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Uterine atony, or failure of the uterus to contract following delivery, is the most common
cause of postpartum hemorrhage. This review serves to examine the prevention and
treatment of uterine atony, including risk-factor recognition and active management of the
third stage of labor. A range of uterotonic agents will be compared for efficacy, safety, and
ease of administration. Oxytocin and ergot alkaloids represent the cornerstone of utero-
tonic therapy, while prostaglandin therapy has been studied more recently as an attractive
alternative, particularly for resource-poor settings. Newer supplementary medical thera-
pies, such as recombinant factor VII and hemostatic agents, and adjunctive nonsurgical
methods aimed at achieving uterine tamponade will be evaluated.
Semin Perinatol 33:82-87 Published by Elsevier Inc.
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Uterine atony 83
Table 1 Risk Factors for Uterine Atony achieved after 30 minutes. By contrast, intramuscular admin-
Factors associated with uterine overdistension istration results in a slower onset of action (3 minutes-7 min-
● Multiple pregnancy utes) but a longer lasting clinical effect (up to 60 minutes).
● Polyhydramnios Metabolism of oxytocin is via the renal and hepatic routes.
● Fetal macrosomia Its antidiuretic effect can result in water toxicity if given in
Labor-related factors large volumes of electrolyte-free solutions. Furthermore,
● Induction of labor rapid intravenous bolus administration of undiluted oxyto-
● Prolonged labor cin results in relaxation of vascular smooth muscle, which
● Precipitate labor can lead to hypotension.11 For therapeutic use, therefore,
● Oxytocin augmentation
where repeated doses may be necessary, it is best given intra-
● Manual removal of placenta
Use of uterine relaxants
muscularly or by dilute intravenous infusion.
● Deep anesthesia (especially halogenated anesthetic Oxytocin is stable at temperatures up to 25°C but refrig-
agents) eration may prolong its shelf-life. A disadvantage of oxytocin
● Magnesium sulfate is its short half-life. The long-acting oxytocin analog carbeto-
Intrinsic factors cin has been studied in this context as its more sustained
● Previous postpartum hemorrhage action, similar to that of ergometrine but without its associ-
● Antepartum hemorrhage (placental abruption or previa) ated side effects, may offer advantages over standard oxytocic
● Obesity therapy.12 Comparative studies of intramuscular carbetocin
● Age > 35 years and intravenous infusion of oxytocin for the prevention of
Adapted from Breathnach F, Geary M: in A Textbook on Postpartum postpartum hemorrhage have identified enhanced effective-
Hemorrhage. B-Lynch C, Louis K (eds): Sapiens Publishing, ness (ie, a longer duration of activity) of the synthetic ana-
2004.
log.13,14
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84 F. Breathnach and M. Geary
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Uterine atony 85
Figure 1 Lynch suture (A) anterior and and (B) posterior views of the uterus demonstrating the B-Lynch brace suture.
(C) Anatomical appearance after uterine closure. (Adapted from http://www.cblynch.com/HTML/bjog1.html). (Color
version of figure is available online.)
nant uterus, thus making it a potentially suitable uterotonic ported on a cumulative experience of 113 cases,26 80% of
agent. Its principal indication is in preinduction cervical whom were noted to have an improvement in hemorrhage
priming, but intrauterine placement of dinoprostone has been parameters after a single dose, with few reported side effects.
successfully employed as a treatment for uterine atony.21 The The mode of action of this agent involves enhancement of the
vasodilatory effect of dinoprostone, however, renders it un- rate of thrombin generation, leading to formation of a fully
suitable for use in the hypotensive or hypovolemic patient. It stabilized fibrin plug that is resistant to premature lysis.
may, however, be of use in women with cardiorespiratory Doses of 60-120 g/kg intravenously have been used. Ad-
disease in whom carboprost is contraindicated. verse effects are reported predominantly from studies of rF-
Experience with gemeprost, a prostaglandin E1 analog, in VIIa use in patients with hemophilia and range from minor
pessary formulation delivered directly into the uterine cavity complaints, such as headache and skin hypersensitivity, to
or placed in the posterior vaginal fornix, has been reported, thrombosis. Deep-vein thrombosis, pulmonary embolism,
but its use in this setting is largely anecdotal.22,23 Its mode of peripheral arterial thrombosis, and myocardial infarction
action resembles that of PGF2␣. Rectal administration has also have all been described.27-29 Importantly, there is no current
been reported.24 information on safety in pregnancy and there are only limited
data from nonhemophiliac patients. Furthermore, the cost of
rFVIIa is considered prohibitive where resources are limited.
