasgow University:
Fabrication. Cambridge: Basic Books, p. 13–14 BBC News Online. Retrieved 2013-03-06.

[138] Larry Summers, The Inequality Puzzle, Democracy: A [158] “Invetech helps bring bio-printers to life”. Australian Life
Journal of Ideas, Issue #32, Spring 2014 Scientist. Westwick-Farrow Media. December 11, 2009.
Retrieved December 31, 2013.
[139] Michael Spence, Labor’s Digital Displacement (2014-05-
[159] “Building body parts with 3D printing”.
22), Project Syndicate
[160] Silverstein, Jonathan. "'Organ Printing' Could Drastically
[140] Sharma, Rakesh. “Can 3D Printing Reshape Manufactur-
Change Medicine (ABC News, 2006)". Retrieved 2012-
ing In America?". Forbes.com.
01-31.
[141] “The RepRap’s Heritage”. [161] “Transplant jaw made by 3D printer claimed as first”.
[142] Zelinski, Peter (2014-06-25). “Video: World’s largest ad- BBC. 2012-02-06.
ditive metal manufacturing plant”. Modern Machine Shop. [162] Rob Stein (2013-03-17). “Doctors Use 3-D Printing To
Help A Baby Breathe”. NPR.
[143] Sherman, Lilli Manolis. “3D Printers Lead Growth of
Rapid Prototyping (Plastics Technology, August 2004)". [163] “Blueprints for 3-D printer gun pulled off website”. states-
Retrieved 2012-01-31. man.com. May 2013. Retrieved 2013-10-30.
[144] “3D printing: 3D printing scales up”. The Economist. [164] Students Use 3D Printing to Reconstruct Dinosaurs on
2013-09-07. Retrieved 2013-10-30. YouTube
[145] Kelly, Heather (July 31, 2013). “Study: At-home 3D [165] Bennett, Neil (November 13, 2013). “How 3D printing is
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14 11 EXTERNAL LINKS

10 Further reading • Wright, Paul K. (2001). 21st Century Manufactur-

ing. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc.
• Tran, Jasper (2017). “Reconstructionism, IP and 3D
Printing”. available on SSRN.
• Tran, Jasper (2016). “Press Clause and 3D Print-
11 External links
ing”. Northwestern Journal of Technology and Intel-
lectual Property. 14: 75–80. • Rapid prototyping websites at DMOZ

• Tran, Jasper (2016). “3D-Printed Food”. Minnesota

Journal of Law, Science and Technology. 17: 855–
80.
• Tran, Jasper (2015). “To Bioprint or Not to Bio-
print”. North Carolina Journal of Law and Technol-
ogy. 17: 123–78.
• Tran, Jasper (2015). “Patenting Bioprinting”. Har-
vard Journal of Law and Technology Digest.
• Tran, Jasper (2015). “The Law and 3D Printing”.
John Marshall Journal of Information Technology
and Privacy Law. 31: 505–20.
• Lindenfeld, Eric; et al. (2015). “Strict Liability and
3D-Printed Medical Devices”. Yale Journal of Law
and Technology.
• Dickel, Sascha/Schrape, Jan-Felix (2016): Materi-
alizing Digital Futures. In: Ferdinand, Jan-Peter et
al. (Hg.): The Decentralized and Networked Future
of Value Creation. Dordrecht: Springer, S. 163–
178. Springerlink
• “Results of Make Magazine’s 2015 3D Printer
Shootout”. docs.google.com. Retrieved 1 June
2015.
• “Evaluation Protocol for Make Magazine’s 2015 3D
Printer Shootout”. makezine.com. Retrieved 1 June
2015.
• Vincent; Earls, Alan R. (February 2011). “Origins:
A 3D Vision Spawns Stratasys, Inc.”. Today’s Ma-
chining World. Oak Forest, Illinois, USA: Screw
Machine World Inc. 7 (1): 24–25.
• “Heat Beds in 3D Printing – Advantages and Equip-
ment”. Boots Industries. Retrieved 7 September
2015.
• Albert, Mark (17 January 2011). “Subtractive plus
additive equals more than ( - + + = > )". Modern Ma-
chine Shop. Cincinnati, Ohio, USA: Gardner Publi-
cations Inc. 83 (9): 14.
• Stephens, B.; Azimi, P.; El Orch, Z.; Ramos, T.
(2013). “Ultrafine particle emissions from desktop
3D printers”. Atmospheric Environment. 79: 334–
339. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.06.050.
• Easton, Thomas A. (November 2008). “The 3D
Trainwreck: How 3D Printing Will Shake Up Man-
ufacturing”. Analog. 128 (11): 50–63.
 15

12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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Brunonar, Alainr345, Shadowjams, Squadus, Motsjo, A.amitkumar, GliderMaven, FrescoBot, Djeexpert, Masterknighted, 3dcreation-
lab, DivineAlpha, Cannolis, Patafisik, DrilBot, James Chenery, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Pj.vandendriessche, Tcarstensen, Jone-
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Kgrad, Trappist the monk, Xucy, Clarkcj12, Suburb 77, Badtoothfairy, Reach Out to the Truth, Civic Cat, Onel5969, Mean as custard,
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12.2 Images
• File:3D_Printed_Ancient_Egyptian_Figurine.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/3D_
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