CHAPTER II

DEVELOPMENT OF RĀGA

Rāga is the basis of Indian music; we may say that it is the soul of our music system.
Each rāga has its own essential unique, aesthetic quality, called bhāva; each rāga has an
individuality of its own, it is as it were a unique entity. The study of the musical scale has
fascinated nearly everyone concerned with music, since scale is fundamental to any
understanding of music. We come across the term rāga, first time in Brihaddēsi, written
about the seventh century A.D. by Matanga. According to Matanga, rāga is made up of
notes, adorned by varna (alankāras).

Rāga and tala form the basis of present day Indian music. Rāga is the melodic form,
while tala is the rhythm known to underline music. Together they distinguish Indian music
from the music of the world. The melody in Indian music evolved as the rāga through
several processes.

Rāga is the pivotal concept of Indian music. This concept is India’s proud contribution
to world music. The term rāga in a way defines description. The nearest translation could be
‘melody type’. The nearest equivalent would be mode or māqam. Origin of rāga was not an
accidental growth but the artistic outcome of the conventional practice. It is the genius of
India that contributed to the music world, the rāga system, which is perhaps, the highest
peak to which a melodious system could reach. The outstanding feature of Indian music is
this system, in which Rāga is a distinct musical entity by itself and possesses well defined
characteristics. The ideal of absolute music is realised in the concept of the rāga

Development of Rāga in Indian Music has been the outcome of and been influenced
by a number of different factors. The beginnings of Carnatic music are found in a conceptual
metamorphosis in rāga. This may be traced to the obsolescence of grāma. The 14th century
witnessed trends with culminated in the 15th century in which both grāmas fused into one
parental archetype which retained the name of Shadja grāma but not its paraphernalia. The

14
Shadja grāma became the standard for definition, comparison and creation of melodic
material.

One of the strongest factors in the development of Rāgas has been the impact of
nature. The intimacy with nature is one of the strong features of our Vēdic culture. This is
reflected in Vēdic literature. Our melodic music based on the simple and natural scale may
appear to some to be primitive or ethnic, but it is a phenomenon of organic order. Indian
musical scale has remained stable, as it is called a Natural scale.

Indian music has a long tradition and is an accumulated heritage of centuries. In the
Indian classical music, rāga is the basis of melody. Each melodic structure of rāga has
something akin to a distinct personality. Rāga is the basis of Indian classical music. It is based
on the principal of the combination of notes of the octave.

Nobody can ascertain the exact date since when the word rāga came into use in
music, or what meaning it actually signified. Rāga appears in early text with reference to a
particular feeling which means ‘Arurāga’ i.e. attraction due to love. Rāga expresses the
emotive feeling of attraction between the hero and heroine in their practical leaves. It is
clear experience when, some notes are used in the combination to produce a smooth
texture to conjure the ears, which in fact, is the result of the combination, the texture is
known a s rāga. The 7 major notes S R G M P D and N and their ad-interim perverted notes
i.e. komal Svaras and tivra Svaras are woven like a network by artistic combination, this
network is known as rāga. When this network is confined within the seven major notes the
same texture sometimes known as Murchana.

“Svaraha sammoorchito yad rāgatan pradipadyate

Namna tan murchanamahursharata grāmasambhaban”

Kohalīyam (KOHALAN)

When Svaras is being combined to form a rāga then it bears the name of murchana,
according to some like Bharata. But murchana is the just impression of particular tonal
combination while rāga is an analytical expression of notes by parts.

15
 From the historical point of view, we do not find any mention of rāga in either
Nāradīya Siksha or Nātya Sāstra or any other contemporary literature. We find its mention
in Matanga’s Brihaddēsi written in 9 the century.

Svaravarnaviseshena Dvanibhedena va puna:

Rajyate Yena Ya: Kaschit Sa Rāga: Sāmatah: Satam (Page 81, Brihaddēsi, Sloka- 280)

That particular entity through whose specific svara movements, and hence, distinct
sound identity, everyone is delighted, is accepted as rāga, by the erudite.
Or
That specific sound complex that is adorned by tonal movements, and so delights the
minds of people, is termed rāga. (Page 81, Brihaddēsi, Sloka- 281)

GRĀMA – MURCHANA – JĀTI SYSTEM

The first phase of heptatonic inventions, there had been not much complexity.
Simply, three different scales named as Grāmas were adopted different authors at different
times. It is believed that Grāmas led to the formation of Murchanas-heptatonic scales from
which jātis were derived. The murchana – jāti concept can be compared to the concept of
parent and derived scales.