Hemostatics: Tranexamic The comparative properties of all uterotonic agents dis-
Acid and Recombinant Factor VII cussed are outlined in Table 2.
The antifibrinolytic agent tranexamic acid, which prevents
binding of plasminogen and plasmin to fibrin, may have a
role in the control of intractable postpartum hemorrhage,
Uterine Tamponade
particularly where coagulation is compromised. However, to The placement of uterine compression sutures to control
date there is only 1 case report in the literature of the use of postpartum hemorrhage secondary to uterine atony has in
this agent in the setting of postpartum hemorrhage; that par- recent years been used as an adjunctive intervention aimed at
ticular case involved a placenta accreta where the source of maintaining uterine contractility through tamponade. This
the persistent bleeding was the lower uterine segment and the technique was first described by Christopher B-Lynch
uterine body was described as being well contracted.25 The (Fig. 1),30 and modified techniques have evolved in the
dose employed was 1 g given intravenously every 4 hours to interim.31,32 B-Lynch suture placement can be easily
a cumulative dose of 3 g. achieved at the time of Cesarean delivery, or if laparotomy is
The use of recombinant activated factor VII (rFVIIa) as a required after vaginal delivery. Proponents of this brace su-
hemostatic agent for refractory postpartum hemorrhage is ture recommend a “test” of bimanual compression once the
the subject of a northern European registry, which has re- uterus is exteriorized, as a means of determining that the
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86 F. Breathnach and M. Geary
suture should be effective if bimanual compression is suc- 2. Fuchs K, Peretz BA, Marcovici R, et al: The “grand multipara”: Is it a
cessful at arresting the bleeding. In the setting of a vaginal problem? A review of 5785 cases. Int J Gynecol Obstet 23:321, 1985
3. Babinski A, Kerenyi T, Torok O, et al: Perinatal outcome in grand and
delivery, the B-Lynch suture requires a hysterotomy incision. great-grand multiparity: Effects of parity on obstetric risk factors. Am J
The rationale for hysterotomy in this case is 2-fold: first to Obstet Gynecol 181:669, 1999
allow for exploration of the cavity with evacuation of placen- 4. Stones R, Paterson C, Saunders N: Risk factors for major obstetric
tal fragments or clots, and furthermore, hysterotomy allows haemorrhage. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 48:15-18, 1993
for correct placement of the brace suture avoiding oblitera- 5. Tsu V: Postpartum hemorrhage in Zimbabwe: A risk factor analysis. Br J
Obstet Gynaecol 100:327-333, 1993
tion of the cavity. The latter complication has been associated
6. Waterstone M, Bewley S, Wolfe C: Incidence and predictors of severe
with blind modifications of the suture, such as those pro- obstetric morbidity: Case control study. Br Med J 322:1089-1094,
posed by Hayman and coworkers31 and Cho and cowork- 2001
ers.32 7. Hall MH, Halliwell R, Carr-Hill R: Concomitant and repeated happen-
Reported efficacy of the uterine brace suture is high. In a ings of complications of the third stage of labor. Br J Obstet Gynaecol
92:732-738, 1985
review of 36 reported cases of women with severe postpar-
8. Clark SL, Yeh SY, Phelan JP, et al: Emergency hysterectomy for obstetric
tum hemorrhage treated with the B-Lynch suture, only 2 hemorrhage. Obstet Gynecol 64:376-380, 1984
failed procedures were identified.30 B-Lynch reports on 7 9. Elbourne DR, Prediville WJ, Carrolli G, et al: Prophylactic use of oxy-
failures in the literature,20,33 all of which involved either mor- tocin in the third stage of labour. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 4:CD,