The terms Grāma, Murchana and Jāti which were used in the ancient musical
tradition are known through the works like the Dattilam of Dattila and Nātya Sāstra of
Bharata. The Nātya Sāstra of Bharata is an important work for understanding the history of
Indian music. Musicologists and scholars assign its period between the second century B.C.
and the fourth century A.D. Bharata describes two basic scales – Shadja grāma and
Madhyama grāma – giving the intervals between the pairs of successive notes of each scale.
The grāmas give rise to jātis which may be counted as the forerunners of rāgas. Shadja
grāma has been accepted by scholars as the equivalent to Kharaharapriya. The theoretical
system which was formulated to codify the music of the ancient period can be called the
Grāma system. Jātis and murchanas furnished the melodic basis of ancient music. These
Svara groupings were classified into two Grāmas. Sruti was the unit of measure of Svaras,

16
and also the basis on which Svara structures were classified into two Grāmas. Bharata states
this.
Jātibhih Srutibhischaiva Svara grāmatvamāgatah (Nātya Sāstra, Chapter 18, 5-6)

This statement literally means “through jātis and srutis, Svaras attain the state of
grāma. Svaras were defined as to their magnitude, i.e. as of two srutis, three srutis or four
srutis and also their sequential order. According to Dr. N Ramanathan, a Grāma is a
theoretical construct, a purely theoretical arrangement of Svaras which could fit several
jātis, which are therefore said to belong to that Svara group of grāma. The order of
arrangement of the Svaras is the same in both the grāmas, the difference living in the
magnitude (expressed in terms of srutis) of the Panchama of one garma from the Panchama
of the other. Thus the difference between the two grāmas hinges on a measure called sruti.
Melodic structures were classified on the basis of the magnitude of their component Svaras
measured in terms of srutis, into two grāmas or groups. Abhinavagupta, the commentator
on Nātya Sāstra points out this.

Grāmavibhāgārtham ēva Srutikeertanam

(Abhinava Bhārati on Nātya Sāstra vol. IV, P.12, l.11)

The concept of Grāmas evolved from Vēdas. Grāma has two meanings, the one
primary and the other conventional. The primary meaning is samooham or collection. Any
collection was known as grāma. It was, in other words, a generic term just as indriya grāma,
bhuta grāma etc. Therefore the connotation of the village given to the word grāma was in
the conventional sense of a place having a collection of people. A group of people living
together was called a grāmam. An extension of this meaning was made in respect of the
Indian musical Svaras.

On the basis of the consonance, grāma originated. The two main forms of
samvāditva were the Shadja-panchama and Shadja-madhyama. The third one as mentioned
in the Samgraha chudāmani is shadj-anter namely Shadja-gāndhāra. Bharata in his Nātya
Sāastra has clearly described this process. With the help of a nine-stringed, fretless vina
(Navatantri vina) he described the process.
17
 From Vēdas evolved two Grāma scales: Shadja grāma (Shadja means the tonic) and
Madhyama grāma (Madhyama means the fourth or sub-dominant) and each of these scales
include 22 Srutis. In the circular Grāma Diagram, the positions of notes in different Grāmas
in sruti cycle are arranged. The distinction was in terms of interval between notes of the
scales measured in srutis which are microtone pitches between the main notes. The scheme
of sruti distribution in Shadja grāma is 4 3 2 4 4 3 2, in Madhyama grāma, it is 4 3 2 4 3 4 2
and in Gāndhāra grāma it is 3 2 4 3 3 4 3. They were so named because the respective notes
determined the character of the entire melody body comprised by them; they constituted
the initial, terminal and most frequent notes and served as nuclear centres to which the
respective melody corpus naturally gravitated. The Gāndhāra grāma became obsolete
because its intervals became very much at variance with those of empirical usage. Shadja
grāma was defined a s the ordered intervallic arrangement in which the Svaras occupied the
above mentioned Suddha positions, the madhyama grāma deferred from it in only one
respect, viz. its Panchama occupied the 16th not the 17th sruti. This differentiating sruti was
called pramana sruti. By modal shift of tonic, that is, by rotating the scale around each of the
seven notes separately in ascent and descent, maintaining the same mutual intervallic
relations, seven derived scales called murchanas were obtained in each grāma, thus totalling
14.

Bharata in his Nātyasāstra Speaks first of Shadja grāma, the older form of the basic
scale as being more symmetrical in the two tetra chords, thereby appearing to uphold a
sequence. In all the three Grāmas, the position of Ga and Ni remain unaltered and the
difference of Srutis is thirteen. In our present system also Sa and Pa are recognised as achala
Svaras which, in the medieval sruti system, maintained a gap of thirteen Srutis. The
significant Srutis which normally play vital role in dēsigning a musical texture are given in the
names of Svaras. Sruti significance is a relative factor. So the position might have been
changed and the composers made their grāma textures by finding the new positions of S R G
M P D and N. There was relativity among three Grāmas. If in the Shadja grāma the position
of P is depressed by one sruti, it becomes Madhyama grāma. By changing the positions of
the notes, the names of the Grāmas are changed. The three Grāmas occupied three distinct
positions as musical task master to direct the artistes.

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 When as result of the grāma-murchana scheme numerous scales were derived, the
formulation of one couplet scale with twelve semitone intervals became a simpler matter.
For centuries past, there was only one gamut out of which by means of selection numerous
saptakas could be formed. This gamut of twelve semitones comprehends and includes
within itself all the scales that were based on the different grāmas as well as other scales
not germane to the grāma system. Venkitamakhi’s mēlas are based on it. When as result of
the grāma-murchana scheme numerous scales were derived, the formulation of one couplet
scale with twelve semitone intervals became a simpler matter. For centuries past, there was
only one gamut out of which by means of selection numerous saptakas could be formed.
This gamut of twelve semitones comprehends and includes within itself all the scales that
were based on the different grāmas as well as other scales not germane to the grāma
system. Venkitamakhi’s mēlas are based on it

MURCHANA

The range from Sa to Ni of Shadja grāma had no other musical value than a scale, it
was to be shifted to form a musical attraction, meditation and swooning. The melodic
structure thus shaped would be given the name of murchana. From each of these Grāmas,
seven Murchanas were developed by a modal shift, i.e. shifting the starting note in a
successive order. (See Modal Shift of Tonic described elaborately in the next chapter). In
Shadja grāma and Madhyama grāma, Murchanas were created by shifting the scale
downwards by one note for a single phase, the standard grāma scale being the highest of all
murchanas. Naturally, seven such phases in each grāma would be possible, and all of them
had different set of names and the set differed from author to author. Bharata was the first
to determine, to the minutest comma, the fixed interval of each of the two Fundamental
scales he formulated; he was the first to describe the comma sift method for changing the
tonality as well as the key of a tetra chord from one grāma to other.

The notable points in the murchanas are that, in both madhyama and Shadja
grāmas, the initial grāma scale is the highest murchana. All the improved phases were set
downwards step by step. Murchanas are all heptatonic scales and in both Shadja and
gāndhāra grāma, these are used in ascending order while in madhyama grāma it is used in
descending order.
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 For example, the starting note of the seven murchanas in the Shadja grāma are
Shadja (tonic), Nishāda (leading note), Dhaivata (Sub-mediant), Panchama (dominant),
Madhyama (sub-dominant), Gāndhāra (mediant) and Rishabha (super-tonic) respectively. In
the same murchanas in the Madhyama-grāma, applying the same principle, the starting
notes are Madhyama, Gāndhāra, Rishabha, Shadja, Nishāda, Dhaivata and Panchama
respectively.

When one studies the notation system of Sāmagāna one is led to infer that the
murchana system must have had its practice that was in vogue while singing it. When the
Sāmagāna begins with any particular number- note, that note was made the tonic or in
modern terms, Shadja. For example, if a song began from note on 2 then it meant that the
tonic was gāndhāra.

The Sāma-Saptaka is as follows

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Ma Ga Ri Sa Ni Dha Pa

It stands with Ma as one, two as Ga, and three as Rishabha etc. The number placed on
the top of the first letter of the hymn indicates the tonic. When each of these notes became
the key-note or modern Sa, it produced different scales producing notes of different
intervals. In this way it contained the seed of the subsequent murchanas, jātis and rāgās.

See the Chart showing the different Murchanas or scales from different key-notes.