bid placental adherence or disseminated intravascular coagu- 001808, 2001
lopathy. Safety concerns center on the potential for uterine 10. Dollery C (ed): Therapeutic Drugs (ed 2). Edinburgh, Churchill Liv-
ingstone, 1999
necrosis34,35; however, this complication is rare and is mini- 11. Parker SL, Schimmer BP: Pituitary hormones and their hypothalamic
mized by careful placement of the suture with direct visual- releasing hormones, in Gilman GA (ed): The Pharmacological Basis of
ization through a hysterotomy incision and with persistent, Therapeutics (ed 11). New York, NY, McGraw-Hill, 2006, pp 1489-
even compression on the uterus, exerted by the operator’s 1510
assistant, throughout the procedure of suture placement. 12. Hunter DJ, Schulz P, Wassenaar W: Effect of carbetocein, a long-acting
oxytocin analog on the postpartum uterus. Clin Pharmacol Ther 52:60-
Balloon tamponade represents a further adjunctive strat- 70, 1992
egy for achieving hemostasis in the setting of intractable hem- 13. Boucher M, Nimrod CA, Tawagi GF, et al: Comparison of carbetocin
orrhage unresponsive to conventional uterotonic therapy. and oxytocin for the prevention of postpartum hemorrhage following
The commonly employed devices for this purpose are the vaginal delivery: A double-blind randomized trial. J Obstet Gynaecol
Rusch catheter,36 the Sengstaken-Blakemore37 (C.R. Bard, Can 26:481-488, 2004
14. Dansereau J, Joshi AK, Helewa ME, et al: Double-blind comparison of
Inc, Covington, GA) tube, and the Bakri catheter38 (Cook
cabetocin versus oxytocin in prevention of uterine atony after Cesarian
Medical, Inc, Bloomington, IN). The Bakri catheter has the section. Am J Obstet Gynecol 180:670-676, 1999
advantage of a drainage port that allows for monitoring of 15. Jacobs M, Arias F: Intramyometrial PGF␣ in treatment of severe post-
ongoing blood loss. Balloon tamponade is particularly effec- partum hemorrhage. Obstet Gynecol 55:665-666, 1980
tive where hemorrhage is attributed to atony,39 although also 16. Oleen MA, Mariano JP: Controlling refractory postpartum hemorrhage
with Hemabate sterile solution. Am J Obstet Gynecol 162:205-208,
advocated as a means of controlling lower segment bleeding
1990
associated with placenta previa.38 In either event, concomi- 17. Bigrigg A, Chui D, Chissell S, et al: Use of intramyometrial 15-methyl
tant use of uterotonic therapy is recommended as a means of prostaglandin F2␣ to control atonic postpartum hemorrhage following
maximizing the tamponade effect of the balloon. When bal- vaginal delivery and failure of conventional therapy. Br J Obstet Gynae-
loon tamponade is used in combination with a brace suture, col 98:734-736, 1991
a “sandwich” effect is achieved.40,41 This combined maneuver 18. Gulmezoglu AM, Villar J, Ngoc NT, et al: WHO multicentre random-
ized trial of misoprostol in the management of the third stage of labor.
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tol for the treatment of postpartum hemorrhage unresponsive to oxy-
tocin and ergometrine: A descriptive study. Obstet Gynecol 92:212-
Conclusions 214, 1998
20. Mousa HA, Alfirevic Z: Treatment for primary postpartum hemorrhage.
A stepwise approach to achieving effective uterine contractil- Cochrane Database Syst Rev 1 CD:003249, 2003
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care is provided. Selection of appropriate uterotonic use must
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take into account the resources available, safety profile of 23. El-Lakany N, Harlow RA: The use of gemeprost pessaries to arrest
these agents, and the fact that the combination of uterotonic postpartum hemorrhage. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 101:277-278, 1994
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