Key- the scale of Murchana obtained The name of the mēla

note of from the key-note Murchanās according according to
Sāma to Nātya Sāstra modern music

Pa Pa dha ni sa ri ga ma Suddha Shadja Natabhairavi

S R G M P D N

Ma Ma Pa dha ni sa ri ga Matsareekruta Harikāmboji

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 S R G M P D N

Ga Ga Ma Pa dha ni sa ri Asvakrānta Kalyāni

S R G M P D N

Ri Ri Ga Ma Pa dha ni sa Abhirudgata Todi

S R G M P D N

Sa Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa dha ni Uttāra mandra Kharaharapriya

S R G M P D N

Ni Ni Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa dha Rajani Sankarābharanam

S R G M P D N

Dha Dha Ni Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Uttarāyani Todi with both

madhyamās
S R G M P D N

Grāma is generally defined as a scale. Murchana is also a scale. It can be termed as a

fundamental scale, the base of all scales. In Sangīta Rājam, Mahārana Kumbha defines
grāma is that where there is a particular order of arrangement of srutis and Svaras are
determined by consonance. It is the base of Murchana.

The necessity for two grāmas may have arisen in Bharata’s time when it was found
that in certain jātis or musical modes, current then, there was a consonance between
Panchama and Rishabha whereas in the Shadja grāma, there is no consonance between
Panchama and Rishabha. Bharata, therefore, had to accept another fundamental scale in
which there was consonance between Pa and Ri in order to have a base for the other modes
or jātis. The Pa and Ri consonance was found in Madhyama grāma. The third grāma,
Gāndhāra grāma became obsolete so early. Regarding to grāmas and murchanas, the
point that is to be remembered is the graha Svara or the key-note of the particular grāma.
This was later known as amsa Svara and used in connection with murchanas only.
21
 Grāma rāga is also mentioned by Matanga. Bharata refers to it at only one place to
which act or scene, it should be used. Grāma rāga is described in greater detail by Matanga
but jāti was still more popular and prevalent in his time. Jāti remained in vogue till the tenth
century, and thereafter began to fade. Sangīta Ratnākara describes both jātis and grāma
rāgās, but emphasis more on dēsi rāgās and Ādhuna Prasiddha rāgās. Brihaddēsi states 18
kinds of jāti, distinguished as Suddha and Vikrita. He recognises two Grāmas, Shadja and
madhyama. The ascent of Svaras is called Murchana. But in Rāgavibodha the ascent and
descent of the Svaras are called Murchanas, while ascent is called Tana.

From Bharata’s time Murchanas were utilised for obtaining different scales.
Murchanas were always sampurna and had all the seven notes. But Matanga felt that seven
Svaras were inadequate to get a clear picture of a jāti or a rāga. He felt a few Svaras in the
mandra and a few in the tāra sthanas will alone ensure a clear picture of a rāga and may
help even in the deduction of rāgas. So accordingly he introduced the Dvādasa Svara (twlve
Svaras) Murchana. Hence in comparison with Bharata’s murchana, Matanga’s murchanas
were as follows

Shadja grāma Murchana

1. Uttāramandra - D N S* R G M P D N S R G

2. Rajani - N* S R G M P D N S R G M

3. Uttarāyati – S R G M P D* N S R G M P

4. Suddha Shadja – R G M P* D N S R G M P D

5. Matsarikruta – G M* P D N S R G M P D N

6. Asvakrānta – M P D N S R G* M P D N S

7. Abhirudgata – P D N S R* G M P D N S R

Madhyama grāma Murchana

1. Sauviri – N S R G M* P D N S R G M

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 2. Harinasva - S R G* M P D N S R G M P

3. Kālopanāta – R* G M P D N S R G M P D

4. Suddhamadhya – G M P D N S* R G M P D N

5. Mārgi – M P D N* S R G M P D N S

6. Pauravi – P D* N S R G M P D N S R

7. Hrusyaka - D N S R G M P* D N S R G M

[The Svaras indicate the beginning note of the original murchana in the Shadja and
Madhyama grāmas]

The main distinction in the two murchanas is that Bharata’s two grāmas are
descending whereas Matanga’s murchanas are ārohanātmaka, this is the reason that two
murchanas, Asvakrānta in Shadja grāma and Hrusyaka in Madhyama grāma are not
traceable in their full form. Anyway none of the later scholars accepted this theory.

The interval between two consecutive svaras was measured by the unit called ‘Sruti’.
For example, in the murchana called uttāramandra, there existed an interval of three Srutis,
between the first Svara namely, Shadja and the second Svara, Rishabha. The intervallic
organisation of the 14 murchanas is as follows:
1. Uttāramandra 4S 3R 2G 4M 4P 3D 2N
2. Rajani 2N 4S 3R 2G 4M 4P 3D
3. Uttarāyatā 3D 2N 4S 3R 2G 4M 4P
4. Suddha Shadja 4P 3D 2N 4S 3R 2G 4M
5. Matsarikruta 4M 4P 3D 2N 4S 3R 2G
6. Asvakrāntā 2G 4M 4P 3D 2N 4S 3R
7. Abhirudgatā 3R 2G 4M 4P 3D 2N 4S

1. Sauviri 4M 3P 4D 2N 4S 3R 2G
2. Hārināsvā 2G 4M 3P 4D 2N 4S 3R
3. Kalopanāta 3R 2G 4M 3P 4D 2N 4S

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4. Suddhamadhya 4S 3R 2G 4M 3P 4D 2N
5. Mārgi 2N 4S 3R 2G 4M 3P 4D
6. Pauravi 4D 2N 4S 3R 2G 4M 3P
7. Hrusyakā 3P 4D 2N 4S 3R 2G 4M
When we look at the order of the Srutis in the above murchanas, we observe two
kinds of organisations/structures; the first structure is as follows:
First 4324432
Second 4 3 4 2 4 3 2

The two great epics of India are Ramāyana and Mahabharata. In these epics, one can
find reference to grāma rāgas. In the Ramāyana, the poet Valmiki talks of Lava and Kusa
singing in his court and refers to Jātis and Murchanas, as also to instruments like the veena
and Mridangam.

JĀTI

Jāti has several meanings. It means caste, type, race and genus. The root of the word
jāti in Sanskrit is Jan which means to produce. There is a difference of opinion as to the
interpretation of the jāti in terms of music. Most of the scholars have taken the meaning of
giving birth to and have stated that jāti is born under such and such conditions. Jāti
interpreted as genus of a certain arrangement of notes. The names of the jāti suggest
reference to certain regions. But in Abhinava Bhārati Achārya Abhianava Gupta says: when
the notes are in a specific arrangement or pattern producing aesthetic enjoyment, giving
rise to both to material prosperity and unseen spiritual benefits then it is called jāti.

According to Bharata, there were a total of 18 jātis. The seven jātis were based on
Shadja grāma and the eleven jātis on madhyama grāma. The jātis affiliated to Shadja grāma
were Shadji, Arshabhi, Dhaivati, Nishādi, Sadjodichyavati, Shadjakaisaki, and
Shadjamadhyama. The madhyama grāma affiliates were Gāndhari, Madhyama,
Gāndharodyachava, Panchami, Raktagāndhari, madhyamodichyava, nandayanti, Karmāravi,
Andhri and Kaisakamadhyama. Out of these 18 jātis seven were named after the seven
Svaras of the gamut. They were of two kinds – Suddha and Vikrita. Under Shadja grāma,
there were four Suddha jātis. Suddha jātis were those in which there was no diminution of

24
the seven notes and the Svara on which it was named itself became the graha, amsa and
nyāsa Svara of those jātis. When a change takes place in the nyāsa Svara and in respect of
the other lakshanas then the jātis were termed vikrita.

In the eighteen jātis, the number of Svaras that had the position of the Amsa Svara
varied from one to all the seven Svaras. The total number of Amsa Svaras in all the eighteen
jātis is sixty three. Different lakshanas of the jāti are well defined by Bharata in his Nātya
Sāstra.

For the first time, Matanga defines the term raga and describes its varieties
extensively. Erlier texts are not very clear about the term. He himself says that raga has not
been spoken of by authorities like Bharata.

‘Rāga mārgasya yadrupam-

Yannoktam Bharatādibhih’

Matanga mentions grāma rāgas and gītis, namely Suddha, Bhinna, Vesara and
Sādhārani or in one or in some cases more than one. Matanga has not given description of
the grāma rāgas, he has described mostly bhāsha, vibhāsha and antarabhasha. Nārada,
kasyapa and Sārangadēva have given description of these rāgas. According to Nārada and
Kasyapa there were seven grāma rāgas. of which three belong to Shadja grāma and four to
madhyama grāma. Kasyapa states that the rāga called Madhyama grāma is born out of
Gāndhāri, madhyama and Panchami jātis. Kasyapa, Nayanadēva and others have
attempted to show that grāma rāgas were all born of jātis. Sārangadēva has also defined
madhyama grāma rāga exactly as Kasyapa has done it.

The interesting fact to be noted is that Nārada never mentions any jātis with
reference to the derivation of grāma rāgas. In fact in the whole text of Naradiya Siksha,
there is no reference to jātis. Nārada describes grāma rāgas neither as Janaka nor Janya
rāgas. As there were only seven Suddha rāgas, he describes their structure and essential
characteristics.

Suddha Grāma rāgas belonging to Shadja grāma were Shadja grāma rāgas, sādharita
and Kaisika Madhyama. Madhyama grāma has four Suddha grāma rāgas namely Madhyama
25
grāma rāga, Panchama (Suddha Panchama), Kaisika and Shādava. Nārada defines Shadja
grāma rāga as a rāga in which gāndhāra is predominant, Nishāda is sparingly used. Kasyapa
states that Shadja grāma rāga is a derivative of the jātis shadji and Shadja Madhyama. The
next rāga of Shadja grāma is sadharita. Nārada says that the rāga which takes the Antara
gāndhāra and kākali Nishāda that is sadhārita.

The third and last rāga in the Shadja Grāma is kaisika madhyama. Nārada states that
when all the seven notes are used in kaisika and the rāga begins from and ends in
madhyama, then it is kaisiaka madhyama. (Nārada Siksha 1.4-10 p.22)

In course of time the Madhyama grāma too went out of vogue leaving as its survival
in the Madhyama grāma rāga, even as the Gāndhāra grāma left leaving its survival in the
gāndhāra grāma rāga referred to in the Harivamsa; and then Shadja grāma alone prēvailed.

After the decline of the grāma, murchana and jāti system, we find that the rāgas
were treated to be the melodic bases for songs. A question then arises whether the rāgas
too were based on the grāma-murchana system. In the beginning, as described in Lakshana
Granthas from Brihaddēsi and Sangīta Ratnākara, rāgas were considered as the janyas of
jātis. But in due course, this connection between the rāga-s and jātis gradually ceased. In the
same way, the Svaras which were the bases for the rāgas came to be described in terms of
Suddha-vikrita svaras and not on the basis of Grāmas.
Kudumiyamalai musical inscription is a specimen record of the earliest notated music
available to us. It was the Pallava king Mahendra Varman who carved the musical inscription
at Kudumiyamalai and Tirumayam in Pudukottai which has been assigned to the seventh
century AD. these inscriptions are intended for beginners in music and contained Svara
passages grouped in ancient grāma rāgas like Suddha kaisika-madhyama, Suddha sadharita
and Shadja Grāma as derived from Shadja Grāma, and Panchama, Madhyama grāma,
Shādava and Suddha-Kaisika as derived from the Madhyama grāma constitute the seven
Suddha grāma rāgas.

The Svara sanchara or permutation and combination in each of the seven scales are
given in a peculiar kind of Svara notation using vowel extensions in the name of the Svaras.
Eg. Sa, si,su, se, ra, ri, ru, re etc.

26
 The seven scales treated with notation happen to be the grāma rāgas as explained in
the Naradiya siksha, Brihaddēsi and Sangīta Ratnākara; while Bharata refers to them as jātis
and ganas only.

CONCEPT OF MĒLA-JANYA

The revolutionary change which helped to crystallised Carnatic music into its modern
form is innovation in rāga classification. The most productive scheme of rāga classification
was derived from Vidyāranya’s mēla concept. He divided all extant rāgas into groups. The
most typical, representative or leasing rāga from each mēla was chosen so that it had all
the seven notes in Ārohana and Avarohana and dēsignated as mēlakarta and the respective
group was defined as being contained in this mēla: the mēla was defined as the ordered
arrangement of the seven notes. Mēla stands for genus while rāga is species. Some rāgas
having common characteristics, either structural or modal, are said to belong to a particular
mēla. The numbers of mēlas, vary from inventor to inventor.

Sangīta Sara of Vidyāranya refers to 15 mēlas and 50 derivative rāgas. This scheme
directly inspired into existence the Thaat scheme of classification inaugurated by
Hridayanārāyadēva in his Hrudayakautuka and Hridayaprakāsa and followed by Lochanakavi
in his Rāgatarangini in Hindustani music. Vidyāranya’s mēla concept was worked in detail in
the 16th and seventeenth centuries. In Ramāmātya’s and Poluri Govindacharya’s time this
was firmly engendered in both theory and practice. In fact Pundarika Vittala proposes a
highly logical, practicable, and adequate mathematical scheme of deriving 90 mēlas, while
Somanatha derives a comprehensive scheme of 960 mēlas. (Pundarika Vittala, Sadrāga
Chandrodaya, 2.1.43-58; Somanatha, Rāgavibodha, 3.1-26) Venkitamakhi employed the
same principles and derived the scheme of 72 mēlas. (Venkitamakhi, op.cit 4, 1-92, pp. 178-
84). The mēla-janya concept was elaborated by Ramāmātya in his Svaramēlakalanidhi.

The melodic system of India was highly developed even before the Christian era.
Ancient Tamils had a developed system of music. The Tamil Sangham classics contain many
references to various pans. Silappadikaram, a Tamil classic of the second century A.D. and
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its two commentaries abound in information on the music and dance of the south. The
Silappadikaram speaks of the ancient method of arranging the musical notes in a zodiac
circle. The musical; notes are assigned positions among the 12 houses of zodiac. From a
study of their positions, the fundamental scale is found to be equivalent to the Harikāmboji
scale. It may be noted that the Shadja grāma of Bharata was also adopted as the basis for
deriving other scales. By the process of Modal shift of tonic seven scales or Pālais are
derived and these give rise to 103 pans.

Sangīta Ratnākara of sārangadēva enumerates and tries to describe as many as 264

rāgas. No description of the grāma rāgas is found in Sangīta Ratnākara. In Sangīta Ratnākara,
there is elaboration of grāma rāgas into bhāsha, Vibhāsha and Antarabhāsha upa grāma
rāgas are all enumerated totalling several hundred rāgas although the names of several of
them are repeated under different categories. There was continuous development of
grāma rāga from the time of Brihaddēsi up to the time of Sangīta Ratnākara, in various
ways. Originally in the time of Matanga there were three bases of division of grāma rāga:

1. Grāma

2. Svarāsraya, i.e., the style of rendering the notes

3. Padāsraya, i.e., varieties of textual compositions.

According to Sārangadēva, grāma rāgas from which dēsi Sangīta evolved. He has given a
clear description of all of them. There are seven in all madhyama grāma rāgas, Shadja grāma
rāga, Suddha sādharaita, Suddha Panchama, Suddha kaisika, Suddha Shādava and Suddha
kaisika madhyama. Sārangadēva classified these rāgas into ancient rāgas and rāgas which
were just coming into vogue. Thus it is evident that the rāga system was undergoing a
process of evolution. Many current rāgas can be identified among the rāgas of Sārangadēva.
Eg:- Mālavagaula, kēdāra gaula, Sankarābharanam etc.

Grāma played the role of generics like mēlas of the later period. Murchanas were
upward scales and they are the precursors of the later mēlas. Jātis born of murchanas were
in no way different from Janya rāgas belonging to mēlas. Ramāmātya was the first writer to
open in his book Svaramēlakalānidhi, a separate chapter on mēla, Mēlaprakarana.

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 When as result of the grāma-murchana scheme numerous scales were derived, the
formulation of one couplet scale with twelve semitone intervals became a simpler matter.
For centuries past, there was only one gamut out of which by means of selection numerous
saptakas could be formed. This gamut of twelve semitones comprehends and includes
within itself all the scales that were based on the different grāmas as well as other scales
not germane to the grāma system. Venkitamakhi’s mēlas are based on it.

During the 14th to 16th centuries, there was a change in Indian music with the
introduction of mēlakarta system which superseded the earlier grāma-murchana-jāti
system. Svaramēlakalānidhi of Ramāmātya is one of the most important works tracing the
musical history of the modern period. Ramāmātya discarded the grāma-murchana-jāti
system and described the mēla rāga and the veena in very clear, precise terms. He was the
first to clearly classify rāgas into a system of parent (Janaka) and derived (Janya) rāgas. He
mentions 19 mēlas and several derivatives from each. He also classifies rāgas into superior,
middling and inferior rāgas.

From the middle of the 16th century, around the time when the distinction between
North and South Indian music became clearly evident, a new method of describing rāgas
was found in musical literature. Rāgas are described in terms of scales having a common
ground note. In the South these scales were called mēla and mēla or thāt in the North. It
was in the South in the Chaturdandiprakāsika, a text written during the 17th century that a
complete theoretical system of mēlas was introduced. This was based on the permutations
of the tones and semitones, which were reduced to a basic 12 in the octave. However there
was no effort made to arrange them systematically. This was evident in the Rāgatarangini,
which was probably written sometime during the 16th century. It has a mention of the 12
mēlas.

By the latter half of the 17th century, Venkitamakhi introduced a system of 72

mēlakarta scheme. This scheme is the proud heritage of our music, and is not simply of
academic interest, but also has immense practical value to all musicians, musicologists and
students. The 16 notes are the basis for the mēlakarta scheme. Mēlakarta rāgas have a
particular structure which follows a scientific scheme where as the Janya rāgas are rooted in
usage. Janya rāgas are derived from the mēlakarta rāgas by different ways. The easiest
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method to create a Janya rāga is to omit one or more of the Svaras in the Ārohana and or
Avarohana. This system of 72 mēlakarta rāgas is the basis for Carnatic music today. These
creator rāgas are also called Janaka rāgas. This system can be traced back to Venkitamakhi
who was the first to introduce a scientific system of Seventy two Mēlakartas. Earlier
treatises generally speake about fewer Mēlakartas and most of them were assampurna in
charecter. At the time of Venkitamakhi, many of his Mēlakartas were not familiar and were
not given names. All the Seventy two were given names by the lakshanakaras came after
Venkitamakhi. He expounded this scheme in his Sanskrit work, Chaturdandi Prakāsika
written in the early 17th century.

His 72 mēlakarta scheme was apparently very scientific and drew the attention of all
the music composers of the time. During the period following his age, this scheme of 72
mēlas pre-dominated the thoughts and theories of the south Indian music. There had been
much modification in the later ages-made by other composers. The names of these 72
mēlas are not clearly mentioned in the mēla prakarana chapter of Chaturdandi Prakāsika
but in the Anubandha, there has been a mention of 72 names as rāgānga rāgas.

Prior to Venkitamakhi, rāgas were also classified as Rāgānga, Upānga, bhāshānga and
kriyānga. But the kriyānga rāgas which were used to express emotions like anger fear etc.
lost their significance. After the advent of the mēlakarta scheme, the Mēlakartas were the
Rāgāngas, derivatives having only the notes of the parent scale the Upāngas, and those
having notes other than the notes of the parent scale the Bhāshāngas.

It was Govindachārya, the author of Sangraha Chudamani, who insisted that a mēla
should contain seven notes in right sequence both in Ārohana and Avarohana. The
nomenclature kanakāngi, Ratnāngi, Gānamurti etc. are found in this work. It was this
nomenclature that was adopted by Mahā Vaidyanātha Iyer in his mēla rāgamālika.

The names were different from those of Venkitamakhi but became very popular in
the last years. Govindacharya had to follow the suggestions given by his predecessor
regarding the formation of 72 mēlas. It may be right to assume that the kanakambari
nomenclatures of the earlier list was not promulgated by Venkitamakhi but it will not be out
of place to assume that it was Venkitamakhi who first suggested the possibilities of having

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72 mēlas. Chaturdandi Prakasika was followed up by Tulaja’s Sangita Saramruta which
popularised the system of Venkitamakhi.

After Venkitamakhi, Carnatic music developed rapidly along the lines laid down by
him. Muthuswami Dīkshitar followed the kanakāmbari nomenclature (Asampurna Mēla
scheme) but Tyāgarāja used the names from kanakāngi list i.e. from the later list. After
Venkitamakhi, we find that, his Melakarta scheme is made the starting point of fresh
methods of classification. These have been constructively used to derive innumerable Janya
ragas by the permutations and combinations of the notes. The Shadava, Audava, Svarantara
and Sampurna are intermixed in pairs in as many forms as possible. Again Vakra ragas can
be combined in innumerable forms. This is practically a limitless source of deriving fresh
scales. The introduction of accidentals in ragas and the importations of foreign notes can
also contribute to the number of extant scales. Thus, it is evident from the points discussed
above that the origin and development of Indian classical music has been a gradual process
which incorporated a number of elements along the way.

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